CHAPTER III

CUSTOM POWER DEVICES APPLICATIONS IN

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

3.1 Introduction

Nowadays, electric power systems are under growing stress, more complex to

operate, and more unstable with unscheduled/uncontrolled power flows and higher losses

[49]. The reason behind is higher demand and less generation as well as constraints on

the construction of new lines. On the other hand, a number of high-voltage power

systems are operating below their thermal ratings because of voltage and stability limits.

Conventional electric power delivery systems, in most cases, are not designed to handle

the control requirements of complex, highly interconnected power systems [50]. This

situation necessitates the review of traditional power delivery methods and practices and

the creation of new concepts. These steps would allow the use of existing lines up to their

full capabilities without reduction in system stability and security [51], [52]. Another

reason that is forcing the review of conventional power transfer methods is the tendency

of modern power systems to follow the changing global economy [53]. Leading trend of

deregulation of electrical power markets due to the changing global economy is

stimulating competition between utilities [54].

Deregulation of electric power industry requires flexible control of power flow that

may be feasibly attained by using innovative power electronics technology.

Developments in power electronics technology have lead to design power electronics

equipment that may be used in high voltage systems [55]. The power electronics

39
involvement in power system has a long tradition. It has been in use for high voltage

direct current (HVDC) power transmission where, electronically controlled power

converters allow the power flows as per operator actions. Hence HVDC line can be used

to its thermal capacity. However, HVDC is expensive for general use, and is only

economical when power systems in different regions separated by long distances are

interconnected.

The parameters and configuration of network are approximately fixed and the

network is slow in response to unforeseen events and is difficult to deal with system load

flow control required in terms of speed and versatility [56]. Energy Management Systems

require fast on-line decision making ability from power system equipment. However, the

mechanical switched equipment in power system can not perform this job. In this

scenario, concept of flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) was presented for the long

term development of power systems of the future [57]. This power electronics based

concept involving switching equipment and controllers was introduced by the electric

power research institute (EPRI) in the late 1980 [58], [59]. The main purpose of FACTS

is to bring a system under control and to transfer power in required network configuration

[60], [61]. It proposes that power in a transmission line can be controlled by varying

three parameters namely impedance, voltage magnitude and voltage angle difference

between the ends of the line [55], [62]. Maximum power flow can then be limited to

transmission line rated thermal limit capacity if less power flows on it or under

contingency conditions when this line is expected to carry more power due to the loss of

parallel line.

40
 Just like the use of FACTS devices to solve voltage stability problem and attain cheap

power transfer, the application of power electronic devices can also be effective for the

power distribution systems to enhance the quality and the reliability of power delivered

to the consumers. A compact solution to the present issues that are seen by the utilities

and power distributors can be offered by custom power technology that offers fast

response for the benefit of a customer or group of customers. Custom power (CP)

technology utilizes switching equipment and controllers in order to enhance the

reliability of electrical energy supplied to consumers in the form of less interruptions and

small voltage variations [52]. Hence if this technology is appropriately applied then all

the industrial, commercial and domestic customers may benefit from it.

3.2 Recent Developments

The term power quality involves all possible circumstances in which the waveform of

the supply voltage (or load current) differs from the sinusoidal waveform at rated

frequency with amplitude corresponding to the rated rms value for all three-phases of a

three-phase system [63]. The PQ disturbances involve sudden, short duration deviations,

e.g. impulsive and oscillatory transients, voltage dips, voltage swells, short interruptions,

as well as steady-state deviations, such as harmonics and flicker [18]. However, survey

results pointed out that interruptions of more than 90% in the industries are due to

voltage sags [64]. Generally, PQ issues are either related to the quality of supply voltage

and those related to the quality of the current drawn by the load.

Besides the other causes, voltage dips and interruptions are the main reasons related

to supply voltage issue. These are usually caused by faults in the power system and may

cause tripping of sensitive electronic equipment with disastrous consequences in

41
industrial plants, where tripping of critical equipment can bear the stoppage of the whole

production with associated high costs [65]. One can claim that in this situation, it is the

source that disturbs the load. The second issue is related with low quality of the current

drawn by the load. In this situation, it is the load that disturbs the source. Due to these

two reasons, there is an increasing trend to utilize the devices that serves to compensates

PQ events, particularly that are based on power electronics called Custom Power

Devices [66], [67]. These devices have the ability to provide remedial measures to PQ

problems. Hence, load voltage can be regulated which results in smooth and clean power

flow to the load.

Fig. 3.1 shows basic types and commonly used configurations of custom power

devices (CPDs). Main categories of CPDs are compensating type and network

reconfiguring type.

Fig. 3.1 Types and configurations of CPDs.

3.2.1 Compensating Type CPDs

Compensating type CPDs include the static series compensator (SSC), reactive

power and harmonic compensation devices and backup stored energy devices.
42
 Fig. 3.2 Schematic diagram of a DVR with its main components.

3.2.1.1 Static Series Compensator

Commonly used series compensating device is a dynamic voltage restorer (DVR).

Fig. 3.2 shows series connection of DVR between the utility bus and the load bus. It is

connected in series between the utility bus and the load bus as shown in Fig. 3.2. This

figure shows essential components of a DVR includes DC-link, voltage-sourced

converter (VSC), passive filter and a series connected transformer. The VSC utilizes

insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs). It is supplied from an energy source, and

provides compensated AC voltage with the help of PWM modulator. A passive filter is

used to suppress the switching harmonics and corrects the shape of injected voltage.

Connection of DVR with the distribution line is made through an injection transformer

that is connected in series with the line. The main purpose of it is to mitigate sag/swell,

reducing harmonic and transient voltages in the supply and protecting critical loads from

these disturbances [68]. This is accomplished by rapid series voltage injection to

43
compensate for the variations in the supply voltage. As DVR is series connected device,

hence it may serve as an active series filter [69], [70]. The basic function of a controller

of a series compensator is to detect any abnormalities in the utility voltage such as

sag/swell etc; computation of the correcting voltage; generation of trigger pulses to the

switching element of a DCAC voltage-sourced converter (VSC); correction of any

anomalies in the series voltage injection; and termination of the trigger pulses when the

system event is over [71].

Even though this device has same structure as that of static synchronous series

compensator (SSSC), the operating principles of the two devices differ significantly.

While the SSSC injects a balanced voltage in series, the DVR may have to inject

unbalanced voltage to maintain the load voltage at the rated value in case of an

unbalanced sag in the supply voltage. Moreover, when there is a distortion in the source

voltage, the DVR may also have to inject a distorted voltage to offset the harmonic

voltage.

A. V. Jouanne and his colleagues pointed out that short-duration shallow voltage sag

can be mitigated by improving equipment tolerance characteristics [72]. Whereas, long-

duration, deep sag can be avoided by changing structure and/or operation of the power

system [73]. Usually, industrial customers do not normally have access to system or

equipment improvement, therefore, the installation of supplementary mitigation

equipment is in general the only solution left to attain the desired quality of supply

voltage at the system-load interface [63], [74].

J. G. Nielson and his colleagues have reported experimental test results that were

obtained on a medium voltage (10 kV) level using a series compensator (DVR) at a

44
distribution test facility [75]. A feed forward and feed back approach has been combined

in the control circuit of the DVR to obtain good responses in case of transient and steady-

state disturbances in the supply voltage, for different types of loads. Fig. 3.3 shows the

proposed control structure of the combined feed-forward/feed-back medium voltage

(MV) DVR. On the experimental results, authors proposed implementation of the DVR at

both a low-voltage (LV) level, as well as a medium voltage (MV) level for the protection

of sensitive load from disturbances in the voltage. Control structure of the DVR shows

that d-q technique is used for the detection of sag. However, in this technique, the

selection of the parameters for the low pass filter (LPF) and order of the filter play a vital

role in the filter performance. Hence filtration process gets better with the increase of

filter order, but the response time gets worse and the phase-shift of the output signal

becomes bigger. Also the d-q technique takes at least one-cycle time to track the sagged

voltage [76]. Moreover, this technique indicates some differences in voltage magnitudes

and phase-shifts in the non-faulted phases. In addition, this technique does not provide

acceptable results for unbalanced voltage sags.

Fig. 3.3 Control structure of the combined feed-forward/feedback MV DVR [75].

45
 S.S. Choi and his colleagues have proposed a voltage sag/swell mitigation strategy in

source side voltage [23]. Authors have shown that, in case of sag in voltage energy

injection from the DVR to external system (load) takes place so that load voltage can be

restored to its rated value. However, energy is absorbed by the DVR during voltage swell

from the external system that increases the DC-link voltage of inverter. With the

proposed strategy, voltage sag/swell in load voltage can be quickly compensated

whereas; DC-link voltage can also be controlled, simultaneously. Performance of the

strategy was illustrated using numerical examples. Simulation results have shown that

constant voltage across DC-link can be maintained only by using the zero-power

injection strategy. But, this limits the DVR capability to mitigate deep and long sags.

Moreover, dip (sag) mitigation demands injection of active power as well when load has

high power factor.

Fig. 3.4 Block diagram of the DVR system with proposed controller [77].

M. Vilathgamuwa and his colleagues have examined performance improvement of

the DVR with closed-loop load voltage and current-mode control [77], [78]. They

compared their proposed multiloop control scheme with the existing open-loop control

46
scheme used in the DVR to regulate load voltage. Fig. 3.4 shows block diagram of the

proposed control system of the DVR. Authors have shown through simulation studies

and experimental tests that the suggested control technique is better than the existing

technique as improved damping is observed in it. However, improved damping is

obtained at the cost of increased complexity of proposed control scheme. Proposed

closed-loop load voltage and current-mode control has been also applied by the authors

to IDVR (Interline DVR). Mostly, the voltage-restoration process by the DVR requires

active power injection into the distribution system. The ability of a specific DVR

topology, particularly for mitigating long-duration voltage sag, depends on the energy

storage capacity of the DVR. The interline DVR (IDVR) considered in the work restock

DC-link energy storage dynamically. Schematic diagram of an IDVR in a two-feeder

system is shown in Fig. 3.5.

Fig. 3.5 Schematic diagram of an IDVR in a two-feeder system [78].

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 The IDVR consists of numerous DVRs that are connected to different distribution

feeders in the power distribution system. The DVRs in the IDVR system have common

DC-link energy storage. When one of the DVR mitigates voltage sag appearing in that

feeder, the other DVRs restock the DC-link energy dynamically. The control strategy for

the IDVR consists of a multiloop feedback control system that uses closed-loop load

voltage and current-mode-control techniques in the two modes of operation. Hence, one

DVR in the IDVR system operates in voltage-sag compensation mode while the other

DVR in the IDVR system work in power-flow control mode. Proposed control system for

DVR-1 in voltage sag compensation mode is similar to that as shown in Fig. 3.4 except

addition of one gain block after voltage error signal. The proposed IDVR system work

efficiently when several DVRs in the system are electrically far apart. The analysis and

experimental results obtained for a laboratory prototype of the IDVR have been presented

to show performance of a two-line IDVR system that can compensate about 40% voltage

sag with long duration.

M.R. Banaei and his colleagues have also utilized IDVR for their proposed control

strategy to restore load voltage with minimum energy injection to mitigate sag [79]. Fig.

3.6 shows the proposed control strategy. However, the presented IDVR systems by M. R.

Banaei et al. and M. Vilathgamuwa et al. require at least one parallel healthy feeder that

limits the application of this system to a typical situation due to increased cost.

Chi-Seng Lam and his colleagues have addressed voltage swell and over voltage

compensation problems in a diode-bridge rectifier supported transformerless-coupled

DVR [24]. Existing DVR voltage boosting method results in a rapid rise in DC-link

voltage in case voltage swell or over voltage occurs. This may damage the storage

48
capacitors and switching devices, and raise the switching loss. This paper shows that the

minimum energy injection strategy cannot handle these problems during unbalanced

situation. A unidirectional power flow control algorithm was proposed with DVR

maximum compensation limit consideration to restrict the DC-link voltage from

exceeding its permissible operation limit.

Fig. 3.6 The suggested control strategy for the DVR [79].

By considering maximum series compensator compensation limit, progressive phase

rotating speed and DC-link safe operating voltage, the proposed control algorithm can

solve reverse power flow problems in both balanced and unbalanced swell or overvoltage

situations, while the compensated load output voltage remains balanced, sinusoidal and at

a nominal value. Simulation and experimental results for unbalanced voltage swell

compensation have been presented to verify the accuracy and improved performance of

49
the proposed algorithm over existing minimum energy scheme. However, results

obtained from experimental prototype show that the swell or overvoltage is mitigated

after 50 ms by using the suggested control algorithm. This slow response by the series

device for the proposed control algorithm against swell or overvoltage phenomenon may

damage rectifier unit of rectifier supported DVR. Moreover, it affects sensitive load as

well.

Fig. 3.7 Block diagram of proposed controller for DVR system [80].

H. Kim and S. K. Sul have suggested a method to control DVR compensation voltage

[80]. In order to define tasks for the control of compensation voltage, power circuit of the

DVR has been analyzed. A control structure for the DVR has been proposed by authors

utilizing a feed-forward and state feedback based scheme. Digital control systems (DCSs)

have time delay concern. This issue in DCS of a DVR has been also discussed in the

paper. Usually, control delay in DCSs results from the sampling period, transmission

time of the sensor and the inverter switching frequency, etc. This paper has analyzed and

presented some important design guidelines for the control gains and the inverter

switching frequency of DVRs proposed controller related with the control delay and filter

cut off frequency. Fig. 3.7 shows control system block diagram for the DVR with control

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delay. An experimental setup with complete DCS has been utilized to validate the

analysis and simulation results for the suggested theory. Simulations for the proposed

controller for DVR system show that output voltage after compensation becomes stable

and shows good dynamics only at the higher switching frequencies. The reason for is that

ripples and the settling time increases at lower switching frequencies.

M. J. Newman and his colleagues have proposed feedback control strategy based on

selective harmonics elimination. It has been suggested by authors that this strategy can be

incorporated with great ease to MV DVR systems to counter voltage harmonics with

negligible effect on the dip mitigation ability of the DVR [81]. In the suggested control

scheme, harmonics in load voltage are eliminated using resonant feedback controller. The

controller is designed by adding resonant control filters to the existing PI control scheme.

Experimental results with a prototype of MV three-phase DVR have been obtained to

verify the proposed controller for various situations, including distortion in supply

voltage, nonlinear load, and operation during voltage sag. These results show that

selected harmonics are effectively regulated without jeopardizing the performance of

existing sag compensator. However, the main problem with the proposed DVR structure

in above mentioned study is that it requires separate filter to eliminate each harmonic, if

system is unbalanced. In case of balanced system this number reduces to half.

P. R. Snchez and his colleagues have presented two control systems for the DVR to

mitigate various PQ problems such as sag, voltage harmonics, and imbalance in voltage

[82], [83]. The proposed control system uses repetitive controller. Only one controller

has been used to deal with all three disturbances, simultaneously. Proposed closed loop

control scheme is shown in Fig. 3.8. Proposed repetitive controller has been claimed to

51
have a fast transient response and zero steady-state error for any sinusoidal reference

input and for any sinusoidal disturbance whose frequencies are integral multiple of the

50/60 Hz. The PSCAD/EMTDC environment has been utilized to perform the modeling

aspects required for the repetitive controller and test system. Results of simulation have

been included only to show that the DVR control approach yield excellent voltage

regulation. Still, hardware implementation is necessary to verify the simulation results

presented for the proposed repetitive controller.

Fig. 3.8 Closed loop control scheme [82].

The other system proposed by P. R. Sanchez is based on the repetitive control for a

five-level flying-capacitor DVR. Multilevel converters are suitable in high power

medium-voltage (MV) applications and offer advantages, such as the flexibility in the

choice of switching combinations. The control scheme developed for multilevel

converters find its application in DVR to ameliorate voltage sags as well as other PQ

phenomena, such as voltage imbalances and voltage harmonics. These applications of

DVR require more versatile control system than the classical controller, such as the PI

regulator. The developed control system consists of three subsystems: the first one

eliminates the resonance peak of the filter used in the converter output voltage; while the

second one is the repetitive control, which improves the transient response and zero-

52
tracking error in steady-state for any sinusoidal reference and for any sinusoidal

disturbance whose frequencies are integral multiples of the 50/60 Hz.. The third

subsystem maintains constant, balanced voltages in the five level flying capacitors.

PSCAD/EMTDC environment has been used to implement the control system, together

with the DVR. Detailed simulation results with an MV test system shows that the control

scheme developed in this paper performs very effectively and provides excellent voltage

regulation. However, the proposed control scheme is complex and its hardware

implementation is difficult.

B. J. Quirl and his colleagues have addressed DVR control strategies that eliminate

propagation of voltage sag or phase-shift to the load [84]. Voltage sag with phase jump is

in some situations more apt to load tripping. Two open loop control methods that protect

the load from voltage sag with phase jump have been explored through simulation in

SIMULINK. Space vector control has been used in the control scheme of the DVR. Fig.

3.9 outlines the control methodology for the DVR. The first method is described as pre-

sag to in-phase compensation and monitors the supply such that initial pre-sag conditions

are used, but it adjusts approximately after 25 ms to inject a voltage that is in phase with

the new supply voltage. This method includes compensation during the sag and after the

sag has left the system. The second method makes use of the condition before sag.

Ideally, with this approach, the load voltage remains same as before voltage sag. These

compensation methods are very effective in keeping the load voltage at the correct level

and phase-shift free. The benefit of the pre-sag to in-phase compensation is that the

magnitude of injected DVR voltage is finally minimized for constant load voltage

53
magnitude. This can be beneficial; however, in case of deep sag, the voltage rating of the

DVR is a concern.

In case of the simulated sag, both methods need active power injection, but the pre-

sag to in-phase compensation involve the development of less instantaneous active power

towards the end of the sag than that of the pre-sag compensation. However, the pre-sag to

in-phase compensation also includes active power injection after the sag, while the pre-

sag method only requires compensation during the sag. The important advantage of the

pre-sag method is that phase-shift is not seen by the load. However, this would be the

best method if the sag duration is relatively small and power drain on the DVR is not a

concern.

Fig. 3.9 Open loop control methodology for the DVR [84].

Discrete wavelet transform (DWT) implementation with the help of Butterworth

filters to operate a DVR for improving quality of power delivered to load has been

presented by S. A. Saleh and his colleagues [85]. These passive filters are used to detect

any disturbance which can affect the smooth power flow to critical loads in an electric

54
distribution system. Detection of disturbance in system voltage is sensed by extracting

frequency components (high and low) by using filters (high and low pass). It has been

shown that third-order Butterworth passive filters (BWFs) can provide the response

comparable to DWT- associated filters. Simulations studies using the proposed DVR

system have been performed to show mitigation of transient voltage sag as well as

steady-state harmonic distortion. The results of simulation show an improved

performance of the DVR system operated by the designed BWFs. Moreover,

experimental test results have confirmed the simulated features. The simplicity and

response time simulated features make the proposed DWT-operated DVR system feasible

to enhance the quality of power delivered to load under various types of disturbances.

The proposed DVR system collects the energy from the healthy feeder of utility to

compensate load voltage in case of a disturbance in the system voltage. So, the authors

have to analyze the voltage swell and overvoltage phenomena in utility voltage for their

system as well, otherwise these PQ events will damage the rectifier unit in rectifier

supported DVR.

H. K. Al-Hadidi and his colleagues have introduced a design of a DVR that is based

on a modified form of cascade converter. The converter configuration includes a shunt

thyristor-switched inductor [86]. Sag mitigation usually demands active power injection

from the DC storage energy capacitors for high power factor loads. In contrast, for

sufficiently low power factor loads, the zero or minimum active power injection

technique can be utilized to compensate long duration sags. Proposed DVR topology has

explored this feature by using an additional branch that includes an inductor in the

converter configuration. It is switched in by a thyristor during sags to deliberately

55
decrease the power factor during sags. In this way, operating limit of DVR and its sag

mitigation duration is increased. This inturn increases the DVR operating limit and

mitigation interval. Fig. 3.10 shows the proposed control structure of DVR. The proposed

DVR control system has the ability to reduce the active power injection and, thus,

increases the sag mitigation limit in situations where sag mitigation also requires active

power injection. Operation of the new device for the DVR proposed strategy has been

investigated using PSCAD/EMTDC simulation program as well as by experiments

performed on a laboratory hardware prototype. Although results of investigation show

the feasibility and the practicality of the suggested DVR control system, however,

presented simulation results show that load voltage after sag mitigation takes 3-5 cycles

to reach steady-state value. Hence settling time for the load voltage after sag mitigation

needs to be improved for the proposed DVR control system.

E. K. Kenneth Sng and his colleagues have presented the control of a transformerless

and self-charging DVR using a capacitor bank for energy storage to mitigate voltage sag

[87]. The proposed DVR works without an isolation transformer for series injection.

Moreover, it is capable of self charging under normal supply conditions, without the need

for a separate charging circuit and transformer. The voltage recovery and self-charging

processes of the new restorer have been explained in detail and validated through

simulation. The study of the DC-link voltage regulation dynamics has revealed the

existence of a nonlinear element in the form of magnetic energy of the filter inductor.

This affects stability for high feedback gains. Verification of this aspect on regulator

performance and closed loop stability problem has been carried out and a cancellation

technique has been proposed. The proposed controller is simple to implement using

56
either digital or analog devices. This allows flexibility of choice in the face of device cost

or robustness constraints. Simulation and experimental results have been provided for a 1

kVA prototype to show the usefulness of the restorer design on series compensation and

the self-charging process, the effects of the nonlinear element in regulator dynamics, and

the effectiveness of the proposed cancellation method. However, this technique is

effective in enhancing stability when higher feedback gains are used. But, if uncertain

parameters are present in the nonlinear term then higher feedback gains in proposed

controller may lead to instability [88].

Fig. 3.10 Proposed control structure of DVR [87].

57
 A. K. Jindal and his colleagues have investigated a rectifier supported DVR to

regulate voltage at a critical load bus of a distribution system under system frequency

variation [89]. A voltage waveform that is sinusoidal and balanced is required by the

critical load at fundamental frequency of 50 Hz. Source voltage frequency has been

assumed to change and differs from the nominal frequency of electric power distribution

system. Rectifier supported DVR has been operated such that it maintains constant

voltage at the critical load bus at system nominal frequency irrespective of the frequency

of the source voltage. Authors in their simulation results have shown that when load

voltage frequency differs from source frequency, then the critical load active power

demand is met by the DVR. Active power requirement of DC-link of the DVR is served

with the help of an uncontrolled rectifier. This rectifier takes active power from the

distribution feeder itself. To compensate for frequency mismatch, this rectifier also

provides a path for the real power required by the critical load to flow. A simple

frequency estimation technique has been presented that makes use of a moving average

process with zero-crossing detector. Analysis and simulation studies have been carried

out using PSCAD/EMTDC. Simulation results have shown that, when frequency of the

injected voltage is identical to that of the source voltage, the DVR voltage injection

decreases significantly and voltage is fully controlled across the critical load. However,

in the proposed scheme some variations in the zero-crossing of the average voltage

continue for some cycles. But, if frequency is permitted to adjust with the change in the

estimated frequency during this period, the load side voltage will by no means be able to

obtain steady-state value and the average will also not turn to zero.

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 A new reference voltage generation algorithm for a DVR has been presented by A.

Ghosh and A. Joshi. It uses the method of instantaneous symmetrical components [90].

Series injection of reference voltage in distribution feeder is made by a VSC. It has the

ability to regulate load voltage at its rated value against harmonics or imbalance in the

supply voltage. Fundamental positive-sequence voltage components have been extracted

to facilitate the DVR to produce balance steady-state voltage within a half-cycle. The

proposed algorithm does not require injection of active power from the series

compensator during its steady-state operation. The reference voltage generation

algorithm has been investigated and verified using computer simulation studies. In it,

dynamic voltage restorer has been assumed as an ideal voltage source which tracks the

reference voltage. The DVR algorithms discussed in this work are suitable only for

systems with balanced and linear loads. However, the authors in another work have

presented the operating principles, structure, and control of a DVR that is supplied by a

DC capacitor to protect sensitive but unbalanced and/or distorted loads [91]. Harmonics

components in the source and load currents for the desired task have been reduced by

allowing them to pass through a low impedance path. This path is provided by a shunt

capacitor filter in the proposed hybrid structure of an ideal DVR. Three different DVR

configurations have been examined for performing the desired task. However, best

performance is obtained when series device is connected with the shunt capacitor.

Performance of the DVR with shunt capacitor configuration is verified through

simulation results. However, it has revealed that DVR success depends on the choice of

shunt capacitor and DC-link capacitor. Their values must be chosen carefully. Also, the

proposed algorithm for the reference voltage generation allows variation in phase-angle

59
of load voltage; hence above DVR system cannot be used for the loads that are sensitive

to phase-angle shifts.

Il. Y. Chung and his colleagues have proposed a new method of voltage restoration

that is based on load voltage tolerance to inject minimum energy during DVR

compensation period [92]. Generally, voltage tolerance range of almost all the

distribution system load varies. However, capability of DVR to inject real power to

mitigate voltage sag is limited. Usually, phase advance technique is used for the DVR to

supply minimum energy during sag compensation. In this technique, load voltage phase-

angle serves as a control parameter in phase advance technique. However, this technique

has limited capability to optimize energy injection to mitigate deep voltage sag. The

proposed method utilizes phase advance angle as well as magnitude of load voltage in the

voltage tolerance area in order to optimize injected active power of DVR. In addition,

authors have also proposed objective function, equality constraints, and inequality

constraints in order to have control parameter. Simulation for the proposed method for

several cases is performed using EMTDC/PSCAD package to verify that the proposed

technique has a merit to optimizing injected real power compared with existing methods,

especially, during deep sag. However, load voltage phase still varies as is the case in

phase advance method which restricts its applications to locations where load is not

sensitive to phase-angle variations.

N. Athanasiadis and D. V. Bandekas has described a technique for the development

of a DVR model for use within distribution system to provide ride-through capability for

an AC variable speed drive under voltage sag conditions [71]. It has been suggested that

presented closed loop control system can be utilized as a potentially promising design

60
method for efficient regulation and control of the DVR. Fig. 3.11 shows the presented

control scheme for the DVR. However, only simulations for the proposed DVR model

and its control system have been presented using electromagnetic transients simulation

program (EMTDC). It does not guarantee that integrated power electronics environment

can be used for successful implementation of the DVR. Experimental investigations are

required to validate the proposed DVR model and its control system.

Fig. 3.11 Control system of the DVR [71].

Literature review reveals that there are numerous methods to inject DVR

compensating voltage to distribution system to serve a typical or multiple PQ issues.

These methods are: pre-sag compensation, in-phase compensation, and phase advance

method [93]-[96]. A brief description of these methods is also provided in chapter IV.

The worlds first DVR was installed in August 1996 at a 12.47 kV substation in

Anderson, South Carolina to provide protection to an automated rug manufacturing plant.

61
However, it was first installed at the Waltz test facility near Pittsburgh for full power

tests [97]. Florida Power Corporations 2 MVA VSC-based DVR provides protection to

one of the six 12.47 kV feeders at the Econ substation (230/12.5 kV) of Orlando, Florida.

This DVR is placed in service in 1996 in a high density residential and commercial area

[98]. The next commissioning of a DVR was in February 1997 at a 22 kV distribution

system at Stanhope, Victoria, Australia [99]. This project was carried out to protect the

diary milk processing plant. Another installation of a DVR was done in April 1997 at the

Sappi Limited, Stanger Mill in South Africa that provides pulp to Sappis paper making

process. The DVR is supplied by superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) [98].

Two DVRs, each having rating of 6 MVA, 12.47 kV have been installed in July 1998 at

an important industrial place on the Salt River Project system at Phoenix metropolitan

area in Arizona. Each of these DVRs can boost a 20 MVA load as much as 30% [98]. In

April 1998 a 4 MVA series compensator is installed by Scottish Power at the Caledonian

Paper Mill at Irvine, Scotland [98]. The power to the mill is supplied by a South African

electricity public utility ESKOM. Platform mounted DVR was first installed in 1999 to

provide protection to Northern Lights Community College and several other loads in

Dawson Creek, British Columbia, Canada [100].

3.2.1.2 Reactive Power and Harmonic Compensation Devices

Fig. 3.1 shows that second type of compensating CPDs are called Reactive

power and harmonic compensation devices. Generally, these devices are connected

in shunt at the load bus, with the objective of injecting a current to the load.

Reactive power and harmonic compensation CPDs include static VAR

62
compensator (SVC), distribution static compensator (D-STATCOM) and passive or

active shunt filters.

PQ problems may arise from nonlinear customer loads such as, arc furnaces, welding

operations. Voltage flicker and harmonic problems can affect the entire distribution

feeder. Various devices have been considered to reduce the impact of these variations.

The main concept is to use dynamic capacitance and reactance to have steady-state

operation of the power system. This is particularly achieved by using static switching

devices to control the capacitance and reactance to stabilize the power system. SVC and

the D-STATCOM are the mostly used flicker mitigation devices [63]. However, series

capacitor and series line reactors are also used for this purpose. Moreover, literature

studies show that reactive power and harmonic devices have been also investigated for

voltage sag, swell and phase jump mitigation as well.

Series Capacitors and Series Line Reactors

B. King and K. J. Olejniczak have investigated series capacitor installation for

flicker mitigation [101]. A capacitor in series with the arc furnace with a suitable value

of capacitance has the ability to cancel the reactance between the source and the arc

furnace. In spite of this, the risk of sub-synchronous resonance (SSR) for series

compensated lines is an impediment to install series capacitor. Moreover, series

capacitor increases the R/X ratio of the line.

Series capacitor is also installed in a feeder to compensate line reactance to control

line voltage drop. They can be bypassed in order to change the compensation degree of

the line reactance [102]. Normally, it is assumed that only circuit breakers can be

bypassing devices, but nowadays thyristor-controlled series capacitors (TCSCs) are also

63
installed in distribution networks. Although they were initially intended for installation in

transmission grids but only a few of them has been applied. They increase the voltage

stability limit through reduction in the line reactance and maintaining constant voltage

irrespective of quick load changes. Hence, they can decrease power losses and line

voltage drop in a distribution feeder. However, constant voltage can be maintained only

in a certain range of power change, depending upon the equivalent reactance of series

capacitors controlled by thyristors [102].

By inserting a linear reactor in series with the arc furnace, the short-circuit current of

the furnace is reduced owing to the higher total impedance. Moreover, increased

reactance in the circuit results in larger phase-shift between voltage and current and

hence a more stable electric arc in the furnace. But, the selection of series reactor must be

done carefully as high value of the series impedance will decrease the furnace power and

thereby the steel production rate. Saturatable reactors in series have also been used to cut

current peak due to for instance short-circuit in the arc furnace [103]. It has been

observed that independent usage of series capacitors and series line reactors without

thyristor control have no effect on voltage sag, swell or phase jumps mitigation.

However, Thyristor controlled series capacitors and reactors can be used for voltage sag

mitigation as discussed in section 3.2.2.1 under heading Solid State Current Limiter and

Solid State Circuit Breaker.

Static VAR Compensators

The SVC can be used for AC voltage control by generation and absorption of reactive

power through passive elements. It can also be used for balancing unsymmetrical loads.

Usually, an SVC is implemented with a thyristor controllable reactor (TCR) and a

64
number of thyristor switched capacitor (TSC) branches as shown in Fig. 3.12 [52]. In

addition to TCR and TSCs branches, VSC circuit also contains tuned filters to suppress

harmonic current from flowing into the AC system. Moreover, there are firing and

control circuits which are not shown in the Fig. 3.12.

Fig. 3.12 SVC connected to an AC network [52].

The SVC is connected in shunt to an AC line through a step down transformer. Due

to this arrangement, the SVC has the ability to generate continuously variable reactive

power in a specific range, and the size of the TCR is limited to the rating of one TSC

branch. Evidently, the reactor size limits the power that can be absorbed in the inductive

range. SVCs placed closed to load can be very effective in providing voltage support,

thereby avoiding voltage instability [5]. Although, electrically switched shunt capacitors

(TSCs) in SVC branch can supply variable reactive power to the system, however,

65
reactive power output of a capacitor is proportional to the square of the system voltage

which may reduce its effectiveness in high and low-voltages.

The SVC has been found in applications such as power line compensation [104],

compensation of traction system [105], reducing disturbance from rolling mills [106] and

arc furnace compensation [107]. The potential to absorb changes in reactive power makes

to some extent the SVC appropriate for flicker reduction. In this situation, the SVC

usually consists of a TCR branch with a filter. An SVC installed together with an arc

furnace not only reduces the flicker, but also, increases the steel production and its

quality due to stabilized AC voltage [108]. However, SVC has a low control update rate.

Therefore, the capability of the SVC to mitigate flicker is limited. Also, it has been

reported to have slow response time to compensate sag.

P. Wang and his colleagues experimentally investigated voltage sag mitigation by an

advanced static VAR compensator (ASVC) [109]. The results of this investigation have

shown that the ASVC can completely compensate shallow sag, and considerably lift the

sagged voltage during deep sag. However, due to opted sag mitigation strategy, post sag

voltage overshoots. Response time of ASVC for sag mitigation has been measured about

two and half cycles of the power frequency. This shows that response of the device is

quite slow and some of the sags cant be mitigated in this time frame according to

Semiconductor Equipment and Material International, SEMI- F47 standard. Moreover, it

was further investigated that phase-angle jumps can disturb the working of the ASVC,

and offset its mitigation outcome on voltage sags.

SVC sag mitigation capability is strongly dependent on its ability to provide variable

reactive power to the system. However, in case of a sag mitigation for high power factor

66
loads where active power contribution is also required to compensate sag then SVC lacks

in its operation to achieve the desired sag mitigation task. Hence, due to the pitfalls

associated with SVCs, the D-STATCOM was introduced into the market as an alternate

for it.

Distribution Static Compensator

A voltage-sourced converter (VSC) with PWM provides a faster control that is

required for flicker mitigation purpose. A PWM operated VSC utilizing IGBTs and

connected in shunt is normally referred to as STATCOM or D-STATCOM [67]. A

shunt-connected synchronous machine has some similarities with the STATCOM, but

does not contain power electronics. The capability of the synchronous machine to supply

large reactive currents enables this system to lift the voltage by 60% for at least 6 s.

D-STATCOM has the same structure as that of an STATCOM. It can potentially be

used in the context of FACTS at the transmission level [110], custom power controllers

at the distribution level and in end users electrical installations [111]. A typical

configuration of a VSC based D-STATCOM is shown in Fig. 3.13 [112]. The D-

STATCOM has emerged as a promising CPD to provide not only for voltage sag

mitigation but a host of other PQ solutions. Important applications of it include

voltage regulation, load balancing, power factor correction, harmonic filtering, and

flicker mitigation [113].

C. K. Sao and his colleagues have provided a bench mark D-STATCOM that

has digitally controlled VSC for studying the sinusoidal pulse-width-modulated

(SPWM) D-STACOM [114]. Authors have also described principle of operation of

D-STATCOM. The proposed multifunctional controller has been investigated and

67
it has offered DC-bus voltage control, power factor correction, and AC voltage

control. Block diagram of complete D-STATCOM control system is shown in Fig.

3.14. Performance of D-STACOM in various modes, including power factor

correction mode and AC voltage regulation mode has been analyzed through

simulations with PSCAD/EMTDC software. Simulated results have been also

experimentally verified on a 10-kVA laboratory D-STATCOM that have shown

excellent match between the experimental and simulated results. This provide a

validated benchmark model for simulation studies of the pulse width-modulated

D-STATCOM. Block diagram of the D-SATCOM shows that phase-locked loop

(PLL) technique is used for voltage sag detection and mitigation. However, this

technique provides good results only if voltage sag is not coupled with phase-angle

jump.

Fig. 3.13 Schematic representation of the D-STATCOM as a custom power Device [112].

68
 Fig. 3.14 Complete D-STACOM control system [114].

G. Ledwich and A. Ghosh have discussed various topologies and controls of a D-

STATCOM for the voltage or current control mode, load compensation at a weak AC

bus, and voltage regulation for a mini custom power park [113], [115]-[116]. In the

voltage control mode D-STATCOM has forced the voltage of a distribution bus to be

balanced sinusoids. Moreover, it has cancelled distortion caused by the load, such that

current drawn by the compensated load is pure balanced sinusoid in the current control

mode. Three single-phase VSCs working in parallel to a filter-capacitor have been

connected in chosen D-STACOM topology. A switching control scheme has been

adopted and its suitability has been verified through simulations for the voltage and

current control modes of D-STATCOM. However, operation of a D-STATCOM for

69
weak AC buses will result in distortions in the line current or the voltage at the point of

common coupling. The line current distortion has been eliminated using the fundamental

voltage of the PCC, but the distortion in voltage cannot be eliminated without adding a

filter capacitor in parallel with the D-STATCOM. However, the addition of the filter

capacitor generates control issues and complicates the tracking problem, as standard

controls are not appropriate to be used in this situation. A switching control scheme was

then proposed that depends on the extraction of the reference signals to solve the tracking

problem. The reference current generation scheme along with extraction of fundamental

component of PCC voltage constitutes the reference of this controller. Computer

simulation studies have been carried out to validate the performance of the proposed

scheme. However, the employed reference signal generation method also suffers from the

problem of harmonic contamination due to VSC of D-STATCOM. Although authors

have used only capacitors to filter the harmonics produced due to VSC switching,

however, LC filters can be used for this purpose as well.

A configuration of the mini custom power park in which the voltage inside the park is

tightly regulated by a D-STATCOM has been also proposed by A. Ghosh and G.

Ledwich. Fig. 3.15 shows the layout of the mini custom power park. It has been shown

that by proper selection of the DC capacitor supplying the D-SATCOM, it is possible to

maintain the custom power park (CPP) voltage for as long as 10 s when both (preferred

and alternate) feeders are lost due to any catastrophic failure. Moreover, the D-

STATCOM, backed by a diesel generator, will supply the most sensitive loads during the

total line outages, thereby nearly making them both transient and interruption free.

Simulation studies have been carried out to verify the proposed operation of the custom

70
power park, which shows satisfactory results. The above discussion clearly demonstrates

that the D-STATCOM can hold the custom power park bus voltage during moderate

voltage sag. However, for a very deep sag or fault in the preferred feeder, the supply has

to be switched to the AF through the static transfer switch (STS). Moreover simulation

results show that CPP voltage bus is regulated after 20 ms. This shows that controller

response time needs to be improved in order to respond disturbances in supply or load

side.

Fig. 3.15 Layout of the mini custom power park [116].

M. K. Mishra and his colleagues have proposed a method to operate D-STATCOM as

a voltage regulator to maintain the voltage of a distribution bus [117]. A three-phase,

four-wire distribution system has been assumed in this investigation. D-STATCOM is

realized by a three-phase bridge VSC circuit that is supplied by two neutral-clamped DC

storage capacitors. Three filter capacitors, one for each phase; have been connected in

parallel with the D-STATCOM to eliminate high-frequency switching components. The

control scheme realized by a dead-beat controller for the VSC has been used to control

the voltage across the filter capacitor to maintain the AC bus voltage [118]. The control

scheme consists of an outer DC capacitor voltage control loop and an inner load angle
71
control loop. Block diagram of closed loop voltage control is shown in Fig. 3.16. The

load bus voltage magnitude is chosen as nominal value, i.e., 1.0 p.u., while its phase-

angle is attained through a feedback loop that regulates the voltage across the DC storage

capacitors. It has been shown through detailed simulation and experimental results, that

the D-STATCOM is capable of regulating the PCC voltage against any unbalance and

distortion in either on the load or supply side. However, the employed dead-beat control

scheme for the VSC to maintain the AC bus voltage is very sensitive to system

parameters and it must be carefully used even if it has a very fast convergence property.

Fig. 3.16 Block diagram of closed loop voltage control [117].

W. Freitas and his colleagues have presented a dynamic study about the simultaneous

usage of AC generators and D-STATCOM devices on the dynamic behavior of

distribution networks [119]. The performance of a D-STATCOM as a power factor

controller or a voltage controller has been analyzed. D-STATCOM voltage controller is

shown in Fig. 3.17. The controllers impact on the stability performance and protection

system of distribution networks with distributed generators has been determined.

Simulation results have shown that a D-STATCOM voltage controller can improve the

stability performance of induction generators significantly. Whereas, a D-STATCOM

power factor controller may adversely affect the stability performance of synchronous
72
generators. Moreover, simulation results shows that although load bus is maintained at

constant value but D-STATCOM response to stabilize load voltage is poor and it took 35

cycles to attain steady-state value. This shows that D-STATCOM controller performance

needs to be improved.

Fig. 3.17 D-STATCOM voltage controller [119].

Elnady and his colleagues have introduced a unified approach for the mitigation of

the voltage sag and voltage flicker by the D-STATCOM using Kalman filter [KF] and its

derivatives [120]. Also, the authors of the paper have shown the advantage of using the

Kalman filter instead of the existing tools for tracking and extracting voltage

disturbances. The Kalman filter is an algorithm used as a tool to extract both the

instantaneous envelope of the voltage sags, and to extract the instantaneous flicker level

(IFL) of the voltage flicker. The proposed modular D-STATCOM has been investigated

73
to show its ability to mitigate voltage sags and voltage flicker, even if the voltage

disturbances are unbalanced. The presented mitigating approach that depends on KF is

fast and accurate for the tracking and extraction of the voltage disturbance. Therefore,

unbalanced voltage sags can be mitigated.

Fig. 3.18 Control block diagram of the proposed algorithm [120].

Control block diagram of proposed algorithm is shown in Fig. 3.18. Different levels

of voltage sags and a voltage swell has been compensated simultaneously. Also, the

cyclic voltage flicker is mitigated efficiently and the IFL is reduced by approximately

60% of its value before the compensation. Consequently, voltage flicker that occurs due

to an arc furnace is transferred from the irritation region to lower than the observable

region, based on IEEE Std. 141-1993, and does not disturb the other customers.

Simulation results have been shown to demonstrate the mitigation of unbalanced voltage

sags and the compensation of the voltage flicker by employing the proposed algorithm.

74
However, the presented mitigation approach is complex and its hardware implementation

is difficult.

N. Marium and his colleagues have presented the design of a prototype D-

STATCOM for load compensation in an unbalanced distribution system [121]. The

DSTATCOM is intended to replace the widely used SVC. A 12-pulse D-STATCOM

configuration with IGBT has been designed and the graphic based models of the D-

STATCOM have been developed using the PSCAD/EMTDC. The reactive power control

strategy for the D-STATCOM has been employed for load compensation. PI controller is

used to control the flow of reactive power to and from the DC capacitor. Phase-locked

loop (PLL) has been used to generate the switching signals for the VSC. The D-

STATCOM has been developed using DSP controller to achieve excellent overall

performance. Simulation results show that the designed D-STATCOM is capable of

mitigating voltage sag caused by three phase balanced fault. However, as PLL is used for

detection and mitigation of sag in the control strategy, it provides good results only if sag

is not accompanied by phase jumps.

B. Blazic and I. Papic have proposed a new D-STATCOM control algorithm that

enables separate control of positive- and negative-sequence currents and decoupled

control of d- and q-axes current components [122]. The proposed control algorithm is

based on the developed mathematical model in the dq coordinates for a D-STATCOM

operating under unbalanced conditions. The problem of DC-side voltage ripple and AC-

side harmonics generation due to unbalanced voltages/currents is solved with an

appropriate modulation of switching function so that DC capacitor does not have to be

overrated. The proposed control scheme is also suitable for high-power applications

75
using multipulse VSCs. The algorithm has been tested by carrying out detailed

simulation using PSCAD. Simulation results have shown good dynamic performance

especially in the case of unbalanced load compensation. However, as the d-q method is

used for sag detection in the control algorithm, it provides good results for balanced

voltage sag. Also use of d-q approach takes 2 cycles to detect the magnitude or envelop

of sag with a little oscillations. This shows that if voltage sag magnitude is more than

50% of nominal load voltage then according to SEMI-F47 standard, sensitive load will be

tripped as voltage magnitude should be 50% of rated load voltage from 1st cycle to 10th

cycle of supply voltage. Hence sag detection and mitigation time for the proposed control

algorithm needs to be improved according to SEMI-F47 standard to avoid tripping of

sensitive load for the deep voltage sag.

A. Shukla and his colleagues have presented the implementation of D-STATCOM

using multilevel inverter [123]-[125]. Five-level flying capacitor multilevel inverter

(FCMLI) is a multiple voltage level inverter scheme that has been designed for high

voltage and power operations with low distortion. Capacitors, called flying capacitors

have been used in FCMLI for clamping the voltage across the power semiconductor

devices. A current control technique has been derived for controlling the injected current

by the FCMLI-based D-STATCOM. A new scheme has been proposed for controlling

the flying capacitor voltage such that their voltage remains constant and at the same time

produces the required output line currents under the current control operation.

PSCAD/EMTDC environment has been used to perform simulation studies to validate

the effectiveness of the proposed control scheme and the FCMLI-based DSTATCOM.

The simulation results show that the proposed D-STATCOM provides acceptable

76
performance. However, by using the proposed current control scheme, needless

switching occurs, that raises the losses in the system. Consequently the switching

frequency is much higher than in the case of [124].

The idea of using multilevel inverters or VSCs for D-STATCOM by the same authors

was then extended to load compensation with reduced switching frequency. The D-

STATCOM is connected to a three-phase four-wire distribution system. Two different

multilevel inverter topologies are used to realize the two different structures of D-

STATCOM. They are diode-clamped multilevel inverter (DCMLI) and flying capacitor

multilevel inverter (FCMLI). A compensating technique has been derived, which uses the

state feedback control to the multilevel inverters-based D-STATCOMs. The state

feedback switching controller uses linear quadratic regulator (LQR) design that tracks the

reference state trajectories. State feedback control with a nonlinear element in the

forward path is shown in Fig. 3.19. It has been assumed that the D-STATCOM is

connected to a system having balanced source supplying an unbalanced and nonlinear

load through a long feeder. A switching strategy for the multilevel inverters has been

presented that ensures utilization of all output voltage states of the inverter for efficient

tracking of references. A flying capacitor voltage control scheme for the FCMLI-based

D-STATCOM has been proposed and used. It provides balanced flying capacitor

voltages and at the same time the required output voltage level of the inverter is

generated. Comparative studies to check the performances of the two D-STATCOM

topologies have been carried out through simulation of a distribution network having

unbalanced and nonlinear loads. The simulation studies have been performed using

PSCAD/EMTDC environment and simulation results have shown that the proposed D-

77
STATCOMs works satisfactorily. But, performance of the FCMLI-based compensator is

somewhat better. Moreover, there is an inherent unbalancing problem among DCMLI

DC capacitor voltage and in case, the load contains a DC part, the neutral point of the

DCMLI based compensator also becomes unbalanced.

Fig. 3.19 State feedback control with a nonlinear element in the forward path [124].

To rectify above mentioned problems among DCMLI DC capacitor voltage, same

authors have investigated the effects of different loading conditions on the DC capacitor

voltages of the inverter. Different DC capacitor voltage equalization control schemes of a

DCMLI-based DSTATCOM have been presented. However, authors of this paper have

utilized a five-level inverter circuit configuration with DC-DC converter circuit for

equalization. Two new control circuits have been proposed for equalizing the capacitor

voltages under all loading conditions. The first equalizing circuit requires two extra

power semiconductor devices, while the other one demands the existing devices of a

higher voltage rating. Control of the switching devices is governed by developed

equations of the proposed equalizing controller. Different control techniques have been

analyzed and compared and the performances of the two controllers are investigated.

PSCAD/EMTDC simulation environment have been used to test and validate the efficacy

of the proposed equalizing controller circuits. Simulation results have shown that both

circuits provide satisfactory performance. However overall analysis of the presented

control techniques for D-STATCOM using multilevel inverters shows that these

techniques for voltage and power operations with low distortion are complex and their
78
hardware implementation is a hard task to be carried out. Moreover, FCMLI topology

requires a large number of high voltage capacitors and full load current passes through

these capacitors at least for the part of the switching cycle. This necessitates the use of

capacitors having high capacitance and dielectric strength. But, this inturn makes them

expensive.

B. Singh and his colleagues have made a detailed investigation into the causes,

standards, and remedies of the excessive neutral current in the VSC based D-STATCOM

[126]. A reduced rating three leg voltage-source converter with a zig-zag transformer as a

D-STATCOM has been proposed for power-quality enhancement in the three-phase four-

wire distribution system. Synchronous reference frame theory (SRFT) based control for

the proposed D-STATCOM configuration has been utilized for the compensation of

reactive power, harmonic current, neutral current, load balancing and the voltage

stabilization at the point of common coupling (PCC). Fig. 3.20 shows the SRFT based

control of D-STATCOM. The zig-zag transformer is used for providing a path to the

zero-sequence current. The performance of the D-STATCOM has been validated through

extensive simulations using MATLAB software with its Simulink and

SimpowerSystemsTM toolbox. Fig. 3.20 shows that d-q technique is used for driving the

reference control signals, but this technique does not provide good results for unbalanced

voltage sags. Also three phase PLL is used to synchronize load current in dqo frame with

the source voltage. However, PLL approach provides good results if voltage sag is not

accompanied with phase-angle jump.

Comparison of D-STATCOM and DVR shows that shunt compensator (D-

STATCOM) protects the utility system from the ill effects of customer loads with the

79
assumption that supply is balanced. However, series compensator protects a sensitive

load from the distortion and unbalance in the supply side voltage. In addition, the DVR is

smaller in size and costs less as compared to D-STATCOM.

Fig. 3.20 Synchronous reference frame theory (SRFT) based control of D-STATCOM [126].

Passive and Active Shunt Filters

Current harmonics from the grid are removed by installing, passive or active shunt-

filters. Passive filters for harmonic minimization provide low impedance paths for current

harmonics. Hence, the current harmonics are fed into the shunt filters and they do not

return to the supply. Construction wise passive filter consists of series LC filters tuned

for specific harmonics, usually associated with a high pass filter used to wipe out the rest

of the higher-order current harmonics. Passive filters have the drawbacks that they are

strongly dependent on the system impedance, which depends on the distribution network
80
configuration and the loads [63]. Consequently, the system impedance, which changes

continuously, strongly influences the filtering characteristics. An unwanted resonance

can take place between the filter and the system in the worst case. This may compel the

passive filter to act as a sink for harmonic currents from other sources in the grid.

Hence, the passive filter can be overloaded by a current higher than the rated value.

Ultimately, the capacitors of the passive filter generate reactive power that may not

necessarily be needed for power factor correction. Literature studies show that when

passive filters are used independently then they are unable to mitigate voltage sag.

Active filters or active power filters (APFs) can have connection configuration either

in series or shunt. But, a shunt active power filter configuration is preferred over series

because of greater ease of protection. It is represented by a controllable voltage source

behind a reactance acting as a current source. The VSC based shunt active filter is mostly

used, due to its well-known topology and straightforward installation procedure. It

includes a DC-link capacitor, power electronic switches and filter inductors between the

VSC and the grid, shown in Fig. 3.21.

Fig. 3.21 VSC based shunt active filter [63].

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 As the circuit configuration of shunt active filter is similar to D-STATCOM hence it

can be used in the context of D-STATCOM [127]. However, a shunt active filter is

traditionally used to compensate harmonics. The function of shunt active filter is

dependent on injection of current harmonics in phase with the load current harmonics,

hence removing the harmonic content of the line current. Active filters provide an

opportunity to choose the current harmonics to be filtered and the degree of attenuation.

The VSC size can be reduced by using selective filtering and eliminating only those

current harmonics that violate the limits given in IEEE Std. 519-1992 [128]. Active

filtering also provides a control on the power factor by injecting or absorbing reactive

power from the load. Moreover, APF can be also used to compensate nonlinear as well as

unbalanced load [129]. Unified form of series and shunt APFs is also called as active

power line conditioner (APLC) [130]. These APLCs were invented in Westinghouse

Electric Corp., Pittsburgh USA., in the 1980s.

H. Fujita and H. Akagi have examined the dynamic behavior of a shunt active filter

that performs both harmonic compensation and voltage regulation within a micro-grid

[131]. S. Puengsungwan and his colleagues have presented the compensation of voltage

sag and current harmonics simultaneously using the hybrid series active filter (HSAF)

[132]. HSAF is a combination of a pure series active filter and LC passive filter.

Although, authors of the paper have investigated the use of adaptive prediction method to

detect and mitigate sag using HSAF, but no constructive theory and mathematical

modeling is presented to support the proposed concept. Moreover, only two simulation

results have been shown by the authors to support their idea that is not enough to validate

the proposed adaptive prediction system. However literature studies revealed that both

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active shunt and series filters have not been investigated to compensate voltage swell and

phase jumps.

Unified Power Quality Conditioner

The literature survey shows that the D-STATCOM is proposed for compensating PQ

problems in the current whereas DVR is used for mitigating PQ problems in the voltage.

However, when D-STATCOM and DVR are combined to provide a multi purpose

compensator for solving current and voltage PQ problems then this concept has been

given the name of unified power-quality conditioner (UPQC) [63]. Although, literature

studies reveal that APLCs were rebranded as UPQC. Schematic block diagram of single-

phase UPQC is shown in Fig. 3.22. A UPQC is a device that is similar in construction to

a unified power flow controller (UPFC) [133]. The concept of UPFC, as the combination

of STATCOM and a SSSC, was first introduced in 1991 by Gyugi [134]. The UPQC like

UPFC utilizes two voltage-sourced converters (VSCs) which are connected to a DC

energy storage capacitor. Out of these two VSCs, one is connected in series with AC line

while the other is connected in shunt with the AC system. A UPFC is used in a power

transmission system to provide shunt and series compensation at the same time. In the

similar analogy, a UPQC can also be utilized to provide shunt and series compensation in

a power distribution system. But, operating principles resemblance of these two devices

comes to an end at this point. Operation of a power transmission line is characterized by

balanced, distortion (harmonic) free environment. Hence, a UPFC must only offer

balanced shunt or series compensation. On the other hand, a power distribution system

may have unbalance, distortion and even DC components in the load bus voltage. Hence

83
UPQC have to function with all these aspects so as to provide shunt or series

compensation [135]. However, due to its high cost, it is rarely used in its combined form.

Fig. 3.22 Schematic block diagram of UPQC [135].

V. Khadkikar and A. Chandra have explored a new idea to balance the load-reactive

power demand using a three-phase UPQC [136]. Usually shunt converter of the UPQC is

employed for load-reactive power compensation, whereas the series converter handles

voltage-related problems. Authors of this paper have presented a new application of

UPQC in which both the series and shunt APFs provide the load-reactive power demand.

This property facilitates the UPQC APFs not only to share the load-reactive power

demand, but also helps to reduce the shunt APF rating, and hence, the overall cost of

UPQC. In this way series converter is effectively utilized during normal operating

condition. Power angle control (PAC) concept has been utilized to achieve the desired

objectives. Fig. 3.23 shows the block diagram that has been used to determine

84
instantaneous power angle (). MATLAB/Simulink environment has been used to

perform simulations to validate the proposed PAC theory. The proposed approach has

been also validated through scaled UPQC laboratory prototype. However, PAC approach

relies upon the extraction of power angle in real time. In order to achieve this purpose,

the instantaneous power angle () determination is carried out by extracting load active as

well as instantaneous load reactive power demand utilizing single-phase p-q theory.

However, p-q theory provides correct results for only pure sinusoidal waveforms for its

voltage and current. Hence, if load voltage or current or both, waveforms are distorted

then final results will not be according to the proposed PAC theory.

Fig. 3.23 Instantaneous power angle () determination [136].

A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich have discussed the operation and control of a UPQC that

can be used simultaneously in voltage or current control mode in a power distribution

system [137]. The series component of the UPQC called DVR forces the voltage of a

distribution bus to be balanced sinusoids and free of distortion in the voltage control

mode. At the same time shunt component of UPQC called D-STATCOM performs load

compensation resulting in the drawing of balanced sinusoidal currents from the

distribution system bus in the current control mode. Both these objectives have been
85
attained irrespective of unbalance and harmonic distortions either in source voltage or

load current. A UPQC structure having six single-phase H-bridge converters connected to

DC storage capacitor has been examined that allows the tracking of reference current and

voltage generated to meet the objective as stated above. The generated UPQC current and

voltage references are based on Fourier series extraction of fundamental sequence

components using half cycle running (moving) averaging. Authors have also presented a

linear quadratic regulator (LQR) based switching controller scheme that tracks a

reference using the proposed compensator. Results of simulation studies have been

presented to validate the proposed structure and control of UPQC. However, working of

LQR will be stable only if the effective gain of the input nonlinearity is bounded between

and 2 [138].

B. Han and his colleagues have explained investigation results of a combined

operation of the UPQC with the DG [139]. The proposed UPQC system with DG consists

of a series converter, a shunt converter, and a synchronous generator connected to the

DC-link through rectifier is shown in Fig. 3.24. Two operation modes have been used in

the proposed system; interconnected mode and islanding mode. In the interconnected

mode of operation, DG with shunt converter of UPQC is used to supply power to the

source and load while in islanding mode, DG supplies power to the load only within its

power rating. The proposed system is capable of compensating voltage sag and swell,

voltage interruption, harmonics, and reactive power in both interconnected mode and

islanding mode. The proposed system performance has been explored using simulations

with power system computer aided design /electromagnetic transients DC analysis

program (PSCAD/EMTDC). Moreover, experimental results with the hardware prototype

86
have verified the simulation results. The proposed UPQC system with DG has the ability

to enhance the power quality at the point of installation on power distribution system or

industrial power system. However, if the diesel generator is replaced with PV source and

battery storage system then it would be economical and environment friendly.

Fig. 3.24 Proposed UPQC system with DG [139].

Moreover, as cost of UPQC is already quite higher as compared to DVR or D-

STATCOM and its cost would be further increased if Diesel generator is connected as

DG with DC-link through rectifier. Hence, cost versus benefit analysis should be carried

out first to opt the proposed UPQC configuration with DG for the required application.

M. Basu and his colleagues have explained two control scheme models for UPQC, for

improving PQ of sensitive nonlinear loads [140]. Designed control schemes are based on

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two different kinds of voltage compensation strategy for series converter (SEC) of

UPQC. These schemes are termed as UPQC-Q and UPQC-P. UPQC-Q has the benefit of

VAR sharing between the two compensators. The SEC, while injecting voltage to

mitigate the supply voltage sag, shares a part of VAR of the load and does not consume

any active power. A disadvantage of UPQC-Q is that it cannot mitigate unbalanced

voltage sag. But for situations where reactive power requirement is very high UPQC-Q

could be a potential control scheme for action. Besides voltage sag compensation, the

SEC control scheme of UPQC-P has the ability to mitigate the supply voltage unbalance

problem as well. But, this control scheme utilizes d-q technique to generate reference

signals for unbalanced sag mitigation that suffers from the drawback that it does not

provide satisfactory results for unbalanced voltage sag mitigation. The reason is that the

unbalanced voltages in synchronous reference frame (SRF) develop two components (d

and q). These components oscillate with twice the frequency of the fundamental

frequency [141]. These oscillations in d-q components are not suitable for control

purpose. It has been observed that under balanced voltage sag condition, the load voltage

angle after compensation is not altered. Hence, the shunt converter (SHC) of the UPQC-P

does not require compensating any additional VAR created due to SEC control action. A

comparative analysis of VA loading of SEC, SHC and total loading of UPQC has been

carried out. The performance of the two control schemes has been shown through

extensive simulation using the software SABER. Since the power circuit design of UPQC

remains same for both the model, the usage of UPQC can be optimized depending upon

the application requirement.

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 Y. Y. Kolhatkar and S. P. Das have presented an optimized UPQC, which aims at the

integration of series active and shunt active power filters with minimum volt-ampere

(VA) loading of the UPQC [142]. The series active filter is a DVR, which regulates the

voltage at the load end with minimum VA loading of the overall UPQC by injecting the

voltage at an optimum angle. Closed loop block diagrams of DVR as well as D-

STATCOM in the proposed scheme are shown in Fig. 3.25 and Fig. 3.26 respectively.

The D-STATCOM has been activated in the current control mode to stabilize the DC-

link voltage, supply the load reactive power, and eliminate harmonics from the supply

current. The control scheme flexibility for the sudden load change during the sag

condition has also been investigated with the help of simulation as well as through single-

phase experimental setup in the laboratory at 120 V, 0.6 kVA. It has been shown that

voltage can be restored in 12 cycles after the occurrence of the sag. However, angle

closed loop may take another 23 cycles to match with calculated voltage value.

Consequently, the optimization process starts a little later.

Fig. 3.25 Closed loop block diagram of DVR [142].

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 Fig. 3.26 Closed loop block diagram of D-STATCOM [142].

A. K. Jindal and his colleagues have illustrated the operation and control of a new

connection for a UPQC to enhance the PQ of two feeders in a distribution system [143].

Connection of this device between two independent feeders originating from different

substations has been explained in this paper. As UPQC is connected between two

different lines, hence the device has been given the name interline UPQC (IUPQC) as

shown in Fig. 3.27. The proposed configuration of UPQC serves to control the bus

voltage of one of the feeders while regulating the voltage across a sensitive load in the

other feeder. Different case studies have been carried out to verify the efficacy of the

proposed configuration through simulation using PSCAD/EMTDC. On the other hand,

proposed configuration of UPQC always requires two parallel feeders to be present. This

restricts its application to specific situations that have two, side by side running parallel

feeders.

3.2.1.3 Backup Stored Energy Devices

Fig. 3.1 shows that third type of compensating CPDs are backup stored energy

devices. Usually, a D-STATCOM is used for flicker mitigation and active filtering

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purposes in a distribution system. However, when it is provided with an isolation switch

for disconnection from the distribution feeder, it results in a backup source, and also

called as backup stored energy system/device (BSES) as shown in Fig. 3.28 [67].

Fig. 3.27 IUPQC connected in a distribution system [133].

Sensitive load is isolated from the power system by a static switch on sensing a

disturbance and is fed by the VSC. As mentioned in chapter II, there are several devices

for storing the necessary electrical energy e.g. DC storage capacitors, batteries

(transportable battery energy storage system, TBESS [144]), supercapacitors, flywheels,

and superconducting coils [145]. These backup energy storage devices can manage to

supply up to seconds or even minutes of backup power. This permits sensitive loads to

continue operation during complete power interruptions. TBESS have the capability to

compensate short term PQ variations and enhance reliability provided they are configured

with longer-term backup generation. The above mentioned storage devices are shortly

described in a Table 3.1 along with their merits and demerits [146]:

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 Fig. 3.28 Backup power source [67].

Fig. 3.29 Simplified D-SMES one line diagram [147].

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 Table 3.1
Backup storage devices and their merits and demerits [146].
Sr. Type of backup stored
Merits and demerits
No. energy devices
1 DC storage capacitors Store energy in their capacitance.
Useful for short ride through times.
Require DC/DC converter between the constant voltage
bus and the capacitance.
Cost increases with the increase in ride through time.
2 Batteries Most common method of storing energy.
Do not require DC/DC converter as they are directly
connected to VSC.
Capacitor can compete with batteries but only for short
ride through times.
Utilize environmentally unfriendly materials.
Have limited life time.
Require regular maintenance.
Some new types of batteries do not have above mentioned
limitations but have higher cost.
3 Supercapacitors Energy densities comparable to batteries.
Improve equipment voltage tolerance.
Have much longer lifetime than batteries.
Require much less maintenance than batteries.
Discharge time is not less than 1 minute.
Faster than batteries but much slower than capacitors.
Only available for voltages of a few volts.
4 Flywheels Store energy in fast-spinning flywheels.
Stored energy cannot be extracted fully.
Require an additional DC/DC converter.
5 Superconducting coils Energy is stored in superconducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES) coils.
Most cost attractive solution for high power short time ride
through applications.
Fast extraction of energy as compared to batteries.
Have reduced size and lower maintenance cost as
compared to batteries.
Can be quickly and easily installed with short lead times.
Have modular design to meet future load growth and are
portable [145], [148], [149].
Require an additional DC/DC converter between SMES
and constant voltage bus (Fig. 3.29).

M. Moschakis and his colleagues have presented some of the operational and design

characteristics of distributed superconducting magnetic energy storage (D-SMES) device

[146]. The main parts that a D-SMES includes: VSC, D-SMES system, DC-DC

converter, coupling transformer, and harmonic filter. Numbers of configurations and

operational techniques for D-SMES have been discussed in the paper. The merits and
93
demerits of SMES compared to other solutions have been provided. The issues that a D-

SMES can deal with have been listed and discussed. However, authors in the present

work have focused only on the ability of a D-SMES to compensate voltage fluctuations

and sags (dips) and support a sensitive load during power system outages or

interruptions. Simulations results have been shown using the EMTDC simulation

package that demonstrates the ability of D-SMES to mitigate voltage fluctuations caused

by load variations. Moreover, it has been shown that D-SMES can safeguard a sensitive

load from faults on the distribution or the transmission system when it is accompanied

with a static switch. Hence, the load faces no voltage sag during the fault. However,

without the uses of static switch upstream the D-SMES system, the D-SMES would

require enormous amount of energy storage to adequately support the voltage of a

sensitive load [18]. But, the use of static switch requires an alternate feeder as well.

Moreover simulations in the paper have been performed with the assumption that DC

side of the SMES system is replaced by a DC voltage source. Hence amount of energy

that is available in SMES is not taken into consideration and the response in the demand

for real power is instantaneous. However, this response in a real D-SMES unit would not

be instantaneous but it will have delay of few milli seconds.

Two possible functions of flywheel energy storage systems (FESS) are voltage

support and the uninterruptible power supply. These applications are helpful to protect

sensitive loads on distribution feeders. Robert S. and his colleagues have looked at the

possibility of combining voltage support and the uninterruptible power supply functions

by considering a flywheel energy storage system (FESS) [147]. Authors have proposed

FESS system that performs the above mentioned functions by adopting a new control

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scheme using both sinusoidal pulse-width modulation (SPWM) as well as a boost

converter to regulate the critical load voltage on the feeder. Dynamic voltage

compensation has been attained by injecting voltage using series transformers rather than

by connecting the system in shunt, to minimize the amount of kVA required by the

flywheel system. Electromagnetic transients program (EMTP) has been used to perform

simulations to validate the proposed control scheme. However, for voltage dips of 50%,

the load voltage simulation plot shows load voltage is stabilized after 3 cycles. Moreover

if voltage dip exceeds 50% then boost converter tends to become unstable and FESS

enters into UPS mode by isolating load from main supply. The load voltage simulation

plot for this case also shows that, although rated load voltage magnitude is obtained after

sag mitigation but waveform is distorted and contains noise. Also, FESS is suitable to

mitigate voltage sag if sag duration is smaller than the hold-up time of the flywheel.

Fig. 3.30 Uninterruptible power supply [63].

Normally, Backup energy stored devices available in the market can be considered

modification of UPS. These devices can be classified on the basis of three different

factors [150]:

1. Type of storage used

2. Duration of load support (or back-up time)

3. Mode of connection (online, offline, line interactive)

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 In a conventional online energy storage system, the protection unit supplies the load.

Protection unit consists of a diode rectifier followed by a VSC as shown in Fig. 3.30. The

incoming AC power is converted into DC power that is applied to charge a bank of

batteries or some of the other energy storage mediums. This DC power is then converted

into AC power to feed the load. If the incoming AC power fails, the VSC is fed from the

batteries and continues to supply the load. Generally, UPS systems are designed to

provide 5 to 15 minutes of backup. In addition to providing ride-through for power

outages, an online UPS system provides isolation of the critical load from all power-line

disturbances.

An offline energy-storage system allows the utility to power the protected loads until

a disturbance is detected and a static or a mechanical switch transfers the load to the

battery or other energy-storage backed VSC. Since there is a short-duration interruption

during the time it takes to detect a mains failure, start the VSC and transfer the load to

battery power. A load with some inherent ride-through capability is required for the

interruption to go unnoticed. A standby UPS using a static switch rather than a

mechanical switch can provide nearly seamless transfer from utility power to battery

power during utility interruption.

The line interactive energy-storage system is a variation of the offline system in

which the design includes some means of load voltage regulation. This can be

accomplished by integrating some of the technologies such as an injection transformer or

static voltage regulator [150]. In theory, installing an uninterruptible power supply (UPS)

is the easiest way to protect sensitive processes against all sags. However, these battery-

dependent devices are often expensive and energy insufficient and they require

96
maintenance that may exceed the owners available in-house resources. Hence, due to its

considerable purchase and maintenance costs, UPS equipment is installed on a structural

basis only in places where the damage resulting from power supply problems is very

high, such as in hospitals etc. Amongst the CPDs, UPS and DVR have the ability to inject

a voltage waveform to the distribution line. However, DVR costs less as compared to

UPS. While evaluating the UPS and DVR; the UPS is constantly providing the full

voltage to the load irrespective of whether the waveform is distorted or not. As a result,

the UPS is always working at its full power. In contrast, the DVR injects only the

difference between the pre-sag and the sagged voltage and that too is only during the

sagged period. Hence operating losses of the DVR and the power rating are very small as

compared to the UPS. Hence DVR is deemed as a power efficient device as compared to

the UPS.

3.2.2 Network Reconfiguring Type CPDs

In Fig. 3.1, second type of CPDs called network reconfiguring type is shown.

These devices are series-connected devices. A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich have described

that network reconfiguring type equipment are gate turn-off (GTO) based or thyristor

based switches [1]. Network reconfiguring devices include solid state current limiter

(SSCL), solid state circuit breaker (SSCB) and solid state transfer switch (SSTS).

However, most popular network reconfiguring device is SSTS. The solid state transfer

switch or static source transfer switch (SSTS) uses solid-state switches to provide an

almost seamless load transfer to an alternate feeder/source to protect a sensitive load

from momentary interruptions and voltage sag/swell or fault in the supplying feeder. The

transfer time can be as low as quarter of the rated frequency cycle [22].

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3.2.2.1 Solid State Current Limiter

SSCL used to limit fault current in power system have two types.

GTO-Switched

Thyristor- Controlled

In the GTO based switched device, fault current-limiting impedance is shunted across a

pair of anti-parallel GTO switches. It comes in series with a faulted circuit as soon as the

fault is sensed. In this way large fault current is interrupted by turning off the GTO

switches during fault. However, this leads to high transient overvoltage and nuisance

tripping of small PWM adjustable-speed-drives [151]. Moreover, the transient

oscillations initiated by the operation of GTO based switched SSCL excite LC circuits

formed by the customer step down transformers and the low-voltage power factor

correction capacitors at the customer vicinities. This phenomenon gives rise to voltage

magnification at the customer vicinities [152]. Hence it can be concluded that GTO based

switched SSCL is not suitable for use on power system if voltage quality is a critical

issue.

Thyristor-Controlled SSCL utilizes thyristors to incorporate limiting impedance to the

system as soon as fault occurs. In contrast to GTO switched SSCL the switches of this

device turn on during fault. In this way, fault current interruption during fault is avoided

and system does not suffer from transient complication. There are two types of thyristor-

controlled SSCL devices. Thyristor controlled series capacitors (TCSCs) and thyristor

controlled series reactors (TCSRs).

TCSC is a combination of conventional series capacitor with thyristor controlled

reactor (TCR). This allows continuous control of the TCSC reactance. When TCSC is

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used to limit fault current, it is consequently improving the quality of the supply by

mitigating sag severity [153]. However these devices are not able to completely mitigate

sag as desired and hence have limited capacity to compensate voltage sag.

TCSR have been also investigated for voltage sag mitigation by the researches but

they were found to have limited capacity to ride through AC power line dips [154].

Moreover, value of inductance in TCSC and TCSR design should not be kept large in

order to gain higher voltage level, smaller phase-angle jump and lower fault current;

otherwise it will give in rise to prolonged voltage sags [155].

SSCL has been initially proposed for the limitation of large fault current. However,

literature studies reveal that, through the correct selection of circuit configuration, SSCL

can also be operated for the mitigation of voltage sag. In contrast to UPS and DVR that

are installed on the feeder supplying sensitive loads, a SSCL requires to be installed on

every potentially faulty line. Hence, due to the large number of SSCLs required, this

method of solution is expensive.

In contrast to SSCL, SSCB is based on a combination of GTO and thyristor switches.

It has the ability to intrude a fault current very rapidly and can also perform auto-

reclosing function. It is a lot faster than its mechanical equivalent and is therefore an

ideal device for custom power application. However, according to above discussion,

SSCL and SSCB are not commonly used for voltage sag, swell and phase-angle jump

mitigation.

3.2.2.2 Static Source Transfer Switch

Fig. 3.31 shows a device that is obtained by series combination of STS and static

series compensator (SSC) [22]. This arrangement can manage total protection against

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interruptions and voltage dips, with the STS taking care of interruptions and dips

originated by faults in the distribution system, which are long and deep and would

deplete the energy storage of the SSC. In this case, the responsibility of the SSC would

be to compensate for the voltage dips originated by faults in the transmission systems,

which the STS cannot handle. It is reported by Bollen that transmission system dips are

normally short and shallow [63]. The combined series configuration of SSC and STS will

reduce the size of the energy storage of the SSC, with a consequent reduction of the cost

of the device. However, this arrangement is bounded with availability of alternate feeder.

Fig. 3.31 Single-phase scheme of a combined SSTS and SSC [63].

A. Bagginii pointed out that most commonly used solid-state device in SSTS is the

thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) [22]. In case SCR is used in SSTS

configuration then transfer time may be half-cycle as SCR cannot turn off until the

current crosses zero. Fig. 3.32 shows a common static switch configuration.

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 Fig. 3.32 Schematic representation of the SSTS as a CPD [22].

T.A. Short mentioned another fast transfer technology that can be used in the same

applications as static switches [15]. High-speed mechanical source transfer switches use

high speed vacuum switches and a sophisticated microprocessor based control to

provide "break-before-make" transfers in approximately 25ms or 1.5 cycles. The

two sources are not parallel during the transfer; therefore, the load experiences an

interruption of approximately 1.5 cycles. The authors also pointed out that this

level of protection may be acceptable for some equipment. However, l.5-cycle of

interruption may trip some sensitive equipment. These switches have the

advantage of being very efficient (99%), inexpensive (one-fifth to one-tenth the

cost of a static switch), and small. Both pole-mounted and pad-mounted versions

are available. For most loads, the fast transfer switch provides significant benefit.

Relays and contactors, though, can drop out for an l.5-cycle interruption.

Normally, fast transfer switches have been applied at individual customers in a

primary-selective scheme. The technology could nicely apply to feeder level

application as shown in Fig. 3.33. This configuration offers better performance for

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voltage sags, momentary interruptions, and long duration interruptions for the

customers at the end of the circuit that normally get the worst power quality [15].

The SSTS performance concerning transfer time has been analyzed by [99, 151].

Simulation results conclude that in general the speed of SSTS operation is high enough to

attain a seamless transfer for sensitive loads. However, the transfer time increases even

more in case of regenerative load, e.g. induction motors [152], [153].

Fig. 3.33 Fast transfers switch to enhance power quality to a downstream section
of circuit [15].

O. A. Lara and E. Acha have presented graphics-based models suitable for

electromagnetic transient studies for the following three custom power controllers in

PSCAD/EMTDC: the SSTS, the DVR, and the D-STATCOM [112]. For the SSTS,

authors described that each time a fault condition is detected in the preferred feeder, the

control system swaps the firing signals to the thyristors in both switches, i.e., SS1 in the

preferred feeder is deactivated and SS2 in the alternate feeder is activated as shown in

Fig. 3.32. The peak value of the voltage waveform is measured by the control system at
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every half-cycle. This checks whether or not load voltage is within a prescribed range. In

case it is found outside the allowed limit, an abnormal condition is sensed and the firing

signals to the SSTS thyristors are changed to shift the load to the healthy feeder. The

main reason for the success of the SSTS is its rather low cost compared with other

solutions. Although, the SSTS has been proved to be a suitable CPD for screening

selected load points against faulted conditions, but it does require an alternate feeder

being available that has high cost. Therefore, this solution is particularly attractive for

installations that already have mechanical transfer systems, where upgrading to a static

system does not require major changes in the layout of the distribution system. In

addition, SSTS cannot protect against dips originating in the transmission system that

also affects the alternative supply. However, a significant improvement can be attained in

the performance of the industrial system against faults at distribution level, that usually

are responsible for long duration sags and short interruptions.

3.2.3 Electronic Tap Changers

Another power electronics based solutions to PQ problems include use of electronic

tap changers. As mentioned in chapter II that a traditional step-voltage regulator is a

regulating transformer in which the voltage of the regulated circuit is controlled in steps

by means of taps, without interrupting the load. This transformer can boost or buck the

voltage supplied to a load with a delay on the order of seconds. In contrast, electronic tap

changers (ETC) as shown in Fig. 3.34 can be mounted on a dedicated transformer for the

sensitive load, in order to rapidly change its turns ratio according to changes in the input

voltage [159]. This device, also called static voltage regulator, provides voltage boost

during voltage sags by using thyristor switches that rapidly change taps on three single-

103
phase transformers [67]. Generally, this type of device is limited in design to provide up

to 50% boost [150]. The rating of an ETC needs to be the same as the full rating of the

load that it will protect, because the ETC will carry the entire load during sag or swell

events. An ETC is not effective during voltage interruptions because there is no voltage

to transform due to absence of energy storage element.

Fig. 3.34 Electronic tap changer [18].

An ETC can be configured to have a 1: 1 transformer winding ratio to act solely as a

load-protection device. However, it can be also configured to operate as a step-down

transformer. During voltage sags in which the ETC switches to full 50% boost, the

current drawn by the unit can be twice as high as normal. Therefore, upstream protection

devices need to be coordinated with the ETC so that they do not operate in response to

the higher current levels. Solid state tap changer system does not compensate for the

change in the voltage wave shape that occurs during voltage sags. If the load is sensitive

to changes in wave shape, such as phase-angle jump, then it may still malfunction during

the event, even though the magnitude of the voltage is within design requirements.

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 J. Faiz and B. Siahkolah have presented the ability of a distribution transformer

equipped with electronic tap changer for sag mitigation [160]. Authors of this paper have

also investigated sum of cost of the sag reduction devices (UPS, DVR, constant-voltage-

transformers (CVT), motor-generator set (MG), ETC) for a typical application. Result of

this investigation have revealed that due to low cost, high efficiency and very low

maintenance cost of electronic tap changers, the total cost of ETC is lower in first year of

application. However, in the second year and later, the DVR has been found to have

lower cost as compared to the other devices; the reason is larger compensation range of

the DVR.

3.3 Summary

CPDs are used in the power distribution systems to improve the quality and reliability

of power delivered to the consumers. Compensating type CPDs include DVR, reactive

power and harmonic compensation devices and backup stored energy devices. SSTS is

most commonly used for network reconfiguring. An overview of each CPD has been

included in this chapter for voltage sag, swell and phase jump mitigation. Specific

applications of CPDs have been also explored.

There are various CPDs for protecting industrial processes against voltage sags like

static UPS, flywheel, shunt-connected synchronous motor, SSTS, D-STATCOM, DVR

and UPQC, etc. Although these CPDs work efficiently with some constraints to protect

sensitive load from voltage sags, but the most efficient and robust voltage restoration is

possible by the use of DVR. The main reason for extensive use of DVR is its simple

control, fast response, and fewer transients. The DVR is a CPD that provides technically

105
advanced and economical solution to voltage sags, swells and phase jumps as compared

to other CPDs.

DVRs are now a matured option in industry to reduce the impact of voltage sags to

sensitive loads. The use of DVR in PQ-related applications is increasing. Although, the

most popular application of DVR is to control voltage sags (swells) but the harmonics

and power factor correction may also be achieved through robust control schemes. DVR

application offers a number of benefits to industrial, commercial and residential

customers. Decrease in shut down time of process industries, small losses in the

production process, reduction of insulation damage on transformers and motors due to

power irregularities, and smooth operation of sophisticated electronic equipments are few

of them. Proliferation of sensitive load has opened the venues for DVR application in all

consumer categories.

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