H I STO R I C A L INT RO D U C TI O N

Lord K elvi nw riti n g i n 1 8 9 3 i n h i s prefa ce to t h e

,

En gli sh ed iti on of Hert z s R ese a rches 011 Electri c W a ves

,

s a ys m a ny workers a n d m a ny t h i nkers h a ve h el ped to
bu i ld u p the n i n eteenth cen tu ry sch ool of p len um o n e ,

ether for li gh t he a t el ectri city m a gn et is m ; a n d th e

, , ,

G erm a n a n d En gl ish volu m es con ta i n i n g H ert z s electri c a l

pa pe rs gi ven to th e wo 1 l d i n th e l a st deca d e of the

,

centu ry wi l l be a per m a nen t m on u me nt of th e spl end i d

,

con s i m m a t i on n ow re a l ised .

Ten ye a rs l a ter i n 1 9 05 we n d Ei nstei n d ec l a ri n g

, ,

th a t th e et her w i l l be p 1 oved to be supe1 ous

At .

rst si gh t the revol uti on i n sc ien tifi c though t brou gh t

a bou t i n th e co urse of a s in gle de c a d e a ppe a rs to be a l m ost
toovi olen t .A m ore c a refu l even t houg h a ra p id revi ew
of the sub j ect w il l h owever sho w h ow th e Theo ry of
, ,
I

R el a ti vity gra du a l ly bec a m e a h i s tm i ca l necess ity

Tow a rds th e begi n n i n g of th e n i n eteen th cen tu ry,

th e l u mi n iferous et her c a me i nto prom i n en ce a s a resu l t of
th e bri ll i a n t successes of t h e w a ve the 01 y i n the h ahds
of Y oun g a n d F res n el I n i ts st a tio n a r y a spect the
.

ela stic so l id ether w a s the ou tcom e of t he se a rch for a

m ed i u m i n wh ich t h e l igh t w a ves m a y und ul a te
This .

h
sta tion a ry ether a s s hown by Y ou n g a lso a fforded a
, ,

s a tisfa cto ry expl a n a tion of a stron om ic a l a ber ra tion

'
But .

i ts very success g a ve rise t o a ho st of new question s a ll

be a ri n g on the cen t ra l p roblem of rela ti ve m oti o n of et h e r
'

a n d m a tter .
ii P R INCIPL E or R ELA TI V I TY
ex p eri m en t
Th e refr active i ndex of a

Ar ago s pri sm
gl a ss pris m d epends on t h e i ncide n t veloci ty of li gh t
ou tside the pri sm a n d i ts ve l oci ty i n sid e th e pris m a fter
F resn e l s xed ether hypoth es is

refra ction On . th e ,

i nc ide n t l i gh t w a ves a re s itu a ted i n th e st a tion a ry eth er

outsid e the prism a n d m ove w i t h veloci ty 0 w ith respect
to the et her If th e prism moves with a veloci ty u
.

wi th respect to th i s xed et her th en th e i n ciden t ve l oci ty ,

bf l i ght with respect to the prism sh ould be c + u T h us .

the refr a cti ve i n dex of the gl a ss p ri s m sh ould depen d on a ,

th e a bsol ute velocity of th e prism i e i ts velocity wi th ,

. .
,

re spect t o the xed ether A r a go performed the experi men t

.

i n 1 8 1 9 bu t f a il ed t o detect the expected c h a n ge

, .

A i ry Boscovi tc/t
-
M ai l er -
j er i m en t
telescope eay .
Boscovi tch

h ad sti l l e a rl ier i n l 7 6 ti r a i sed the very i m po rt a n t

,

question of the dependence of a berra tion o n the refr a c t i ve

i ndex of th e m ed i u m l l in g the te l escope A be rr a tio n .

de pe n ds on the d i fference i n the vel oci ty of l i ght outside

th e tel e scope a n d i ts velocit y i ns ide the tel escope If th e .

l a tter velocity ch a n ges owi ng to a ch a n ge i n the medi u m

ll i n g th e telescope a ber ra ti o n i tsel f s hou ld ch a n ge th a t
, ,

i s a berra tion s hould dep end on the n a ture of the m ed iu m

, .

i n 1 8 7 1 ll ed up a telescope with w a ter bu t

A i ry ,
fa i led to de tect a uv ch a n ge i n the a ber ra tion Th us we .

get both i n the c a se of A ra go pr i s m experim en t a n d

A i ry Boscovi tch
-
w a ter telescope ex peri men t the very
-

sta rtl i n g resu l t th a t optic a l e ffects i n a m ov i n g m edi u m

seem to be qu i t e i ndepen dent of t h e voloci ty of t h e
med i u m with respect to F resn el s st a tion a ry ether
.

Fresn el

s con vecti on coe
ci en t k zz l l
r
t
h P os si bly
som e for m of co m pens a ti on i s t a kin g pl a ce W orki ng o n .

th i s hypothesi s F resn el ered h is fa m ous e t her con vec

,

tion theory A cco rd i n g to F resnel the presence of m a tte r

.
,

i m pl i es a de n ite cond en s a ti on of ether w ithi n the

 I
H STO R IC A L I N TR O D U C N O N iii

regio n occ u pi ed by m a tter Th i s con deh sed or

excess po rti on of ethe r is su p posed to be c a rried a wa y

wi th i ts own pi ec e of m o vi ng m a tter I t s hould be .

observed th a t o n ly the excess porti on is ca rri ed a w a y ,

wh i l e the rest rem a i n s a s sta gn a n t a s ever A com plete .

'
co n vection of th e excess ether p wit h the fu l l ve locity
u i s optic a l ly equ i v a lent t o a pa rt i a l co n vection of the

tota l ether p wi th on ly a fr a ction of t h eveloci ty 47 u

, . .

F resn e l s howed th a t i f th is con vect ion coefci en t 1: is

l (p bein g th e refra cti ve i n de x of the pr is m ) th en
.
,

th e veloc i ty of l i ght a fter refra ction wi th i n the movi n g

prism wo u ld be a ltered to j ust s uc h exten t a s wou ld m a ke
the refra ct i ve i ndex of t h e mo vi n g pr is m qu i te i n depen

d ent of i ts a bsol ute ve l oc ity n T he n o n depen dence
.
-

of a berr a tion on the a bsol ute vel ocity u i s a lso very ,

ea si ly exp l a i n ed with t he h el p of th is F resn elia n con vection ,

coef c i en t ff .

Ste/ces vi scous a m en s hou ld be rem e m be re d however
It , ,

th a t F res n e l s s ta t i on a r v ether i s a bsolutely xed a n d i s n ot

a t a ll d isturbed b v t h e motion of m a t t er t h rough i t I n this .

respec t F res n eli a n ether c a n n ot be s a id to beh a ve i n a n y

res pec ta ble physic a l fa sh i on a n d th is led Stokes i n
, ,

1 8 4 5 4 6 to con struct a m o re m a teri a l type of m edi um

-

,
.

Stokes a ssu med t h a t v iscous m otion en s ues n e a r the su rface

of sepa ra ti on of ethe r a n d mov i n g m a tter wh i le a t ,
~

sufci en t l y d ista n t re i ons t he eth er rem a i n s whol ly

g

und istu rbed H e sh owed ho w s uch a v i scous ether wo uld

.

expl a i n a berra tio n i f a ll m o t i on i n i t were d i fferen ti a l ly

i rrota tion a l B ut i n ord er to expl a i n t he n ul l A ra go
.

e ffect Stokes w as co m pe l l ed to a ss u m e the con vecti on

,

hypoth es is of F resnel wi th a n id en tica l n um erica l v a lue

/ T hus h e prestige of th e F resn eli an
9
for k n a mely 1
,

p t .

con v ection coeffic ien t w a s en h a nc ed i f a ny th i n g by the

-
, ,

th eoreti ca l i n ves ti ga tio ns of Stoke s .

iv P R INCIPL E or a n n a r rvrr r

F i zea u s ex p eri m en t

. Soon
fter i n 1 8 51 i t recei ved
a , ,

d i rect experi ment a l con rm a t i on i n a b ri l li a nt pi ece of

work by Fi z ea u .

I f a di vi ded bea m of l i ght is re u n ited a fter p a ssi n g-

th rou gh two adj a cen t cy l i nders lled with w a ter ord i n a ry ,

i nterference fri n ges wi l l be prod uced If th e w a ter i n on e

'

of the cyl i nde rs i s n ow m a de to ow th e conden ser ,

eth er wit hi n t he owi n g w a ter wo uld be con vected a n d

wou ld prod uce a sh i ft i n t h e i n t erferen ce fri n ges Th e .

sh ift a ctu a lly observed a greed very well wi th a v a lue of

k = 1
'
l
/f

. The F resn eli a n co n vecti on coe fc i en t n ow -

bec a m e rm l y es ta b lish ed a s a con sequence of a di rect

posi ti ve effect O n t he other h a n d th e n eg a ti ve eviden ces
.
,

i n fa vou r of th e con vecti on coefci en t h a d a lso m u l ti plied

-
.

M a sca rt H oek M a x wel l a n d others sough t for de n ite

, ,

ch a n ges i n d i fferen t Opti c a l effects i n duced by the m otion

of the e a rth rel a ti ve to the st a tion a ry ether But a ll such .

a ttem pts f a i led to reve a l th e sl i gh test tr a ce of a n y opti ca l

d is turb a nce du e to th e a bsol ute veloci ty of the ea rth
th us provi n g con clus i vel y th a t a ll t h e d i fferen t optic a l
effects sh a red i n th e gen era l com pen s a tion a risi n g out of
the F resn eh a n con vection of the excess eth er It m ust be .

ca reful ly noted th a t the F res n eli a n con vection coefci en t -

i m pl icitly a ss u mes the exis tence of a xed ether ( F resn el ) or

a t le a st a who l ly st a gn a n t m edi u m a t suf cie ntly dista n t
regions ( Stokes ) with referen ce to w h ic h a lone a con vecti on
,

vel ocity ca n h a ve a n y si gn i ca nce T h us t he con vection

.

coe i ci en t i m plyi n g som e type of a st a tion a ry or viscous ,

yet nevertheless a bsol u te ether succeed ed i n ex pl a i n in g
,

s a tisfa ctor i ly a ll k n own opti ca l f a cts down t o 1 8 8 0 .

M i ck elsow M or l ey
-
Ex per i m ichelso n
en t In 188 1, M
a n d M orl ey perfor med thei r cl a ssic a l experi ments w h ich
u n derm i ned th e whole stru ctu re of th e old eth e r theory
a n d t h us served to i n troduce th e new theory of re l a ti vi ty .
 HI TS ORI CAL I NTROD U C TI O N
T h e fu nd a m en t a l id e a u nde r l y i n g th i s ex peri m en t i s qu i te
s i m ple I n a l l old ex peri m en ts t h e vel oci ty of l 1 gbt
.

s i tu a ted i n free eth er w a s com pa red w ith th e velocity

of w a ves a ctu a l ly si t u a ted m a piece of m ovi n g m a tter
a n d presu m a bly c a rried a w ay by i t Th e com pens a tory .

effect of th e F r esn eli a n con vection of ether a ffo rded a

sa ti s fa c tor v ex pl a n a ti on of a ll n eg a ti ve results .

In th e M ichelso n M orley ex peri m en t th e a rra n gem en t i s

-

qu ite di eren t If th ere is a d e n i te g a p i n a ri gi d body
.
,

li gh t w a ves si tu a ted i n free eth er w i l l t a ke a de n i te ti m e

i n crossi n g the ga p If t h e rigid pl a tfo rm c a r ryi n g th e
.

g pa is set i n m otion w ith res pect to th e e t h er i n t h e di rec

tion of l ight propa g a tion l i ght w a ves ( wh ich a re even n o w
,

situ a ted i n free ether ) shou ld pres u m a bly ta ke a lon ge r

ti m e to c ross th e ga p .

W e c a n n ot d o better th a n quote Edd i n gton s descrip

tio n of t h is fa m ous experi m ent The pri nci ple of th e

.

ex peri men t m a y be i l lustra ted by con sideri n g a s wi m m er i n

a river . It i s e a si ly re a l i z ed th a t i t t a kes l on ger to sw i m
to a poi n t 50 y a rds up st re a m a n d ba ck th a n to a poi nt 50
-

y a rds a cross stre a m a n d b a ck If t h e e a rth is m ovi n g

-
.

th rough th e ethe r t h ere is a river of eth er owi n g th rou gh

th e l a bor a to ry a n d a w a ve of l igh t m a y b e co m p a red to a
,

sw i m m er tr a vell i n g wi th cons t a n t ve l ocity rel a ti ve to th e

cu rrent If th en we d i vi de a be a m of l i gh t i nto t w o pa rts
.
, , ,

a n d send on e h a l t s wi m m i n g
-
u p the stre a m for a certa i n
d ist a nce a n d then (by a m i rro r ) ba ck to th e sta rti n g
poi nt a n d sen d the other h a lf a n e qu a l dist a n ce a c ross
,

strea m a n d ba ck th e a cross stre a m be a m sh ou ld a rri ve

,
-

b a ck rst .

Let th e eth e r be owi n g rel a ti ve to

the a pp a r a tus with velom ty u i n the
d i re cti on O r a n d let 0A O B be , , ,

the t wo a rm s of th e a pp a ra tus of equ a l

vi P R NC PL E I I or R ELA TI V I TY
l en gth l, OA
bein g pl a ced up s trea m Let c be the -
.

veloc i ty of l igh t T he t i m e for th e double j our ney a lon g

.

0A a n d b a ck is

C -
u /

W h ere a fa cto r g r e a ter th a n u n i ty .

For t h e t ra n s verse j ou r ey th e l i ght m ust h ve com po

n a a

n en t ve l oci ty u up strea m ( rel a ti ve to th e ether ) i n ord er t o

-

a voi d bei n g c a rried bel ow O B a n d si n c e i t s tot a l velocity

is 0 i t s com pone n t a cross s tre a m m u st be

,
-
th e
tim e for t h e d o ubl e j ou rney O B i s a ccordi ngly
2a 2a
so th a t t , > t2
(
.

x / ?

But
when the ex peri men t w a s tried i t w a s fou nd th a t ,

both p a rts of the bea m took th e s a m e ti m e a s tested by ,

th e i nterferen ce b a nds p rod ucet

A fte r m ost ca refu l series of observ a tions M ichelson
a ,

a n d M o rl ey f a i led to detect th e s l i ghtest tr a ce of a n y

effect du
e to e a rt h s m otion th rough eth er .

The M iche l son M orlev ex peri m en t seems to s how th a t

-

there is n o rel a ti ve m o t ion of eth er a n d m a tter F resn el s .

st a gn a n t ether requ i res a rel a ti ve veloci ty of w Thus -

.

M ichelso n a n d M orley t h ern seli es th ou g h t a t rst th a t th ei r

ex p ri men t con rmed Stokes vi scous ether i n wh ich n o
e

,

re l a ti ve m otion ca n ensue on a ccou n t of th e a bs ence of

s l ippi n g of et her a t th e su rf a ce of sep a r a tion But even .

on Stokes t h eory t h is v iscous ow of et her wou ld fa l l

elf a t a very r a pid r a t e a s w e rec ede fro m the surfa ce

of sepa ra tion M iche l son a n d M o rley repe a ted t hei r ex per i

.

m e n t a t d i fferen t hei g h ts from the su rfa ce of th e e a rth but ,

i n v a ri a bly obta i n ed t h e s a m e n eg a ti ve resu lts thus fa i lin g ,

to con r m Stokes the ory of v iscous ow .
 ursr o a rcx r. I N TR O D U CTI O N vi i

ex p er i m en t F u rth er ,
i n 1 8 9 3 Lod ge per

L ori ye s ,

formed h is rot a ti n g sp h ere e x pe ri m en t wh ich sho w ed

com plete a bsen ce of a n y v is cous ow of eth er due to
mo vi n g m a sses of m a t ter A d i v ided be a m of l i gh t a fter
.
,

repe a ted reection s with in a very n a rrow g a p bet ween two

m a ssi ve hem i sp h eres w a s a l lowed t o re u n i t e a n d t hu s
.
-

prod uce i n te rference b a nd s h en t h e t w o h em i sphe res

.
7

a re set rot a ti n g i t is con ceiv a ble t h a t th e e t her i n t h e g a p

,
.

would be d istu rbed du e to viscous o w a n d a n v such ow ,

would be i m m ed1 a t ely de t ec t ed by a d istu rba nce of t h e

i nte rferen ce b a n ds B u t a c t u a l observ a tion fa i led to
.

d etect th e sl ig h test d is t u rb a n ce of t h e e t her i n t h e g a p ,

d ue to t h e m otio n of th e hem isph eres Lodge s ex peri .

me n t th us seem s to show a com ple t e a bsence of a n y vi scous

o w of ether .

A p a rt from these ex peri m en t a l d iscrep a n cies gra ve ,

t heoretic a l obj ect i on s were u rged a ga i nst a viscous ethe r .

Stokes h i m se l f h a d sh o wn t h a t h i s ether m ust be i n com

pressible a n d a ll m ot i o n i n i t di fferen t i a llv i rrot a ti on a l ,

a t th e s a m e t i m e t here s h ou ld be a bsol ute l y no sl i ppi n

g at
t he su rfa ce of sep a ra tion Now a l l these con d ition s c a n n ot
.

be si m u lt a n eous l y s a tised for a n y con cei v a ble m a teri a l

med ium wi th out cert a i n very spec i a l a n d a rbi tra ry a ssum p
t ion s Th us St okes ether f a i l e dt o sa tisfy th e very m o t i ve
.

w h ich h a d led Stokes to form u l a t e it n a m ely t h e desi ra bi , ,

li t y of con str ucti n g a ph ys ic a l m ed i u m P l a nck oered

.

mod i ed form s of Stokes t h eory wh ich see m ed c a pa b l e of

bei n g recon ci l ed with t h e M ich elson M o rley ex peri m ent -

bu t requ i red very s pec i a l a ssu m ptions T he ver v co m plex ity .

a n d the very a rb it r a ri n ess of th ese a ssu m ption s prevented

Pl a n ck s ether from a t ta i n i n g s o v de g ree of pra ctic a l

i m po rta nce i n th e fu rth er developm ent of the subj ec t .

The so l e cri teri o n of t h e v a l ue of a n y scienti c theory

m ust u lti m a te l y be i ts c a p a ci ty for offerin g a si m ple ,
vi i i P R N PL E
I CI or L
R E A TI V I TY

u n i ed coheren t a n d fru i t fu l descri pti on of observed fa c t s

, .

I n proportion a s a theory becom es com plex i t loses i n

usef l n ess a th eory wh ich i s obl i g ed to requ i sition a
u

wh o l e a rr a y of a rbitr a ry a ssu m ption s i n order to expl a i n

speci a l fa cts i s pra ctic a l ly worse t h a n useless a s it serves ,

to disjoin ra ther th a n to u n ite the sever a l groups of f a cts

, , .

T he op t i ca l e x perim en t s of t h e l a s t qu a rter of the n i ne

t een t h cen t u ry sh owed th e i m possi b i li t y of con s t r ucti n g a

si m ple eth er t heo ry w h ic h w ou l d be a m en a b l e to a n a lytic

,

tre a tm en t a n d would a t th e s a m e ti m e s t i m u l a te fu rth er

progress I t shou l d be observed t h a t i t could s ca rcel y be
.

shown th a t n o lo g ic a l l y con sisten t e t her t heory w as

possi b l e ; i ndeed i n 1 9 1 0 H A W i l so n o ffered a cou sis
, . .

sen t ether t h eory wh ich w a s a t l ea s t qu i t e neutr a l w i t h

respect to a ll a v a il a ble op t ic a l d a t a But Wilson s eth er .

is a l most wh oll y n eg a ti ve i ts on ly vi rtu e bei n g th a t it

does n ot di rectl y con tr a d ict observed fa cts Nei th er a n y .

di rect con rm a ti on n or a di rec t refu ta ti on i s possi ble a n d

i t does not th row a n y l i ght on th e v a rious optic a l ph eno
m en a A theory l ik e th is bei n g pr a c t ic a lly useless sta nd s
.

self con dem n ed

- .

We m ust no w consider the problem of rel a ti ve m oti on of

ether a n d m a tter fro m t he poi nt of v iew of electric a l theory .

F rom 1 8 6 0 th e iden ti ty of l i ght as a n electrom a gn etic

vec to r bec a me gr a d u a l l y es ta bl ish ed a s a resu lt of t he

bri l l i a n t
displ a cem en t cu rrent hypoth esi s of C l erk
M a x we l l a n d h i s further a n a l ytic a l i n vesti g a tion s The .

el a stic so l id eth er be ca me gra d u a l l y tra n sfor med i n to the

e l ectrom a gn etic on e M a x we l l succeeded i n gi vi n g a fa i rly
.

s a tisfa cto ry a ccou nt of a ll ordi n a ry optica l pheno men a

a n d l ittle roo m w a s left fo r a n y ser ious d oubts a s re ga rds
the gen era l va l idity of M a x we l l s theory H e rt z s re
.

sea rches on lect ri c w a ves rst c a rri ed out i n 1 8 8 6

A
, ,

succeeded i n furn ish i n g a strong ex peri men t a l con rm a tio n

 m sroa rea n rm a on uori os
'
ix

of M ax wel l s theory Electric w a ves beh hved ra l ly

.
g en e
li ke li gh t wa ves of very l a rge w a ve len gth .

Th e orth od o x M a xwel l i a n v ie w located th e d ielectr ic

pol a ris a ti on i n the electrom a g netic eth er wh ic h w a s m erely

a tr a n sform a ti on of F res nel s st a gn a n t ether The m a g .

n etic pol a ris a t ion w a s looke d upon a s wh ol ly second a r y i n

orig i n bei n g d ue to th e re l a ti ve m otion of th e d i elec t ri c
,

tubes of po l a ris atio n On th is vi ew t h e F res n eli a n b oh

.

vect i on coei ci en t com es out t o be

a s sh ow n by
T hom so n i n 8 8 0 i nste a d of 1
1 ,
1
/p
9
as r e qu i re d by
opti ca l ex perrm n t s Th i s obvi ously i m pl ies a com plete
.

fa i l u re to a ccou n t for a ll those optic a l experi m ents wh i c h

depend for thei r s a tisfa ctory expl a n a t i on on th e a ssu m pti on
of a v a lu e for t he con vec tion coef cien t equ a l t o1 1
/p 9
.

T he m od i cation sproposed i ndependen tly by H er tz a n d

He viside f re n o better
a a
*
Th ey postul a ted th e a c tua l
.

med iu m to be th e se a t of a ll electric po l a ris a tion a n d fu rt her

e m ph a sis ed the reciproc a l rel a tion subsisti n g between
electrici ty a n d m a gn etism t h us m a k i n g th e eld eq ua tion s
,

m ore sy m me t ric a l O n th i s vi ew t h e wh ole of the

.

pol a ri sed eth e r i s c a rried a w a y by t h e m ovi n g m ed i u m

'

a n d con sequently ,
the con vectio n c oe fficien t natu ral ly
e
beco mes u n ity i n th i s theory a Va l ue qu i t a s d i screp a n t
,

as th a t obt ai n edon t h e ori gin a l M a xwel l i a n as sum pt i on f

' '

T h us n e i ther M a xwell s ori g m a l theo ry n or i ts subse

quent mod i c a ti on s a s developed by H ert z a n d H ea v is ide

s uc ceeded i n ob ta i n i n g a v a lue for F resn elia n co ef ci en t -

n d con sequen tly stood tota l l y condem n ed

/
9
equ a l to 1 1
,p a

f rom th e optica l poi nt of vi ew .

C e rt a i n d i rect elec trom a gn etic ex perim ents i n vol vi n g

rel ative m otio n of pol a ri sed d ielec t rics were n o less con clu w

si ve a ga i n st the gen e ra l i sed th eo ry of H ert z a n d H ea vi sid e:

r

See N ote l .
X P R INCIPL E OF R ELA TI V I TY
A ccord i n g to H ert z a movi n g d ielectric wou ld c a rry a wa y .

the w hole of i ts elect ric d isp l acem ent wit h it Hence th e .

electro m a gn etic e ffect ne a r the m ovi ng d iel ectric would

be propor t ion a l to the tota l electric displ a cemen t th a t is ,

to K the specic i n du cti ve c a p ac ity of the dielectri c I n

, .

1 9 01 Blon dlot work i n g wi t h a strea m of m ovi n g ga s

,

co ul d n ot detect a n y such e ffect H A Wi lson repe a ted

. . .

the expe ri m ent i n a n i mproved fo rm i n 1 9 03 a n d worki n g

wi th ebo n ite foun d th a t the observed eect w a s pro
portion a l to K l i nstea d of to K F or ga ses K is n ea rly.

equ a l to 1 a n d hence pr a ctic a lly n o e f

fect wi l l be observed
i n their c a se T h is gi ves a s a tisfa ctory expl a n a ti on of
.

Blon dlot s neg a ti ve resul ts .

R o wl a n d h ad s how n in 1 8 76
t h a t the m a gn etic force
d ue to a rot a ti n g cond enser (the d iel ec tric re m a i n i n g
sta tion a ry ) w a s proportion a l to K th e sp i nd ca p O n ,
. . .

the other h a nd R on tgen fou nd i n 1 8 8 8 th e m a gnetic

,

e ect d ue to a rota ti n g dielectric ( th e cond en ser rem a i n

i n g st a ti on a ry ) to be proportion a l to K l a n d n ot to ,

K F i n a lly Eichen wa ld i n 1 9 03 fou nd th a t when both

.

condenser a n d d ie l ectr ic a re rot a ted toget her the e ffect ,

obs erv ed w a s quite i nd ependent of K a resul t qui te ,

con sisten t wi th the two previous experi m en ts The Row .

l a n d effect prop ortion a l to K together with th e opposi te

,

R on tgen e f fect proportion a l to 1 K m a kes the Eichen w a ld ,

e ect i ndependent of K .

A llth ese exper i men ts togeth er wi th those of Blon dlot

a n d Wi lson m a de i t cl ea r th a t the el ectro m ag n etic
effect due to a m ovi n g d ielectric w a s proport ion a l to
K l a n d not to K a s requ i red by H ert z s theory

, Th us .

th e a bove group of ex peri men ts wi th mo vi n g d iel ectrics

d i rectly cont ra d icted th e H ert z Hea vis ide th eory The -
.

i n tern a l di screp a n cies i n here nt i n the cl a ssic ethe r theory

h ad n ow become too p ro m i nent It w as clea r th a t th e
.
 H I S TO RI CA L I NTR OD U CTI ON x i
6

ether co ncept h ad n a l ly outg rown i ts u sefu ln ess Th e .

obs e rved fa cts h ad bec ome too co n tradictory a n d too

hete rogen eous to be red uced to a n o rg a n ised w hole wi th
the hel p of the ether con cept a lon e R a d ic a l depa rtu res .

from t he cl a ssica l theory h a d bec o m e a bsol utely necessa ry .

Th ere were seve ra l outsta nd i n g d i f cu l ti es i n con n ec

tion wit h a n om a lou s d ispers ion selecti ve reection a n d
.
,

selecti ve a bsorption wh ich co u ld n ot be s a t isfa ctory

expl a i n ed i n the cl a ssi c electro m a gn eti c t heory It .

w as evid en t t h a t th e a ssu mptio n of som e k i n d of

d i sc reten ess i n th e optica l m edui m h a d beco me i n evi t
a ble. Suc h a n a ssu m ptio n n a tu ra l ly ga ve ri se to a n
a to m ic theory of el ec tricity n a m e ly th e m od e rn electron
, ,

theory Loren t z h a d postul a ted the existence of el ectrons

.

so ea rly a s 1 8 7 8 but i t w a s n ot unti l so m e ye a rs l a ter th a t

,

the electron theo ry bec a me r m ly est a bl ish ed on a sa t i sfac

tory ba s is .

Loren t z a ssu m ed th a t a m ovi n g di electri c m erelyca rri ed

a w a y i ts own pol a ris a tion doublets w h ich on h i s th eory
'

g a ve rise to th e i n d uced eld p roporti on a l to K l The .

el d n ea r a m ovi n g d ielectric is n a tu ra lly propo rtio n a l to

K l a n d not to K L oren t z s t heory th us ga ve a
.

s a ti sfa ctory e x pl a n a tio n of a ll th ose exper i m ents w ith

m ovi n g d ielectrics wh ic h requ i red eects proport ion a l to
K l . Loren t z fu rther succeed ed i n obt a i n i n g a v a l ue for
the Fresn eli a n con v ection coefcie n t equ a l to l /y the
1
,

ex a ct v a lue requ i red by a ll optica l ex pe ri m en ts of the

m ov i n g type .

We m ust n ow go b a ck to M ich elson a n d M orleys

experi me n t We h a ve seen th a t both pa rt s of the bea m

.

a re situ a ted i n free ether n o m a teri a l m edui m i s i n vo lved

i n a n y portion of th e pa th s a ctu a lly tr a ve rs ed by the bea m .

C on se q uently no com pe n sa ti on due to F res n eli a n con v ectio n

xi i P R I NC I PL E or a s n a r rvrr r

of e ther by movi n g m ed i u m i s po ss i ble T h us F resn eli a n .

con vection com pens a tion ca n h a ve n o possible a pp l ic a tion

in t h i s ca se Y et so me m a rve l l ous com pen sa ti on h a s
.

evidently t a ken pl a ce wh ich h as com pletely m a sked the

a bs ol ute

ve l ocity of th e ea rth .

I n M ichelson a n d M or l ey s ex pe ri m en t the dista nce

,

tra vel led by the be a m a l on g 0A ( th a t is i n a d irection ,

i

p a ra l le l to th e m otion of the pl a tform ) i s 2 lB w h i le the

2
,

di sta nce tra vel led by th e be a m a lon g OB per pen di cu l a r to ,

the d i rection of m otio n of the pl a tform i s 2 13 Y et the ,

.

m ost c a refu l experi men ts sh owed a s Edd in g ton s a ys th a t , ,

both p a rts of the be a m took th e s a me ti me a s tested by th e

i n terfe rence ba nd s produced I t wou l d seem th a t 0A a n d .

0B could not re a l ly h a ve been of the s a m e len gth a n d if

OB w a s of len gth 1 0A m ust h a ve been of l en gth l /B T he
,
.

a pp a r a tus w a s n o w rota ted th rough so th a t 08 beca m e

the up stre a m T he ti m e for th e two j ou rn eys w a s a ga i n
-
.

t h e s a m e so th a t 0B m ust n o w be th e sh orter len gth The

,
.

p l a i n m e a n i n g of th e experim ent i sth a t bot h a rms h a ve a

l en gth 5 when pl a ced a lon g Oy( perpend ic ul a r to t he di rec
tio n of m otion ) a n d a u tom a t ic a l l y con tra ct to a len gt h
,

Z /B w hen pl a ced a lon g Ur ( pa r a l le l to t he di rectio n of

,

motion ) Th is expl a n a tio n w a s rst gi ven by F i t z G era ld
.
-
.

Th is F 1 t z G er a ld con tra cti on sta rtl in g en ough i n ,

i tse lf does n ot s ufce A ssu m i n g thi s cont ra ctio n to be a

,
.

1e a l on e the d is ta nce tr a vel l ed with respect to th e

,
ether i s
M B a n d the ti m e ta ke n for t h i s j ourn ey is Q ZB/c

But th e .

d ista nce tra vel l ed wit h respect to t h e pl a tform is a l w ays

25 H en ce th e ve l ocity of l i gh t wit h respect to th e pl a t
.

2 13
f orm i s 2 l/

/B
c ,
a v a ri a ble qu a n tity de pe nd i n g on

th e bso lute velo c i ty of the pl a tform But n o trace

a .

of such a n cect h a s ever bee n fou nd The velocity of

'

li ght ls a l w ays fou nd to be qu i te i ndependen t of the velocity

 m s roa rca n
'
I N I RO D U C N O N
'
xii i

of t h e pl a tfor m Th e presen t d i fc u lty ca n n ot be sol v ed

.

by a n y fu rther a ltera ti on i n the me a s u re of sp ace The .

on l y recou rse left open is to a lter the me a su re of ti m e as

we l l th a t is to a d opt th e concept of l oc a l ti m e I fa m ov
, .
,

.

i ug c l ock goes slower so th a t on e re a l second bec o mes l /B

seco n d as m e a su red i n the m ovi n g sys te m th e vel oc ity of ,

l ig ht re la ti ve to the pl a tform wi l l a l wa ys rem a i n e W e .

m ust a dopt two ver v st a r tl i n g hypotheses n a m ely th e , ,

F it z G era l d con tr a cti on a n d th e concept of loc a l t i me ,

i n o rde r to g ive a s a ti sfa cto ry exp l a na tio n of t he

M i ch elso n M orley experi men t
-
.

Th ese resu l ts were a l rea dy re a ched by Loren tz i n t h e

cou rs e of further devel op m en ts of h is el ec t ro n theory .

*
Lo rent z us ed a speci l set of tr a n sfor m a ti o n equ a t ion s for
a

t i m e w h i ch i m pl ic i tly i n trod uced the con cept of l oc a l ti m e .

But he h i m se l f fa i led to a t ta ch a n y spec ia l s i gn i c a nce to

i t a n d l ook ed u po n it ra th er a s a m ere m a them a tic a l
,

a rti ce l i ke i m a gi n a ry qu a n ti ties i n a n a lysis or th e ci rcle

at i n n i ty i n projecti ve geom etry T he or i gi n a l i ty of .

Ei nstei n a t t his sta ge con s ists i n h is successfu l physi ca l

i n te rp ret a ti on of these results a n d vi ewi n g th em a s th e
,

coheren t orga n i sed con seque nces of a si n g l e gener a l

pri nc iple Loren t z est a bl is hed t h e R el a ti v ity Th eorem l
.

con si sti n g m erely of a set of tr a nsform a tio n equ a tion s )

wh i l e Ei nstein ge n er a l ised i t i nto a Un i vers a l Pri n ci ple I n .

a dd i tion Ei nstei n i n trod uce d fun d a m en ta l ly n ew con c e pts

of spa ce a n d t i me wh ich served to d estroy old feti shes a n d
,

d em a n ded a w holes a l e revi sion of sci en t i c concepts a n d

th us opened up new possibi lities i n th e syn thetic u n ic atio n
of n a tu r a l processes .

N ewton h ad fra m ed h i s l a ws of motio n i n such a w a y

as to m a k e th em quite i ndepend en t of the a bsol ute veloci ty

See N ot e 2 .

1 See N ote 4 .
 iv P R I NC I PLE or R ELA TI V I TY
of the e a rth U n ifor m rel a tive m otion of ether a n d m a tter
.

cou ld n ot be detec ted wi th th e help of dyn a m ic a l l a ws .

A cco rdi n g to Ei n stei n n eith er coul d i t be detected with the

hel p of optica l o r el ectrom a gn etic experi men ts Th us the .

Ei n stei n i a n Pri nci ple of R el a t ivity a sserts th a t a ll phys i ca l

la ws a rei ndepen dent of t h e a bsol u t e veloci ty of a n obs erver

.

F or d i fferen t system s th e form of a ll physic a l l a ws is

,

*
con served If we ch ose th e veloci ty of l i ght to be th e
.

fun d a ment a l u n i t of m e a surem ent for a ll observers (th a t i s ,

a ss u m e the const a ncy of the velocity of l ight i n a ll systems )

we ca n est a bl is h a m etr i c on e one correspo ndence
between a n y two observed systems such co rrespon dence ,

dependi ng on ly th e r el a ti ve velocity of th e two system s .

Ei nstei n s R el a tivity is thus m erely the con sisten t l ogic a l

a ppl ic a tio n of the wel l k n ow n ph y s ica l prm crple th a t we

ca n k now n oth i ng but r ela ti ve m oti on I n this sense it i s .

a further ext ension of Newton i a n R el a ti v ity .

On this i n terpreta tion the Lorent z F it z ger a ld contra e

,
-

tion a n d loc a l ti me lose thei r a rbi tra ry ch a r a cter Sp ace .

a n d ti me as m e a sured by two di eren t observers a re n a tu r

a lly d iverse a n d the di fference depends on l y on thei r rel a ti ve

,

motion .Both a re equ a l ly v a l id ; th ey a re m erely d i fferen t

descripti ons of the s a me p hys ic a l re a l i ty T h is i s essenti a l ly .

the poi n t of view a dop ted by M i n kowsk i He considers tim e .

itsel f to be on e of th e co ord i n a te a xes a n d i n h i s fou r

-

d i mension a l world th a t is i n the sp ace ti me re a l ity rel a ti ve

,
-
,

moti on i s reduced to a rota tio n of t he a x es of refere nce .

Th us th e d i versity i n the me a su re ment of l en gths a n d

,

tempora l r a tes is merely d ue to the st a tic ( li eren ce i n the

fra me work of the dieren t observers
-
.

Th e a bove theory of
'

bsorbed practica llvR el a tivity a

th e wh ole of the el ectrom a gnetic theo ry b a sed on the

See N ot es 9 an d 12 .
xvi P R IN C I PL E or

dyn a m ics witho ut d oin g violen ce to i t The experi ment a l .

work of K a ufm a n n i n 1 9 01 m a de it a bund a n t l y cl e a r th a t

, ,

the m a ss of a n e l ectro n depen ded on i ts veloci t yu So

ea rly a s 1 8 8 1 J J Th om son h a d s hown th a t the i n erti a of

,
. .

a ch a rged p a rticle i n cre a se d wi th i ts ve l ocity A bra h a m .

no w deduced a fo rm ul a fo r t h e v a ri a ti on of m a ss wi th
velocity on t he h ypothesis th a t a n e lec tron a l w a ys rem a i n
,

ed a ri g i d sph ere L orent z proceeded on th e a ssu m ption

.

th a t th e e lectron sh a red i n the Loren tz F i tz ger a ld con tra e -

'

tio n a n d obta i ned a t ot a lly d i fferent form u l a A very .

c a refu l series of me a su rements c a rried ou t i n dependen t l y by

Bii ch er er Wo l z
, H u pk a a n d n a l ly Neu m a n n i n 1 9 1 3
, ,

decided con cl usi ve l y i n fa vou r of t he Lo ren t z fo rm u l a .

Th i s con tra cti le fo rm u l a fol lows i m medi a te l y a s a d irect

consequence of the n ew Theory of R e l a ti vi ty withou t a n y ,

a ssu m ption a s reg a rd s t h e elect r i ca l o ri gi n of i nert i a Th us .

the com p l ete a gre emen t of experi m en ta l f a cts wit h the

pred iction s of t h e n ew t h eory m ust be considered as
con rm i n g it a s a pri n ci p l e wh ich goes even beyon d th e .

electron i tself T he g re a test tri u m ph of this n ew theory

.

consists i ndeed i n th e fa ct t h a t a l a rge n u mber of results

, , , ,

wh ich h a d for mer l y requ i red a ll ki n ds of sp e c i a l hypotheses

for the 1 r exp l a n a tion a re n ow ded uced very si m p l y a s
,

i n evit a ble con sequen ces of on e si n gle gener a l pri nci p l e

'

We h a ve n ow tr a ced the h istory of th e deve l opm ent of

t h e restricted or spec i a l th e ory of R e l a ti vi ty w h ich i s ,

m a i nly con cerned with opt i ca l a n d el ectri ca l phen om e n al

'

It w a s rst oered by Ei n stei n i n 1 9 05 Te n ye a rs l a te r .

,

Einst ei n formu l a ted h is secon d t heory, the G ener a l ised .

Pri n c i ple of R el a t ivi ty Th is n ew theory is m a i n l y a th eory

.

of gra vit a ti on a n d h a s very l ittle co nn ectio n w ith optics

'

a n d electrici ty I n on e sense the secon d theory i s i n deed

.
,

a fu rt her gen er a lis a tion of the rest ricted pri n cip le but the ,

form e r d o es n ot re a l ly co n ta i n the l atter a s a spec ial ca s e ,

 n l s rom ca r rn r n on
'
. ucr ron xvi i

Ei n stei n s rst theory

is
rest ricted i n th e sense th a t i t
on ly refers t o u n i fo rm rect i li n i a r m ot ion a n d h a s no a ppli
c a t ion to a n y k i nd of a ccel era te d m ovem en ts Ei n stei n i n .

h is second t h eo ry exten ds the R e l a t i v i ty P ri nc i pl e to c a s es

of a cceler a ted m ot ion If R el a ti vi ty i s to h e un i versa llv
.

true th en even a ccel era ted m otion m ust be m erely r e/a l i r e

,

m a i l er a ru/ m a i ler He n ce the G en er a l ised

.

P ri nci p l e of R ela t i vi t v a sserts th a t

a bso lute

m oti o n
c a n n ot be d etected eve n wi th t he hel p of gr a vit a tion a l l a ws .

A ll m vem en ts m ust be refer red to d e n i t e sets of

o

co ord i n a te a xes
-
If th ere i s a uv c h a n g e of a xe s th e
.
,

n u meric a l m a gn i tude of the m ovem en ts w i l l a lso ch a n g e .

But a cco rd in g to N ewto n i a n dyn a m i cs such a lter a tion i n ,

physic a l movem en ts ca n on lv b e d u e to th e e ffe ct of cei t a i n

forces i n t he eld *
T h us a uv c h a n ge of a xes wi l l i nt rod uce
.

n ew g eo m et r i c ml forc es 1 11 th e eld wh i ch a re qu ite

/

i ndependent of t he n a tu re f t h e bod v a c ted on G ra vi t a tion

o .

a l forces a l so h a ve th is sa m e rem a rk a bl e property a n d ,

gra vi ta tio n itself m a y be of esse n ti a l ly t he s a m e n a tu re as

t hese geo m etri ca l fo rces i n trod u ced by a c h a n ge of a xes '
.

T h is le a ds to Ei n stei n s f a m ous Pri n ci ple of Equi v a lence

.

A gr a r i fo /i on a / eld o f
f or ce i s t i tly equi r a lewi
s r c to on e

i n tr oduced by u tra n sform er/i on o f co ordi rm les -

an d n o p oss i ble
ex per i m en t ca n rli si i n g ui s/i between i /ze two .
.

Th us it m a y becom e possible to tra nsfo r m a w a y
gr a v i t a tion a l effects a t le a st for sufci en tly s ma l l regio n s of
,

sp a ce by re
,
fe rr in g a ll mo vemen ts to a new set of a xes T his .

n ew fra m ework m a y of cou rse h a ve a ll k i n ds of very

com p l ic a ted movem ents wh e n refer red to the old G ali le a n

or recta n gu l a r u n a cce ler a ted system of co ord i n a tes -
.

B ut the re i s n o re a so n why we shou l d l ook u pon t he

G a l il ea n system a s m ore fu nd a m en ta l th a n a n y oth e r I f i t
'

.
 x vi i i P R IN C IPL E L
or R E A TI V I TY

i s foun d si mple r to refer a ll mot i on i n a gra v it a tion a l eld

to a speci a l set of co ord i n a tes we m a y certa in ly look upon
-

th i s sp eci a l fr a mework (a t lea st for t h e p a rt icu l a r region
concerned ) to be m ore fu n d a men t a l a n d more n a tu r a l We
, .

m a
y ,
s ti l l mo re si m ply i den tify this p a rt icul a r fr a m ework
,

wi th the spec i a l loc a l properties of sp a ce i n th a t region .

T h a t i s we ca n l ook u pon t he e ffec ts of a gra v i ta tion a l

,

eld a s si m ply due to the loc a l p roperti es of sp a ce a n d ti me

i tself . The ve ry presen ce of m a tter i m p l ies a m odi ca tion
of th e ch a ra cterist ics of spa ce a n d t i m e i n its n eighbou r
hood A s Ed d i ng to n s a ys m a tter does n ot c a use th e
.

cu rv a tu re of sp a ce ti me I t is the c u r va tu re J ust a s
-
. .

l i ght does n ot c a use ele c tro m a g n etic osci l l a t io n s ; it i s th e .

o s ci l l a tion s .

We m ay l oo k u pon th is from a s li g h tly d i fferen t poi nt

of vie w T he G en er a l Pr i nc i ple of R el a ti vi ty a sserts th a t
.

a l l motio n i s m erely rel a t i ve motion bet wee n m a tter a n d

m a tte r a n d a s a ll m ove men ts m ust be refer red to de n ite

,

se ts of co ordi n a tes the g rou nd of a n y poss ible fra me w ork

-

m ust u lti m a tely be m a teri a l i n ch a r a cter It i s con ven ient .

to t a ke the m a tter a ctu a l ly presen t i n a eld a s the

fu nd a m en ta l groun d of ou r fr a mework If th is i s don e .
,

the Spec i a l c h a ra cteristi cs of ou r fr a me work would n a tu ra l ly

depen d o n the a ct ua l d istr ibutio n of m a tter i n th e eld .

B ut p hysic a l sp a ce a n d ti me is com plete l y den ed by th e

fr a m ework I n oth er words the fra mework itself i s
.

sp a ce a n d ti m e Hence we see ho w lly

'

.
/szca l sp a ce a n d ti m e
is a ct u a l ly de n e d by th e loca l d is tribut ion of m a tter .

There a re cer ta i n m a gn i tudes w hich rem a i n cons ta n t by

a n y ch a n ge of a xes I n ord i n a ry geo m etry d ista nce
.

between two poi n ts is o ne such m a gn itude so th a t

81 9 + 8y2 i s a n i n v a ri a nt In the restricted theory of
.

l igh t the pri n ciple of con sta n cy of l i gh t velocity dem a nds

,

th a t Sir + 8y
? 9 0 8 t s hou ld rem a i n con sta n t
9 9
.
 H I S TO RI C A L I NTR OD U C TI O N x ix

The se a ra ti on 1 of
dj a cent even ts i s de n ed by
p . 1 8 a

(i s + e dt I t i s an ex ten sion of t h e
? 2 2
( lz
9 2 3
dy

3 .

notion of d i st a nce a n d th i s is the n ew i n v a ri a n t Now i f .

.r
y ,
Z ,
l a re t r a n sfo rm ed
,
to an
y se t of n ew v a ria b ls
e
gr M a r we sh: al l get a qu a d r a ti c expressio n for
s ,, , ,

? =
( ls where the 9 s a re
2
y, 1 x 1 + Z yw a 1 w2 1
'

fu n cti on s of $ 1 $ 2 $ 3 an , depen d i n g on th e t ra n sfor m a

, , ,

tion .

T he speci a l properties of spa ce a n d ti m e i n a n y regi on

a re dened by these g s wh ich a re t h emsel ves deter m i ned

by the a ctu a l d istributi on of m a tter i n the loc a l i ty Th us .

from the N ewto n i a n poi n t of view these g s represen t the ,

g ra vi ta tion a l eect of m a tter wh i le from t he R el a ti v ity

st a n d poi nt these m erely den e th e n on Newt on i a n ( a n d
-

,
-

i n cid ent a lly n on Eucl ide a n ) sp ace i n the n ei gh bourhood of

-

m a t ter .

We h a ve seen th a t Ei n stei n s theory req u i res l ocal

cu rva tu re of spa ce ti m e i n th e neigh bou rh ood of m a t ter

-
.

Such a ltered ch a r a cteristics of sp a ce a n d ti me gi ve

a
sa tisfactory ex p la n a ti o n of a n outst a n di n g d iscrepa ncy in
the obser ved a d va n ce of peri h el io n of M ercu ry The l ar ge .

d isco rd a nce i s a l m ost com p letely rem oved by Ei nstei n s

theo ry .

A g a in ,
i n a n i ntense gra v i ta tion a l eld a be a m of l ight ,

wi l l be a ffected by th e loca l cu rv a tu re of spa ce so th a t to ,

an observer who is referri n g a ll p henome n a to a Newt on i a n

sys tem the be a m of li gh t wil l a p pe a r to d e vi a te fro m i ts
,

p a th a lon g a n Eucl ide a n stra igh t l i ne .

Th i s fa m ous p red iction of Ei n s te i n a bou t the d eecti o n

of a bea m o f l i gh t by th e su n s gra vi ta ti on a l eld w a s
tested d uri ng t h e tot a l sol a r ecl i pse of M ay 1 9 1 9 Th e

, .

observed de ection i s deci si vely i n fa v our of t h e G n erali sed

e ,

l heory of R el a ti v ity
'

i
.
X x P R i N C I P LE or L
R E A TI V I TY

I t s hould be noted h owever th a t the velocity of l i ght

itself wou ld decre a se i n a gr a vita t ion a l el d Thi s m a y .

a ppe a r a t rst s ight to be a viol a tion of the pri nciple of

consta n cy of li ght vel oc ity But w hen we remem be r th a t

-
.

th e Speci a l Theo ry is ex pl ic it l y r estri cted to the e a se of

un a ccelera ted m otion the d ifcu lty v a nishes , In th e .

a bs en ce of a gr a vi t a tion a l eld th a t i s i n a n y u n a ccelera t ed

,

system th e velocity of l igh t wi l l a l w a ys rem a i n con s ta n t

, .

Th us t h e v a l id i ty of the Speci a l Theory is com pletely

preserved with i n its o wn restri cted eld .

Ei nstei n p roposed a thi rd cruci a l test

has H e h as .

pred icted a sh i ft of spectra l l in es tow a rds the red d ue to a n ,

i ntense gra vi t a tio n a l poten ti a l Exper i me n ta l di fcu lti es .

a re very considera bl e here a s the s h ift of spect ra l l in es i s a

,

com plex phen om enon Evidence i s c on i ctin g a n d noth i n g

.

concl us ive ca n yet be a sserted Ei nstei n t hou gh t th a t a .

g ra vi t a tion a l d ispl a cemen t of the F ra un hofer l i n es i s a

n ecess a ry a n d fu nd a m e nt a l cond ition for the a ccepta n ce of
h is t heory But Edd i n gton h a s po i nted out th a t even if
.

th is test fa i l s the logica l concl u si on wou ld see m t o be t h a t

,

wh i le Ei nstei n s la w of gra vi t a ti o n is t rue for m a tter i n

bulk i t is n ot t rue for such sm a l l m a teri a l system s as

,

a tomi c osci ll a to r .

C O NCL U S I O N

the conceptu a l st a nd poi nt there a re severa l

F rom -

i m porta n t consequences of the G en era lised or G ra vi t a tion a l

T heo ry of R el a t i v i ty Physic a l s pa ce ti me is pe rceived to
.
-

be i n ti m a tely con nected with the a ctu a l l oc a l distribution

of m a tter Eucli d New ton i a n sp a ce ti me is n ot the a ctu a l
.

- -
.

sp a ce ti m e of Physics si mply bec a use t he form er com pletely

-

neglects th e a ctu a l p resence of m a tter Eucl id Newto n ia n .

-

con ti n u u m is merely a n a bstr action w h i l e physi ca l sp a ce ,

time i s the a ctu a l fr a m ework w hich h a s so m e de n ite

 H I STO R c L I NTR O D U CTI O N
c u r va tu re d ue to th e presen ce of ma t te r G ra v ita tion a l .

T h eory of Rel a ti vi ty thu s bri n gs out clea rly t h e fu nd a

me n t a l d isti nctio n between ac tu a l ph vsi ca l spa ce ti me -

wh ich is non i sotrop ic a n d n on Eucl i d Newt on i a n ) o n one

( - - -

h a nd a n d the a bstra ct Eucl id Newt on i a n con ti n u u m ( wh ich

-

i s hom ogen eous i sot rO pi e a n d a pu rely i n tel lectu a l con struc

,

ti on ) on the ot her .

T he m ea su rem en ts of th e rota ti on of the e a rth reve a l s a

'

fu nd a m ent a l fra m ework wh ich m ay be ca lled th e i n ertia l

fr a m ework . T h is con sti tutes t he actu a l p hysi ca l un i ve
rSe .

T h is u n i verse a ppro a ch es G a l i le a n spa ce tim e a t a gre a t -

d ista n ce from m a tte r .

Th e propert ies of th is phys ic a l un i verse m a y be referr ed

to som e world d istrib uti on of m a tter or th e i n erti a l fra m e
-

work m ay be cons t r ucted by a sui t a ble mod i c a tion of th e
la w of gra vi ta tion i tself I n Ei nstei n s th eory the a ctu a l
.

curv a tu re of th e i n erti a l fra m ework is referred t o v ast
qu a n tities of un detected wor ld m a tte r I t h as i n teresti n g -
.
'

con sequen ces .T he d i men si on s of Ei nstei n i a n u n i verse

wou ld depen d o n the qu a n tity of m a tter i n it ; i t wo uld
v a n ish to a rei n t i n th e to ta l a bsen ce of m a tter T he n

a g a i n cu rv a tu re d epends on th e q ua n tit
y of m a tter a n d ,

hence i n the presence of a sufc ien t qu a n t ity of m a tter spa ce

ti me m a y cu rve r ound a n d close u p Ei n stei n i a n u ni verse .

w i l l th en reduce to a n ite syste m withou t bou nd a ries l i ke ,

the su rf a ce of a sphere I n th is closed u p system

.
,

l ight ra ys wi l l com e to a focus a fter t ra velli ng rou nd th e

u n iverse a n d we shou ld see a n a n t i sun (correspond i n g to -

the ba ck su rfa ce of the sun ) a t a poi nt i n the sk y oppos i te

to the re a l sun T h is a n ti sun wou ld of cou rse be eq ua l ly
.
-

l a rge a n d eq ua l ly bri ght if th ere i s no a bsorption of li ght

i n free s pa c e .

I n de Sitter s theory the e xisten ce of v ast q u a n tities of

,

world m a tter is n ot req ui r ed

-
Bu t beyond a de n i te . .
i x ii ra i x crm or a rrvi rr

di s ta n ce from a n o bserver ti m e i tself stan ds sti ll so th a t

, ,

to t h e obs erver n oth i n g ca n ever h a p pen there A ll .

t h es e theor ies a re st i l l hi gh ly specula t ive i n cha ra cter b ut ,

they h a v e cer ta i n ly exten d ed t h es co pe of t heoreti ca l ph ys ics

to the c en t ra l p rob lem of the u ltim a te n a ture of th e
'

un i verse i tse lf .

pec ul i a rity s ti l l a tta ches t o th e concept

O n e ou ts ta nd i ng
of e l ectri c for ce i t i s n ot a m en a bl e to a n yproce ss of bein g
- w

(t ra nsform ed a w a y by a su i ta ble c h a n ge of f ra mewo rk

. .

H W eyil i t seems ih as deeeloped a geo metr ic a l t h eory ,( i n

.
, ,

h yper sp ace ) i n w h ich n o fu n d a mental di st i nction i s m a de

-

betwee n gra v ita tion a l a n d electric a l forces .

Ei nstei n s theory co n n ects up t h e la w of g ra vi ta tio n

w i t h t h e l a ws of m oti on a n d serves ito e s ta bl ish

,
a very -

i n t i m a te rela t ion shi p bet ween m a tte r a n d phys ica l Space

time . m a t ter (or ( en ergy ) were co ns id ered
to be t he t h ree u lti m a te el e m en ts i n Physics Th esestricted .

t he o ry fus ed s pa ce ti me i n to o n e i n dissol uble w h ole Th e

-
.

gene ra l ised theo ry h a s fur th er sy n th es ised spa ce ti m e a n d -

m a tter i n to o ne fu nda me n ta l p hysi ca l rea l i ty Spa ce t i me .

,

a n d m a tte r ta k en sepa ra tely a re more a bstr a ctio n s

i Physic a l .

r ea li ty consists of a syn th e s i s of a ll th ree .

P C
. . M A HA L N O BI S
A .
 On

Th e Elect rodyn am i cs of M ovi n g Bodi es

A . Em sr s m .

TR O D U C I I ON

iN .

It is wel l kn o w n th a t i f we a ttem p t to a pply M a xwel l s
elect rodyn a m i es ,
as co n ceived a t th e p resent ti m e to ,

mov i ng bod ies we a re l ed to a ssym et ry wh ich does n ot

,

a gree wi th observed phen o m en a Let us th i n k of t h e

.

m utu a l a ction between a m a gn et a n d a con ductor T he .

observed phen omen a i n th is ca se depen d o n l y on t h e

rel a ti ve m oti on of th e con d uc to r a n d th e m a gnet wh il e ,

a ccord i n g to the u su a l con ception a d isti n ctio n m ust be

,

m ad e between the ca ses w he re t he on e or th e oth er of t h e

bod ies i s i n m otion If for ex a m ple th e m a gn et m oves
.
, ,

a n d the con ductor i s a t res t then a n , electric el d of certa i n

energy v a l ue is produced i n t he n ei ghbou rhood of t he
-

m a gn et wh ich excites a c urren t i n those p a rts of the

,

eld wh ere a co nducto r ex i sts Bu t i f the m a gn et be a t

.

r est a n d the cond u

.

ctor be set i n moti on n o elec tric eld ,

i s prod uced i n the nei ghbou rhood of the m a gn et but a n ,

electrom oti ve force wh ich cor responds to n o en ergy i n

i ts elf is produced i n the cond uctor th is c a uses a n el ect ric
cu rrent of th e s a me m a gn i tude a n d the s a m e c a reer as th e
el ec tric force i t bei ng of cou rse a ssu m ed th a t the rel a t ive
,

motion i n both of th ese c a ses i s the s a m e .

 2 P RI N CI P LE or R EL ATI V I TY
2 Ex a mpl es of a si m i l a r ki n d such a s th e u n su ccessfu l
.

a ttem t to subs ta n ti a te th e m otion of th e e a rth rel a ti ve

p
to t h e Li gh t m ed i u m lea d us to t he supposition th a t
-

n ot on ly i n m ech a n ics but a lso i n electrodyn a m ics n o

, ,

p rope rt i es of observed f a cts cor res pon d to a c oncept of

a bsol ute rest ; but th a t for a ll coo rd i n a te system s for w
t
h ich
the m ech a n ic a l equ a t io ns hold the equ i va lent elect rodyn a ,

m ica l a n d opt ic a l equ a ti on s h ol d also as h a s a l rea dy bee n ,

s hown for m a gn itudes of th e rs t order In th e fol l ow i n g .

we m a ke th ese a ss um ption s ( wh i c h we sh a l l subse q uen t ly

ca l l t he Pri nciple of R el a t iv ity ) a n d i n troduce the fu rt her
assu mption a n a ssu m pti on
, wh i ch is a t the rst si gh t
q ui te i rrecon ci la ble wi th t h e former on e th a t l ight is
pro p a g a ted i n v ac a n t s p a ce wi th a veloci ty 0 w h i c h i s
,

i ndepende n t of th e n a tu re of m oti o n of th e em i tti n g

body T hese two a ssum ption s a re quite s ufc ien t to gi ve
.

us a si m ple a n d cons i s te nt theor y of elect rodyn a m i es of

m ovi n g bod ies on th e b a s is of th e M a xwel l i a n th eo ry for

bod i es a t r est T he i n trod ucti o n of a
. L i g h tat h er
-

wi l l be proved to be su per uous for a ccord i n g to the ,

conc eptions wh ich wi ll be developed we sh a l l i n trod uce ,

n eit h er a spa ce a b solu tely a t rest a n d endowed wi th

"

s pec i a l properties n or sh a l l we a ssoci a te a velocity vector

,
-

wi th a poi n t i n wh ich el ectro m a gn etic processes ta ke -

p la ce .

L ike every oth er theo ry i n electrodyn a m i es th e

'

3 .
,

theory i s b ased o n th e k i n em a tics of ri gid b od ies ; i n the

en u nci a ti on of every theory we h a ve to do w i th rel a tion s
,

between ri g i d bodies (co ord i n a te system ) clocks a n d

-
, ,

elect rom a gneti c p rocesses A n i n su fcient con sidera tion

.

of th es e ci rcu msta nc es i s the ca use of d ifcu l ties wi t h

w h i ch t h e el ect rodyn a m i cs of mo vi n g bod ies ha ve t o ght
,

a t p resen t .
 ON n ut ELEC TROD Y N A m os or m ovm e BOD I ES 3

I .
I I N B M A TI O A L P O R TI O N .

1 . Den i t i on of Syn ch r on i sm .

l et ush a ve a co o rd i n a te system i n w h ic h t h e N ew
-
,

ton i a n equ a tion s hold For d isti n guis h i n g th is s ystem.

fro m a nother wh ich wi l l h e i n troduc ed h er ea ft er we ,

sh a l l a l wa ys cal l i t the st a t io n a ry syste m .

If a m a teri al poi n t be a t rest i n th is system the n i ts .

,

positi on i n th is system ca n be fou nd o ut by a m e asu ri n g

rod a n d ca n be expressed by the methods of Eucl ide a n
,

G eometry o r i n C a rtesi a n co o rdi n a te s

,
'
-
.

If we w ish to describe the m otio n of a m a teri a l poi nt ,

the v a l ues ofi ts coo rdi n a tes m ust be e xp ressed a s fu nction s

of ti me It is a l wa ys to be bo r n e i n m i n d th a t suck a
.

wa l e/n
ff a ti on ! de n i ti on li n e a pizyszf
ca l sen se, on ly when we
ba se a cl ea r n oti on of w iza t i s m ea n t by ti m e . We [l a ve to
( a rei n to con s i dera ti on tn f
c a c M a t M oseof our p ti on s,
con ce in

p ti on
'

w/zzclz ti m ep lay l ways con ce n cn

'

sa pa r t, a r ea s
f
o sy ron zem

For ex a m ple we sa y t h a t a tr a i n a rr i ves here a t 7 o cloc k ;

,

th is me a n s th a t the ex a ct poi nti n g of th e l ittl e h a n d of my

w a tc h to 7 a n d th e a rri v a l of th e t ra i n a re syuch ron ous
,

even ts .

It m aya ppea r t ha t a ll d i fcu l ti es con n ected with t h e

den i ti o n of ti me ca n be removed w hen i n pl ace of ti m e ,

we substitute the posi tion of th e li ttle h a n d of my wa tc h .

Such a de n ition i s i n fa ct s u f c ien t w h e n it i s requ ired to ,

dene ti m e exc lus i vely for th e p l a ce a t w hi ch the cl ock i s

sta ti on ed But th e de n itio n i s n ot sueien t w hen it i s
.

requ i red to con n ect by ti m e even ts t a k i ng pl ac e a t di eren t

st a tions or wh a t a m ou nts to the sa m e th i n g to esti m a te
, ,

by m ea n s of t ime ( zeitl ich we rten ) th e occurren ce of even ts ,

w hich ta ke pla ce a t sta ti ons d is ta n t from the clock .

4 P R INCIPL E or R ELA T I V I T Y
Now with reg a rd to t h is a ttem pt the ti m e esti m a tion -

of eve n ts we ca n s a ti sfy oursel ves i n

,
the followi n g
m a n ner Suppose a rrobser ver wh o i s st a tion ed a t t h e
.

origi n of coord i n a tes with the clock a ssoci a tes a ra y of

i
ligh t w h ich comes to h i m th rou gh sp a ce a n d gi ves test mony ,

to th e even t of wh i c h t he ti me is t o be esti m a ted with ,

the correspon di n g pos itio n of the h a nds of the clock B ut .

such a n a ssoc i a ti on h a s this d efect i t depends on th e ,

position of the obser ve r provi ded wi th the cl ock a s we ,

k no w by experience We ca n a tta i n to a m ore practica ble .

resul t by the fol lowi n g tre a t men t .

If a n observer be s ta tio n ed a t A with a clock he ca n ,

est i m a te the ti me of even ts occu rri n g i n the i m med i a te

n ei ghbourhood of A by look i ng for the position of ,
i

the h a n ds of the clock wh ich a re syrch ron ous with ,

the even t If a n observer be st a tion ed a t B wi th a

.

cl ock w e sh ou ld a dd th a t the clock is of the s a me n a tu re

,
-

as the o ne a t A h e ca n esti m a te the ti me of even ts

,

occ u rri n g a bout B B u t without further prem ises i t is

.
,

n ot possible to com p a re a s fa r a s ti me i s con cern ed the , ,

eve n t s a t B w i th t h e even ts a t A We h a ve h i the rto a n .

A t i me a n d a B t i m e b ut n o ti m e com mon to A a n d B
-

,
-

,
.

Th is l a st i t i m e com mon ti me ) ca n be de n ed i f we ,

esta bl ish by de n ition th a t the ti m e wh ich lig h t requi res

i n tra vel l i n g fro m A to B is e q u i v a lent to th e ti me wh ich
'

l i ght requi res i n tra vel l i n g fro m B to A F or exa m ple .

,

a ra y of l igh t proceed s fro m A a t A ti m e t tow a rd s B -

,
A

a rri ves an d is reected fro m B

.
at B -
ti m e t an d returns
B
'
to A at A -
ti me t A ccord i n g to the de n ition both ,
A

cl ocks ar e syn ch ron ous if ,

t t = t '
t
B A A B
.
 ON TH E s n n cr a on r m m cs or M OV N G I s c ores 6

We a ssu m e th a t th is de n i tion of sy nch ron is m i s possi ble

with out i n vol vi n g a n y i n con sistency fo r a n y n u m ber of ,

poi nts therefore t he fol lowi n g rel a t ion s hold

,

1 . If the clock a t B be sy n c h ro n ous wi th the clock

at A, th en th e c lock a t A i s synch ron o us w ith th e clock
at B .

2 If th e clock a t A a s wel l a s th e cloc k a t B

. a re

bo th syn ch ron ous w ith th e c lock a t C th en th e cloc ks , at

A a n d B a re s vn eh ron ous .

Th us w ith t he h elp of certa i n physic a l experiences we ,

h a ve esta blish ed wh a t we u nders ta nd w he n we spea k of

clocks a t rest a t di eren t st a tion s a n d syn c h ro nou s with ,

on e a n other a n d t h ereby we h a ve a rri ved a t a de n itio n of

sy nch ron is m a n d ti m e .

I n a ccord a nce wit h exper ience we s h a l l a ssu me th a t th e

m a gn i tude

c, wh ere c is a u n i vers a l co n st a n t .

W e h a ve de ned ti m e essen ti a l ly w it h res t a clock at

i n a sta t io n a ry syste m On a cc ou n t of i ts ada pta bi l ity

.

to the s ta tion a ry syste m we ca l l th e ti m e de n ed i n th i s

,

w a yas ti m e of the st a ti o n a ry system .

2 . On t h e R ela t i vi ty of Len gth an d Ti m e.

The fol lowi n g reflection s a re ba s ed on t h e Pri n ci ple

of Rel a tivity a n d on th e Pri nciple of C on sta ncy of the
velocity of li ght both of wh ich we de n e i n th e fol lowi n g
,

1 The l a ws accord i n g to wh ich th e n a tu re of phys ica l

.

systems a lter a re i n depe nden t of the m a n n er i n wh ich

th ese ch a n ges a re refer red to two cc ord i n a te sys tems -
6 P R I NC I PLE or an u r I vi r r

w h i c h h a v e a u n i form tra n s l a to ry m otion rel a ti ve to each

oth er .

2 . Eve ry
l i ght moves i n th e
ra y ofst a tion a ry

cc o rd i n a te sys te m
-
wi th the s a m e vel oci ty 0 th e velocity ,

bein g i n depend en t of th e con d ition wh ether th is ra yof

l i ght is em itted by a body a t res t or i n motion * Ther efore .

Pa th of Light

where , by
i n terv a l of ti m e ,

we m e a n ti me as de n ed
in 1 .

Let us h a ve a ri gid rod a t rest ; th is h a s a len gth Z ,

'

wh en m ea su red by a m ea su ri n g red a t rest ; w e suppose

th a t th e a xis of t h e rod is l a id a long the X a xis of the -

sys te m a t res t a n d then a u n iform vel oci ty

, pa ra llel
to t he a xis o f X i s i m p a rted to it Let us n ow en q u i re
,
.

a bou t the len gth of th e m ovi n g rod ; th is ca n be obta i n ed

by ei th er of these opera ti ons .

(a ) The observer provi ded with th e m e asuri n g rod

m oves a lon g with the rod to be me as ured a n d m ea su res ,

by dir ect superposition the len gth of the rod j ust a s if -

the observer th e m eas uri n g rod a n d the rod to b e m ea sured

, ,

were a t rest

(6) The o b se rver nds out by me a n s of clocks pl a ced ,

in a system at rest (the clocks bein g synch ronous a s de ned

i n l ) t h e poi nts of th is system w here th e ends of the
,

rod to be m ea su red occu r a t a p a rticul ar t im e t The .

dist a n ce betwe en th ese two poi n ts me a su red by the , .

previ ously us ed m ea s u ri n g rod th i s ti m e i t bei n g a t res t , ,

I s a l en gth w hi ch we m ay ca l l the

, l en gt h of the rod .

A c cord i ng to the Pri n ciple of R el a ti v ity t h e len gth ,

fou n dout by th e ope ra tion a ) w h ich we m a y c a l l

,

the
V rde N ot e 9 .
8 P R I NC I PL E or R EL A TI V I TY '

where r i s th e len g th of th e m ovi n g rod m ea s u red ,

m

in the s ta ti on a ry system Therefore the obse rvers st a tion ed

.

with the wa tches wil l n ot nd the cl ocks sy n ch ron ous ,

thou gh th e observer i n the s ta tion a ry sys tem m u t decl a re

s
t h e clocks to h e synch ronou s . we th erefore see th a t we ca n
.

a tta c h no a bsol u te s ign i c a n ce to t h e con ce t of sy nch ro

p
n is m ; but two even ts wh ich a re synch ron ous whe n vie wed
from on e system wil l n ot be synch rono us w hen v iewed
,

from a syste m movi ng rel a ti vely to th is s vstem .

3 . Th eoryof (lo or d i n -
a te a n d Ti m e Tra n -
sfor m a ti on
from a st a t i on a r ysyst em t o a syst em w hi ch
m oves rela t i velyto t h i s w i t h

un i form veloci ty .

Let th ere be gi ven i n th e sta ti on a ry system two,

co ordi n a te syste ms
-
t wo seri es of th ree m u tu ally
,

perpen dicu l a r l i n es issu i n g from a poi nt Let the X a xes

.
-

of ea ch coi ncide w ith on e a n other a n d th e Y a n d Z a xes ,

-

be p a ra l lel [Let a ri gid m e a su ri n g rod a n d a n u mber

.
,

of clocks be gi ven to eac h of the systems a n d let th e rods ,

a n d cl ocks i n e a ch be ex a ctly a l i ke e a ch other A

Let the i n iti a l poi n t of on e of the sys tems ( t ) h a ve

a con sta n t velocity i n th e di rection of the X a xis of -

th e other wh ich is sta ti on a ry system K t h e m otion bei n g

a lso com m u n ic a ted to th e rods a n
d clocks i n th e system ( t ) J .

A n y ti m e t of the st a ti on a ry system K corres ponds to a

de n i te pos i ti on of the ax es of th e movi n g system wh ich ,

a re a l w a ys p a ra llel to th e a xes of th e s ta tion a ry system By .

t we a l w a ys m ea n t he ti me i n th e st a tio n a ry system
,
.

We suppose th a t the sp a ce i s m e a su red by the st a tion a ry

me as u ri n g rod pla ced i n th e sta tion a ry system a s wel l as ,

by the m o vi n g m e a suri n g rod pl ac ed i n th e m ovi n g

 or: r un L C R ODY N
E E T AM I CS or M O V N G B D I O I ES 9

syste m a n d we th us obt a i n th e cc ord i n a tes (3 31 3 ) for th e

,
-

3 ,

sta tion a ry system a n d (S 77 C) for t h e mov i n g system Let

, , ,
.

th e ti m e t be deter m i n ed fo r e a ch poi n t of the sta tion a ry

system ( wh i ch a re prov i ded w i th clocks ) by m e a n s of th e
clocks wh ic h a re pl a ced i n th e st a tio n a ry system wi th ,

the hel p of l ig h t s i gn a ls a s described i n

-
1 Let a lso .

the ti m e 1 of the m ovi n g syste m be determ i n ed for e a ch

poi n t of t he m o vi n g syste m (i n wh i c h th ere a re clocks wh ich
a re a t rest rel a ti ve to th e mo v i n g system ) by m e a n s of ,

th e m e t hod of l i gh t si gn a ls between th ese poi n ts ( i n

wh ic h there a re clocks ) i n t h e m a n n er described i n 1 .

To every v a l ue of ( q y z t) wh ic h fu lly determ i n es

, ,

the pos iti on a n d ti m e of a n even t i n th e st a tion ary syste m ,

there correspon d a system of v a l ues

: n ow t he

proble m is to n d out the sys te m of equ a tions con n ec t

i n g t hese m a gn itudes .

Pri m a ri ly i t is cl e a r th a t on a ccou n t of the property

of h omogene ity wh ich we a scribe to t i m e a n d s pa ce th e ,

eq u a t ions m us t be l i ne a
'

If we pu t n th en
-
i t is cle a r th a t a t a poi n t
,

rel a ti vely a t rest i n the system K we h a ve a syste m of ,

v a l ues wh ic h a re i n dependen t of ti m e No w .

let us n d ou t 7 a s a fun ctio n of F or this

pu rpose we h a ve to e xpr es s i n equ a tion s th e fa ct th a t r is
n ot other th a n the ti m e gi ven by th e clocks wh ich a re
at res t i n the s vstem k wh ich m us t be m a de synch ro n
ous i n the m a n n er descri bed i n 1 .

Let a ra y of l i ght be sent a t ti m e To fro m the origi n

'
of th e system I: a lon g th e X a xis to w a rds zr a n d le t i t be
-

reected fro m th a t p l a ce a t ti me tow a rds the ori gi n 7

,

of m ovm g cc ord i n a tes a n d let i t a r ri ve there a t ti m e T

-
,

th en we m ust h a ve
d< 7 0 + Ts ) = 7 1
10 P R INCIPL E or B n m r rvrr r

I f weno w i n trod uce th e cond itio n th a t i s a fun ct ion -

r

of cc orrdi n a te
-
s a n d a p ply the pri nciple of consta ncy of
,

th e vel ocityof l i ght i n the st a tio n a ry sys tem we h a v e ,

{
a}
m
i 7 ( 0a 0, 0, t) i
(o o, o,
{ t+
'
I
" -

,
c v c+ v

o, o, t

It i s to be noticed th a t i nste a d of the o ri gi n of cc

o rd i n a tes we cou l d select some oth er poi nt a s th e exi t
,

po i n t for ra ys of l i gh t a n d therefore th e a bove equ a t ion

,

ho lds for a ll v a l u
es of
A i m i l a r conception bei n g a ppl ied to th e y a n d z a x i s
s ,
-

g i ves us whe n we t a ke
,
i n t o con sid era t ion the f a ct th at

l ig ht w h en v iewed from th e sta t i on a rysyst em i s a lw a ys ,

=
\/
o
p p g
r o a ted a lon g those a x es wi th th e veloc ity 0 v '
,

w e h a ve the question s

these eq u a tions it fol lows th a t i s a l i n ea r func

F rom 1
'

tion of w a n d t F ro m eq ua ti on s ( 1 ) we obta in
.

T a t -

c
v

w h ere a is an u n k n ow n f unctio n of 0
.

Wi th th e hel p of these resu lts i t i s ea sy to obt a i n th e

m a gn itud e s if w e ex press by m ea n s of equ a tion s
t h e fact th a t l igh t w hen m e a s u red i n t h e m ovi n g system
,

i s a l wa y s p ro pa g a ted w it h th e con s ta n t vel oci ty 0 (as

t h e p ri nci ple of cons ta n cy of l ig h t vel oci ty i n con jun c
t i o n w i th t h e pri nci ple of rel a ti vi ty r eq u i res ) F or a . .
 ON TH E E E TR ODY A M I L C N CS or M O V IN G B OD I ES ll

t im e if the ray i s sen t i n the d i r ec tio n of i n creas i n g

5, we h a ve

(
ve
a c t
o
v

Now th e ra y of l igh t m o v es rel a tiv e to t h e or i gi n of k '

w ith a vel oc i ty o v m ea s ur ed i n t he st a tion a ry sys t em

,

therefore w e h a ve

Su b stituti n g th ese v l ues of a t in th e q u ti on for

e a f ,

we obta i n

I n a n a n a logous m a n n er we ob ta i n by con sideri n g th e ,

ra y of l ig ht wh ich m oves a lon g the ya xis -

ouc

w h ere 31 t, c _ 0,
m
. .

Therefore n = a
V5 25 ,
y C=,
a

I f for x
'
w e subst i t ute i ts v a lu e m to we Obta i n
, ,

(
on
e( v) e
:
h t
F
.

(v ) B(~ iv v 0 :

00y
l z P ( v) z,

E ( v5
5 ti

8 an d 4: s a f n c on
VI ;
,
4

0
12 P R IN IP L E
C or R EL A TI V l TY

If we m a ke n o a ssum ption a bout the i n iti a l position

of th e movi n g syste m a n d a bou t th e n ul l poi nt of t -
.
,

th e n a n a dd iti ve con sta nt is to be a dded to th e ri gh t

h a nd side .

We h a ve n ow to s how th a t ev e ry ra y of l igh t m oves

,

i n the m o vi n g system w ith a v eloc ity c (when me a sured i n

th e m ovi n g sys tem ) i n c a se a s we h a ve a ctu a l l y a ssum ed
, , ,

c i s a l so the v eloc i ty i n th e st a ti on a ry system for we h a ve

not a s yet a dd uced a n y proof i n su pp ort of the assum p
tion th a t th e pri ncip l e of rel a tiv i ty i s reco ncil a ble wit h the
pri nciple of const a nt l i gh t vel ocity -
.

At a ti m er = t =
l et a spheric a l w a ve be sen t out
o

from the com mo n o ri gi n of th e t wo systems Of co ord i n a tes -

a n d let i t spre a d w ith a velocity 0 i n the system K If .

be a poi n t re a ched by th e w a ve we h a ve ,

wi th th e a i d of ou r tra nsform a tion equ a t ion s -

,
l et us
tra nsfor m th is equ a t ion a n d w e obta i n by , a si m ple
c a lcul a tion ,

Therefore the w a ve i s prop a ga ted i n the m ov i n g system

with the s a m e velocityc a n d a s a sph eric a l w a ve Th erefore
,
*
.

we show th a t th e two p ri n ci pl es a re m u t u a lly recon ci l a bl e .

I n th e tra n sform a tion s we h a ve got a n u n determ i n ed

fu nction a n d w e n ow proceed to n d i t ou t .

Let i n troduce for t his p urpose a th i rd co ordi n a te

us -

'
system k w h i ch i s set i n m oti on rel a ti ve to t h e syste m k
, ,

th e m otion bei n g p a r a l lel to the f a xis Let th e veloci ty of -

.

the ori gi n be v) A t the ti m e t = o a ll th e i n i ti a l

-
.
,

co ordi n a te
-
poi nts coi ncide a n d for t = a t he,

ti me t of the system fr o We sh a l l sa y th a t (w y z t )
'
z .
' ' ' '

a re the co ordi n a tes m e a sured i n th e system lc then by a
-

t e N ote 9 .
 ON TH E E E T L C R OD Y N A MI CS or M O V IN G BO D I ES 13

two fold
-
a ppl i ca t i o n of th e t ra n sfor m a i t on equ a t i on s we
-
,

ob ta i n

v
) l3( -
v) t ,

e x ,
etc .

'
Si nce th e rel a tion s betwee n z a n d (z y , , , z, t)

d o n ot con ta i n ti me expl ici tly therefore K a n d k , are

rel a tively a t rest .

'
It a ppea rs th a t the systems K an dk a re identic a l .

M )
v =
) lr

Let us n o w tu rn our a tte n tio n to th e p a rt of the y a xis -

betwee n an d Let
t h is p iece of the y a xi s be covered w i th a rod m ovi n g wi th
-

t h e veloci ty 1) rel a t i ve to the system K a n d perpen dicul a r

'

to i ts a xis the ends of the rod h a vi n g t h erefo re the

co ordi n a tes
-

l
z , = vt , a, =o

=
y, o,

Therefore the len gt h of th e rod me asu red i n the system

1
F or th e system m o vi n g with vel oc i ty v
) ,

we h a ve on grounds of sy m metry ,

1 l
we v
)

( v) = l .
14 P R INCIPLE OP B ELA TI V I I Y
'

4 . Th e ph ysi cal si gn i can ce of th e equa ti on s

o b ta i n ed con cern i n g m ovi n g ri gi d

bodi es an d m ovi n g clock s .

Let us consider a rig id sph ere on e h a vi n g a

spheri ca l gu re w hen t ested i n th e sta ti on a ry system ) of
ra d i us R wh ich i s a t rest rel a tive to th e system ( K) a n d ,

w hose centre coincid es w ith th e orig i n of K then t he eq ua

t ion of th e su rface of th i s sphere w h ich i s m ov i n g w i th a ,

veloc ity 1) rel a tive to K i s ,

$ 2
+C =a
R i

At ti m e t = o, th e equ a ti on is express ed by m ea n s of
( at,
y , z, t, ) as

A ri gid body w h ich h a s th e g ure of sphere w h en . . a

m ea su red i n th e m ovi n g system h a s therefore i n the ,

m ovi n g con dition wh en con sid ered fro m the s ta tion a ry

system the gu re of a rota tion a l e l li psoi d wi th sem i a xes

,
-

Therefore th ey a n d z di m en sion s of th e sph ere (there

fore of a n ygu re al so ) do n ot a ppea r to be m odi ed by the
motion but the a d i m en sion i s shorten ed i n th e ra ti o
,

th e sh orten i ng is th e la rg er , the lar ger

is v . For v= c, a ll
ovi n g bod ies when con sid ered fro m
m ,

a s ta ti on ary system sh ri n k i nto pl a n es F or a veloci ty .

la rger th a n t h e v elocity of d i gh t our proposi ti on s becom e ,

 16 P R INCIPL E or R ELA TI V I I Y '

We see forth w i th th a t t he resul t hold s a lso when th e

clock mo ves fro m A to B by a polygon a l l i ne a n d ,
a s l o
w hen A a n d B coi n c ide .

If we a ssu m e t h a t th e resu lt obt a i n ed for a polygon a l

l i n e holds a lso for a cu rved l i n e we obta i n th e fol lowi n g ,

la w . If a t A th ere be two sy nch ron ous c locks a n d if we

, ,

set i n m otion on e of them w ith a const a n t veloc ity a l on g a

closed cu rve ti l l it com es b a ck to A th e j ou rn ey bein g ,

com pleted i n t secon ds the n a fter a rri v a l t he l a s t m en

-

, ,

a
o
t i on ed clock w i l l be beh i n d th e s ta tion a ry on e by ,! t ,
c

seconds F rom th is we concl ud e th a t a cl oc k pl a ced a t

.
,

the equ a to r m ust be slower by a very sm a l l a m ou n t th a n a

si m il a rly constructed clock w h ic h i s pl a ced a t the pole a ll ,

other con diti on s bei n g identic a l .

5
. A ddi t i on Th eorem -
of V eloci ti es .

Let a poi n t move i n th e syste m (C ( wh ich m oves with

vel oc i ty 1) a lon g th e x a xis of the sys tem K ) a ccord i n g to
-

th e equ a tion

f
i 10 7 ,
7
I = w K
5 n

'
wh ere w; a n dw a re consta n ts .
1
"

It i s requ i red to nd ou t the m otion of th e poi nt

rel a ti ve to the system K If we n o w i n trod uce the system
.

of eq ua tions i n 3 i n th e equ a tion of m otion of t he poi n t ,

we obta i n

,
z =o
.
 ON TH E ELEcr a O D Y N A M I CS OF M O V IN G BO D I E S 17

Th e la w of pa ra l lelog ra m of veloci ties hold up to the

rst order of a pp rox i m a tion We ca n put .

2: g
U i,
=w
w +w
t

u
. tan
w
e
a . is put e q u a l to th e a n gle betwee n th e veloci ti es v,

an d 20 . The n we h a ve
a

)J
e
i
m m a.
[(
v 2
+ 10 + 2
9
vw cos

It sh ould be noticed th a t v a n d w e n ter i n to the

expressi on for veloc i ty sym m etric a l ly If . w h a s th e d i recti on
of the fa xis of the m ovi n g sys tem
-

u+ m
0
1+
2
6

F ro m th is equ a tion we see th a t by co m bi n i n g two

,

veloc i ties ea ch of wh ich i s s m a l ler th a n 0 we qbta i n a

, ,

vel oc ity wh ic h i s a l wa ys s m a ller th a n c If we put a = o X .

,

a d
n w = c A w here x a n d A a re e a ch sm a l ler th a n 0
, ,

20 x A

A
QC x
i
A
?

It i s als o c l ea r th a t the veloci t v of l igh t 0 c a n n ot be

a lte red by a dd i n g to it a velocity sm a ll er th a n 0 F or th is .

c a se ,

c +v

14 - 2

0

V ida N o e 1 2
I
t .
18 P R INCIPL E or R ELA TI VI TY
We h a ve obt a i n ed th e fo r m u l a for U for the c a s e wh en
n a n d 20 h a ve the sa m e di rectio n i t ca n a l so be obta i n ed ,

by com bi n i ng two tr a n sform a tio n s a ccord in g to Section

3 . If i n a ddi tion to th e sy stem s K a n d k we i ntro , ,

d uce the system k , of wh ich th e i n iti a l poi n t m oves

}

pa r a llel to th e fa x is wit h veloci ty w th en between th e ,

m a gn i tudes z y z t a n d th e correspo nd i n g m a gn it ud es
, , , ,

of k we obta i n a syste m of equ

'
, a tion s w h i ch di er from ,

the equ a tions i n 3 on l y i n th e resp ect th a t i n pl ace Of

,

,
v we sh a ll h a ve to wr i te ,

1+
f
:
f
We see th a t s uc h a p a r a l lel t ra nsform a tion fo rms a

group .

We h a ve ded uced th e k i nem a tics correspon di n g to ou r

two fun d a m ent a l pri n ciples fo r th e l a ws n ecess a ry for us ,

a n d we sh a l l n o w p a ss o ve r to thei r a ppl ic a t ion i n el ectro

dyn a m ics .

I I .
BLBC TR O D Y N A M I C A L P A R T.

6 . Tran sform a t i on of M a x w ell

s equa ti on s for
P ure V a cuum .

On Men a t ure o
f til e Electr o m oll ee F orce ca used by m oti on
in a m agn eti c eld .

The M a xwel l H ert z equ a tion s for pu re va cu u m

-
m a y
hold for th e sta tion a ry system K SO t h a t ,

6 a a
a ll? 8 31 6 2

L M N
 ON TH E E E T L C R ODY N A MI CS or M O VI NG B D O I ES 19

6 6 6
as

X Y Z

where [X Y , ,
Z ] a rethe com pon ents of t he electric
fo rce L M N
, , ,
a re th e com pon en ts O f th e m a gn etic force .

If we a ppl y t h e tr a n sfo rm a tio n s i n 3 to th ese equ a

tions a n d i f we r efer th e electro m a g n eti c p rocesses to th e
,

co ordi n a te syste m m ovi n g wi th velocity r we o b ta i n

-

, ,

1g g 3

,
lx . ac
Y N ) az
.
M n

6 6 6
65 an 6 1;
i

L I3( N
j Y)

n ew
l .
b im
r
1
1m

7

a ~
e
as at

x B( Y c( z + g n )

The pri n ci ple of Rel a tivi tyrequi res th a t the M a xwel l

Hertz i a n e qu a tion s for pure v a cu u m s h a l l h ol da lso for t he
syste m k i f th ey hol d for h e system K
, for the
'
,

vectors of the electric a n d m a gn etic forces acti n g u po n

.

el ectric a n d m a g neti c m a sses i n the m ovrn g syste m k ,

20 P R INCIPL E or R E
L ATI V I I Y

wh ich a re den ed by thei r pon derm ot i ve rea ction th e , sa me

equ a ti on s hold te , . .

a 8 a
66 6 7) CC

L
,
M

N

a 6 6
65 on St

X

Y
Z

C l ea rly both th e system s of equ a tion s ( 2) (3 ) an d

developed for the system k sh a l l express th e s a me th i n gs ,

fe r b oth of these system s a re equi v a l en t to the M a x well

H ert z i a n equ a tion s for th e system K . Si nce both th e
systems of equ a ti ons ( 2 ) a n d (3 ) a gree up to th e sym bols
represen ti n g the v ec tors i t fol lows th a t th e fu nctions ,

occu rri n g a t correspond in g pl a ces wi l l a gree up to a ce rta i n

fa ctor il l w h ich depend s on ly o n n a n d is i ndependent of ,

( f
, g,
H ence th e rel a tion s ,

I ( v) [X
g f o
' '
X .
Y . . a (Y m 13 (2 + . r ]
.

[ ( v) IL. [3 < M
g
' '
L .
M , + B(N m .

T h en by re ason i n g si m i l a r to th a t fol lowed i n

i t ca n be Sh ow n th a t

[X

a
Y l Z
'
X > B ( Y _
S N ) , B (Z '
l

z

M l]

L
[ M e f
i i
'
, , ( M + Z ) n (N
, n ] .
 ON TH E E E TL C R OD Y N A M I C S or M O V IN G BO D I E S 21

the i n terpreta ti o n of th ese eq u at i ons we m a ke the

For ,

fol lowi n g rem a rks Let us h a ve a po i n t m a ss of electric ity

.

'
-

wh ic h i s of m a gn i tude un i ty i n the Sta tion a ry sys tem K ,

i e i t exerts a u n it force u po n a Si m i l a r qu a n tity pl a ced a t

. .
,

a dis ta nce of 1 cm I f th is qu a n tity of electricity be a t

.

res t i n th e sta ti on a ry System th en th e force a cti n g u po n i t ,

i s eq u i v a l en t to th e vector ( X Y Z ) of electric fo rce But , , .

i f th e qu a n tity of electrici ty be a t rest rel a ti ve to th e

m ov i n g system (a t le a s t for th e m om en t con sid er ed ) th en ,

th e force a cti n g u pon it a n d m ea s u red i n th e m ovi n g ,

sy stem i s equiv a len t to the vecto r (X Y T he rs t

,
'
,

t h ree of equ a tion s ca n be expressed i n the

fol low i n g w a y
1 . . I fa
poi nt m a ss of el ec tric u n it po le m oves i n a n
-

electro m a gn e tic eld th en besi des th e electric force a n

-
, ,

el ectromoti ve force a cts upon i t wh ich neglecti n g the , ,

n u m bers i n vol vi n g th e second a n d h igher powers of n /o ,

i s eq u i va len t to th e vector prod uct of th e vel oc ity v ector -

a n d th e m a gn eti c force d ivided by the vel oc i ty of li gh t

( O ld m od e of ex p ressio n ) .

If a poi n t ma ss of electri c u n i t pole m ov es i n

2
.
-

an elect ro m a gn eti c eld th en th e force a cti n g u pon it is

-

eq u i v a len t to the el ectric force e x isti n g a t the pos itio n of

i

the u n i t pole wh ich we obt a i n by the tra n sform a tion of

,

t h e eld to a co ord i n a te sys tem w h ich is a t rest rel a ti ve

-

to the electric u n it pole [New m od e of expr ession ] .

Si m i l a r
theore ms hold with reference to th e m ag n eti c
force We see th a t i n the th eory developed the electro
.

m a gn etic foree pl a ys the pa rt of a n a u xi li a ry con cept ,

wh ic h owes i ts i n trod uctio n i n theo ry to th e c i rcu msta nc e

th a t th e electric a n d m a gn etic forc es possess n o exi ste nc e
i ndepen den t of th e n a ture of m otion of the co ordi n a te -

s ystem .
22 PR I NC I PL E or R EL A TI V I TY
It i s fu rth er clea r th a t t he a ssym etry m en tion ed i n th e
i n trod uction wh i ch o ccu rs when we trea t of the cu rre nt
exci ted by the rel a ti ve m otio n of a m a gn et a n d a con
d uctor d is a ppe a rs A lso t h e question a bout the s ea t of .

electrom a gn et ic en ergy is seen to be with out a n y m ea n i n g .

Th eoryof D oppler s P ri n ci plean d A berra ti on

7 . .

I n th e system K a t a gre a t d ist a nce from th e o ri gi n of ,

cc ordi n a tes let there be a sou rce of electrodyn a m i c w a v e

-

, s ,

w hi ch i s represented w i th sufcien t a pprox i m a tio n i n a pa rt

of sp a ce n ot cont a i n i n g t h e ori gi n by th e equ a tions ,

X =X 0 si
n <I> L =LO Si n <I>

Y =Y o
si n <I> M =M o Si n <1)

Z =Z o si n < 1) N =N 0 s i n (I)

H ere ( X 0 Y 0 Z 0 ) a n d ( L M N ) a re th e vectors
, , O, O

w h ich de term i n e the a m plit udes of th e tr a i n of w a ves ,

( l m
,
n
) a re t he,
d i recti o n cosi n es of th e w a ve n orm a l - -
.

Let us n o w ask ou rsel ves a bo ut th e com position of

thes ewa ves when they a re i n vesti ga ted by a n observer a t
,

rest i n a m ovi n g m edi u m l Bya pplyi n g the equ a tion s of i

'

t ra nsform a t ion Obta i n ed i n 6 for th e electri c a n d m a gnetic

for ces a n d th e equ a tion s of tr a n sfor m a tion Obta i ned i n 3

for the co ord i n a tes a n d ti m e we obt a i n i m m ed i a tely

-
, ,

' ' '

Si n
'
X z X o s
in (b L -

LO <I>

Y =B Yo
( s) Si n <1>
( E)
'
M
'
N o
M z
o + Z O
Si n <I>

( E) ( 2 )
'


z
'
3
,
2 0+ MO Si n <I> N z N o Yo si n

' ' '

l f{ u m n l l
)
- - - -
n

C
 24 P R IN C IP L E or RE LA TI V ITY

Th i s equ a tion expre ses the s la w of o b serv a tion in i ts

m ost gen era l fo rm . If <I> th e equ a tio n ta kes the

si mple form

cos < l>

'

We h a ve sti l l to i n vestig a te the a m pl itude of th e

w a ves wh ich occu r i n th ese equ a tions If A a n d A be
, .

the a m pl itudes i n t h e sta tion a ry a n d th e movi n g systems

( either el ec t ric a l or m a gn eti c ) we h a ve ,

If th i sred uces to the si m ple form

A " =A

F romth ese equ a tion s i t a ppe a rs th a t for a n observer

, ,

wh ich moves wi th the veloc ity 0 to w a rds the sou rce of

l i gh t the so urce shou ld a ppe a r i n n itely i n te nse
,
.

8 . Tran sform a ti on of th e En ergy of th e Rays of

Li gh t Th eory of t h e R a di a ti on pressure
.
-

on a perfect

is eq u a l to the energy of l igh t per u n it

volu m e we ha ve
,
to reg a rd as th e en ergy of l i gh t i n
 ON TH E s n a cr n on m am cs or M OV I N G BOD I ES 25

A
th e m ov i n g system . would th erefore denote t he

ra tio between the ener gi es of a den ite l i gh t com pl ex -

m eas u red wh en m ov i n g a n d m e a s ured w hen s ta tion a ry ,

th e vol u m es of the l igh t c om plex m e a su red i n K a n d k -

bei n g equ a l Y et th is i s not t h e c a se If I m n a re the

. .
, ,

d i recti on cosi n es of th e w a ve n orm a l of l i ght i n th e

- -

s ta tio n a ry system t he n n o en ergy p a sses th ro ugh th e

,

su rfa ce elemen ts of th e sph eric a l su rf a ce

( x clt )

( cm t
) ( z en t ) :
R

y ,

wh ich exp a n ds w i th th e veloc i ty of l i gh t We ca n th erefore .

sa
y th,a t thi s su rfa ce a l w a ys en closes th e s a m e l ig ht com plex -
.

Let us n ow con sider th e qu a n tity of en ergy w h ich this ,

su rface encl oses when reg a rded fro m th e sys te m k

, ,

th e en ergy of t h e l igh t com plex rel a ti ve to th e syste m

-

k .

R eg a rd ed
from the m ov in g system th e spheric a l ,

su rfa ce becom es a n el l ipso id a l su rfa ce h a vi n g a t the ti m e , ,

T: 0 th e equ a t io n
,

(e w;
( g ;
"
m
n a

If S volum e of t h e sph ere S Vol u m e of th is

z
,
-

ell i pso id th en a si m pl e c a lcul a tio n sh ow s th a t

,

cos < 1)

If E den otes th e qu a n ti ty of l i gh t en ergy me a s ure d i n

th e st a tion a ry system E the qu a n ti ty m eas u red i n t he
,
'

4
26 P R I NC I PLE or R ELA TI V I I Y
'

m ov i ng system wh ich ,
a re enclosed su rfa ces
m ention ed a bove th en ,

"
A v
S 1 cos <I>
E '
8 vr 7:
E A v3
/c

S
8 7r

If we h a ve t he si m pl e form ul a

It is to be n oti ced th a t t he en ergy a n d th e frequen cy

of a l i ght com plex v a ry a ccord i n g to the s a m e la w w ith
-

th e sta te of mo tion of the observer .

Let th ere be a perfectly reecti n g m i rror a t the co or -

di n a t e pl a n e
-
from wh i ch the pl a n e w a ve considered -

i n the l a s t p a ra gra ph is reect ed L et us n o w ask ou rsel ves .

a bout th e l i g ht pressu re
-
ex erted on th e reectin g surf a ce
a n d the d i rection frequ en cy i ntensi ty of the l igh t a fter
, ,

re ex i on .

Let the i nciden t l igh t be den ed by the m a gn itud es

A cos <I> v ( referred to th e system K )
,
R eg a rded from k .
,

we h a ve th e correspond i n g m a g n itudes

'
A r -

cos < 1)

cos
v
1 cos < 1)

1 d)
'

cos
 ON TH E Ew cr aoovua n i cs or Movi N G BO D ES I 27

th e r e
For ected l ig ht we o b ta i n , wh en th e pr oce ss
is referred to the sys te m k

A =A cos

(1) cos (P v"
, ,

By me a n s of a b a ck tra n sfo rm a ti on to th e sta tion a ry -

syste m we obta i n K fo r t h e reected l i g ht

, ,

1 + B oos 1 2 Ecos d)
C
A =A A

cos <I>

cos (D
1)

V z l
1+
E cos
j b
V
1

The a mo u n t o r en ergy fa l l i n g u pon th e u n i t su rfa ce

of th e m i rror per u n i t of ti me ( m ea su red i n the st a ti on a ry
A 9
.

system ) is Th e m ou n t of en
a erg y g orn o'
a
8 1 r(c cos < I> v)

awa y from u n it su rfa ce of the m i rror per u n i t of ti me i s

c cos Th e d i fference of these two
express ion s i s a cco rd i n g to th e En ergy pri nciple t he
, ,

a m ou n t of work exer ted by th e p ressu re of l ight pe r u n i t

,

of ti m e If we put th is equ a l to P m wh ere P

. press u re ,
:

o f l i gh t we h a ve ,

)
9

(
1
cos (b 1
c
28 P R I N I PL E or
C R ELA I l V I TY
'

As a rst a pprox i m a tion ,

we obt a i n

2
cos (P .

which i s in a ccord a n ce wi th fa cts , an d with other

theories .

A ll
problems of optics of m ov in g bodies ca n be solved
a fte r th e meth od used h ere Th e essen ti a l poi n t i s th a t
.
,

the electric a n d m a gnetic fo rces of l igh t wh ich a re ,

i n uenced by a m ovi n g body s h ou ld be tra n sfor med to a ,

system of co ord i n a tes wh ich is sta tion a ry rel a tive to the

-

body I n th is w a y every proble m of the optics of movi n g

.
,

bod ies wou ld be red uced to a series of proble ms of the

optics of sta tion ar y bod ies .

9 . Tra n sform a t i on oft h eM a x w el l H ert z Eq ua ti on

-
s.

Let us sta rt from the equ a tions

2 6
25 2:
2
wh ere p + denotes 4m t i mes th e dens i ty
6 :

of e l ec tr i c i ty a n d
,
a r e th e ve loc i ty com po nen ts -

of el ectrici ty If we now suppose th a t th e electrica l

.

m as ses a re bou nd u nch a n gea bly to sm a l l ri gid bod ies ,

 ON TH E r L s cr s oor ua m cs or MO VI N G BO D I ES 29

( lon s elect ro ns ) then these equ a tions form the elect rom a
, , g

n etic ba s is of L oren t z s electrody n a m ics a n d optics for

m ovi n g bodies .

If th ese equ a tion s w h ic h ho l d i n the system K a re ,

t ra n sfo rm ed to the system It w i t h the a id of the t ra n sfor

m a tion equ a tions gi ven i n 3 a n d 6 then we obt a i n
-

the eq ua tio ns

5]
35
5]
63
n 6

+
1
w h ere

w ;

s

-

B 1 a

(

B 1 91

Si nce the vec tor M is n oth i n g but the

7
1 C
veloci ty of the electrica l m as s m ea s u red i n the syste m k ,

as ca n be ea s ily seen fro m the a dd i tion theore m of

.
-

velocities i n 4 so i t i s h ereby sh own th a t by ta k i n g

-

,
 P I R NC I PL E or a s n a r i vrr r

ou r ki n em a tic a l pri nc iple a s th e ba s is th e e lectro m a g ne tic ,

ba sis (i f L oren t z s theory of electrodyn a m ics of m ovi n g

bod i es correspond to the rel a ti vi ty postu l a te It ca n be -

.

briey rem a rked h ere th a t th e fo l lowi n g i m porta nt la w

follows e a si ly fro m the equ a tion s developed i n th e prese nt
e
s ction if a n electric a lly ch a rged body m oves i n a n y
-

m a n ner i n Sp a ce a n d i f i ts ch a rge does n ot ch a n g e thereby

, ,

when rega rded fro m a sys te m movi n g a lon g wi th i t then ,

i

the ch a rge rem a i n s con sta nt eve n wh en it i s reg a rded fro m

th e sta ti o n a ry system K .

10 . Dyn a m i cs of t h e Elect ron (slow lya ccelera te

d) .

Let us suppose th a t a poi n t sh a ped p a rtic le h a vi n g -

the electric a l ch a rge 8 ( to be c a l led hencefort h t he electron )

moves i n th e electrom a g netic eld ; we a ssu me th e
fol lowi n g a bout i ts la w of motion .

If the electron be a t rest a t a n y de n i te epoc h th e n ,

'

i n th e n ext Qoa r zcl e o f

ti m e the m otio n t a kes pl a ce ,

a ccordi n g to the equ a ti o n s

d y
a

m z eY , m
dt "

Where ( y ) as, ,
z a re the co -
ord i n a tes of the electron ,
an d
m i s i ts m a ss .

Let th e elect ron possess the velocity v a t a certa i n

epoch of ti me Let us n ow i n vesti g a te th e l a ws a ccord in g
.

to w h ich the el ec tro n wi l l move i n the p a rticl e of ti me

i m med i a tely fol lowi n g th is epoch .

Wi thout i n uenci n g th e genera l ity of trea tmen t we ca n ,

an d we wil l a ssum e th a t a t the momen t we a re con siderin g

, ,
 32 P R IN C I P L E or R ELA TI V I TY
Let us n ow con sider fol low in g th e usu a l m ethod of ,

t rea tmen t the lo n g itudi n a l a n d tra ns ve rs a l m ass of a

,

movi n g electro n We wri te th e equ a tion s (A ) i n th e form

.

'
eX : eX

[
d
es Y
Z N
] = eY
y

m
d

[ ]
)
Z + 3 M
'
z ez
C

an d let us rst rem a rk th a t eX eY eZ a re th e com
/

,

, ,
'

p o n en ts of th e pond eromoti ve force a cti n g u po n th e

el ectro n a n d a re considered i n a m ovi n g syste m wh ich a t
, ,

this moment m oves wi th a vel ocity wh ic h i s equ a l to t h a t

,

of the el ectron Th is force ca n fo r ex a m ple be me a su red

.
, ,

by mea n s of a spri n g b a l a n ce wh ich is a t rest i n th i s l a st

.
-

system If we briey c a l l th is force a s th e force a cti n g
.

u pon th e elec t ron a n d m a i n ta i n th e equ a tion
,

M a ss n u mber x a ccelera tio n

-
an d

i f we fu rther x th a t the a ccel era tion s a re m ea su red i n

th e s ta tion a ry syste m K then f ro m th e a bo ve equ a tions , ,

we o b ta i n
L on g i tud i n a lm a ss

Tra n svers a l m as s

N a tu ra l ly wh en oth er de n i tions a re gi ven of the fo rce

,

an d t h e ac cel era tion other n u m b ers a re obta in ed fdr the

,

Vi de N ote 2 1 .
 ON TH E E E T L C R OD Y N AMI CS or M O V I N G BODI ES 83

m a ss ; h en ce we see t h a t we m ust proceed very c a refu l ly

i n com p a ri n g th e d i fferen t theories of th e m otio n of th e

electron .

We rem a rk th a t th is res u l t a bou t th e m a ss h old a l so

fo r pondera ble m a teri a l m a ss for i n ou r sense a po nder ,
.

a ble m a te ri a l poi nt m a
y be m a d e i n to a n electro n by t h e
a dditio n of a n electric a l ch a rge w h ic h m ay be as s m a l l as
possible .

Let u no w
s de ter m i n e the ki neti c en ergy of th e
el ec tron If t he e lectro n m oves fro m th e o ri gi n of co or
.
-

di n a tes of t h e sys te m K w i th th e i n i ti a l v eloc ity 0 stea d i ly

a long th e X a x is u nder the a ct ion of a n e lec trom otive
-

force X then i t is cle a r th a t the en ergy d ra w n from the

,

electrosta tic e l d h a s th e v a l u e [ex /1m Si n ce the electron .

i s on ly slo wly a ccele ra t ed a n d i n con sequence n o en ergy

, ,

i s gi ve n out i n the fo r m of ra d i a ti on th erefo re th e en ergy ,

d ra wn from t he el ectro st a tic eld m a y be pu t equ a l to

-

the en ergy W of motio n C ons ide ri n g th e wh ole process of

.

m otio n i n question s the rst of eq u a ti ons A ) holds we

, ,

obta i n

eX dr : m vdv
z m c

For W i s i n n itely gre a t A s ou r fo rmer resu lt

vz c, .

sh ows velocities exceed i n g t h a t of li gh t ca n h a ve n o

,

po ss i bi li ty of existence .

In con sequence of the a rgumen ts men tion ed a bo ve

i
,

t h is expres sio n for k i n et i c e nergy mus t a l so h old for

po nder a ble m a ss es .

We ca n no w en u m era te the ch a ra cte ristics of the

motio n of the e lectro n s a v a il a bl e for experi men t a l ver i
ca

t ion w hich fol low from equ a tion s A )

,
.
34 ,
P R IN C IP L E or R EL ATI V I TY
1 . F ro m
the second of equ a tion s A ) it fol lows th a t
an electric a l force Y a n d a m a gn etic force N prod uce
,

equ a l deex i on s of a n electron movi n g w ith th e veloc i ty

N v
v, w he n Y Th erefore we see th a t a cco rd i n g to
e

ou r th e ory it i s possible to Obt a i n th e veloc ity of a n

,

electro n from th e r a ti o of the m a gn etic deex i on A a n d m ,

th e electric deex i on A by a pplyi n g th e la w

, ,

T h is rel a tion ca n be tes ted by m e a n s of experi ments

b eca use the veloci ty of th e electron ca n be d irectly
m ea su red by me a n s of r a pid ly osci l l a ti n g electr ic a n d
m a gnetic e lds .

2 .
\
F ro m
the v a lue wh i ch i s ded uced for the ki n etic
e n ergy Of th e el ect ron it fol lows th a t wh en the electron
,

fa l ls throu gh a po ten ti a l di eren ce of P th e veloci ty 1) ,

wh i ch i s a cq u i red i s gi ven by the fol lo w i n g rel a tion

P: 1
]

8

3 We c a lcu l a te th e r a d i us of cu rv a ture R of the

.

pa th where t he on ly deecti n g force i s a m a gn etic force N

,

a ct i n g perpen d ic
u l a r to the velocity of proj ection F rom .

th e secon d of equ a tion s A ) we Obt a i n

d y v
e v

dl '
R m c

m vc

eN

T hese three rel a tio n s a re com ple t e express i on s for th e

law of motio n of the elec tro n accord i n g to t he a bove
th eory .
 bzoyra p ]

[A abor t i ca l n ote

The n a me of Prof A lbrech t Ei nstei n h a s n ow sprea d fa r

.

beyon d th e n a rrow p a le of scien ti c i n vesti ga tors owi n g to

the bri l l i a n t con rm a t ion of h is pred icted d eectio n of
li ght ra ys by th e gr a vit a tion a l eld of th e su n d u ri n g the
-

tota l sol a r ec l i pse of M a y 2 9 1 9 1 9 B ut to th e se rious , .

studen t of sci ence h e h a s been k n own fro m th e begi n n in g

,

of the cu rren t cen tury a n d m a ny d a rk problem s i n physics

,

h as been i l lu m i n a ted with th e l ustre of h i s gen i us : before ,

owi ng to the l a test sens a tion j ust men tion ed h e a s hes out ,

before publ ic i m a gi n a tio n a s a sc ient i c st a r of the rst

m a gn itude .

Ei nstei n is a Swiss G erm a n Of J ew is h ex tr a ction a n d

-

beg a n h i s sci en tic c a reer a s a pri va t d o z en t i n the Swiss -

U n i versity of Z ii ri ch a bo u t the ye a r 1 9 02 L a ter o n h e .

,

m i gra ted to th e G erm a n Un i versi ty of Pr a gu e i n Bohem i a

as a usser ordentl ich e (or a ssoc i a te )
-
Profes sor I n 1 9 1 4 .
,

th rou gh the exertion s of Prof M Pl a nck of th e Be rl i n . .

U n i versi ty, h e w a s a ppoi nted a pa i d m em ber of the Roy a l

i

(n e w N a tion a l ) Pru ssi an A c ademy of S cien ces o n a ,

sa l a ry of m a rks per ye a r I n th i s post h e h as .

,

o n ly to do a n d guide resea rch wo rk A n other d i sti n gu ish ed .

Occu p a n t of the s a m e pos t wa s V a n t H O E the em i n en t

,

p hysic a l che m i st .

It i s ra th er d i fcu l t to gi ve a de ta i led a n d con siste n t ,

ch ro nologi ca l a ccou n t of h i s scien ti c a cti vities th ey a re ,

-

so v a riega ted a n d cover suc h a wid e eld

, The rst work .

wh ich ga i n ed h i m d isti nction w a s a n i n vesti ga tion o n

B row n i a n M ovement A n a d m i ra ble a ccoun t w il l b e foun d
.
-

i n Perri n s book Th e A toms

Sta rti ng fro m Bolt z m a n n s
.

86 P R I NC I PLE OF R ELA TI VI TY
th eorem con n ecti n g th e entropy a n d the prob a bi l ity of a ,

sta te h e d ed uced a form ul a on t h e me a n displ acem ent of

,

s m a l l pa rticl es (col loid a l ) s uspen ded i n a li q u i d Th i s .

form ul a gi ves us on e of th e best m ethods for n d i n g out a

very fun d a m en ta l n u mber i n phys ics n a m e ly th e n u mber
of m olecu les i n on e g m m olecu le of ga s (A vog a d ro s .
'

n u mber ) The form u l a w a s sh ortly a fterw a rds veri ed by

.

Perri n Prof of C hem ic a l Physics i n the Sorbon n e P a ris

,
.
, .

To Ei n stei n is a lso d ue th e resusci a t i on of Pl a nck s

qu a ntu m theory of energy em ission Th is t h eory h as n ot-

.

yet c a ught the popu l a r i m a gi n a tion to th e s a m e extent as .

the n ew theory of Ti m e a n d Sp a ce but i t i s non e th e less

, ,

icon ocl as ti c i n its scope a s fa r a s cl a ssic a l con cepts a re

concern ed It w a s k n ow n for a l on g ti m e t h a t t h e
.

observed em ission of l igh t from a h e a ted bl a ck body d i d

n ot corr espond to the form ul a w hi ch cou ld be ded uced from

th e o lder cl a ssic a l th eori es of con ti n uous em i ssion a n d

p rop a ga tio n I n the yea r 1 9 00 Prof Pl a nck Of the Berl i n
.
, .

U n i versi ty worked ou t a form u l a w h ic h w a s b a sed o n th e

bo ld a ssu m ption th a t en ergy w as em i tted a n d a bsorbed by
t h e m ol ecu les i n m u l ti ples of the qu a n t i ty by wh e re k ,

i s a con sta n t ( wh ich i s u n i ve rs a l l ike the con st a n t of

gra v it a ti on ) a n d v i s th e frequen cy of th e l ig h t
,
.

Th e con ception w a s so r a dic a l l y d i fferen t from a ll

a ccepted theories th a t i n spi te of the grea t success of
Pl a nck s ra d i a tion for m u l a i n ex pl a i n i n g th e obser ved facts

of bl a ck body ra d i a tion i t d i d n ot m eet w i th m uc h fa vou r

-

from t he physicists I n fa ct som e on e rem a rk ed j ocu l a r l y

.
,

th a t a cco rd i ng to Pl a n ck en ergy ies out of a r a di a tor l ike

,

a sw a rm of gn a ts .

B ut Ei nstei n fou n d a support for the n ew born con cept

-

i n a nother d i r ection I t w a s kn own th a t i f green or ultra v iolet

.

l i ght w as a l lowed to fa l l on a pl a te Of some a lk a l i m eta l ,

t h e pl a t e lost el ectrons Th e electron s were e m itted w ith

.
 A LBERT EI N e IN 37

a ll velocities but there i s gen era l ly a m a x i m um l i m it

,
.

F rom the i n vesti ga ti on s of Len a rd a n d La den bu rg th e ,

cu rious d iscovery w as m ad e th a t th is m a x i m u m velocity of

e m issio n d id n ot a t a ll d epend u po n the i ntens ity of l i ght ,

but u po n its w a velen gth T he mo re v iolet w a s the l i gh t

.
,

t h e gre a ter w a s th e vel oc i ty of em i ssion .

To accou nt for th is fact Ei n stei n m a de th e hold ,

a ssu m ption th a t the l i gh t i s ro o a t e

p p g d i n sp a ce a s a u n i t
pu lse ( h e ca lls i t a Ligh t cel l ) a n d fa l l i n g upon a n -

i nd iv idu a l a to m l i bera tes el ectron s a ccord i n g to th e en ergy

,

equ a tion
2
m v + A,

w here (712 v) a re th e m a ss a n d vel ocity of the el ect ron

,
.

A i s a con sta n t ch a ra cteristic of the m et a l pl a te .

Th ere w as l ittle m a teri a l for the con rm a tio n of th is

la w w hen i t w a s rst proposed a n d eleven ye a rs

el a psed before Prof M i ll ik a n est a bl i sh ed by a set of
~
.
,

experi m en ts sc a rcely ri v a l led for t h e i n gen u ity sk i ll a n d , ,

ca re d i spl a yed th e a bso lu te tru t h of th e la w A s res u lts of

, .

th i s con rm a tion a n d other bri l li a n t tri u m ph s th e q u a n tu m

, ,

la w i s n ow reg a rd ed as a fu n da m en ta l la w of En erge t ics .

I n recen t yea rs X ra ys h a v e been a dd ed to th e d om a i n of
,

l i gh t a n d i n th is di rection a lso Ei ns t ei n s ph oto el ectri c

'

-

, ,

form ul a h a s p roved to be on e of t h e m ost fru itfu l

concepti on s i n Physics .

Th e qu a n tu m la w w a s next exten ded by Ei n stei n to t h e

pro b lem s of d ecre a se of speci c he a t a t low tem per a tu re ,

a n d here a lso h i s th eo ry w a s co n rm ed i n a bril l i a n t

m a n ner .

We p a ss ove r h i s othe r cont ribu tion s to the e q u a ti o n of

sta te to the problems of n u l l poi n t en ergy a n d photo
,
-

ch emic a l rea ct ion s The recen t ex peri m en ta l work s of

.
38 P R I NC I PLE or R ELA TI VI TY
Nern st a n d Wa rbu r g seem t o i ndic a te th a t th roug h
Ei nstei n s gen i us we a re prob a bly for th e rst ti m e h a v i n g

,

a s a tisfa ctory theory of photo che m ic a l a ction -

In 1 9 1 5, Ei nstei n m a d e
excu rsi on i n to Experim en ta l
an

Physics a n d h ere a lso i n h i s c h a r a c te risti c w a y be t a ckled

, , ,

o ne of t he m ost fu n d a m ent a l co n cepts of Physics It is .

wel l kno wn t h a t acco rd i n g to A m pere th e m a gn etis a tion

-

O f i ro n a n d i ro n l i k e bodi es
-
w h en pl a ced w i th i n a coi l
,

c a rry i ng a n electri c c u rren t is d ue to the exci ta tion i n the

m eta l of s m a l l electric a l ci rcu its B ut the concepti on .

t houg h a very fru itful on e l on g rem a in ed with ou t a tr a ce

,

Of ex peri m en t a l proof thoug h a fter the d iscovery of the

,

electron i t w a s gen er a l ly bel ieved th a t th es e m olecul a r

,

cur re n ts m a y be d ue to th e rota tion a l m otio n of free

el ectron s wi th i n t he m et a l It is e a s i ly seen th a t i f i n th e
.

process of m a gn etis a tion a n u mber of electron s be set i n to

,

rot a tory motion t hen these wi l l i m p a rt to th e meta l i tself

,

a tu rn i n g cou ple Th e experi men t is a r a ther d ifcult on e

.
,

a n d m a ny physi cists tri ed i n v a i n to Ob se rve th e e ect .

B ut i n co ll a b o ra tion wi th d e H aa s Ei ns tei n pl a n ned a n d ,

succes sfu lly c a rri ed ou t th is experi men t a n d proved the ,

essen ti a l correctness of A m pere s vi ews .

Ei n stei n s studies on R el a ti vi ty were com m enc ed i n th e

yea r 1 9 05 a n d h a s been con ti n ued up to the present ti me

, .

Th e rst pa per i n the present col lection forms Ei nstei n s

rst grea t con tribut ion to th e Pri nci ple of Speci a l

R ela tiv i ty W e h a ve recounted i n th e i ntrod uction how out
.

of th e ch a os a n d d isorder i nto w h ich th e elec trody n a m ics

.

a n d optics of m ovi n g bod ies h a d f a llen previ ous to 1 8 9 5 ,

Lorent z Ei nstei n a n d M i nkowsk i h a ve su cceeded i n

,

bu i ld i ng up a consi stent a n d fruitfu l n ew theo ry of Ti me

,

an

B u t Ei nstei n w a s n ot s a tised wi t h the study of th e

-

speci a l problem of Rel a tivity for u n ifor m m otion bu t .

,
 INT R O D U C T I O N .

Atth e presen t ti m e d i fferen t Op i n ion s a re b e

i n g h eld
,

a bout the fu n d a m ent a l equ a tion s of El ectr a dyn a m ics for -

m ov i n g bod ies T he H ert z i a n form s m ust be gi ven up

.
1
,

for i t h a s a ppe a red th a t t hey a re con tra ry to m a ny ex peri

m ent a l res u l ts .

2
I n 1 8 9 5 H A Lore nt z publ ished h is theory of optic a l
. .

a n d electric a l ph eno men a i n m ovi n g bod ies ; th is theo ry

w a s b ased u po n th e a to m i s ti c conception ( vorstel l un g ) of

electrici ty a n d o n a ccou n t of its gre a t s uccess a ppe a rs to

,

h a ve j usti ed th e bold hypotheses by wh ich i t h a s been ,

us hered i n to exi stence I n h i s theory Lo ren t z proceed s

.
,

from certa i n equ a tion s w h ic h m ust h old a t ev ery poi n t of

,

At her
th en by form i n g th e a vera ge va l ues o ver Ph y

s i ca ll
y i n n i tely sm all regi on s wh i c h however contain ,

l a rge n u m bers of elect ron s th e eq u a tion s for elect ro m ag ,

netic processes i n m ovin g bod i es ca n be s uccessfu l ly bu i lt

up .

In p a r ticu l a r th eory gi ves a gobd a ccoun t of
, Loren t z s

th e n on ex i eten ce of rel a ti ve m otion of the e a rt h a n d th e

-

l um i n iferous Ather i t s h ows t h a t th i s fa ct is i n ti m a tely

co n nected w ith the cov a ri a nce of the o ri gi n a l equ a tions
w hen ce rt a i n S i m u lt a neous tr a nsform a tion s of the sp ac e a n d
ti me co ord i n a tes a re e ffected ; these tra n sform a tion s h a ve
-

t h ei efore obta i ned from H Poi nc a re t h e n a me of Loren t z

3
.

tra n sform a t ion s T he c ov a ri a nce ot th ese fund a m e n t a l

'

equ a tion s wh en s ub j ected to the Loren t z tra n sform a tion

,
-

i s a purely m a t h em a tic a l fa ct Le n ot ba s ed on a n y phys i .

ca l consider a tions ; 1 wi l l c a l l th is th e Theorem of R el a

t i vi t y; thi s t heore m rest s esse n ti a l l yon th e form of t h e

V ide N ote 1 .
9
t
N o e 2. 3
Vi de N te 3
o .
2 P R IN C IPL E or R EL A TI VI TY
d ifferen ti a l equ a tions for th e prop a g a tion of w a ves wi th
the veloci ty of l ight .

No w wi thout r ecog n i z i n g a n y hypothesis a bou t t he con

n e cti on between

Ather a n d m a tter we ca n expect these ,

m a them a tic a l ly ev iden t theorem s to h a ve thei r consequences

so f a r exten d e d th a t thereby eve n those l a ws of pon der
a ble m ed i a wh ich a re yet u nk no wn m a ya ny how possess
th is cov a ri a nce when subjected to a Loren t z tra nsform a tion -

by s a yi n g th is we do n ot i ndeed express a n Opi n ion but

, ,

ra th er a con viction a n d th is conv iction I m a y be perm i t

,

ted to c a l l th e Postul a te of R el a ti vi ty T he posi tion of .

a ff a i rs h ere i s a l most th e s a m e a s when th e Pri nciple of

C on serv a tion ofEnergy w a s posluta t ed i n c a ses w here th e
'

correspond i n g form s of en ergy were u nk n own .

Now i f here a fter we succeed i n m a i nta i n i n g this

,

cov a ri a nce a s a de n ite con nectio n between pu re a n d si m ple

observ able ph enomen a i n m ovi n g bod ies the de n ite con ,

n e ct i on be styled the Pri nci ple of R el a t i vity
m a
y .

T hese d ifferen ti a ti ons seem to m e to be n ecessa ry for

en a bl i n g us to ch a r a cterise th e presen t day posi ti on of the
electro dyn a m ics for m ov i n g bodies
-
.

H .Loren t z h a s fou n d o ut th e R el a ti vi ty th eorem

A .
1

a n d h as cre a ted the R el a tiv ity postul a te a s a hypoth esis

-

th a t electron s a n d m a tter suffer con tr a ct i on s i n consequence

of thei r m oti on a ccordi n g to a cert a i n la w .

A . Ei n stei n 2
h as
brought ou t the po i n t very cl ea rly ,

th a t th is postul a te is n ot a n a rtici a l hypothesis but is

ra ther a n ew w ay of com preh endi n g the ti me con cept -

wh ic h i s forced upo n us by observ a tio n of n at ura l phen o

m en a .

The Pri n ci pl e of R e la tiv ity h as not yet been form u

la t ed for el ectro dyn a m i cs of movi n g bod ies i n the sense
-

Vi deN te 4
o .
9
N o te 5 .
 I NT ROD U CTI ON 3

ch a ra cte ri zed by m e . I n th e presen t ess a y wh i le form u ,

l a ti n g th is pri nci ple I s h a l l ob ta i n the fu n d a m en ta l equ a

,

tion s for m ovi n g bod ies i n a sense wh ic h i s u n iquely d eter

m i ned by th is pri nc iple .

B ut i t wi l l be sh ow n th a t n o n e of th e forms h it herto
.

a ss u med for the se equ a tion s ca n ex a ctly t i n wi th th i s

*
pri nci ple .

We wou ld a t rst ex pect th a t the fu n d a men ta l equ a

tion s wh ich a re as s um ed by Lore n t z for m ov i n g bodies
wou ld correspo n d to the R el a ti vity Pri nci pl e But i t wi l l
,
.

be s how n th a t t h i s is no t the c a se for the gen era l equ a ti on s

wh ic h Loren t z h a s for a n ypossible a n d a l so for m a gn etic
,

bod ies but th is i s a pprox im a tely th e c as e ( i f n eglect th e

squ a re of th e veloci ty of m a tter i n com p a riso n to the
veloci ty of l ight ) for t h ese equ a tio n s wh ich Loren tz h ere
a fte r i nfers for n on m a gnetic bod ies B u t t h is l a tter
-
.

a ccord a n ce w ith the R el a ti vi ty Pri nci pl e is d ue to th e f a ct

th a t the cond ition of n on m a g n etis a tion h as bee n form u l a

-

ted i n a w a y n ot correspon di n g to th e R el a t iv ity Pri nci pl e ;

th erefore the a cco rd a nce i s d ue to th e fortu i tou s com pen s a
tion of two con tra d iction s to th e Rela li vi ty Postul a te -
.

B ut mea n wh i le e n u nci a tion of the P ri nciple i n a ri g id

m a n n er does not si gn ify a n
yco ntr a d iction to the hypotheses

of L oren tz s molecu l a r t heory but it sh a l l becom e clea r th a t
,

the a ssu m ption of th e con tr a ctio n of the el ect ro n i n

Loren tz s th eory m ust be i n troduced a t a n

ea rl ier st a ge
th a n Lorent z h a s a ctu a lly d on e .

I n a n a ppe n d i x I h a ve gon e i n to discuss i o n Of th e

,

position of C l as sic a l M ech a n ics w ith respect to th e

R el a tivi ty Postul a te . A n ye a si ly pe rcei v a ble m od i ca tion
of mech a n ics for s a tisfyi n g th e requ i remen ts of th e
R el a tivi ty theory wou ld h a rd ly a f fo rd a n y noti ce a ble
d i fference i n observ a b le processes but wou ld l ea d to ve ry
See n o te: on 8 an d 10 .
 4 P RI NCIPLE OF R ELA TI V I I Y
'

su rprisi n g con sequen ces By l a yi ng dOW n the R el a ti vi ty

.

'

P os tula te from the ou tset su f ci en t me a n s h a ve been

.

cre a ted for deduci n g hen ceforth th e com pl ete series of .

L a ws of M ech a n ics from th e pri n ci pl e of conserv a tio n of

En ergy a lone (the f orm of the En e rgy b ei n g gi ven i n
expl ici t fo i m s ) .

N O T A TI O N S .

Let a recta n gul a r syste m (J y of referen c e be , ,

g i ven i n sp a ce a n d ti m e Th e u n i t of ti m e s h a l l be c hosen
.

i n such a in a n n er w ith reference to the un i t of len gth th a t

th e veloci ty of ligh t i n sp a ce beco m es u n i ty .

A lthough I wou ld prefer n ot to ch a n ge th e n o ta tion s

used by Loren t z i t a ppe a rs i m por ta n t to m e to use a
,

d i fferen t selectio n Of sy m bols for th ereby cert a i n h om o ,

e n ei t wi l l a ppe a r fro m t h e very begi n n i n g I sh a l l

g y .

d n ota t h e vecto r electric force by E t h e m a gn etic

e ,

i nd uction by M the elec tric i n d uction by e a n d th e

,

m a g netic force by i n so th a t (E M e m ) a re us ed i nste a d

, , , ,

O f Loren tz s ( E B D

H ) respecti vely
, , , .

I sh a l l further m a ke use of com plex m a gn itudes i n a

w a y w h ich I s n ot yet c urren t i n physic a l i n vesti ga tion s ,

i e i ns te a d of oper a tin g w ith ( i ) I sh a l l ope ra te w i th ( i t)

. .
, , ,

where i den otes 1 I f n o w i n ste a d of (m y s it )

-
. I , , ,

use the m et h od of writi n g with i nd i ces cert a i n essen ti a l ,

ci rcum sta nce s wil l com e i nto ev idence on th is wi l l be ,

ba sed a ge nera l use of th e s uf x es ( 1 2 3 at) T he

'

, , , .

a d v a n t a ge of th is m et h od wil l b e a s I expressly emph as i z e ,

here t ba( we sh a l l h a ve to h a nd le symbols w h ich h a ve

,

a pp a rently a pu rely rea l a ppe a r a n ce w e ca n h owever a t

an
y momen t p a ss to r e a l equ a ti ons i f it i s u nders tood th at

of th e sym lbols wi th i n dices such ones a s h a ve th e suf x ,

i

4 o n ly once den ote i m a g i n a ry qu a nti ties

,
w h i le t h ose ,
o
 p

q ars 0

wh ic h h a ve n ot at a ll th e s u f x 4, or h a ve i t twi ce denote
re a l qu a n ti ties .

An system of v a l u es of ( sr y z t) i e of
i nd ivi du a l , , ,
. .
,

( , , 3 4 ) sh a l l be c a l led a sp a ce ti me poi n t
if an 1 $ -
.

F u rth er let u d enote the velocity vector of m a t te r f

the , :
4

d i electric const a nt M th e m a gn etic perme a bi l i ty (r th e

.

, ,

co nd u cti vity of in a t ter wh i le p den otes th e d e n sity Of

'

el ectrici ty i n sp a ce a n d 8 th e vecto r of Ele ctr ic C u rren t
,

wh ich we sh a l l som e a cross i n 7 a n d 8 .

 6 PR I N C IPL E or R E LA TIVIT Y

PA RT I 2 .

TH E L I M I TI N G C A S E .

Th e F un da m en ta l Equa ti on s f or A th er .

By usi n g t he el ect i o n theory Loren tz i n h i s a bove ,

m en tion e d ess a y tra ces th e L a ws Of Electro dy n a m ics of -

Pondera ble Bodi es to sti l l si m pl er l a ws Let us n ow ad here .

to these s i mpl er l a ws wh ereby we requ i re th a t for th e ,

li m i t ti n g c a se they shou l d co nstitute th e

l a ws for pondera ble b od ies I n th is ide a l li m i tt i n g e a se .

E wi l l be equ a l to e a n d M to m At , .

every spa ce ti m e poi n t (a y z t) we sh a l l h a ve the s

, , ,

*
equ a tio ns
80
(i ) C u rl m
g
( ) n div e: p

(i i i ) C u rl e

( )
i v div m =o

I sh a l l n ow wri te (x l
x
2
x
3
x
4 ) for (wh y
2 t ) , , an d

( u s 3 P
P p P 4 ) for ) :

en pu g ,
i s)

i the componen ts of th e con vection curren t

. a . pu, a n d th e
electric den sity m ultiplied by 1 -

F urther I sh a l l wri te

m , , m
v,
m
i . c
.
, th e components of m a n d a lo n g the three a x es ;

n ow if we ta ke an
y two i n dice s ( h k ) out of th e seri es .

(1 : f
fu

See n t
o e9 .
8 P R I N C IPL E or R ELA TI V I TY
syste m of equ a tions A ) a s wel l a s of B) when the co ord i n a te ,
-

system i s rota ted th rough a cer ta i n a m ou n t rou n d th e

n ul l poi n t For ex a m p l e i f we t a ke a rot a t io n of th e
-
.
,

a xes rou nd the z a xis th ro ugh a n a m ou nt ct keepin g -

.

m xed i n sp a ce a n d i n trod uce n ew v a ri a bles rel

'
z
r
, s ,

m
,
i nste a d of a
,
x
3
:r
,
where '

I
cos 4) +
2
si nr
.
95 sin ,
(0
2
co s t ,

'
a n d i n trod uc e m a gn i tudes
'
fe m x p
3 3 4 4, 3 p 4 ,

where p,

pl cos qt p 2 si n e )
pg
-

p 1 si n ct ,

-

p2 cos
f f wh ere

an d ,

yf 3
l
Si
f as
z
fa s 005 96 "

fzn 1

f2 3 si n
f3 l
= si n f 2 4
f 1 4 f 1 4
005 + f2 4 )

f, 4 si n p
c

f3 4 cos
f .

then out of the equ a t i on s (A ) would follow a corres

pond i n g system of d a sh ed equ a tion s (A ) co m posed of the
n ewly i n trod uced d a sh ed m a gn itu des .

SO
u pon th e groun d of sy m metry a lon e of th e equ a
tio ns (A ) a n d ( B) concern in g t h e sn es ( 1 2 3

th e r
, , ,

theorem of R el a ti vi ty w h ich w a s fou nd ou t by Loren t z , ,

follows w ithout a n y ca lcu l a tio n a t a ll .

I wi l l denote by i t] a purely i m a i n a ry m a gn i tude .

, g
,

an d con s id er the substi tu ti on

I I
i
i
0
$
1
z it ] , c
s
? {C 3 C OS 1 +3
l
4
S n

a s si n i5
11 :r
4
cos i t n ,

e e
Putt i n g 1 ta n up

e +0
 TH E F U N D A M EN TA L EQ U A TI ON S FOR A RTH ER 9 .

1 z
q
We s h a l l h a v
e cos N 1 !

/1 /
2 g
x 9 x l
q

w here 21 i an d x / l ,

q
2
is a l w ays t o be t aken
wi th th e positi ve s i gn .

= y, =
' ' ' ' '
Le t us n ow wri te m , :v 2 m
a
z , (3 )
th en the s ubsti tution 1 ) ta kes th e for m
z qt qa + t
z t
"
/ / f
x l a x l '

TQ
the coefcien ts bei n g essen ti a l ly re a l .

If n ew i n the a bo ve m en tion ed rot a ti on rou n d th e

'
'

Z a x is we repl a ce
-

,
th rou gh ou t by3 2 an d , ,

98 by i l
nx we a t once percei ve
,
th at s i m u l t a n eously n ew ,

ma gn i tudes p 1 p 5 p 3 p 4 wh ere
' ' '

, , , ,

(P

I
= Pn P
I

2
= P2 : P

3
= Pa COS i f
P4 8 111 i ll/ J
1

P3 si n i ll
l

9 4 co sflit ) :
'
a ndf 1 9 wh ere
e
i

= if + f1 3 i f si n {3 +
,

f4 j 003 s n

l 4 l

{ if + f4 2 i f, fn
i
008 003 si n

=
i f

fi '

f
'
f: i i :
f i e f1 21

m ust be i ntrod uc ed T hen the sys te ms of equ a tio ns i n .

.

f
a n d ( B) a re tr a n sfo rmed i n to equ a tio ns ( A ) a n d
( )
A ,

the n ew equ a ti ons bein g ob ta i n ed by s i m ply da sh i n g th e

O ld set .

th es e equ a tio ns ca n be written i n p

A ll u rely re a l gu res ,

d w e ca n th en for mul a te the l a s t res ul t a s follo ws

'

an .

If th e re a l tra n sform a tion s 4 ) a re t a ken , an d :c y

'
z

t

h e ta kes a s a n ew fr a me of referen c e the n w e sh all h a ve

'

q + 1
"=
( ) P e
5
f ]
10 a P R IN C IP L E or R ELA TI V I TY
e- f qm v e
q c +m v I
m r

/ l a/ l

a
q q

m g
'
i qe,
'
(2m : +8 1,
(7 ) m
M l
l
q q

T hen we have fer th ese n ewl y i ntroduced v ectors n e ' '

, ,

' I
m ( wi th com pon en ts m
, ,

in,
n d th e qu a n tity p a seri es of equ a tion s

I V ) wh ich a re obt a i n ed fro m I ) I I ) I II ) I V ) by

'
, , ,

s i m ply d as h i n g the sy m bols .

W e re m a rk h ere th a t e Qm
.
e + Qm are com ponents , , , , ,

of th e vector e+ [om ] w here v i s a vector i n th e d irection ,

of t he posi ti ve Z a xi s a n d I 12 [ ] i s th e vector
an d i m
-

pro d uct of v a n dm ; si m i l a rly ge + m i n + ge, a re th e , ,

com ponen ts of the vector m

equ a tio ns 6 ) an d as they sta nd in p a i rs ca n be

T he ,

e x p ress e
d as .

'

e cos i ij
z si n

e, (e , si n i mp cos i glz,

e, +i m

If <1; denotes a n y other re a l a n gl e , we ca n form the

fol lo wi n g co mbi n a tion s
cos .
+im ,
si n 96

( e, +i m , ) cos . si n ( qS l
-

si n cos .
qt

si n cos . (w e) .

SP ECI AL L OR EN TZ TR A N SF O R M A TI ON .

h
Th e t e wh ic h is p l ayed by the Z a xi si n the t ra n sfor
.
-

m a ti o n (4 ) ca n e a s i ly be tra nsferred to a n y other a x is

wh en t h e sys tem Ofaxes a re subjected to a tr a nsform a tion
 S P EC I A L L O REN TZ TRA N S FO RM A TI O N 11

a bou t th is l a st a xis . SO we c a me to a m o re g e
n er
al

la w

Let be
vec tor w ith t he co m pon e n ts v v v
0 a , , , , , ,

an
[ ]
d letv = q< l By 5 we s h all de note an
y.vec to r
wh ich i s perpe n d icu l a r to v a n d by r r; we sh all denote , ,

co m po nen ts of r i n d i rectio n of ; a n d v .

I ns tea d of (x y z t) n ew m a g n etudes (:v y z t ) wi l l

' '

, , , ,

be i ntrod uced i n the fol l owi n g w a y If for th efsak e of .

shortn ess r is w ri tten for t he vecto r wi th th e com po n en ts

,

'
z
) i n the rst system of refe rence r for th e s ame ,

'
vector wi th th e com po n e nts (ar 3/ z ) i n th e seco nd systerii
of refere nce then for the d i rectio n of v W e h a ve
, ,

r. qt
( 0)
l r z:
_ 2
9
an d for the perpe nd i cul a r d i rectio n 17 ,

=
'

(l l ) r 7

'

qr ,, +5
1
an d fu rther ( 1 2) t
2
1
9

The no ta tio ns (r a re t o be und ers tood i n t he sen se
th a t wit h the d i rections v a n d e very d irectio n 17 perpen di ,

cula r to v i n the sy ste m (:v y z ) a re a l wa ys a ssoci a ted , ,

th e d i rectio n s w i th the sa m e di rectio n cos i nes i n the systeix i

(
w y.
z )
A
tr a nsfo r m a tio n w h ich is a cco m pl i sh ed by m e a n s of
( 1 2 ) with t he co nd itio n O< g < 1 wi l l be c a l led
a s pec i a l Loren t z tra n sfor m a tio n We s h al l c a l l 1) th e
-
.

vec tor the d i rection of v the a xi s a n d the m a g n i tude

, ,

of v t he mo me n t of th is tr a n sfo rm a tion .

; ' ' '

If fu rther a n d the vec to rs
p u ,
e, p z ,
i n th e sys te m
a re so de n ed th a t ,
112
P R I N CI PLE or R ELA TI V I TY
f ur ther .

'

( )
1 4 ( e

[ z u,

T h en i t fol lows th a t th e equ a tio n s I I ) I I I) I V ) , ,

a re

tra n sform ed i n to the correspond i ng syste m w ith d a sh es .

T he . so l ut 1 on of th e eqii a t i on s ( l l ), ( )
1 2 le a ds to
'
r +
L
t q r +t
(1 6)
" ,
r ., ,
r; ,

x /l n
g
2

.
Nwe s h a l l m a ke a ve ry i m por ta n t Observ a ti on
ow
'
bout h vecto rs an d u We a ga i n i ntrod uce
a t e u ca n
,
.

l
the i n di ces l _ 2 3 4 so th a t we wr ite .
,M ) , , , ,

'
i nste a d Of ( m 1 n st ea d of
' r ' ' ' I
y i t ) an d p p p , ,
2 ,
z , s , ,
l l I , r l I I
I
(p u , p u y , p u z
7-
9 .

L i ke the ro ta tio n rou nd the Z a xi s th e tr a nsform a tio n -

a n d m ore ge n er a l ly the tr a n sfor m a tion s

a re a lso l i n e a r tr a nsfo r m a t i on s wi th the deter m i n a n t
+ 1 so th a t,

t
(17 )
2
x + y +z ,

i str a nsform e
d i nto
" '2 "
+x 1. e +z t .

On th e b a s 1 s of the equ a tions we s h a ll h a ve

p

(1 u uy
,
=
) p (1 u
)
tra n sforme d i nto p

(l u
) or i n oth er words ,

I (1 8 ) p .
u8 g

is ,
a n in v a r i a nt in a Loren tz tr a n sform a t i on -
.

If we di v i de ( p, .
p, , p, , p, ) by th i s m a g n i tude we o bt a i n ,

th e fou r v a l ues ( 00 1 ,
w . w
w, )
(u , ,
u, , u, ,
z )
u

so th a t wl
L
i w, -
1 .

It i s a pp a ren t th a t these fo ur v a l ues ,

a re detei m i n ed
by th e vector u a n d I n versely the vec to r u of

m a gn i tude
 S P E CI A L L O RENTZ T RANS FO R MA TI ON 13

< 1 fol lows fro m the 4 v a l ues w (9 where . in , , 3 ,

m

a l a n d posi ti ve a n d cond ition

(m w
, , ) a r
(1 1e re
3
a l tu re , ,

( )
1 9 i s fu l l led .

T h e m e a n i n g of (w w w ) here is th a t th ey a re, ,
. (11
3 , , ,

t h e ra tios of dzr ( In r1 ( Zr to '

, s, ,

Th e d i fferen ti a l s don oti n g t he d ispl a cemen ts of m a tter

occu pyi n g th e sp a ceti m e poi n t ( s :c 413
h ) to th e a
, , 3 ,

a dj a cen t sp a ce ti m e poi n t -
.

th e Lo ren t z tra n sforn a t i on i s a cco m pl ish ed th e

A fter -

vococi ty Of m a tter i n th e n ew syste m Of reference for t he

' ' ' '
s a me sp a ce ti m e p o i n t ( y t ) is the vector u wi th th e
- . c z

' ' '

dc dy dz dl
com po nen ts
.

37 ,
dt dt W
as .

'

No w i t is qui te a pp a ren t th a t the syste m of va l ues

w e, ws z w a a x 4

is tra n sform ed i n to th e v a l ues

I r r r r
w) a
a w, 1 33 3

i n v i rtue of t he Lore n t z tra nsfo rm a tion -

T he d a sh ed syste m h a s got the s a me m e a n i n g for the

ve
l oci ty u a fte r the tr a nsform a tion a s the rs t sys tem
of v a l ues h as got for u before tra n sform a tion .

If i n p a rticul a r the vector v of the speci a l Lorent z

'

tra n sform a tio n be equ a l to the veleci ty vector u of m a tter a t

th e s pa ce ti me poi n t (:c at
-
a ) the n i t fol lo w s ou t of

( 1 2) t ha t
I
0 (11

U nder th es e c i rcu m sta nces t h erefore the correspo n d i n g ,

'
spa ce ti me poi n t h a s the veloc ity u o a fter the tra ns
- z

form a tion i t is a s i f we tr a nsform to res t We m a y c a l l

, .

the i nv a ri a n t p 9 a s the res t d ensi ty O f Elec tricity * -

.
 P R I N CI PL E O F
'

'
14 ~ R EL A TI V I Tr

5 . SP A C E TI M E V EC TOR S -
.

Of M e 1 8 6 an d 2 n d ki n d .

If we ta ke the pri nci p a l resul t ofth e Loren t z t ra n sfor

m a tion togeth er wi th th e fa ct th a t t h e sys te m (A ) a s wel l
a s the system ( B) i s cov a r i a n t wi th respect to a rota tion
of the coord i n a t esyste m rou n d th e n u l l poi nt we Obta i n
'

t he ge nera l rel a ti vi ty t/zeorem I n order to m a k e t he .

fa cts e a s i ly com preh ens ibl e i t m a y be m o re co n ven ien t to ,

dene aseries O f express ion s fo r th e pu rpose of ex pressin g ,

the i dea s i n a concise for m wh i le on th e other h a nd ,

I sh a l l a d here to the pr ac tice of usi n g com plex m a gn i

tudes i n order to render cert a i n sy m m etries qui te eviden t
,
.

Let us ta ke a l i n e a r ho mogeneous tra nsfor m a tion ,

97
4 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4

th e D eterm i n a n t of the m a tri x is + 1, a ll co -

etci en ts with
out the i n dex 4 occu rri ng onc e a re re a l wh i le a a :
, , ,

a 4 3 a re pu rely i m a gi n a ry but a i s re a l a n d > 0 a n d

, , ,

' ' '

2
x
, + 21
? 2
3 + 4 x 3 l
tr a nsfor ms i1n t o :r
,
2
+ 2x ?
+ 3
m
2

T he Opera tio n sh a l l be c a l led a genera l Loren tz

tr a n sform a tio n .

, ' Iz I I
If we put 23 1 x m2 y 3
3
z then , , ,

i m med i a tely there occu rs a h om ogeneous l i nea r t ra n sfor

' ' '
m a tio n of (cc y z t) to ( y z t ) wi th essen ti a l ly rea l
, , , c , , ,

co ef ci en ts whereby the a gg reg ra te

-

,
x
3
y
9
2
9
+ t 2

' '
tr a nsforms i nto n 2 y 2 a n d to every such
m o f v a l ue
s wi t h a posi tive t fo r wh ich
syste

,
'
th is a gg reg a there a l w a ys corres pon ds a pos i ti ve t
N
o -

Thi s n ot a t i on ,
w h i ch i s due to D r . C . E . C l li
u s of th e C a l utt
c a

U n i ver si ty, h as been used t h ro ug h out i n s tea d of M in k ow s ki '

s n o a t ti o n ,

3 3 01 43 1 + a m ,
l l
+ 1 w4
I
1 1 n 4
 16 P R IN C IPL E OF R EL ATI V I TY
wi th si x coe fci ents f f Let us r em a rk th a t i n th e M M
.

ve ctori a l method Of wri ti n g th is ca n be co nstructed out of ,

the fou r vec tors .

a yn ya i f s fs
a n f n f : f fa a 4

th ec onst a nts at
,
an d y, , at th e s a me t i m e it is symme tri c a l
w i th re ga r d th e i n di ces ( 1 2 3 , , ,
1

I f w e subj ect ( m 33 ) a n d ( s mul

'

m
y y y y ) i m s , 4 , , , , , , ,

t a n eous ly to th e Lorent z tr a nsfor m a t i on th e co m b i n a

t i on ( 2 3 ) i s ch a nged to .

, _
f 1 ( we
l ,
( 2 4 ) fee ( J
'

s 3 y1 x 1 ya ) f

+ f + f ( m s
y.
' , l
( 37
,
ya ) f ge ys )
3

4 1
4 a s 3

wh ere th e coef ci ents d epen d

so l e l y on ( f f ) a n d th e coe fc i ents
H
a

We sh a l l de n e a spa ce ti m e V ecto r of the 2 n d k i n d

a s a sys te m of si x m a gn itudes f wi th th e -

con d i tion th a t when subjected t o a L oren tz tra n sfor m a tion .

,

i t 1 8 ch a n ged to a n ew sys te m f sa tis ,

es the con nectio n between ( 2 3 ) a n d

I en un th e fol l o wi n g m a n n er th e genera l
ci a te in
I

theorem of rel a ti vity correspond i n g to th e eq ua tio ns ( I )

(i v) wh ich a re th e fun d a m en ta l equ a tions for Ather
,
-
.

Ify .
(s pa ce c o o rd i n a tes
c, ,
z, it a n d ti m e i t
) i s s ub
-

d to a Loren t z tr a nsfo rm a tio n a n d a t t h e s a m e ti

j ect e m e;
'

) (
'

(p u n
zp co n vectio n c urren t a n d ch a rge den si ty -
,

pi ) i s tr a n sformed a s a sp a ce ti m e vec to r O f th e [ st ki nd ,

fu rth er (m m m ie ,
i cy
, ( gnetic force
m
, ,
a , , , ,

i
an d electric i nd uction x
) i s t r a n sfo r m ed a s a sp a ce
ti me vec to r of the 2 n d ki nd t h e n the sys te m of equ a ti ons ,

I
( )I a n d th e sys te m o f e u a tio n s
, q ( I I I ) ( I V ) tr a ns ,

forms i n to essen ti a l l y corres pon d i ng rel a tion s between th e

-

correspond i n g m a gn itudes n ewly i n trod uced i n to the ,

syste m .
 S P E CI A L L oR EN Tz T RA N S F O R M A TION 17

T hese facts ca n be m o re conc isely expressed i n thes e

words th e sys te m Of equ a tion s (1 a n d I I ) as wel l as th e ,

syste m Of e qu a tio ns ( II I ) ( I V ) a re cov a ri a n t i n a ll c a s es '

of Lo ren tz tra n sfo r m a tio n w here (pu i p) i s to be tr a n s

-

, ,

for med as a sp a ce ti m e vecto r Of t h e l st k i n d (m t e) i s

to be tre a ted as a vecto r O f the 2 n d k i n d o r m or e ,

si
g ica n t ly
n ,

u,
i
(p p) is sp a ce ti m e vector of the 1 st k i n d ( m
a ,

is a sp a ce ti m e vecto r Of th e 2 n d k i n d
-
.

I s h a l l a dd a fev m ore re m a rks here i n order to el ucid a te

o

the conceptio n of s pa ce ti me vec tor of the 2 n d k i n d -

.

C le a r l y the fol lo wi n g a re i n v a ri a n ts for s uch a vecto r wh e n

,

subj ecte d to a group Of Lore n t z tr a n sfo rm a ti o n .

ff
=
(f) m
. f
m
fa f +e: ( fa : f i z 4 f f )
n s s

A sp ace ti me vector O f the seco n d k i nd (m

-
w here
(m a n d a) a re re a l m a g n i t udes m a y be c a l led s i n gu l a r
, , ,

when the sc a l a r squ a re ( m i a) 0 iem e = 0 an d at *

, ,

th e sa m e ti me (171 e) = o i e the vecto r 77: a n d e a re equ a l a n d

,

pe rpen d icul a r to e a ch other ; whe n s uc h i s the ca se th ese ,

two properti es r em a i n con serv ed for the s p a ce ti me vector -

of th e 2 n d k i nd i n every Loren tz tra n sfor m a ti on -

.

If th e sp a ce t i me vecto r O f t he 2 n d k i n d i s n ot
-

s i n gul a r we rota te the sp ac i a l co o rd i n a te system

, i n s uc h -

a m a n n er th a t th e v ec to r p rod uct [m e] coi ncides w i th -

the Z a x i s i e m
-
o e ,
0 .T hen
.
, , .

( ) i e (
2
771 , + m -
1.

Therefore (c + i d i ffere n t from is5

, ) e, + ,

an d we ca n th erefo re den e a com plex a rgu m e n t (t i W) -

in s uch a m a n n er th a t

V i de N ot e .
18 P R I NCIPL E OF R EL A TI VI Tz

If then by referr i n g b a ck to equ a ti on s

,
we c a rry ou t
th e tra n sform a tion ( 1 ) th rough the a n gle RP a n d a subsequen t ,

rota tion rou nd th e Z a x i s th roug h th e a n gl e -

we pe rform a
Loren t z tr a n sform a tion a t the en d O f w h ich m = 0 6 = 0
-

, , , ,

a n d th erefore m a n d 6 sh a l l bot h coi ncid e with the n ew

Z a x is
-
The n by m e a n s of th e i n v a ri a n ts m
.
2
(m e)
t h e n a l v a lues of th ese vectors whether they a re of the ,

s a m e or of Opposi te d i rections or wh ether on e of th em i s ,

e q u a l to z ero wo uld be a t o nce s ettl ed

,
.

C O N C EP T OF TI M E .

By the Loren t z tra nsform a tion we a re a l lowed to effect ,

cert a i n M a n ges of t he ti m e p a r a m eter I n con seque nce .

of th i s fa ct i t is n o lon ger pe rm i ssibl e to spe a k of th e

,

a bsolu te si mu l t a n ei ty of two even ts T he ordi n a ry idea .

of s i m ult a n ei ty ra th er presupposes th a t si x i nd epen den t

p a r a m eters wh ich a re evidently requ i red for de n i n g a
,

syste m of sp a ce a n d ti m e a xes a re so meho w red uced to ,

t h ree Si nce we a re a ccustom ed to con sider th a t th ese

.

l i mi t a tion s represen t i n a u n i qu ew ay th e a ctu a l f a c ts

very a pprox i m a tely we m a i n ta i n th a t the si m u l ta n ei ty of
,

*
two even ts exi s ts Of themsel ves I n fact th e fol lo wi n g .
,

c onsidera ti ons wi l l prove con cl us i ve .

Let a reference system z t

) fo r sp a ce ti m e po i nts ,
.

( even ts ) be somehow k n own Now i f a sp a ce poi n t A .

at the t i m e t be co mp a red wi th a sp a ce ,

po i n t P ( y 2 ) a t the ti m e i a n d i f th e d i fference of
a
, , ,

ti m e t t ( let t t be less th a n th e len gth A P t e less

'

. .

th a n the ti m e requ1 red for the propog a ti on of l i gh t from

J ust as b ei n g s w h i ch a re con n ed w i th i n row egi o

a n ar r n

sur r oun di n g a poi n t on a sh per i ca l s ur fa ce, m a y f ll i to t h e e r o t h t

a n r r a

a s ph er e i s a geom etr i c g ur e in w h i ch on e diam et e i s pa r t i c ul l y

r ar

di s t i n g ui sh ed from t h e est r .
 C ON CE PT OF TI M E 19

t to
A to P ,
an d if q 1 , the n by a speci a l Loren t z
P A

tra nsform a ti on i n wh ic h A P is ta ke n a s th e a x is a n d wh ich

, ,

h as th e m om en t g we ca n i nt rod uce a ti m e p a r a m e
, ter t w h ic h '

(see equ a tion 1 1 1 2

I
4 ) h a s got th e s a m e v a l ue t F o for
, ,
-

bo th sp a ce ti me po i nts (A t ) a n d P t ) SO th e two
-

, o , , .

even ts ca n n ow be co m p rehen ded to be s i m u lt a n eous .

F u rther le t us ta ke a t th e s a m e ti m e t = o two
, , ,

d i fferen t sp a ce poi n ts A B o r th ree sp a ce po i n ts (A B C )

-

, ,
-

, ,

w h ich a re n ot i n t he s a m e sp a ce l i n e a n d com p a re -

therewi th a spa ce po i n t P wh ich i s o utsid e t h e l i n e A B , ,

o r th e pl a n e A B C a t a n other ti m e t a n d let the ti m e , ,

d i ffere nce t t (t t ) be l ess th a n th e ti m e wh ich l igh t

, o

requi res for propoga t i on from th e l i n e A B or th e pl a n e ,

A B C ) to P Let q b e th e qu o ti en t of (t to) by th e
.

seco n d ti m e T he n i f a Loren t z tra nsfor m a tion i s ta ken

.

i n wh ich th e perpend icu l a r fro m P on A B o r from P on ,

the p l a n e A B C i s th e a x is a n d q is t he m om ent th en , ,

a ll the three ( or fou r

) e ven ts ( A [B t ) ( C t ) an d , , o , , .

( P t ) a re S i mu l ta neous
, .

I f fou r sp a ce poi n ts wh ic h do n ot l ie i n on e pl a n e a re
'

-
.

co ncei ved to be a t th e s a m e ti me t the n it i s n o lon ger per

m issi ble to m a ke a ch a n ge of th eti m e pa ra m eter by a Loren tz
t ra nsfo rm a tion wi thout a t the s a me ti m e destroy i n g th e
,

c h a r a c te r Of the s i m ul ta nei ty O f th e se fou r sp a ce poi n ts .

To th e m a th em a t i ci a n a cc us to med on th e o n e h a nd to ,

the m ethod s Of t re a t m en t of th e po ly d i mension a l -

m a n ifold a n d o n th e othe r h a nd to th e con ceptu a l gu res

,

of th e so ca l led n on Eucl ide a n G eom etry there ca n be n o

- -

difcu l ty i n a dopti n g th is co ncept of ti me to the a pplic a tio n

O f the Lo rent z tra nsfo rm a tion T h e p a per of Ei nste i n w hich
-
.

h as been ci ted i n t he I n trod uctio n h a s s ucceed ed to so me ,

ex ten t i n presen ti n g the n a tu re O f th e t ra n sfo rm a tio n

fro m the p hysi c a l s ta nd poi n t .
20 P R IN C IP L E O F RE LA T1 v1 Tr

PA RT I I . EL EC TED M A G N ETI C -

P H EN O M EN A .

7 . F U N DA M EN TA L EQ U ATI O N S F OR BO D I ES
A T R ES T .

A f te r
these prep a r a to ry works wh ich h a ve bee n rst ,

developed on a ccou n t Of th e s m a l l a mou n t of m a them a tics

i n vol ved i n the li m i t ti n g c a se e 1 M l 0 let , , ,

us tu r n to the ele ctro m a g n a t i c ph eno men a i n m a tter

-
.

W e l oo k for those rel a tio n s w h ich m a k e i t poss ible fo r

us when proper fund a me n t a l d a ta a re g i ven to
obta i n th e fol lo wi n g qu a n t ities a t every pl a ce a n d ti m e ,

a n d therefore a t every sp a ce ti m e poi n t a s fun ctions of

-

( y
w,
z
,
t) : the
, vec tor of th e el e ctri c fo rce E th e ,

m a gnetic i n d uc ti on M th e electric a l i nd uctio n e th e

, ,

m a gnetic force 772 the electric a l sp a ce den si ty p the

,
-

electric cu rren t 8 ( whose rel a tio n h ere a fter to th e co nd ue

tio n cu rren t is kn ow n by the m a n n er i n wh ich con duc
t i vi ty occu rs i n the p rocess ) a n d l a s tly th e vector u the
, ,

velocity Of m a tte r .

T he rel a tio ns i n ques tion can be d i vided i n to two

cl a sses .

those equ a tions wh ich when v the veloci ty

F i rs tly , , ,

of m a tter i s gi ve n a s a fu n ctio n O f ( r 31 z t) lea d us to .

, , , ,

a k no w ledge of other m a g n itude a s fu ncti on s of x t

y z , , ,

I sh a l l c a l l th is rst cl a ss of equ a tion s th e fu n d a m en ta l

equ ation s
Seco nd ly ,
the expressions fo r th e pon dero moti ve force ,

wh ich by the a ppl ic a tion of t h e L a ws of M ech a n ics gives

, ,

us fu rt her i n form a tio n a bo ut the vector u a s functio ns of

z
,
t) .

F or th e c a se of bod ies a t rest ti e when u (z y z t) ,

.
, , ,

o the t heories O f M a xwe l l ( He a visid e H ert z ) a n d ,

 FU ND A M E N T A L E Q U A TION S FO R B OD I ES AT R E ST 21

Loren tz le a d to th e s a m e fu nd a men t a l equ a ti ons . T hey

a re

(1)T he D i ffe ren ti a l Equ a ti ons wh ich con t a i n no

cons ta n t refe rri n g to m a tter

(i ) Cu r l C, (i i di v = p '
m ) 8 .

l
i
( a s) Cur l E o (a ) ,
Div M o .

( 2 ) F u rthe r rel a tion s wh ic h ch a r a cterise th e i n uence ,

O f ex isti n g m a tte r fo r the m ost i m porta n t c a se to wh ic h

we l i m i t o u rsel ves ti e fo r isotopic bod i es th ey a re co m
.

prised i n th e equ a ti o n s

(V ) e

wh ere s d ielectric cons ta n t p m a gn etic per me a bi l i ty , .

,

the con d ucti vi ty of m a tter a ll g ive n a s fu nctio n of ,

y , z, t ; s i s h ere the co nd ucti o n c urren t .

By em pl oy i n g m od i ed for m of wri ti n g I sh al l n ow
a ,

c a use a l a ten t sy m m etry i n these eq u a ti o n s to a ppe a r .

I put ,
as i n the previous work ,

an d w r i te s, ,
s, , 58 ,
s, for C C C ,
4/ 1 p .

fur th er fz u fs u fu fI M f us s
for m .
m .
i ey

an d F, F3 1 1 F1 1 1
F 1 4
F3 F ee

for M "
M y,
M 3 ( E Ey
E ): 1 1 l

l a stly we sh a l l h a ve th e rel a tio n / 1 , F

22 P R IN C IP L E OP R ELA TI V I Tr

T hen the fu n d am en ta l Equ a ti on s ca n be wri t ten as

af Bf
6 0,
-

afu afs a

afl afi af4 s

a. a

an d the equ a tio ns (3 ) an d a re

132;
+

8 . TH E F U N DA M EN TAL EQ U A TI ON S .

W e a re n ow i n a pos i tio n to esta bl ish i n a u n i que w ay

th e fund a m en ta l equ a tion s for bodies mov i n g i n a n y
ner by me a ns of th ese th ree a xiom s excl us ively .

T he rst A x i on sh a l l be,

W h en a
"
d eta c hed regio n O f m a tter is a t rest at an

m o men t ,
therefore th e vector u i s z ero for a ,
 24 P R I NC I PLE O R EL F A TI V I TY

with t h e rel a tion

(2 7 ) + 49
2
2
+ 01
3
2
+ 2
4
2
l
F rom w h a t h a s been s a id a t th e en d of 4 i t i s cl ea r , .

th a t i n th e c a se of a Lo ren t z tra n sform a ti on th is set -

beh a ve s l i ke a sp a ce ti m e vecto r of th e l st k i n d ~
.

Let us n o w x ou r a tten tio n on a cer ta i n po i nt (x y z ) , ,

'

Of m a t ter a t a cer ta i n ti me ( I ) If a t th is sp a ce ti me .
-

poi n t the n we h a ve a t o n ce fo r t h is poi n t the eq u a

tion s (A ) ( B) ( V) of 7 I t a I 0 t h en th ere ex ists
, .
,

a cco rdi n g to i n c a se I u I < 1 , a Speci a l Loren t z tra n s ,

-

form a tion whose vector v i s equ a l to th i s vector u (:r y z

, , , ,
' ' ' '
t) a n d we p a ss o n to a n ew system of referen ce (x y z t )
,

i n a cc ord a nce w ith th is tr a nsform a tion T herefo re fo r .

the spa ce ti m e poi n t co ns idered th er e a rises a s i n 4

-

, ,

0 0 0 w 4 =i
' '
the new v a l ues 2 8 ) m
l , , , ,

there fore the n ew velo ci ty ve c to r e o th e s p a ce ti m e z
,
-

poi n t i s a s if tra nsfor med to res t N ow a cco rd i n g to th e .

th i rd a xio m the syste m of equ a tion s for th e tr a nsfo rm ed

poi n t (:r y z t) i n vol ves the ne wly i ntroduc e
' ' '
d m a gn i tude
(n p C e m E M ) a n d th ei r differen ti a l quotien ts
' ' ' ' ' ' '

, , , , ,

' ' '

with respect to (x y z t ) i n th e s a m e m a n ner as the , , ,

or i gi n a l equ a tio n s for the poi nt (:r y z t) But a ccord i ng , , ,

.

'
to th e rst a xiom wh en u = o th es e equ a ti ons m ust be , ,

ex actly equ i v a len t to

(1 )th e di eren ti a l equ a tions wh ich a re
Obta i n ed from the equ a tions ( A ) ( B) by s i m pl y d a s h i n g ,

th e symbol s i n (A ) a n d ( B) .

(2) an d th e eq u a ti on s
C = oE
' ' '

( V )
wh ere the d ielectric con sta n t m a gnetic permea
e, p , 0 a re ,
' ' ' '
bi li ty a n d co nd uctivi ty fo r th e sys te m (m y z t ) i a i n
,
. .

the sp ace tim e poi n t (a: y z t) of m a tte r

-

, .
 TH E r i rN D Ai I EN TA L EQ U ATION S 25
'

Now let us ret urn by m e a n s Of t h e reci p roca l Lor e nt z

'

tra n sform a tio n to th e o ri gi n a l v a ri a bles r l) a n d t h e

y , , ,

m a g n i tud e
s p C c A E J ! ) a n d t h c t ua t i on s wh ic h
, , , , , ,

we the n Obta i n fro m the l a st m e n tion ed w i l l beth e fun d a ,

men t a l equ a tion s so ugh t byus fo r t h e m o vi n g bod i e s .

Now fro m 4 a n d 0 i t i s to be seen t h a t t h e equ a , ,

tion s A) as wel l a s the equ a t i o n s B) a i e co v

,
ari a n t for a i

Lorent z tra n sform a tio n i c the eq u a tio ns w h ich w e obt a i n

-

, . .
,

'
ba ckwa rds fro m A ) m ust be ex a ct lv of t he s a me fo r m
as th e equ a tion s 1) a n d If) a s we t a ke them fo r bodi es .
,

a t rest W e h a ve therefore a s t h e rst resul t

.

Th e d ifferen ti a l equ a tion s express i n

g the fu nd a m en ta l

equ a ti on s of el ec trody n a m ics fo r mov i n g bod ies w hen ,

writte n i n p a n d th e vecto rs C m E M a re ex actly O f P

, , ,

t he sa me fo rm a s the equ a tion s for m ovi n g bodi es Th e .

velocity of m a tte r does n ot en ter i n these equ a ti ons I n .

th e vectori a l w a y of writi n g we h a ve ,

60
I c url 11 1.
Of

)
11 d1v e p

aM
II I
) E I V
) 1i V M
.
c u1

1 ( z o
at
Th e vel o c i ty of i n a ttcr occu rs on ly i n t h e a ux i llia ry
equ a tions wh ic h c h a ra cterise t h e i n lluen cc of m a tter on t h e
b a s is of t hei r ch a ra c teristic const a n ts p o f Let us n o w c
,
l
,

tra nsform t hese n ux i llia ry equ a tio ns V ) i nto t h e origi n a l
(so ord i n a tes ( r
-
an d l ) .

,
.

4 t h e C om po nen t of
1 '
to form u l a 1 5) i n
A ccord i n g 1
,
n

i n the d i rection of t h e vector 11 is t h e s a m e us th at of

'

( [
e + u t h e com po n en t Of m i s t h e s a m e a s th a t of

m
[ ]
u C bu t for th e perp
,
end icul a r d i rectio n ii t h e com ,

ar a m e as th os e Of (e+ f
'

p on en ts of e m e t h e s ,
" m
] ) a n d (m
.
l
e

1

[
ue ] m ulti p l i ed bb r
z
-
r z 011 the ot h r h a nd E
J
.
,
. 1
 26 P R I N C I PL E or RE LATIV ITY ,

s h a ll st a n d to E E
'
an dM an dM [ ] i
M n th e
f '
s me r l tion us an d + [em
a e a i m to] d m 6 ,
an

F ro m the rel a tion c = It
'
c
, t h e followi n g equ a tion s follow

(C ) 0+ [u m
] 6
(E
-

d from
'
th e rel a tion M we h a ve
'
an z m
p ,

( D) M
[ ]
u E :
p
.
( Ill
[ LL

F or th e co m pon ents i n th e d i rec t ion s perpend icul a r

to u, an d to ca ch other t h e equ a t ion s a re to be m u ltipl i ed
,

by l u
.

T hen th e fol lowi n g eq ua tions fol l ow from t h e t ra n sfer

m a ti on equ a t ion s (1 1 ) in 4 w h en we repl a ce ,
,
"
(
1
:
7 7 I by l l
u C .

C7 P C C ? P

) ) ,
l

!
l

)
,

C u l n
p
C 7 2 0
11 1 1.

C l u lp (r
( E l [u M ] )
- -

( E+ [1 1 M l l

I n con sidera ti on O f the m a n n er i n w hi ch o enter i nto r s

th ese rel a tion s i t w i l l be con ven ien t to c a l l t h e vectO I

,

C p
1 1 w ith t h e co m pon en ts C
p 7!
I m t h e (li 1 ect i on of u

u an d C
,
i n the di i ecti on s u peI pen di cula r to a th e
C on vect ion l as t v a n ishes fo1
E
' '
We rem a rk th a t for u= 1 th e equ a tio n s e z
,

M i m medi a tely lea d to the equ a tions e= E 7

' '
m z .

l , .

by me a n s Of a reci proc a l L oren t z t 1a n s forn 1 a t i on wi th n - -

the equ a tion O = O l e a ds t o C = p u;

'
as vector ; a n d for

th a t th e fu nd a men ta l equ a tions of Ather d iscus ed i n

s

2 becomes i n fa c t th e li m i t t i n g c a se of th e equ a tion s

O b ta i ned h ere with p = 1 ,
 r un n a n n n m n uq uar rox s IN L O R EN T T H E O R Y Z 27

9 . TH E F U N DA M EN TA L EQ U A TI ON S IN

L O R EN Tz s TH EOR Y

.

Let us n o w see h ow fa r th e fu nd a me nt a l equ a ti on s

a ssu m ed by Lorent z correspon d to th e R el a tivi ty postul a te ,

as de n ed i n 8 In the a r ticle o n Electro n theo ry ( Enc y,

.
-

M a t h fi es Bd V 2 A r t 1 4 ) Loren tz h a s gi ven t h e
, ,
. .
,
.

fund a m en ta l equ a tion s fo r a n y poss i ble eve n m a gneti sed ,

bod i es (see there p a ge 2 09 Eq X X X fo rm u l a ( 1 4 ) on ,

'

pa ge 7 8 of the s a m e ( pa rt)
'

( I I I /z C url ( H + 11 di v D

cu rl [N D] .

U V ) cu rl E

D i v B= O
'

( V )

Then for m ovi n g n on m a gnetised bod ies Lo ren tz pu bs -

(p a ge 2 2 3 3 )H l B =, H a n d i n a dd ition t o th a t t a kes
:
, ,

a ccou n t of th e occu rrence of the d i electric consta n t c an d -

,

conductivity 0 acco rdi n g to equ a ti on s

(c x x IV p . D [ II -
Bil}

J = 0 ( E+ [uBD
'

( egX X X III ,
p . 3 23
3
)
L ore11 tz E D H a re here den oted by

s .
, , E M
, ,
e, m

W h i le .
J den otes th e cond uction cu rren t .

T he th ree l as t equ a tion s w h i oh h a ve been j ust ci ted

'

here coi ncide with eq ( II ) (II I ) ( I V ) the rst eq u a tion "

, , ,

would be i f J is id enti ed w i t h C = up ( th e current bei n g

, ,

(2 9 ) C u rl [H cu rl [uD ] ,
28
: P a m ew m or n em r rvrrr

an com es ou t to h e i n a d i fferen t for m th a n (I ) here

d th us .

'
T herefore fo r m a gneti sed bod ies L oren t z s equ a tions do n ot ,

correspon d to t h e Rela t i vi ty Pri nci pl e '

On the
ot her h a nd the fo rm correspon di n g to th e
-

rel a ti v ity pri nc i ple for th e cond i tion of non m a gn etis a tion
'

,
-

is to be t a ken out of i n 8 with u I n ot a s B H ,

:
,
z
,

"
as Loren tz t a k es b ut a s ( 3 0) B ,

[ ]
N D

= (h
[ ] N by putti n g H B h
'

( M u e e w t e er ,

en t i a l equ a tion is tra nsfo rm ed i n to t h e s a m e form a s

eq ( 1 ) h ere wh en
[ s Therefore i t so
"
m zm

h a ppen s t h a t b v a com pen s a tion of two con tra d ictions to

th e re l a ti vity prm ei ple t h e d ifferen t i a l equ a tion s of L orent z
,

for m ovin g n on m a gn etised bod ies a t l a st a g ree with th e

-

rel a ti vi ty pos t ul a te .

I f we m a ke us e of 0
( ) f
13
or n on n e tic bod ie s a n d
-
m ag ,

= B+ ( I D] then i n con sequ ence

put a ccordi n g l v I I L n
,
1 )
,

of in 8 ,

( D Em ,

Le .
for t h e di rection of u

( e n
E) .

an d for a perpen di cu la r di rection u ,

( e l) =( l 71

( D E) ,

i e
.

.
i t coi n cides wi th L oren t z s a ss um ption , if we n eglect
i n com pa rison t o
I .

A lso to the s a m e order of a pproxi m a tion L oren t z s ,

for m for J correspond s to t he con d itions i m posed by the

re l a tivi ty princ i p l e [com p ( E) 8 ] th a t th e com pon en ts

.

of J J ; a re equ a l to the com ponen t s of

1
m ulti p l ied by or / res pect w el y .
9
\ l u
 F U N D A M EN TA L EQ U A TI O NS or E . C O H EN 29

1 0 . F U N DA M EN TA L EQ U A TI ON S or E . COH N .

E C oh n a ssu m es
. t h e fol low i n g fun d a men t a l eq u a tions .

( 1E
(3 1 ) C u rl ( M + [ u u di v E I
.
I!
.

M
C u rl [ (
E n . M )]
( N .
n div . M .

5
( 32 ) J = a 13, = gE
[ M] [n u
,
,
0

wh ere E M a re th e elec tri c a n d m a gn e t ic fi eld i ntensi t i es

(forces ) E M a re t he electric a n d m a g n eti c po la ris a tion
, ,

(i nd uctio n ) T he e qu a ti on s a l so perm i t t he ex i s ten ce of

.

t rue m a gn e t is m ; i f we d o n ot t a k e i n to a ccoun t t h is

con s i dera tion di v M i s to be pn t n

,
. . z z .

An ob j ecti o n to th is system of equ a tion s i s th a t .

.

a cco rdi n g to these for e l p 1

, th e vecto rs force a n d
z
,
:
,

i nd uc tion d o n ot co i ncide I f i n the equ a tions we concei ve .

,

E a n d M a n d n ot E ( U M ) a n d M + [U E] a s electric .
, ,

an d m a n et i e fo rces
g an d w i th a g l a n ce to th is we
,

substi tute for E M E M di v E th e sym bols e M E

, , , , .
, , ,

+ [U M ] m , p th en th e differen ti a l equ a ti o ns ,

t ra n sform to o u r equa t i on sy a n d the cond itions ( 3 2 )

tra n sform i n to
J = ( E+ [7 1 M ] ) cr

[
0 + 11 ( m [ ])
71 e
, ( E + [ )
11 h
'

[ M n ,[ (E+ u M =
U (m
,i -
u

th en i n fa ct the equ a ti on s of C oh n becom e the s a m e as

those requ i red by th e rel a ti vi ty pri nc i pl e i f errors of t h e ,

order w a re n eglec ted i n com pa ri son to I

.

I t m ay be m en ti on ed here th a t the equ a tions of Hertz

becom e th e s a me a s those of C oh n if the a ux i lli a ry ,

re
( )
53 J = UE .
30 P N P
RI CI L E or RELA TI V I TY

1 1 . TY P I C A L R EP R ES EN TA TI O N S OF TH E

F UN D A M EN TA L EQ U A TI ON S .

In the sta tem en t of th e fund a men ta l equ a tions ou r ,

le a d i n g ide a h a d been th a t they shou ld reta i n a cov a ri a nce

of form w hen s ub j ected to a grou p of Lorent z t ra ns
,
-

form a tion s Now we h a ve to dea l wi th ponderom oti ve

.

rea ction s a n d energy i n the elec t ro m a gnetic fi eld H ere -

.

from the very fi rst th ere ca n be no doubt t h a t the

settlem en t of th is question is i n som e w a y con n ectcd with
th e si m plest forms wh ich ca n be g iven to t h e fund a menta l
equ a tion s s a tisfy i n g th e cond i tion s of cov a ri a nce I n
,
.

order to a rri ve a t s uch forms I sh a l l r t of a ll put th e ,

s

fund a ment a l equ a tion s i n a typi ca l form wh ich b rm gs out

cle a rly th ei r cov a ri a n ce i n c a se of a L oren t z l t ra n s form a ti on .

H ere I a m usi n g a m ethod of c a l cu l a tion wh ich en a b l es us ,

to de a l i n a si m p l e m a n ne r wi t h th e spa ce t i me vecto rs O f -

the 1 st a n d 2 ud k i n d a n d of wh ich t h e ru les a s fa r a s

, , ,
'

requi red a re gi ven belo w .

A syste m Of m a gn itudes a formed i nto the m a tri x

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

G
P ]

a rra n ged i n p hori zon ta l rows a n d 1, ve rt ic a l colu m ns i s ,

c a l led a p x q series m a tr i x a n d wi l l be denote d bv t he

-

letter A .

If a ll the qu a nt iti es a , a re m ulti pl ied by C ,

th e

resu lti n g m a tri x w il l be den oted by C A .

If the rol es of the hori z ont a l rows a n d vertica l col um ns
0 O 0

be m terch a rged we Obt a i n a yX ] ; ser i es m a t r i x wh i c h

0

, ,
32 PRI N CIPL E or Ret u rn

We sh a l l h a ve pri nci pa l ly to d e a l w ith m a tric es

w it h at m ost fo u r vertic a l colum n s a n d for hori z on t a l
rows .

As u n i t m a tri x ( i n equ a tion s t hey wi l l be k nown for

a

the s a ke of s hortn ess a s t h e m a tri x I ) w il l be denoted th e

fol lowi ng m a t ri x (4 x 4 series ) with the el ement s .

(3 1 ) e

0 1 0 0

0 0 1 0

0 0 0 1

F d
r a series m a trix D ct A sh a l l de n ote the
4 x 4 -

d eterm i n a n t form ed Of th e 4 x 4 el em en ts of t h e m a tri x .

'

I f det A I 0 th en correspo nd i n g t o A t h ere i s a recip roca l

,

m a trix wh ich we m a y den ote by A so th a t A l I

z
,

A m a tri x
f= 0 f f f

If 0
f 3 f

1 1 3 1 13 1 0
1
i
f . 1 f t z f
i n wh ich th e el e ments ful fi l th e rel a tion f u is ,

c a l led a n a l te rn a ti n g m a trix Th ese rel a tion s sa y t h a t

.

th e t ra n sposed m tri x f
a f Then by f wil l be
* -
.

t h e dua l, a ltern a ti n g m a tri x

( )
3 5
z 0
fa f fee
'

;
 TYPIC A L RE RE P S EN T A T I ON S 33

Then f2 2 + f4 2 fa r fee f l i

1 We sh a l l h a ve a 4 x 4 ser ies m a tri x i n which a ll th e

13 .

elemen ts except th ose on th e d i a gon a l fro m le ft u p to

righ t dow n a re z ero a n d the ele m en ts i n th is d i a gon a l
,

a gree w i th e a ch other a n d a r e e ac h equ a l to the a bo ve

,

m en tion ed co m bi n a tion i n
Th e determ i n a n t Of therefore the squ a re of th e
f i s

1
q
com brn a t ron ,
by D et f we s h a l l den otelth e ex pressron

D el: f8 4

A l in ea r tra n sform at ion

u l

w, : a
f l
-
a
:1

(11 3

wh ic h is a cco m pl ish ed by the m a tri x

A a
r v
a
rz
a
r aa
a
r o

a a a
s 3
2
, 1 , a , 1 4

a 3 3 3

n 2 1 1 3 4

a
n ,
4 m
4 3 1
4 4

w Ill be den oted as th e tr a nsform a ti on A

By t h e tra n sfo rm a ti o n A , the expression

4 1+ .1
3 3 3+ .
1-
3 i s ch a n ged i n to t he qu a d ra ti c

'
for m 2 a ark ,

where a u z a
a 1 k + a
2 h
a
g t
'
t
'
a
a
a t + 0

a rethe m em be rs O f a 4 x 4 series m a tri x wh ic h is th e

prod uct ofA A th e tra n sposed m a tri x O f A i n to A If by
,
.

the tra n sfo rm a ti on the e xpress 1 ou i s c h a n ged to

,

2 , 9
+ 33 3 +1

we m ust h a ve A A =l .
34 P R IN C IPL E or R EL ATI VI TY
to corres pond to the fo l lo wi ng rel a tion i f tr a n s
A h as ,

form a tio n (3 8 ) i s to be a Loren tz tra nsfo r m a tion F or the -

.

d eterm i n a n t of A ) i t fol lo ws ou t of(3 9 ) th a t ( Det A )
l o r D et A
,

F rom th e cond i tion (39 ) we Obta i n

A I =A
"

le
z th e reci proca l m a trix of
. A i s equ i v a len t to the tra ns
posed m a tri x of A .

F or ALoren tz tra n sform a tion we h a ve further

as ,

De t A + 1 th e qu a ntities i n vol vi n g th e i nd ex 4 once i n

:
,

th e subscri pt a re pu rely i m a gi n a ry th e oth er co etei en ts ,

-

a re re a l a n d a
4 4 >
0 , .

sp a ce ti m e vector of t h e rst k in d wh ich

A *
S

represen ted by th e I x 4 series m a tri x ,

(4 1 ) 3 :
l 3
1
3
2
3
3
34
l
is to be repl a ced by a A i n c a se Of a Loren tz tr a n sform a tion
' '
A . Le . a 3
2
3
3
3
4
3 , 8 2 3
3
3
4
A ;
A sp a ce ti m e vector of the 2 n d k i n d l wi th compon ents f
-

sh a l l h e represen ted by t h e a l tern a ti n g m a t ri x

( )
4 2 f 0
f1 2 f1 3 f1 4

fa r 0
fee f2 4

fa r fa r 0
f3 4

f4 1 f 4 9 f4 3 0

an d is to be repl a ced by A f A i n c a se of a L oren tz

1

tr a nsform a ti on [see th e rul es i n 5 ( 2 3 ) T herefore

referri n g to th e expre ssio n we h a ve th e iden tity
5 1 f i
D et ( A f A ) = D et A f . D et . Th erefore D et f be
comes an i n v a ri a n t i n th e c a se of a Loren t z tr a n sform a tion
( 2 6 ) S 5]
[ See e
q . ec .

V i da n ote 1 3 .

f I i de n ote 1 4

.
36 P R NC I PLE o R EL
I r A TI V I TY
*
the l s t k ind We ca n verify whe n w is a sp a ce ti me vector
.
,
-

of the l s t k i n d f of the zud k in d the i m port a n t i den ti ty

, ,

( 5)
* * = (w w
4 [ f ( w. w l )f w, wf

The su m of the two sp a ce ti m e vectors of th e secon d k i n d

on t h e l eft s i de i s to be u n derstoo d i n the sense of the
a dd ition of two a ltern a ti n g m a trices .

F or ex a mp l e for 0 ,
m
l
(
3

i f :
I f4
i 1 , ift -
z
ift u s
o
i 5 w
I :
I Zf if i fs o
i
[0
.

w 03 05 0
f 4 -
1 3 f
f f f & 2 3 f 4 3 [ w '
w f
l
0: 0a 03 8 2 1 3 3 2 1

Th e fa ct th a t i n th i s spec i a l c a se t h e re l a t i on i s s a t i s ed , ,

su fces to esta b l i sh the th eorem ( 4 5) g ener a l l y for t h i s ,

re l a t i on h a s a cov a r i a nt ch a r a cter i n ca se of a Lor eh t z

tr a n sfo rm a t i on a n d i s homog eneous i n ( o u
,
i
l ,
(
2 a
(
s,

th ese prep a r a tory wo rks let us en ga g e ou rse l ves

After
w i th th e equ a t i ons ( C ) ( D ) ( E) by me a ns wh i ch th e const a nts , ,

c o w i l l be i ntroduce d
r, r
p .

I nste a d of th e sp a ce ve ctor u t h e ve l oc i ty of m a tter w e , ,

sh a l l i ntrodu ce t h e sp a ce ti me vecto r of th e rst k i n d 0 w i th -

)

th e com ponents .

u,
m
l

By F an d f sh a l l be u n de rs too d t h e sp a ce t i me vectors
of t h e se con d k i nd M i E, ze

m .

In we h a ve a sp a ce t i me ve ctor of th e rst ki n d
wi th compon ents
1
< )
l
waF l z -
ws Fl s
-
l
-
m
Q
F H

(P
l

(P
s
z wl FM -
i
-
w
s , +m , F
 T Y P I C A L RE P RE S E NT A TION S 37

Th e rst th ree qu a nt i t i es a re th e compon ents

of the sp a ce vector -

VI -
u

an d fu rther <t ,

Bec a u se F is an a l tern ti n g m t i x a a r ,

( )
4 9 + 09 3 4 ) a
=o .

i e . .
<I> is pe rpend i cu l a r to th e vector 0) we ca n a l so
wr i te P , =i + w y<I>2

I shal l ca l l th e sp e ti me vector
ac - (1) of th e rst k i n d as

the Electri c R est F orce }

l tion s n l ogous to those ho l d i n g between

Re a a a wF
,

E M U h o l d mon g st wf e
, , ,
d i
-
p rt i u l r a
, ,
m ,
n , an n a c a wf

i norm l to w
s The re l t i on ( C )
a be written . a ca n as

C w
f z c .

Th e
ex press i on ( wf) g i ves fou r components but th e ,

fo u r th ca n be der i ved fr o m t h e rst th ree .

Let us now for m the t i me sp a ce -

vecto r l st kin d
w hose components a re

_i
( d
q' s (
s f + w 4 f3 1 )
_i
PS (w 1f a t + w 2 f4 1 + w +f1 2 )
I s J
Of th ese , th e rst th ree 45 , l l a re the
, ,

components of th e sp a ce ve ctor -

an d fu rther ( 52 ) if,
38 P R I NC PL E o
I r R ELA TI V I I Y
'

A mon g these th ere is th e r e l a t i on

( 53 )
wh i ch ca n a l so b e wr i tten as W4 = i +n ,
\l l 2

Th e vecto r P is p erpen di c u l a r to w we ca n ca l l it th e
M a gn eti c r est -

f orce .

R el a tio ns n a logous to t hese h ol d a m o n g th e qu a n ti ti es

a

F *
,
M ,
E u a n d R el a tio n ( D ) ca n be repl a ced by t he
,

for m ul a
D wF * _

We ca n use th e rel a tio ns ( C ) an d ( )

D to c a lcul a te
F an d f from <1) a n d I we h a ve \'

m F : a r r
a w j ,
a z -
ecb , w f ap .

an d a pplyi n g the rel a tio n ( 4 5) an d we h a ve

F: [a up ?
55)

f :

te F etc .

[ l l etc 1 w
f w3 ' l .
s
.
4 4

Let us n ow cons ider the sp a ce ti me vec to r of t he -

secon d k i n d [<I> W] w ith the compon en ts ,

,
W,

y ga
g
cr

T hen t he correspo nd i ng spa ce ti me vec to r of the rst -

kind 4
] v a n ishes identica1lly o w i n g t o equ a tio ns 9
)
a n d 53 )

for ( WN W
L et us now ta ke the vector of the l st k i nd

( 57

w i th th e compone nts
w, 3

(b q>3 (b
2 i

r ,
w, qr , , etc .
 4O
P R I N C LE o IP r R ELA TI V I I Y
'

N by com pa ri n g with
ow ( I) -
m F, the rel a tio n ( E) ca n

be brou g ht i nto th e fo rm .

{ E} 8 +( ws w
) a wF
,

Th is formu l a cont a i ns fou r equ a tion s of wh ich th e ,

fourth fol lows fro m th e rst th ree si n ce th is is a sp a ce ,

ti m e vec tor wh i ch is perpen d icu l a r to w .

L a stly we sh a l l tr a n sfor m the di fferenti a l equ a tion s

,

(A ) a n d ( B ) i nto a typic a l form .

1 2 . TH E D I F F ER EN TI A L O P ER A TOR L OR .

A 4 4 s er i es m a t ri x 6 2 ) S: S S =
x
| SH I
s2 1
s s2 3
8 9 4

8 3 1
SS ? SS S 8 3 4

s4 -
1
s4 2
s4 8 8 4 4

w ith the conditi on th a t i n ca se of a Loren t z tr a n sform a ti on

i t i s to be repl a ced by A SA m a y be c a l led a sp a ce tim e ,
-

m a tri x of the I I ki n d We h a ve ex a m ples of th is i n .

l) th e a ltern a ti ng m a tri x f wh ich correspon ds to the ,

sp ace ti m e vector of th e I I k i nd
-

2) the product f F of two such m a trices for by , a t ra n sfor

m a ti on A it is repl a ced by
,
F A,

3) furth er wh en an d (Q , ,
Q , ,
03 , Q , ) a re

two Sp a ce t i me vectors of th e
-
l st k i nd th e ,
4 x 4 m a tr i x w i th
th e e l emen t s = t k in I:

l stly i n
a m ulti pl e L of th e un i t m a tri x of 4 x 4 series
a

i n wh ich a ll the elem en ts i n th e princi p a l d i a go n a l a re

equ a l to L a n d the rest a re z ero
,
.

We sh a l l h a ve to do con sta n tly wi th f unc tion s of the

s p ace ti m e poi n t (r y c i t) a n d we m ay w it h a d v a n tage
- .
, , , ,
 TH E DI FF ERE NTI A L OP ERA TO R LO R
e m ploy the l >
< 4 seri es m a tri x ,
form ed of d i fferenti a l
sy m bo ls ,

F or th is m a tri x I sh a l l u se the s ho rten ed from

The n if S is as 1 1] a sp ace ti me m a tri x of th e
,
-

'
I I ki nd by lo r S wi l l be u nd ers tood the 1 x 4 se ries
,

m a tri x
I K K K : K I I , I

w h ere K a s BS
,
a .

W h en by a Lorent z tra nsform a tion A a n ew r eference ,

'
system . u, m :r
) i s i ntro d uced we ca n use the opera tor
a , ,

6 8 8 8
' '
8 . c, G wa 6

The n S is tr a n sforme d to S = A S A S

:

so by
l or ' '
S is me a nt th e l x 4 ser i es m a tr i x w h ose e l ement.

, a re

'
as as as 68
ex , ex , at, ax ,

Now for the di er en t i a t i on of an

y fu nct i on of ( z yz t)

6 a a a
we h a v e th e ru l e
cl
.
'

3 33 ; 3

8 8 3 3
+ '
8 42
,
-

8 m

_ a a d
%k + (L
N
-
F
x ax e

so th a t we h a ve sym bol i ca lly

,
lor z lor A .

Vida n ote 17 .
42 P R IN C IPL E or RE LA TIVIT Y

Th erefore i t fol lows th a t

l or '
S = lor
'

(A A
S) A .

i . e,
. lor S beh a ves l ike a spa ce ti m e vector of the
-
i rst
f
k i nd .

If L is a m ulti ple of the u n it m a trix th en by lor L wi l l ,

be den oted the m a tri x with the elemen ts

GB GD 3 L 6 L
a vl
6 4 5: 3x 4

If s is a sp a ce ti m e vector of the
-
l st k i nd then
,

a a s, a as ,
i

8 6 332 a 3 8 43 4

I n ca se of a Loren t z tra nsform a tion A, we h a ve

l or s= lor A . As z lor s .

i e,. . l or s is an i n v a ri a n t i n a Loren t z tr a nsfo rm a tion

-
.

I n a ll thes e op e
r a tions the Opera tor lor pl ays the
of a sp a ce ti me vector of the fi rst ki nd
-
.

I ff represen ts a spa ce ti me vector of the second k i nd

-

lor f den otes a sp a ce ti me vector of the rst k i nd with

-

the compo nents

44 P R IN C IPL E OE RE L ATI V ITY

t hen t h e fund a m e n t a l equ a tions for electrom a gn etic

*
processes in movi n g bod ies a re

rf
{ }
A lo

{ B} log F =
*
o

{ C } (II/e a r

D} F =*
{ f
*
w Iwz

{ E} w 0 wF '
.

m m
f f
1, an d wF, o
,
m F*
,
w *
,
8 + (
ws w
) wh ich
a re spa ce ti me vectors of the rst ki nd
-
a re a ll n orm a l to
w a n d for the system { B } we h a ve
, ,

lor ( lor F* ) 0 .

Bea rin g i n m in d this l a st rel a tion we see th a t we h a ve ,

a s m a ny i n dependent equ a tion s a t ou r d ispos a l a s a re n eces

s a ry for deter in in g the m otion of m a tter a s wel l a s the

m
vector 71 as a fun ctio n of
. If when proper fund a ,

men t a l d a t a a re gi ven .

13 . TH E P R O D U C T O F TH E F I EL D -
V EC TO R S fF .

let us a ll
enqui re a bout the l a ws wh ich l e d to the

I h n
y a

determ i n a tion of the vector w as a fu nction of ( em s J ) -

.

I n these i nvesti ga tion s the exp ressions wh ich a re obt a i ned

,

by the m ulti pl ica tion of two a ltern a ti ng m a trices

f : o f f f F o F F r

fn O f
s s f F O F F

f f 0 f F F 0 F

F F F O

Vi da n ote 19 .
1
 TH E P ROD U C T or TH E FI E LD V ECTO R S f
-
r 45

a re of m uch i m po rta nce . Let us write .

( 7 0) fF : S, ,
L 8 s

s sn . _L s

S s s

S s s

Then ( 7 1 ) s =o .

Let L now denote the sym metrical com bi n a tion of the

i nd ices 1 2 3 4 gi ven by
, , , ,

l
(72)

+f2 l
~ o
F l +fa 4 F 3
-
4 ~

Then we sh a l l h a ve

(7 3 ) s
( f F

f 1 3
Fl s f F

S =f1 8 F s s +f1 4 F s s ete ' m

I n order to express i n a rea l form , we w rite

7
( )4 S : s s s s x Y ,
z ,

s s s s X Y! Z
,
" !

8 3 1
Sa n 8 3 :
SE !
x ,
Y ,
z ,

S s s s
46 P R IN C IPL E OF R E L ATIVITY

(7 5) etc .

t eyM ,
m
y
E et c .

+e ,
E

1

+ m ,
m ,
a, E ,
e
,
E, e E

These qu a ntities a re a ll re a l In the theory for bod i es .

a t rest the com bi n a tion s ( X

,
X X Y Y Y Z , , , ,

Z Z ) a re k n own a s
,

M a xwel l s Stresses T T T
, , , , , ,

a re k nown as t h ePoynti n g s V ector

T a s the el ectro , ,

m a g netic energy density a n d L as the La n gra n gian

-

fu n ction .

On the other h a nd b y m ulti plyin g the ,

a ltern a ti n g
m a trices of f* a n d F* we obta i n ,

(77 ) F *f* = s L , s s s

s s, ,
L, s s

s s L ,
-
s

s s s s L

an d hence , we ca n put
(7 8 ) f F = S L
, F *
j *= S L,

where by L we m ea n L ti m es th e un i t

i the
'

,
-
m atr x ,

m a tri x wi th elemen ts
I LeI ,
C k z o, h #: k In k 2, 3,

Si nce here SL = L S we ded u ce th a t , ,

F* f
*
fF S L) ( S L) ss L a
,

an d nd , s i nce f f D et f r
i II
P

D et I ?F we a ri r ve
, ,

at th e i nterest i n g conc l us i on
48 P RINCI PL E or RE L A TIVI TY

right s ide of ( 8 3 ) as wel l a s S repres en t a sp a ce ti me .

vector of the second k i nd R em emberi n g this fact it

. .
,

s ufces for est a b l i sh i n g the the o

, rems ( 8 2 ) a n d ( 8 3 ) gener
a l ly
, to prove i t for the speci a l c a se b o =0 w =0 , ,
m
, , , ,

But for th is c a se = o we i m med i a tely a rri ve a t m

,

t he equ a tions (8 2 ) a n d ( 8 3 ) by m e a n s (60)

on t h eon e h a nd a n d e= eE M n m o n th e oth er h a nd
, ,
z .

T he expression on the ri gh t h a n d side of -

wh ich
equ a l s
It ( m M ( em ) ( EM ) ,

0, bec a use ( em c (D \II , ( EM ) u

,
<1) 4 7
; now referr i ng

b a ck to we ca n de n ote the pos i t i ve s qu a re root of th i s

.
I
.

ex pr essm n as D et S .

Si n ce f f ,
an dF we obta i n for
F, S, th e
tra n sposed m a tr i x of S, t h e fo l l o w i n g re l a tions from

Ff I s L,
(8 4 ) -

Then IS 8 8 :
I Sh h
8 1 k I
an ltern a ti n g m a trix
a , an dden otes a sp a ce ti me vector -

of the second ki n d . F rom the expression s we

obta in ,

( 8 5> 8 8
(ep
from wh ich we d ed u ce th a t [see

(8 6 ) a (S 0.

1 Q
(8 7 > .
w (S )
W hen the m a tter is a t rest a t a spa ce ti m epoi n t w o -

,
z
,

then the equ a tion 8 6 ) den otes the ex istence of the follow
i n g eq u a tions
Y i
_x
zV -
Y ,
 TH E P R OD U CT or TH E FI E LD V ECTO R S
-
49

an d from
T =Q
,
T, = Q T =Q ,

Z ,
= ep Q .
3

Now by me a n s of a ro ta tion of the sp a ce co -

ordi n a te
s ystem roun d the n ull poi n t we ca n m a ke -

, ,

A ccord i n g to we h a ve

(8 8 )

an d a ccord i n g to In sp eci a l ca ses T , >o .

,
where Q
v a n ish es i t fol lows from 8 1 ) th a t
1
?
Z t S) i
,

an d if T , an d on e of t h e th ree m a gn i tudes X Y Z ,

D et } S th e two oth ers

I;
D et S . If 0 does not
,

v a n i sh l et 0=
f=0, t h en we h a ve i n p a rt i cu l a r from 8 0)
T , X ,
=0 , T . Y , = 0,

an d i f O , = 0 0, = 0, , Z ,
T, It fo l l ow s fr om

( see a l so 8 3) th a t
s,

d S+ e 0 9

iS
-

an d D et n 3 > D et .

Th e s pace t i m e vector of the rst ki nd

-

(89) K = l or S,

isof very gre a t i m po rta n ce for wh ic h we n ow w a n t to

dem onstra t e a ve ry i m porta nt tra nsform a ti o n

A c co r d i n g to S = L + fF , an d it fo l l o w s th a t
l or S= l or L + lor fF .
50 P R IN C IPLE or R ELA TI V I I Y

T he sy mbol l or denotes a dieren ti a l process wh ich

i n lor fF opera tes on the o ne h a n d u po n th e com pon en ts
,

of f on t he other ba n d a l so u po n the com ponen ts of F

, .

A ccord i n g l y lor f F ca n be expressed a s the su m of tw o

pa rts The rs t p a rt is the prod uct of the m a tric es
.

(l o r f ) F l or f bei n g reg a rded a s a 1 x 4 seri es m a t rix

,
.

Th e second pa rt i s th a t pa rt of lor f F i n wh ic h t h e .
,

di ifen t i a t i on s Oper a te u pon th e com ponen ts of F a lon e .

F ro m 7 8 ) we Obta i n

* * 2L ;
f F : -
F f
h en the secon d p a rt of l or s
ce
( lor th e p a rt
of 2 l or L i n w h i ch t h e d i fferent i a t i ons op era te upon t h e
,

components of F a l on e W e th us Obt a i n .

l or S= ( lor f) F -

( l or

where N is th e vector with the com ponen ts

af 6s p
4
F F 91 fj
Fu F
4 2 i i
' '

6 3

afz q F afs a F
a

1 2

(h z l , 2, 3 , 4 )

By usi n g
the fu nd a m ent a l rel a tions A ) an d B) ,
9 0)
is tra nsform ed i n to t he fu nd a m en ta l rel at ion

(9 1 )
th e c a se
'

In li m i t t i n g ez l ,
n
z l ,
s ,
N v a n i sh es
i denti ca l l y .
52 PR IN C IP LE or RELA I I V I TY
'

(96 ) K .
dz z 3 23
+
aZ
, GZ ,
3 M
by
,
6 6,
,
w

1 a t 1

6p 6
p
1
W
, .

2 az 2 a:

1 _ 6 T, 221 , GT 6 T _
( g7 ) K ,

i J : y az at

1 a s _ i_w a -
1
2 at ? 2 at V T

It i s my opi n ion th a t when we c a lcul a te th e pondero

motive force wh ich a cts upon a un i t vo l um e a t the s pa ce
ti m e po i n t y z t it h as got :c y 3 com pon en ts a s the
, , , , , ,

rst three com ponen ts of th e spa ce ti m e vecto r -

Th is vector i s perpend icul a r to w ; t h e '

la w of Energy
n d s i t s expression i n th e fourth rel a tion .

The esta bl ish men t of th is opi n ion is reserved for a

sep a ra te tra ct .

In the li m i tti n g c as e th e vec to r N = O ,

S z pw , w K = O, a n d we obta i n the ordi n a ry eq ua tions i n the

theory of electron s .
 A P P EN D I X

M EC H A N I C S AN D TH E R EL A TI V I TY P O S TU L A TE -
.

It woul d be very u ns a tisfa ctory if the n ew w a y of ,

look i n g a t the ti me concept w h ich perm i ts a Lo ren t z -

,

t r a n sfo rm a tion w ere to be con ned to a sin gl e p a rt of

,

t s i cs .

Now m a n v a uthors sa y th a t cl a s s ic a l m ech a n ics sta nd

i n opposi tio n to the rel a ti vi ty postul a te wh ich is ta ke n ,

to be the ba si c of the n ew Electro dy n a m ics -

.

I n order to dec ide th is let us x ou r a ttenti on upon a spe

ci a l Loren t z tr a nsform a tion represen ted by

with a vector v i n a n yd i rectio n a n d of a n ym a g n i tude q< 1

but d i ffere n t fro m z ero F or a m omen t we sh a l l n ot su ppose
.

an
y s pec i a l rel a ti on to ho ld betw een the un i t of len gth
a n d th e un i t of ti m e so th a t i nste a d of t if q we sh a l l
, , , ,

write 06 ct a n d q/c wh e re c represents a certa i n positi ve

,
'
, ,

constan t a n d q is < 0 T he a bo ve m en tion ed equ a tions

, .

a r e tra n sfo rm ed i nto

t
r
:
qr c + c t
(
q
C 4 /
C

q

T hey denote ,
as we
rem em ber th a t r is the sp a ce vec to r ,
-

' '

(

r,
.
y, z ) , r is th e spa ce vector (w - 1

If i n these equ a t i o n s keepi n g con sta n t we ,

7

a ppro a c h
the l i m i t c = oo then we obt a i n fro m th es e
,

'
7 , qt t z t .

The n ew equ a tion s would n ow d en ote t he t ra n sform a

ti on of a spa ti a l co ordi n a te sy stem (x y to a n other
-

, ,

y ) wi th pa r a l lel a xes th e
'
sp a ti a l co o rd in a te system
-
z
'
,
54 P R I NC PL E o I r R ELA TI V I I Y

n u l l poi n t of the secon d syste m m ovi n g with cons ta n t

velocity i n a stra i gh t l in e w hi le the ti me p a ra m eter
,

rem a i n s u nch a n ge d We ca n therefore sa y th a t cl a ss ic a l

.
, ,

m ec h a n ics postul a tes a cov a ri a nce of Phys ic a l l a ws for

the g roup of homogen eous l i n e a r tra nsform a tion s of th e
expressi on
_
_wl _ y2

Now i t i s ra th er con fu si n g to nd th a t i n on e b ra n ch
of Physics we sh a l l fi nd a cov a ri a nc e of th e l a ws fo r t h e
,

tra nsform a tion of expression ( 1 ) with a n i te v a l ue of c ,

i n a n other p a rt for
I t is evident th a t a ccordi n g to Newto n i a n M ech a n ics ,

th is cov a ri a nce h olds for a n d not for c = voloci t of

y
li gh t
.

M a y we n ot then reg a rd those tr a di tion a l c ov a r i a n ces

for on l a pproxi m a tion con si sten t with
y as an

ex perience th e a ctu a l cov a ri a n ce of n a tu ra l l a ws holdi n g

,

for a cer ta i n n i te v a l ue of c .

I m a yh ere poi n t out th a t bv i f i nstea d of the Newton i a n

R el a t i vi ty Postu l a te w i th
-
we a ss um e a rel a tivi ty
postu l a te wi th a fi n i te c then the a xiom a tic con struction
,

of M ech a n ics a ppe a rs to g a i n con sider a bl y i n perfection .

The ra tio of th e ti me u n it to th e l ength un it i s ch osen

i n a m a n n er so a s to m a ke the velocity of l igh t equ i v a len t
to u n i ty
.

Wh i le now I wa nt to i n trod uce g eom etri ca l gures

i n the m a n ifo l d of th e v a ri a bles ( y t) i t m a y be c
, ,
f
, ,

con ven ien t to l ea ve (y out of a ccoun t a n d to trea t y

, ,

a n d t a s a n y possi ble pa i r of co ordi n a tes i n a pl a n e ;

-

refered to oblique a xes .

 56 P R I NC PL E o R EL ATI V TY
I r I

wh en c a l cul a ted upon the sp ac e ti m e l i n e from a x e d -

i n iti a l poi nt P to the v a ri a ble poi nt P ( both bein g on th e

,
,

sp a ce ti m e l i ne ) i s kn own a s t he Proper ti m e of the

-

,

-

positi on of m a tter we a re concern ed with a t the sp ace time -

poi n t P ( It i s a gen era l i z a ti on of the ide a of Posit ion a l

.

ti m e wh ich w a s i n troduc ed by Lorent z for u n iform

m otion ) .

If we t a ke a bodv R wh i ch h a s got exten sio n i n sp ace '

a t ti me t then the region com prisi n g a ll th e sp ace tim e -

li n e p a ssi n g th rough R a n d t sh a l l be c a ll ed a sp a ce ti m e
'
o -

l a men t .

If we h a ve a n a n a tyli ea l expressio n 9 ( c y so th a t .
,

0(:v y, i s i n tersected by every space ti me l i ne of the

5

la m ent a t one poi n t whereby ,

se e aea a
th en th e tola li tyof th e i ntersecti n g poi n ts wi l l be ca l l ed
a c ross section of the l a m en t .

At
y poi n t P of such a cross section we ca n i n trod uce
an -

by me a n s of a Lore nt z tra n sform a tio n a system of re fer

en ce i ) so th a t a cco rd in g to t h is
,

p g
_O
6 69
O
6 69 =
0 6 69
a t 6 3] 6 at

The d i rection of the u n iquely determ i ned t a xi s i n

questi on here i s k n own a s th e upper n orm a l of the cross

section a t the poi nt P a n d the v a l ue of dJ = j I I dzr dy ( l '

for the su rrou nd i n g poi n ts of P on the cross section i s -

k nown as th e el emen ta ry co n ten ts ( In h a lts el emen t ) of th e -

c ross sectio n In th is sense R i s to be rega rd ed as the

-
.
"

cross section norm a l to the t a xi s of the l a men t a t the

-

poi n t t t a n d th e vol u me of th e b ody R i s to be

z

,

rega rd ed a s the con ten ts of the crosa sect i on .

 A PP EN D I X 57

If we a llow R to con verge to a poi n t we com e to t h e

,

con ception of a n i n n i tely th i n s pa ce ti me l a m en t I n -

.

such a ca se a sp a ce ti me ,
l i n e w i l l be though t of a s a
-
.

pri nci p a l l i n e an d by th e te rm Proper ti m e of the la m en t -

w i l l be u n derstood t he Proper ti me wh ic h i s l a id a lon g -

th is pri nci p a l l i n e ; u nder the ter m n o rm a l cr oss section -

of th e l a men t we sh a l l u n dersta n d t h e cross section

,
-

i
u po n the s pa ce wh ich i s n or m a l to th e pri n ci pal li n e
'
'

th rou gh P .

We sh a l l n o w for m ul a te the pri n ci pl e of con serv a t i on

of m as s .

To every s pa ce R a t a ti me t be lon gs a positi ve ,

q u a n ti ty the m ass a t R a t the ti m e t If R con verges .

to a poi n t (r y z t) then th e quoti ent of th is m a ss a n d

'

, , , , ,
.

t he vol u m e of R a ppro a c hes a li m i t Ma y z; t) wh ich fi s , , ,

k nown as the m ass den s ity a t the s pac eti m e poi n t -

.
-

(m f t
y i
/ )
Th e pri n ci ple of conserv a tion of m ass t for th a

sa
ys w

an i n n ite ly th i n s pa ce ti m e l a men t th e prod uct MJ -

, ,

w here p = m ass den s ity a t the poi n t (sr y g t) of th e

-
la , , ,

m en t th e pri nci pa l l i n e of the l a m en t ) fld con ten ts ,

z

of th e cross secti on n orm a l to the 1 a x i s a n d pa ssi n g

-

th ro ugh t) i s co nsta n t a lon g the whole l a m en t

, .

Now th econ ten ts dJ of th e n orm a l c ross section of .

-

the l a m en t wh ich is l a id th rou gh ( y I ) is at

, ,

1
(4 ) dJ . s i w, dJ : 5

an d th e fu nct i on v M a/

m a y be dened th e rest m a ss dens i ty th e pos i tion

'

as -
at

8
58 P R I N C IPL E or R EL A TI V I TY

( y Th en
t) th e pri nci ple of con ser tion of m a ss
v
m z . a ca n

be for mu l a ted i n th i s m a n n er
i aeld; t
'

F or z z sp a ce ti m e la m l, M e p roduct
rm
y -
cn

f
c t/lc rest m a ss -
den si ty an d Me con ten ts f
o M e n or m a l

w hee secti on
-
is con sta n t a l on g l e w /i olela m en t .

I Sp a ce ti me l a m en t let us con sider two cross

y n an ,

'
sec tion s Q an d Q w h ich h a ve on ly the po i n ts on th e
.

,

bou nd a ry co m mon to e a c h other ; let th e sp a ce ti m e l i nes -

'
i n side th e l a men t h a v e a l a rger v a l ue of t on Q th a n

on Q The n i te ra n ge en closed betwee n Q a n d Q
. .
" '

sh al l be c a l led a spa ce ti me si c/E

'

el "e
Q 13 th e l ower -

,
'

bou n d a ry a n d O is th e u pper bou n d a ry of the ezcel

'

.
, .

. . I f we
decom pose a l a m en t i n to el em en ta ry spa ce ti m e -

'

l a m en ts then to a n entra nce poi n t of a n ele m ent a ry

,
"
. -

l a men t th rough th e lower bou nd a ryof th e si cM there '

-

correspon ds a n exi t poi nt of th e s a m e by th e upper bo u nd a ry ,

w he reby for both th e product vdJ ta ken i n th e sense of

, ,

n d h
( )
4 a a s got the s a me v a l ue Th erefo re the d i fference .

of the two i ntegra ls fvdJ (the rst bein g extended over

the up p e r th e secon d u pon the lower bou nd a ry ) v a n ishes
w
.
,

A c cord i ng to a el l k nown theorem of I n tegra l C a lcu lus

th e difference i s equ i v a len t to

[H ] lor vw dc dydz dt,

the te g ra ti on bei n g extended over th e whole r a n ge o

in f
t h e si ccl a n d (com p ,
1 2) .

6 6
a '
a ad s '

If th e si ck el red uces to a poi nt , then t h e di eren t i a l

e q u a ti on lor us ,
(6)

S i ch el a Germ an wo d r m ea n i n g a crescen t or a sc yth e . Th e

ori g n
i al te rm is t
re a i n ed as th e e isr n o s ui ta b l e E gl i
n sh equi va en t l .
60 P R I NC I PL E or a n LATI V I TY
v

the v a lue A; these m a gn itudes

then fu nctions of ( r y a re .
,

z t
, ,
X ) Let us n o w con cei ve of a n i n n i tely th i n sp ace
.

ti m e l a m en t at the po i n t (r y z t) W ith th e n o r m a l section .

of con tents ( LL a n d i f dJ be the con tents of the

, .

n orm a l section a t th e correspon di n g posi tion of the v a ried

l a men t then accord i n g to th e pri nci ple of c onserv a ti o n
,

of m ass bei ng th e rest m a ss density a t the v a ried - -

po s ition ) ,

(8 ) ( w+ 8 v) ( I ZJ , + 8 dJ = dm .

I n consequence of th is cond i tion th e i ntegra l ( 7 ) ,

t keii over th e wh ol e 1 a n ge of the szc

et va ri es on a ccou nt
a ,

of the dis pl a cem ent a s a de n ite function N + 8 N of A ,

an d w e m a y c a l l th is fu nction N + 8 N as th e m a ss acti on

of the vi rtu a l di spl a cem en t .

If we no w i n trod uce th e m ethod of w ri ti n g w ith

i n d ices we sh a l l h a ve
,

2, 3, 4

2, 3, 4

Now on the b as is of the rem a rks a l rea dy m a de i t i s ,

clea r th a t the v a l ue of N + 8 N wh en th e v a l ue of the ,

a
p r a m eter js A wi ll be ,

(1 0)
'

N + 8N d c dydz dt,
.

t h e i n teg ra tio n
extend in g over the whole sich el { Kr
wh ere d(r + 87 ) de n o t es the m a gn itude wh ich i s d ed uced fro m
-

by m ea ns of (9 ) an d

(tr , l w
? ( 17 1 h e) dr , dA = o

fJ ( 7 , ( z
'

2 , a ,
 AP P EN D I X 61

th erefore

k = 1 , 2, 3, 4

[
.

2,

We sh a l l no w subjec t the v a l ue of th e d ifferen ti a l

quotien t

to a t ra nsform a tion Si n ce ea ch . as a fu nction of (r y .

, ,

z, t) v a n is hes for t he z ero v a l ue of -

th e pa ra m a ter A so i n
,

dg,
gen era l o, for A= 0
a
.

L et us now pu t 51 (Iz= l , 2 , 3 , 4 ) ( 3)
1
a I

then on th e ba s is of ( 1 0) an d we h a ve the expressio n

( 1 2)

a s , as ,
as

d vdydz dt

fothe sys tem

r
( ,
w, , ) o n th
an e b o u nd a ry
r of t h e

l et (8:1? l 8 r 3 8 4 ) sh a ll v a n i sh for every v a l ue of

si c/ ,
.

A a n d th erefore 62 3 8 4 a re n i l , Th en by p a rt i a l
, .

i ntegra ti on th e i ntegra l i s tra n sform ed i n to the fo rm

,

2 5.
i a t e, at ,
62 P R l N C I P L E or B ELA I I V I TY
'

the expressio n w ith i n the bra cket m a

y be written as

- wi M2 0) .

T he rst su m v a n i shes i n con seque nce of the con ti n u i ty

n a tio n ( b) The seco nd m a y be written a s
e

a s, an ,

( tr i
( f dr df

dw
i a
ai r (i f d?

wh ereby i i s m ean t the d iffere n ti a l quoti en t in the

l
( ?

d i rection of the sp a ce ti m e li n e a t a n y position F or the

-
.

di eren t i a l quoti ent we obta i n th e n a l expression

51 l 2
52 I 3
63 ' +
54
1

7 6 1

h
t : dy ( it: (i t .

F or v i rtu a l d isp l a cem en t i n the s i cliet h ve h a ve

a

postu l ated the con di tion th a t th e po i n ts suf bpb si

zd to be
.

s ubsta nti a l sh a l l ad v a nce n orm a l ly to the cu rves givi n g

thei r a ctu a l m otion wh ich is X = o ; th i s con d ition deno tes
,

th at th e s is to s a t isfythe co n diti on
i

wi fi d a
62 4 -
1 03
1
3 + 1 04 $ 5
3 00 ( )
1 5

Let us n ow tu rn our a tten ti on to the M a xwel li a n

te nsion s i n the electrodyn a m ics of s ta ti on a ry bod i es ; a n d
a n d 1 3 ; th e w el
l
'

let us con si der t h e resu lts i n n n d

'

th a t H a m i lto n s Pri nciple ca n be reconciled to the rel a ti vi ty

postul a te for con tin uously exte nded el a stic medi a .

64 . P R IN C IPL E or R ELA TI V I TY
Bypplyi n g th e m ethod s of th e C a lcul us of V a ri a
a

ti on s the fol lo wi ng four d i fferen ti a l equ a tions a t o n ce

,

fol low from th i s m i n i m a l pri nciple by m ea n s of the tra n s

form a ti on a n d th e con d ition

(19) y

h ence K 1 11 as 38 3 1.
W h ( 20)
6 0, a azf

a re com pon ents of th e s pa ce t i me vector l st k i n d K lo r S - -

an d X i s a f a cto r wh ich is to be de ter m i ned from the

,

rel a tio n row 1 By m u lti plyi ng ( 1 9 ) by w a n d

: .

s u m m i n g th e four ; we obta i n X Kw a n d therefore clea rly :

,
l
K + ( K w ) w wil l be a spa ce ti m e vec t o r of th e l st k i nd w h ich -

i s n orm a l to 1 0 Let us wri te out th e com pon ents of th is

.

vecto r a s

x Y , z,
'
,
-
z r

Then we a rri ve at t he fol lowi n g equ a tion for th e

of m a tter ,

{
6
6
(21 ) X Y
7
.
,
7

T ,
an d we h a ve a lso

i f) 63 1+

d
an d X
(i f dr

On the bas is of th is cond ition the fou rth of equ a tions ( 2 1 ) ,

is to be reg a rded as a d i rect conseq uence of th e rst th ree .

F ro m ded uce the la w for the motion of

we ca n

a m a teri a l poi nt i e th e la w fo r the c a reer of a n

, . .
, i n n i tely
'

th i n s pa ce ti me l a m en t
-
.
 A P P EN D I X 65

Let m
, y den ote a poi n t on a pri nc i pal li n e c hose
, z, t, n
i n a n y m a n n e r w ith i n th e l a m en t We s ha l l f or
m rthe
.

e q u a tions ( 2 1 ) for t he poi nt s of t he n o r m a l cross section of

the l a m e n t t h ro u gh y z t a n d i n tegrate t hem m u lt i ply
- r
, , , , ,

i n g by th e elementa ry con t e n ts of the m oss section ov(ii the

i

whole sp a ce of th e n or m a l s ectio n If t he i i1 teg ia ls oft he .

right s ide h e 11 11 ; a n d i f m b e the c o n st a nt mass

,
'

of the l a men t we obt a i n ,

(22) m i QL R m 9 - 1
11
d1 d1
' '
dr Jr

R is
'
n o w a spa ce ti m e vec tor of t h e l st k i n d w it hl the
-

c om ponen ts ( R R R R ) wh ic h i s n or m a l to t h e sp ace
. ,

ti me vector of th e l st ki nd w th e vel oci ty ofth e m a te ri a l

poi nt wi th t h ecom ponen ts

dz
,

d
. f ly d
m
d

F
M
dr dr
(

We m a
y c a l l th is vector
R { Ire m ovi n g f
orce f
o Me
m a te r i a l p oi n t .

If i n stea d of i n teg ra ti n g over the n orm a l sec ti on we ,

i n teg1 a te the equ a tion s over th a t c ro s s sectio n of the la

m en t w h ich 1 s n orm a l to the 1 a xis a i1 d p as ses throug h ,

then [See th e equ a tion s (2 0) a 1 obt a i n e

d but ,

a re n o w m u l ti pl i ed by
g; i n p a rticu l a r the l a st eq u a
,

tion comes out i n t h e form ,

z
l
f + 20, R , + 10 . R .

( 7 1

The ri gh t side is to h e looked u po n a s l e a m oun t f

o work

don e per un i t o
f li m e at th e m a t eri a l po i nt . In t h is

9
66 P R INCIPL E 011 am w ri vrr r

e qu a t ion w e ob ta i n t h e en er gy la w for th e m oti on of

'

t h m a teri a l poi n t a n d th e e
'
x pression
l

it

( 1 3

m a y be c a l led t he k i neti c en ergy of th e m a teri a l poi n t .

Si n ce ( 26 is l w a ys grea ter th a n I we c a ll
. a ( r m a
y th
e
{l t ( h
quoti ent
dT 1
as the Gain ( vorgeh en ) of th e ti m e

over t h e p roper ti m e of th e m a t eri a l p o

-
i n t a n d th e law ca n
then be th us expressed The k i n etic energy of a m a
t eri a l poi nt is the product of i ts m a ss i nto th e ga i n of t h e
t i me o ver i t s proper t i me -
.

Th e set o f four eqi1 a ti on s ( 22 ) aga i n sh ows the sym

'

m etry i n wh ich i s dem a nd ed by the rel a ti vity

postul a te ; to the fourt h equ a tion h owever a h i gh er phy ,

si ca l si gni c a n ce i s to be a tta ch ed a s we h a ve a l re ady ,

seen i n the a n a l ogous ca se i n el ect rodyn a mics On the .

grou n d of th is dem a nd for sym m etry t h e tri plet con sisti n g ,

of the rst th ree equ a tions a re to be constructed a fter the

m odel of th e fourth ; rem em be ri n g t h i s ci rcu m st a n ce we ,

a re j usti ed i n s a yi n g ,

If th e rel a tiv ity postu l a t e

be pl a ced a t th e h ea d of
-

m ech a n ics then th e w hol e set of l a ws of m o t ion fol lows

,

from th e la w of en er gy .

I refra i n from sh owi n g th a t n o con t ra d ictio n

ca n n ot

to th e a ssu mption on th e rel a ti vity postul a te ca n be -

ex pected fro m th e phenomen a of g ra v ita tion .

If *
z , f* ) be a sol id (feste r ) s pa ce ti me po i nt -

then the region of a ll th ose sp ace t i m e poi nts B (f 7 7

-

, + 1 ,

for w h ich
(23 ) = (l
t t* > 0
68 P RI NC I PL E or a s t a r rvn r

Now by 15 to be u nderstood the r a tio of the two

vectors i n questi on It is clea r th a t th is pro posi ti o n a t

onc e sh o ws the cov a ri a nt ch a ra c te r wi th respect to a

Lo ren tz group -
.

Let us now a sk h o w the sp a ce ti m e l a men t of F -

beh a ves w h en the m ateri a l po in t F * h a s a u n ifo rm

t ra ii slaitory motion i e th e pri nci p a l l i ne of the l a m e
i

,
n t . .
,

of F is a l i n e Le t us t a ke th e sp a ce ti me n ul l poi n t i n
* .
-

th i s a n d by m ea ns of a Lorent z t ra nsform a tion w e ca n

, .
-

ta ke th is a xis a s the l a x is Let r y z t d en ote th e poi n t -

. .
, , , ,

8 let r den ote th e proper ti m e of B* recko ned from 0

,
* -

,
.

O ur propos i tion l ea ds to th e equ a ti ons

* 2
77L . 1: (i 31
* *
( t r
)
3
ti f
f, ( t r
)
3

* * *
d d(t; )
'
t
z m z m -
r
(2 6
.

1
( 1
- 2
(t d r
2
( t r
*
)
2
(i t

wher e(2 7 ) . 0
9
+y + z 2 9

(fl ) ( iif) (Tii )

a ? =
am s s) +

In con s id era tion of

the th ree eq u a tion s
( 2 5) a re
of th e sa m e form a s th e equ a tion s for th e motion of a
m a teri a l po in t subje ted to a ttra ction f rom a xed cen tre
r

cc o1d i n to the Newto ni a n La w on ly th a t i n stea d of th e

a g ,

ti me f th e proper ti m e 1 of the m a te
, ri a l po i n t occu rs Th e '

fourth eq u a tion ( 2 6 ) gi ves th en the con n ection betw e en .

prope r ti m e a n d th e ti me for th e m a te ri a l poi nt .

l

4 -

Now for d i fferen t v a l ues of the orb1 t of th e spa ce

r ,

poi n t ( y z) i s a n el li ps e with th e sem i m a jor a x is a a n d

:
a -

th e ecc en trici ty e L ot E den o te the excen tric a n on i a ly T

'

.
,
 A PP EN D I X
th e i n c rem en t of the proper t i m e for a co m plete descri ption
of the or b it n a l ly n T = :2 7r so th a t fro m a prope rly chosen
, ,

i n i ti a l poi n t r we h a ve the K epler equ a tion

,
-

(2 9 ) ur z E e si n B.

If we n o w c h a n ge the u n i t of ti me a n d d eno te ,
th e

veloc i ty e
f l i ght by c then from we o bt a i n
,

m
"
l + ecosE
ao

l
ecos E

Now negl ecti n g c

"
w i th reg a rd to 1, i t fo llows th a t

*
l E
l:
m acos
m i l z : dr 1+ l
ac
l ecosE

fro m w h ic h by a pply i n g
,

(3 1 ) at con st
ac
2

the factor is h er e the squa re of the r a tio of a cert a i n

a vera ge vel oci ty of F i n i ts orbi t to th e veloci ty of l i ght .

*
I f n ow as d en ote th e m a ss of the sun (1 the sem i m ajo r ,

a xis of th e e a rth s orbit then th is fa c to r a m ou n t s to
,

Th e la w of m a ss a ttr a c t io n w h ich h as been j ust descr i b

ed a n d wh ich i s fm m ula ted i n a c co rd a nce wi th th e
rel a ti v ity postu l a te w ou ld sign i fy th a t gra vi ta ti on i s
propa ga ted wi th the v el oci ty of l i gh t I n v i ew of th e fa ct . . .

th a t the period ic te rm s i n ( 3 1 ) a re wery sm a l l i t (i s n ot ,

po ssible to decid e ou t of a stron om i ca l ob se rv a tion s between

s uch a la w ( wi th th e m odi ed m ec h a n ics pro po sed a bove )
'

m n d
'
t h e 1 Ne wt on i a n la w of a tt r acti on wi th New ton i a n
 70 P a m ci pt n or a m a u vrr v

S PA C E A N D TI M E
A Lectu re del i vere d b efore the N a tu rforscher V er
s a m m lu n g (C on gress of N a tu ra l Ph ilosophers ) a t C ologn e
(2 1 st September ,

G entlem en ,

The conce ptions a bout ti me a n d spac e wh ich I h ope ,

to develop before you to da y h a s g rown 011 experimen ta l

-

physic a l g rou nds Herei n l i es its stren gt h The tendency

. .

i s r a d ic a l H en cefo1t h th e old con ception of spa ce for

.
,

i tsel f a n d ti me for itself s h a l l red uce to a m ere sh a dow

,

a n d som e s ei t of u n ion of t he two w il l be fou n d con sisten t

w ith fa cts .

Now I w a n t to show yo u h ow we ca n a rri ve a t th e

ch a n ged concepts a bou t ti me a n d sp a ce from m ec h a n ics a s ,

a ccepted n ow a d a ys from pu rely m a them a tic a l consider a

- -
,

tions The e qu a tion s of Newton i a n m ech a n i cs sh ow a two

'

fold i nv a ri a nce (2) thei r form rem a i n s u n a ltered when

,

we subject the fu nd a m en ta l sp a ce coord i n a te system t o -

a n y possibl e ch a n ge of posi tion (i t) when we ch a n ge the ,

system i n its n a tu re of m otion 5 e when we i m press u po n ,

4

. .
,

i t a n y u n i form m otio n of tr a nsl a tion the n u l l poi n t of ti m e ,

-

pl a ys n o p a rt We a re accus to med to look u pon the a xio ms

.

of geom etry a ssettled on ce for a ll wh ile we seld om h ave the ,

sa m e am ou n t of co n v iction re ga rd in g the a xiom s of m ech a

n ics a n d therefo re th e two i n vari a nts a rese l dom mentioned
,

i n th e s a m e bre a th Ea ch on e of these den otes a cert a i n

.

grou p of tra n sform a tion s fo r th e d i fferen t i a l equ a tion s of

m ec h a n ics We l ook u po n th e existence of th e rs t grou p
.

as a fun d a m enta l ch a ra cteristics of sp a ce We a l w a ys .

pre fer to l ea ve off th e second g rou p to i tsel f a n d with a ,

l i ght hea rt c on cl ud e th a t we ca n n ever dec ide from physic a l

.

con sidera tion s w h ether th e sp a ce wh ich i s supposed to be ,

72 P R I NC I PLE o r a sm r rvrr v
'

r eso l ved i n s uch woi ld li n es a n d I m a y just devi at e from

.
' '
-

my poi nt if I sa yth a t a ccordi n g to my opi n i on t h e phys ica l

la w s w ould
f
n d t h ei r fu l l est ex pressi on a s m ut ua l rel a ti on s

a m on g the se l i ne
s .

By th is co nceptio n of ti m e a n d spa ce th e ( 3 z) m a n i ,
4
3
1
,

foldn ess l = o a n d i ts two sid es l < o a n d l > o fa l ls a su nder .

If for th e sa k eof s i mpl icity we keep the n u l l poi nt of ti m e ,

-

a n d sp a ce xed then t h e
, rst n a m ed group of m ech a n ics
s ign i es tha t a t t = o we ca n giv e the i y a n d z a xes a n y .
~

, ,
-

possibl e ro ta tion a bou t th e n ul l poi nt co rres pon d i n g to th e -

ho m ogen eou s l i n ea r t ra n sform a tion of th e expressi on

w 9
+y 2
+
a

T he seco nd group den otes th a t w ithou t ch a n gi n g th e

expressio n for the m ec h a n ic a l l a ws w e ca n s ubstitu te ,

(.v ht
y
,

B l z l for
y), ( y z ) where ( B 7) a re a n
y c
, , a
, , ,

con sta n ts A ccord i n g to th is we ca n give th e ti m e a xis

.
-

a n y possibl e d irection i n th e u pper h a l f of t h e world l > o .

N ow w h a t h a ve the d em a nds of orth ogo n a l i ty i n spa ce to

d o Wi th th is perfect freed om of th e ti me a x is tow a rds t h e -

upper h a lf
To esta b l i sh th is con n ection let us teke a posi ti ve p a ra ,

m e ter c a n d l et 11 s con si der th e gu re

,

O
Q
t Q m g
y
? z? =l

A ccord i n g t o th e a n a l ogy of th e hyperbo loid of two

sheets t h i s con si sts of two sh eets sepa ra ted by ( = o Let us
,
i .

con si der th e sheet i n t h e regi on of l > o a n d l et us n ow

, ,

eon cei vet h e tra n sform a tion of n y z t i n th e n ew system '

, , ,
' ' '
of v a ri a bles ; y z t ) by m ea ns of w h ich th e form of , ,

th e expres s i o n wi l l rem a i n u n a ltered C lea rly th e rot a tion .

of Spa ce rou nd th e n ul l poi n t belon gs to t h is gro up of

.
-

tra n sform a tion s Now we ca n ha ve a full idea iofthe t ra ns

. .

form a tion s w h ich we pictu re to ou rsel ves from a pa rticul a r .

 1 a r es rm rx 73 +

'
'
tra n sform a ti on w h i ch (y r ) rem a i n un a ltw ed

in l ret
'

, .

us d ra w the cr oss sec tio n of th e u ppe r s h eets w i th t h e

pl a n e of the :r a n d a xes th e u ppe r h a l f of -

z 2
t h e hyperbol a c l with i ts a sy m ptotes (r i le

g l ) . .

Then l et us d ra w the ra d i u s r ector O A th e tan ge n t

,

A B a t A a n d l et us com plete t he p a ra l lelogra m 0A

' ' ' '

B C ; a lso prod uc e B C
' ' ' '
to meet th e r a x is a t D . -

'
Let us n ow ta ke O x O A a s n e w a xe s w i t h t h e u n i t m ea ,

s ur m g .
rods Off
: 1 ,( I N t hen th e hyper bol a i s ag a m
1

expressed i n th e fo m (: l l ; t > o a n d t h e tra n si r

3 '
2 '

tio n fro m j/ l ) to ( ) i s on e of th e tra nsiti o n s i n

x/ 2 7 ,

ques tio n L et us a dd to th i s ch a r a c ter i sti c t ra nsfo rm a ti on

. .

possi ble d ispl a cem e nt of th e sp a ce a n d ti m e n ul l poi n ts

an
y ;
-

then w e get a group of tran s fo rm a ti on depend i n g on ly on

y

c wh ich we m a
, y d en ote b G , .

N ow l et us 1 n crea se c to hn 1t
y T h us becomes ero
E
1n . z
;

an d it ppe a rs from th e gu re th a t th e hyperbol a is g r a d u

a

a llv sh ru n k i nto th e axis th e a svm pt oti c a n gl e be ,

s t ra i gh t on e a n d e very s pe
-

com es el a l t m n sfor m a ti om i n
'

a ,

t h e l i m i t ch a n ges i n such a m a n ne r t h a t th e f a x is ca n . -

ha ve a n y pos si b l e d i rect i on u pw a rd s a n d more a n d ,

m ore a pp ox i m a tes to R em em b eri n g th i s poi n t i t i s

r

c l e a r th at th e fu l l grou p belon gi n g to Newton i a n M ec h a n ics

i s si m ply th e g rou p G with the v a l ue of I n th is
s ta te of a ffai rs a n d s i nce G is m a th em a ti ca l ly mo re i n
, .

te lli g i ble 1th a n G 00 a ma th em a ti ci a n m a y by a fr ee p l a y , , ,

of i m a gi n a tion h i t u pon th e th ou ght th at n a tu ra l pheno

,

m en a po ss e ss a n i n v a ri a nce not on ly for th e grou p G m ;

i f ct lso for a grou p G w h ere c i s i e but y

b t
'

u t i ii a { a n e
t ,

10
74 P R IN C IP L E or R ELA TI VITY

exceed i n gly l a rge com pa red to th e usu a l m e a su ri n g u n its .

Such a pr eco n cepti on woul d be a n ex t ra ord i n a ry tri um ph

for pu re m a them a ti cs .

Atthe s a m e ti m e I sh a l l rem a rk fo r w h ich v a l ue of c ,

th i s i n v a ri a n ce ca n be con cl usi vely h eld to be true F or 0 .

,

w e sba ll substi tute l it e vel oci ty o f l i g k l c i n

fr ee s a ce
p .

In o rder to a void spea k i n g eith er of s p ace o r of v a cu um ,

we m a y ta k e th is qu a nti ty a s th e r a ti o between the electro

sta tic a n d el ec tro m a gn eti c u n i ts of el ectricity
-

We ca n form a n id e a of the i n v a ri a n t ch a ra cter of th e

expressio n for n a tu ra l l a ws for th e grou p tra n sform a tion -

G i n the fol lowi ng m a n n er

, .

O ut
of the tota l ity of n a t ura l ph en om en a we ca n by , ,

successi ve h ig her a pproxi m a ti on s ded uce a coo rd i n a te ,

syste m (:r y z t) by m e a n s of th i s coord i n a t e syste m we

, , , ,

ca n represen t th e phen o men a a cco rd i n g t o d efi n ite l a ws .

T h i s system of referen ce is by n o m e a n s u n iquely deter

m i n ed by the phen om en a We ca n M a n ge M e system of .

r feren ce i n
e an
yp ossi ble m an n er corr esp on di n g to M e a bove

m en ti on ed g rbn p tra n s
form i
a t on but l/ze ex pr essi on
G s f or

n a tur a l l a ws w i ll n ot becl a n ged M erely .

For ex a m pl e correspo ndi n g to the a bove de sc ribed

,
'
gure we ca n ca l l t th e ti m e bu t then n ecessa ri ly the
, ,

space co n n ected wi th i t m u st h s expressed by th e m a n i .

'
foldn ess ( y z ) . n T he physica l l a ws a re n o w expressed by
.

' '
m e a n s of l a n d the express ion s a re j ust the
y . t
, , ,

s a m e a s i n th e c a se of n y 2 l A ccord i n g to th is we a
, , .
,

s h a l l h a ve i n th e world not on e spa ce but m a ny spac es , , ,

qu ite a n a lo gous to th e ca se th a t the th ree d i m ensio n a l -

spa ce consists of a n i n n i te n u m ber of pl a nes Th e th r ee .

d i m ensi on a l geom etry w i l l be a ch a pter of fou r d i mens ion a l -

p hysics Now
. you percei ve why I s a id i n th e begi n n i n g ,
76 P R NC I L E or
I P R EL A TI V l TY

qua n t i t v 6 the fi rst i m pression the a xi o m seems to

. At ,

be ra t her un sa t isfa ct orv It i s to be remembered th a t .

'

o n ly a mod i ed m ec h a n i cs w i ll occur i n wh ich th e squ a re ,

root of th i s d i fferen ti a l com bin a tio n ta kes t h e p l a ce of

ti m e so th a t c a ses i n wh i ch the vel ocity is gr ea ter th a n c
.

w i l l p l a y n o p a rt som eth i n g l ik e i m a gi n a ry coordi n a tes

,

i n g eo met ry .

T he re a l c a u se of i nd ucem ent for tbc

i m p ulse an d
i / sf a l i on is h f a ct th at
'

a ssum
p t on f
o l i eg r ou
p l r an or m G t e -
C

th e di ffere nti a l equ a t ion for th e prop a g a ti on of l i ght i n

v a ca nt sp a ce p osse sses th e grou p tr a n sform a tion G On -

th e oth er h a n d t h e i de a of rig i d bod ies h a s a n y sense

,

o n l y i n a sys te m m ec h a n i cs w it h th e grou p G Now m

.

if we h a ve a n optics wi th G an d on the other h a n d

if th ere a re r i g i d bodi es i t i s e a sy to see th a t a ,

l d i rection be de n ed by t h e two hyperb ol oid a l

-
ca n

s he l l s c om m o n to th e g rou ps G 00 a n d G
.
wh ich h a s

got th e fu rther consequ en ce th a t by m e a ns of su it able

'

rigid i n str um e n ts i n t h e l a bor a tory we ca n pe rceive a ,

c h a n ge i n n a tu ra l ph en o m en a i n c a se of d i fferen t orient a ,

t U S W lth reg a rd to t h e d i rect ion of progressi ve m otion

,
'

of the e a rt h But a ll efforts d i rected t ow a rds t h is

.

ob ject a n d even th e cel ebra ted i nterference experi ment

,
-

of M i ch elson h a ve gi ve n n eg a ti ve resu l ts I n ordc r to .

su pply a n ex pl a n a ti on for th is resu l t H A L oren t z

'

.
,
.

fo rm ed a hypo t hes is which pra ct ica llv a moun ts to a n

i n v a ri a nce of opt ics for the group G A cco r d i n g to ,
.

Loren t z ever v substa n ce s h a l l suffer a con t raction

(V
V
1
l ~
i n len gth ,
in th e d i rec tion of its m otion
0
 A rr n n n l x 77

Th i s hy po thes is sou nds ra ther ph a n ta sti c a l llor the .

con t ra ctio n i s n ot to be thou ght of a s a consequen ce of t h e

resi s ta n ce of eth er but pu rel y a s a gift fro m the ski es 1 as a
L
, ,

so rt of C on di t ion a l w a ys a cco m p a n yi n g a state of motion .

I s h a l l s ho w i n ou r gu re th a t L oren tz s hy pot hes i s

i s fu l l y equ i v a le n t to th e n ew conception s a bou t t i m e a n d

T h ereby i t m a ya p pe a r more i n tel l igibl e Let us
i

s p a ce . -
.

n ow for the s a ke of s i m pl ici ty n eglect (y z) a n d x our

, , ,

a tten ti on on a t w o d i men si on a l world

i n w h ich let u prigh t ,

str ips pa ra l lel to the t a x is represen t a sta teof rest a n d

-

a n othe r p a ra l l el s tri p i ncl i n ed to th e l a xi s represen t a -

st a te of u n i form m otio n for a body w h ic h h a s a con sta n t ,

'
S p a ti a l exten sio n (s ee g If D A i s p a r a l le l to the seco nd
.

' '
s t r i p we ca n ta ke l a s t h e l a xi s a n d r as th e x a xis the n -
.
,

the sc 0n d bod v wi l l a ppe a r to be a t res t a n d t h e rst body

i
,

in u n i fo r m m ot io n We s h a l l n ow a ssu me th a t th e rst
.

b ody s uppos l to be a t res t h a s t h e l en gth l i a the , ,

. .
,

cro ss se ct io n P P of th e rst s t ri p u pon t h e a x is l 00 - :

'

whe re C C i sthe uh i t m e a s u ri n g rod u pon t h e r a x is a n d .

-

t he seco n d hod r a l so wh e n su ppos ed to h e a t rest h a s the

, ,

'
s a m e l en gth 1 th i s m e a n s th a t th e c ross section Q Q of
, ,
'

th e e con d stri p h a s a cross section

s wh en me a su red
-

pa ra lle l to the a xi s I n t h :se t w o bod ies we h a ve

-
.
,

n ow i m a ge s of t w o Lo ren t z electr o n s on e of wh ic h i s a t -

rest a n d the oth er mo ves u n i for m l y Now i f we stick .

to our ori gi n a l coo rd i n a tes th en t h e ex te n s ion of t h e,

sec on d e l ectron i s gi ven bv th e c ross s ecti on Q Q of t h e

stri p bel on gi n g to i t m ea s ured pa ra llel to t h e a xis -
.

N ow it is cle a r si nce t hat

If = e, an e a sy c a l c ul a tio n gives th a t
PP

O D = OC
'
th erefore Q Q
 P R INCIPL E OF R ELA TI VI TY

Th is is the sen se of Loren t z s hypothesis a bo ut the
con tr a cti on of elect ron s i n c as e of m otio n O n the other .

h a n d i f we con cei ve th e second electro n to be a t rest

, ,
'
a n d therefore a dopt th e system ( w then the cross section ,
-

' ' '

P P of the stri p of the el ectro n p a r a l lel to O C i s to be
rega rded a s i ts length a n d we s h a l l nd th e rst electro n
shorten ed with referen ce to t h e s eco n d i n the sa me propor
ti on for i t i s
, ,

' ' '

P P OD OD Q Q .

QT

oo oc PP
'
Lorent z ca l led t he combi n a tion l of ( l a n d ) a s the c

l oca l l i ege ( Or tszei t) of the u n i for m ly m ov i n g el ectro n a n d ,

us ed a physi ca l construction of th is idea for a better com p re

h en si on of the con tr a ctio n hypoth e s is B u t to percei ve -
.

cle a rly th a t the ti m e of a n el ec tro n is as good a s th e ti me

'
of a n yother el ec tro n i f t t a re to be reg a rded a s equ i , .
,

v a len t h as been th e ser vice of A Ei nstei n [A n n (1

,
. . .

Phys 8 9 1 p 1 9 05 J a h rb d
.
,
.
,
4 1 1 1 9 07 ] Th ere
. .
- -

the con cept of ti me w a s s ho wn to be com plete l y a n d n u

a mbi guously es t a bl ish ed by n a tu r a l ph enom en a B ut th e .

concept of spa ce w as not a rri v ed a t ei th er by Ei nstei n ,

or Loren tz proba bly bec a use i n the c a se of th e a bove

,
' '
men tion ed spa ti a l tra nsform a ti on s w h ere t he ( c l ) pl a ne , ,

co i ncides w ith t h e u l pl a n e the si gn i c a nce is possible

.
-

t h a t the c a xis . of sp a ce
- so me h ow rem a i ns con served i n -

i ts posit ion .

We ca n a ppro a ch t he ide a of s pa c e i n a correspo n di n g

m a n ner though some m a y reg a rd th e a ttem pt a s r a ther
,

fa n tas tic a l .

A ccord in g to these ide as the w ord R e l a ti vi ty Postu

,
-

l a te wh ich h as been coi n ed for the d em a nds of i n v a ri a n ce

in th e group G s ee m s to b e r a ther,
i n ex press i ve for a tru e
u nd ersta nd i ng of t h e group G a n d tor fu rthe r progre ss .
80 R EL A Tl V I TY
'

. Pm N m a or

l h e rei nsid e the two con es w il l be oc u pi ed by the

g i on l c

h yperbol oi d of on e sh ee t '

_F _ 2
+ 31
?
c c l =l 9
,

where M ca n h a ve a ll possi ble posi ti ve v a l ues Th e .

hyperbol a s wh ic h l i e u pon th i s g u re w i th O a s cen tre

'

a re i mport a n t for us F or th e s a k e of c l e a rn ess the i n di vi

.

d u a l br a nch es of th is hy perbo l a w i ll be c a l led th e [ n l er

l yperbol n w i l l cen tre , Such a hyperbol ic br a n ch
,
,

when th ou gh t of a s a wor ld l i n e wou l d represen t a -

motion wh ic h fo r l = oo a n d as vm
pt ot i ca lly ,

a ppro aches th evel oci ty of l i gh t 6 .

If by w a y of a n a lo g y to th e i dea of vecto rs i n sp a ce
, ,

we c a l l a n y d i rec t ed len gth i n t h e m a n ifold n ess a

vector then we h a ve to d isti n gu ish between a ti me vector

,
-

d i rected fro m O to w a rds the s heet t > 0a n d a

s pa ce vector d i rected fro m 0 towa rd s t h e sh eet

-

The ti m e a xis ca n be p a ra l lel to a n y vec tor of t h e

-
rs t

k i nd A n y world poi n t betwee n t he fore a n d q fl con es

-
.

of O m a y by me a n s of th e syste m of reference be r ega rd ed

,

ei ther as sy nch ron ous wi th O a s wel l a s l a ter or ca l ier ,

l

th a n O Every world poi n t on th e fore s id e of O is

.

.
- -

nec ess a ri ly a l wa ys e a r l ier ever v poi n t on t h e a ft sid eof ,

O l a ter th a n 0
,
Th e l i m i t c = oo correspon ds to a com
.

p le te foldi n g u p of the w ed g e s h a ped cross section betwee n - -

the fore a n d a ft con es i n t h em a n i fold n ess l 0 I n th e z .

'

gu re d ra wn th is c ross sec t ion h as bee n i n t en t i o n a ll t

,
-
'

d ra wn wit h a di iferen t bre a dth '

.

Let us d eco mpose a vecto r d r a wn from 0 towa rds

i nto its compon en ts If the d i rection s of the two .

v ec tors a rewespeet i vely the d i recti on s of t h e ra di us v e

ctor
O R to on eof the s urfa c es F = l a n d of a tan gen t R S ,
 AP P EN D I X 81

at the poi n t R of the s urfa ce then th e v ectors s h a l l be ,

c a l l ed n orm a l to e a ch oth er A ccord i n gl y .

ll , ar1: .
1

y j/ ,
zz
,
= 0,

wh ich i s th e cond i tion th a t the vectors wi th th e co m

po n en ts ( wh y 3 ,
l ) a,
n d r
( , y, , , )
25 l a re n orm a l to e a ch
o t her .

F or t h e m ea surem en t
of vectors i n di ffere n t d i rections ,

t h e u n i t m e a su ri n g rod is to be x ed i n th e fol lowi n g

m a n ner a spa ce l ike vecto r from 0 to P = I i s a l wa ys
-

to h a ve th e me a s u re u n ity a n d a ti me l i ke vector from ,

-

l
O to F: l l> 0i s a l wa ys to h a ve the me a su re -

Let us n o w x our a tten tion u pon th e world l i n e of a -

substa n tive poi n t ru n n i n g th roug h the world poi nt -

'

2,
l ) ; then a s we fol low th e p rogress of t h e li n e th e ,

qu a ntity

1
l s/ c dt du dy dz

t r .
-

,
C

correspond s to th e ti me l i ke v
ector elemen t (dr - -
, ( ly, dz , ( ll ) .

Th e i n tegra l
f dr, ta ken over the world l i ne from
'
7
-

xed i n i ti al poi n t P 0 to a n y v a ri a ble n a l poi n t P

an
y ,

m a ybe c a l led th e Pro p er ti m e of th e su b sta n ti a l poi n t -

a t P 0 u pon th e wor ld l i n e We m a yrega rd ( y, 2 l ) l o

-
.
. r
, , ,
. .
,

the com pon en ts of th e vec tor OP a s fu ncti on s of th e ,

l et (5 y 5 l) d en ot e th e rs t di

c ti m e eren t i a l
m
p pm , , ,

quoti en ts ,
an d (:r, y, z, t) the seco n d d ifferen ti a l q uotie n ts
82 P R I NC I PL E or R ELA TI V I TY
be c a l led t h e Veloci ty vector a n d the A ccelera l lon -

;
-
occl or

of th e substa n ti a l poi nt a t P Now we h a ve .

_ _
a
s
9 9 a
c
a

0 t t w av z o
yy zz

'

z. the
e, . Velorzly vector
i s t he t i me l ike vector of u n i t
- -

me a sure i n th e di rection of the world l i ne a t P the A ccel e -

"
ra ti on re ctal -
a t P is n orm a l to th e velocity vector a t P -
,

a n d is i n a n yc a se a sp a ce l i ke vector ,
-
.

Now there is a s ca n be e a sily seen a cert a i n hyperbol a

, , ,

w h ic h h as th ree i n n itely contiguous poi n ts i n com m on

with the world l i n e a t P a n d of wh ich the a sy m ptotes -

a re th e gen e ra tors of a fore con e a n d a n a ft cone - -

T his hyperbol a m aybe ca lled th e hyperbol a of cu rv a ture

'

a t P ( a i de g If M be th e cen tre of th i s hyperbol a

.
,

th en we h a ve to de a l h ere w ith a n I nter hyperbo l a wit h -

centre M Let P = m ea sure of th e vector M P then we

.
,

e a sily percei ve th a t the a ccelera t io n vector a t P i s a vector -

2
9
f
o m ag n i l ude i n M e di r ecti on .

f
o MP .

I f r y z t a re n i l then t he h yperbola of curv a ture

.
, , , ,

at P red uces to the stra i gh t l i n e touch i n g th e worl d l i ne -

P, d p = oc
'

at an .

IV

order to d emonstra te th a t the a ssum ption of the

In
grou p G for the physi ca l l a ws does n ot possi bly lea d to
,

contr a diction i t is u n n eces sa ry to u nderta k e a revi sion

an
y ,
'

of the wh ole of physics ou the b a sis of the a ssum ptions '

u nderly i n g th is group T h e rev i sion h as a l rea dy be en .

successful ly m a de i n the c a se of Thermodyn a m ics a n d
84 P R INCIP L E or R ELA TI V I I Y

i m pulse sector ,

ccel era tion vector a t P as d trm es th e

-
an m -
a -

the force vector of m oti on a t P A cco rd i n g to these

-

, .

de n ition s t h e fol lowi n g la w tells us how t he m otion of

,

*
a poi n t m a ss ta kes pl a ce un der a n y m ov i n g force vector
- -

T/zeforce vector o i i a l to M em ovi n g b

f m ot on s equ -

/ r ee

vector .

Th is en u nci a tion com pri ses four equ a tio n s for the com
po n en ts i n th efou r di rection s of wh ic h the fou rth can be ,

de duced fro m the rst t h ree bec a use both of the a bov e ,

me n tio n ed vecto rs a re per pe n d icu l a r to th e v el ocity vec tor -

.

F ro m the de n itio n of T we see th a t the fourth si m ply ,

Ener g y la w '

expresses the A ccord i n gl y c tzrn es M e

Q -
.
-

com
p on en f
t o M e i m p lse vector i n
u -
M e di recti on f
o Me
'

t-
a c zs is to be de n ed a s M e k i n eti c en erg y
-
of th e poi n t
m a ss . T he ex pressi o n for th is i s

t e, if we ded uct fro m th is t he a dd iti ve const a nt 7720 we

. .
9
,

obta i n the express i on 57 72 0 of Ne wton i a n m ech a n ics u pto

2 2 -

m a gn itudes of M e order o
f 12 . H ence i t a ppe a rs th a t Me
0

en ergy depends upon M e s/i stem of referen ce But si nce the r .

t a xis ca n be l a id i n th e di rection of a n y ti me l ike a xis

- -

therefore the en ergy la w co m prises fo r a n yposs ible system -

of re ference th e w hol e system of equ a t ion s of m o t ion

, .

T h is fa ct reta i ns i ts s i g n i
c a nce eve n i n th e li m i t i n c a se g

for the a xiom a tic construction of Ne w ton i a n

m ech a n ics as h a s a l re a dy been poi nted out by T R
,
. .

Sch ii t z l

Min k ow s ki M ech a n i cs, a ppen di t , pa g e 6 5 of pa pe r

P l an c k V er h . d D P
. . . G V ol 4. .
, 1 906, p 1 36. .

1 Sch ut z , can . N a ch r . 1 8 97 , p 1 1 0 . .
 A PP EN DI X 85

F ro mthe very begi n n i n g w e ca n est bl ish t h e ra t io ,

a

between the u n its of ti m e a n d sp a ce i n s uch a m a n n er t h at ,

t he veloci ty of l ig h t becomes u n i t y If we n o w write .

1 t l i n the pl a ce of
z
,
th en the d ifferen ti a l expressi on

i
fr m

beco mes sym m etr ic a l i n y z th is s vm m c t r

y hen
t , ,

en ters i n to ea ch la w wh ich does n ot con tra d ic t the w orl d

,

p os t ul a te We ca n c.l oth e th e
essen ti al n a tu re of th is
postul a te i n th e mystica l bu t m a th em a t i ca llv sign i c a nt ,

form ul a
3 1 0 km
' 5
= _ 1 Sec .

The a d v a n ta g es a risi n g from t h e form u l a tio n of t h e

world p o tu l a te a re i l l ustra t ed by n oth i n g so s trik i n gly
-
s

as by the exp ressio ns w h ich tel l us a bou t th e re a ction s

exerted by a poin t ch a rge mo vi n g i n a n y m a n n er a ccord
-

i n g to the M a x we l l Loren t z theory -

.

Let us concei ve of th e world l i ne of such a n el ect i o n -

wi th the ch a rge (e) a n d l et us i n trod uce upon i t t h e ,

P r p er ti m e
o -
rec kon ed from a n y possible i n iti a l po i nt
1
'

In o rder to o bt a i n the eld c a used by th e electron a t a n y

world poi n t P , let us con s t ruct t h e fore con e belon gi n g
- -

C le a rly th is cu ts the un l i m ited

'

to P 1 ( vzdc f
'
ig .

world l in e of th e elec tron a t a s i n gle po i n t P bec a use these

-

d i rection s a re a ll ti m el i ke vec to rs A t P let us d ra w the

-
.
,

t a n gen t to th e world l in e a n d l et us d ra w f rom P , the

n orm a l to th is ta ngen t Let r be th e m e as u re of P , Q . .

A ccord i n g to th e d e n i ti o n of a fore con e r/c i s to be

'
-
,

reckon ed a s th e me a su re of P G Now a t th e worl d poi n t P .

-
86 P R I NC PL E or R EL ATI V I TY
I

th e vector poten ti a l of th e eld exci ted by e i s represented

-

by the vector i n d i rectio n P Q h a v i n g th e m a gn itud e .

,

i n its th ree spa ce com pon en ts a lon g th e y z a xes

5 :r -

th e sca l a r poten ti a l i s represented by th e com ponent a lon g

-

the t a xis Th is is th e elem en t a ry la w fou n d out by

-
.

A Lien a rd a n d E Wi ec h ert *
.
, . .

If
the eld c a used by th e electron be descri bed i n the
a bove m entioned w a
y then it wi l l a ppe a r th a t th e d ivision
-

of the eld i n to electric a n d m a gneti c forces is a rel a tive

on e a n d depends upon t h e ti me a xis a ssu m ed ; the two
,
-

forces cons idered t ogeth er be a rs som e a n a logy to th e

force screw i n m ech a n ics the a n a logy is h owever i m
-

, ,

perfect .

I sh a l l n ow d escr ibe M e p on derom oti ve force i on i c/i i s

ex er ted by on e m ovi n g electr on u
p on a n oM er m ovi n y electron .

Let us suppose th a t the wo rl d l i n e of a secon d poi n t -

electro n p a sses t h rough th e world poi n t P , Let us .

-
.

determ i n e P Q r a s before construct th e m iddle poi n t M

, , ,
-

of t he hyperbol a of cu rv a tu re a t P a n d n a l l y th e n orm a l ,

MN u pon a l i n e th rou gh P wh ich is pa ra l lel t o Q P , .

Wit h P as th e i n iti a l poi n t we sh a l l est a bl ish a syste m ,

of reference i n t h e fol lo w i n g w a y: th e t a x is w i l l be l a i d -

a lon g P C) th e a a xis i n th e d i rection of Q P ,

,
l he ya x is -
.
'
-

i n th e d i recti on of M N th en th e z a xis is a utom a tica l ly ,

-

determ i ned a s i t i s n orm a l t o the y ,

z a xes Let . r -

,
-
.

w, y ,
z, t bc th e a c celera ti on vector -
at P , a
n y
be the veloci ty vector a t P , Then th e force vector exerted -
.
-

by the rst election e ( m ov i n g i n a n y possible m a n n er ) ,

Li en a rd, L

Ecl a i ra g e ectri que T 1 6 , l 1 8 96 , p 63 . .

W i ech ert ,
An n . d P h ysi
. k ,
V ol. 4 .
 88 P RI N C IPL E or R ELA TH I TY '

th en t m aybe i n troduced i n s uch a m a n n er th a t m m aybe

rega rded a s xed th e motion of m is n ow subjected to the
,

m ovi n g force vector of m a lon e If we n ow m odi fy th is

-

g iven vecto r by wr i t i n g i nste a d of it ( 2 1 up

to m a gn i tud es of th e order

then it a ppea rs th a t
3

K ep l er s l
ws hold good for the posi tion
a
y, of ,

112
1
at an
y t i m e on ly i n pl a ce of th e ti me t , we h a ve to
, ,

write th e proper ti me 7 , of m l On th e b a s is of th is .

s im pl e rem a rk i t ca n be seen th a t th e p roposed la w of

,

a ttr a ctio n i n co mbi n a t io n wi th n ew m ech a n ics i s n ot less

suited for the expl a n a tion of a stro no m ic a l phen omen a th a n
the Newto n i a n la w of a ttr a ction i n com bi n a tio n wi th
Newton i a n m ech a n ics .

A lso t h e fu nd a m en ta l equ a tion s for electro m a gneti c -

processes i n m ov i n g bod ies a re i n a cco rd a n ce w i th th e

world postu l a te I s h a l l a lso s how on a l a ter occ a s ion
-
.

th a t th e ded uction of these equ a tio ns a s t a ugh t by ,

Lorent z a re by n o m e a n s to be g iven up
,
.

The f a ct th a t the world pos tu l a te hol ds w ithou t ex cep

-

tion i s I bel ieve th e true essence of a n e l ectrom a gnetic

, ,

pi ctu re of the world th e i de a rst occu r red to Lorent z i ts ,

essence w a s rst picked out by Ei n stei n a n d is n ow gra du ,

a lly fu l ly m a n ifest In cou rse of ti m e t h e m a them a t ic a l

.
,

con sequences wi l l be gra du a lly ded uced a n d enough ,

s uggestion s w i l l be forth com in g for th e experi m en t a l

veri c a tion of the postu l a te i n th is w a y even th ose who ,

n d i t u n congen i a l or even p a i n fu l to give up th e old

, ,

ti me honoured concepts w i l l be reconci l ed to th e n ew id e a s

-

of tim e a n d spac e i n the p rospect th a t th ey w il l lea d to

,

i re esta blish ed h a r mony between pu re m a them a tics a n d

[
-

phys ics .
 Th e F oun da t i on of t h e G en era li sed
Th eoryof R ela t i vi t y
BY A . EI N STEI N .

F rom A n n a l en der P kysi k

T he th eory wh ic h i s sketched i n the fol lo wi ng pa g es

for m s the most w ide goi ng ge n era l i za tion con ceiv a b le of
-

wh a t I s a t pre sen t k now n as the th eory of R el a ti vi ty

th is l a t te r theory I di eren ti a te f rom the form er

Speci a l Re la tivi ty theory a n d s uppose
, i t to be k n ow n .

Th e gen er a l i z a tion of the R el a t ivi ty theory h as b een m ade r

m uch ea s ier th rough th e form given to th e speci a l Rela

t i vit y theory by M i n kowsk i wh ic h m a th e m a ti ci a n w as t h e
,

rs t to recogn i z e cle a rly the fo r m a l equ iv a lence of t h e spa ce

l i ke a n d ti me l i ke co o rd i n a tes a n d w ho m ade use of it i n
- -

t h e bu i ld i n g u p of the theory T he m a them a ti ca l a ppa ra tu s

.

usefu l for the gen er a l rel a ti vi ty th eo ry lay a l re a dy com ,

plete i n the A b solu te D i

eren ti a l C a lc u l us

w h ic h we re ,

ba sed on the rese a rch es of G a uss R ie m a n n a n d C h ri sto

,
el

on t he n on Eu -
cl id ea n m a n i fold a n d wh ic h h a ve bee n
,

sh a ped i n to a system by R icci a n d Levi ci vita a n d a l rea dy -

a ppl ied to the probl ems of theoretica l physics I h a ve i n .

pa rt B of th is co m m un ica tion d evelop ed i n th e si m pl es t

a n d cle a rest m a n n er a ll th e suppos ed m a them a tical
,

a u x il i a ries
,
not k n own to Physicists wh ich wi l l be u seful ,

for our pu r pose so th a t a study of th e m a th e ma tica l

, ,

l i tera ture i s n o t necess a ry fo r a n u ndersta n d i n g of th is

pa per F i n a l ly i n th is p l a ce I th a n k my fri en d G r ossm a n n
.
,

by w hose hel p I w as n ot o n ly spar ed the study of th e

m a them a ti ca l l i te ra tu re perti nen t to th is subj ect bu t w h o ,

a lso a id e d m e i n th e resea rches on t h e eld e u a tion s of

q
gra vi ta tion .

12
 P R INCIPL E OF R EL ATI V I TY
A
PR INCIP A L C N S ID ERA TION S A BO U T TH E
O P osr um rs
or R EL TI V I TY A .

I1
{ . R em ark s on th especi a IEeIs ti vI tyTh eory .

The speci a l rel a ti vity theory rests on the fol lowi n g

postu l a te w h ic h a lso holds v a l id for th e G a l i leo Newton i a n -

m ech a n ics .

o rdi n a teSys te m K b e so ch oisen th a t wh en re

I f a ti c -

ferred to i t the phy sica l l a ws h old I n thei r s i m pl e

, st forms
these laws w ould b e also v a l id w h en referred to a n oth er
sy ste m of co ordi n a tes K wh i ch I s subj ected to an u n iform
-

tran slat ion a l motio n rel a ti ve to K Vt e c a l l th is pos tul a te .

The Speci al Rela ti vi ty Prin ci ple

By the word spec i a l .
,

i t i s si gn i ed t h a t the pri nciple i s l i m i ted to the ca se

'
'
,

Wh en K h a un iform t ra n sla tory motion with referenc e to

K but t h e eq ui va len ce of K a n d K does n ot ex tend to the

'
ca s e of n ou l
of K rel a ti ve to K .

Th e Speci a l Rel a ti vi ty T heory does n ot dier fro m t h e

'
'

c lassic al m ec h a n ics th rough the a ss umptio n of thi s pos tu

l a te but o n ly th rough the postu la te of the consta n cy of
,

l i gh t v eloc ity i n va c uu m wh ich when com b in ed wi th the

-

spec i a l rel a ti vity postu l a te gi ves i n a wel l k n own w a y t h e

,
' -
,

re l a ti vi ty of sy nch ron is m as well as t h e Loren z t ra n sfor -

m a ti on wi th a ll t h e rel a t ion s between m ovi n g ri gid bod i es

,

an dlclocks .

Th e m od i ca ti o n wh ich t h e theory of space a n d t i m e I

h as u n de rgon e th rough th e spec i a l rel a tivity t h eory i s , .

i hdeed a profou nd on e but a w ei gh tier poi nt re m ai ns ,

u n touch ed A ccord i n g to t h e speci a l rel a tiv i ty t heory the

. ,

t h eor ems of geom etry a re to be l ook ed u po n a s t h e la ws

a bout a n y poss ible rel a ti ve pos i ti ons of sol id bod i es a t rest ,
92 P R INCIPL E or a s u r rvrrr

ask , W h yi s
t h i s di fference be t wee n th e two bod i es An
a n s w er to th is question ca n on ly t he n be reg a rded a s sa ti s
fa ctory from the epi steom olog i ca l sta n d po int when the
th i n g a dd uced as th e ca use is a n observ a ble fa ct of ex
p e r i en ce T he. la w of c a us a l i ty h a s the sen se of a de n ite

s ta tem en t a b out th e world of ex per ience on ly w hen

o bserva b le facts a lone a ppe a r as c a us es a n d e ffects .

Th e Newton i a n m ech a n ics does n ot gi ve th is qu estion to

a n ysa ti sfa ctory a n swer F or exa m ple i t s a ys T he la ws

.
,

of mech a n ics hold true for a sp ac e R rela tive to wh ich ,

th e b ody S i s a t r es t n ot h owever for a sp a ce rela tive to

, ,

wh ich S i s a t rest , .

T h e G a lili ea n sp ace w h ich i s h ere i n trod uced i s ho w

,

ever on ly a pu rely i m a gi n a ryca use n ot a n obs erv a bl eth i ng

'

.
,

It i s th us cl ea r th a t the Newt o n i a n m ec h a n i cs does n ot ,

i n the c a s e t re a ted here a ctu a l ly fu l l th e requ ir em en ts

,

of ca usa li ty but prod uces on the m i nd a cti ti ous com

L

l n cy i n th at i t m kes res po ns ible l

'

p ace , a a w/ olly zm ag za a r
y
ca use R for the d i fferen t beh a v iou rs of the bodi es 8
,
an d ,

S wh ich a re a ctu a lly observ a bl e

,
.

A sa tisfactory expl a n a tion to the question pu t fo rw ar d

a bove ca n o n ly b e thus gi ven th a t the phy sica l system
-

com pos e d of S a n d S sh ows fo r i tself a lon e no con

, ,

ce i va ble ca use to wh ich th e di eren t be h a viour of S a n d ,

.

S ca n bea tt ri b uted Th e ca use m ust th us l ie o uts ide t h e

,
;

s stem We a re therefo re l ed to the concepti on th a t th e

y .

gen era l l a ws of m oti on wh i ch determ i n e s pec i a l ly the

'

fo rm s of S a n d S m ust be of such a ki nd t h a t the

, , ,

m e ch a n i ca l beh a viou r of S a n d S m ust be essen tia l ly

l ,

con d itio n e d by th e di sta nt m a sses wh ich we h a d n ot ,

brou gh t i nto th e system co nside red These d ista n t m a sses .

,

d th i r r l a ti ve motio n a s rega rds th e bodi es und er con

( a n e e

s id era ti on ) a re the n to be l ook ed upo n a s the sea t of th e

r i n ci pal o bser va ble c a uses for t h e di e ren t beh a v i o urs
p
 ea N a aa m ss n T E H ORY or a em '
ri vn r 93

of t h e bodi es u n der co n sidera tion T h ey ta ke th e p la ce .

of the i m a gi n a ry ca u se R A m on g a ll the conce iv a ble

,
.

spa ces R a n d R m o vi n g i n a n y m a n ner rel a ti ve to on e

, ,

a n oth er there i s a prio ri

, n o on e set wh ich ca n be rega rd ed
,

as a ordi n g g r ea te r adv a nt a ges a g a i n st wh ic h the obj ection ,

wh ic h w a s a l rea dy ra i sed from th e sta nd po i n t of t h e

t heory of k n owled ge ca n n ot be a g a i n rev i ved Th e l a w s .

of physi cs m ust be so co nsti tut ed th a t they s ho uld rem a i n

v a l id for a n y system of cc o rd i n a tes m ovi n g i n a n y m a n ner
-
.

We th us a rri ve a t a n extens ion of the rel a ti vity pos t ul a te .

Bes id es th is m o m en tous epi steom ologica l a rgu m en t ,

th e re i s a lso a wel l kn own physi ca l fact w h ich Spea ks i n

-

fa vou r of a n exten sio n of the rel a ti vity th eory Let there .

be a G a li li ean co ordi n a te syste m K rel a tive to wh ich

-

(a t
l ea st i n the fou r d i men sion a l region cons ider ed) a m a ss a t
- -

a suff i cien t d ista n ce fro m oth er m a sses move u n ifo rm ly i n

a line . Let K be a seco n d cc o rd i n a te syste m w h ic h h a s
'
-

a u n i formly a cc e lera ted motio n rel a ti ve to K R el a ti ve to .

K a n y m a ss a t a su fci en tly gre a t d ista nce ex perien ces

an ac cele ra ted m otion s uch th a t i ts a ccel era tion a n d t he

,

di rection of accel era tio n i s i ndepen den t of i ts m a ter ia l com

posi ti on an d i ts physi ca l con d i ti on s .

Can y ob s e
an rver a t rest rela t i ve t o K,
th en conc lude '
'
,

t h a t he i s i n a n a ctua l ly a ccelera ted referen ce syste m -

T his i s to be a n s w ered i n the nega ti ve ; the a bo ve n am ed -

beh a v iou r of th e freely m ov i n g m a sses re la ti ve t o K! ca n

be ex p la i n ed i n as good a m a n n ei i n th e followi n g w a y .

Th e referenc e syste m K h a s no a ccele ra tio n I n the s pa ce

-
'
.

ti m e region co nsid ered th ere i s a g ra v it a tion eld w h ich -

gen era tes th e acce lera ted m oti on rel a ti ve to K '

.

T h i s co n cepti on i s fea si bl e beca u se to us the ex perience ,

of th e ex is te n ce of a eld of fo rce ( n a mely th e g ra v i ta ti on

el d ) ha s sh ow n th a t i t possesses th e rem a rka ble property
of i m pa rt i n g t h e sa m e a ccele ra ti o n to all bod i es The , .

94 PM N UI P I E or

m ech a n i ca l beh a vi ou r of t h e bod i es rel a tiv e to K i s th e

s a m e as e x p eri en ce wou ld eX pect of th em wit h referenc e

to system s wh ich we ass um e from h ab i t as s ta ti on ary ;

"

thus it e x pla i n s w h y fro m th e ph ysi ca l sta n d poi n t i t can

'
'

be a ss um ed t h at t h c system s K a n d K ca n bot h wi th t h e
' '

som e l e gi ti m acy be ta ken as a t rest th a t i s th ey wi l l h , ,

equi va l en t as s ystem s of refere nc e fo r a d esc ri pti o n of

ph y sical ph e n om e n a .

th ese d iscussio n s we see th a t t h e work i ng out

'

F rom ,

of t he g en era l rel a ti vi ty theory m ust a t th e sa m e ti m e , ,

l ead to a th eo ry of g ravi ta t ion ; for we ca n cre

ate
'

a gr a v i tat io n a l eld by a si m pl e vari at ion of the cc ordi n at e -

s ystem A l so w e we i m m ed i at e
. ly th at the pri n ci pl e
of th e con sta n cy of li gh t vel oc ity m ust be m odi ed -

for w e reco gn ise e a si ly th a t th e path of a ra y of l i gh t '

w i th refe ren ce to K m u st b e i n gen era l cu rv ed Wh en

'
, , ,

li gh t t ra vel s w i th a d e n ite a n d con s ta n t vel oci ty in a

s tra i ght l i n e wi t h reference to K .

3 . Th eti m eSpa cecon ti n uum Requi rem en ts of t h e

-
.
'

e l C va ri an ce for t h e e ua ti on s e e i

e

g n r a o -

q x pr ss n g
t h ela w s of N a t ure i n g era l
en .

T
o th e cl a ssi ca l m ec h a n ics w ell as i n t h e speci a l as

rela ti vity the m y th e cc o rd i n a tes of ti me a n d spa c e h a v e

,
-

I mmed i a te phy si ca l s ign i c a n ce when w e sa y th a t ,

an ya rb itr a ry poi n t h as r as i t s X co rd i n a te it s i g n i es
o
-
.
, ,

th a t the pro j ecti o n of th e poi nt e ven t on t he X a x i s -

l
-

a scertai n e d by m ea n s of a sol id rod a cco rd i n g to th e r ules

of Eucl ide a n G eom etry i s reac h ed when a d e n it e m ea sur .

i ng rod the u n i t rod can be ca rried v ti m es fro m t h e

, ,
.
,

ori gi h of co Ord i n a tes a l on g the X a xis A poi n t h avi ng

'

- .
,

as t h e X co ordi n a te sign i e s t ha t a u
x n i t clock
,

Wh i ch i s a dj u sted to be ar re st re l ati ve to t h e system of

cc ord
- i n a tes a n d coin cid
,
i n g i n i ts s pa t i a l pos i ti on w i t h
the '
96 P RI NC I PLE or a sm ri vrrr
'

'
reg a rd the whole m ea s ure m en t p rocess from the sy stem K -

a n d re m e m ber t h a t the rod pl a ced on the pe ri ph ery

'

s u ers a Lore n z co n tr a c tio n n ot ho w ever whe n th e rod '

-

is pl a ced a lon g the ra d i us Eucl ide a n G eo m etry therefore

.

does n ot hold fo r the sys tem K t he a bove xed con cep

tions of co O Idi n a tes wh ic h a ss u me the v a l id ity of

-

Eucl ide a n G eo m etry fa i l wi th rega rd to the sys te m K '

.

We ca n n ot s i m i l a rly i n trod uce i n K a ti me co rrespo n d i n g to
p hysica l requ i rem e n ts wh ich wi l l be sh ow n by a ll s i mi l ar ly
,

prepa red c locks a t rest rel a ti ve to the syste m K In o rder '

.

to see th is we su p pose th a t two s i m i l a rly m a de cl ocks a re

a rr a n ged on e a t the ce ntre a n d o ne a t th e peri phery of '

the ci rcle a n d co n si dered f rom th e sta ti on a ry system

,

K A c cord i ng to the wel l k n ow n res u lts of t h e s peci a l

.
-
'

rel a ti vi ty theory it fol lo ws (as vi ewed from K ) th a t the

clock pl aced a t the periphery wi l l go slo wer t h an the
secon d o ne wh ich i s a t res t Th e obser ve r a t the co m mo n
.

ori gi n of cc o rd i n a tes who i s a ble to see t he cl oc k a t the

-

peri phery by m e a n s of l i g h t wi l l see th e clock a t the

periphery goi n g slower th a n th e cloc k bes ide h i m Si nce h e .

c a n n o t a l lo w the vel ocity of l i gh t to depen d exp l ic itly u po n

the ti me i n the w a y u nder cons ider a tio n he wi l l i n terpret
h i s observ a tio n by s a y i n g th a t the cl oc k o n th e peri phery
a c tull goes s lower t h an the cl oc k at th e ori gi n H e
y .

c a n not therefore do otherwise th a n de ne ti m e i n such

a w a y tha t th e r a te of goi n g of a cl ock depe n ds o n i ts

position .

W e the refore rri ve a t t h is resul t I n the g ene ra l

a .

rel a tivi ty theo ry tim e a n d s pa c e m a gn i tudes ca n n ot be so

de n ed th a t the d i f ference i n sp a ti a l cc o rd i n a tes ca n be -

i m m edi a tely me as u red by t he un i t m ea s u ri n g rod a n d ti me -

l i ke cc o rd i n a te d ifference with th e a id of a n orm a l cl oc k

-

Th em ea n s h itherto at ou r di spos a l for pl a ci n g our,

cc -
ordi n a te sys te m i n the ti m e s pa c e con ti n u um i n a
-

,
 ca m s a u sn n r n s on r or n n u rrvrrv 9 7:

den ite wa y, th erefore com pl ete ly fa i l a n d i t a ppea rs th a t

there i s n o other w a y wh ic h w i l l en a bl e us to t th e
co ord in a te system to t h e fou r d i men sion a l wo rld i n
-
such -

a w a y t h a t by i t w e ca n ex pec t to g et a sp eci a l ly si m ple

,

form u l a tion of the l a w s of N a t u re So th a t n o t h i n g rem a i n s .

for us bu t t o reg a rd a ll con c ei v a ble co h rdi n a t c system s -

as e q u a l ly s uit a ble for th e d escription of n a t ura l ph enom en a .

T h i s a m ou n t s to t h e fol low i n g la w :
Tl a t i n g en era l , La ws fN
o a tu r ea ree presserl bym ea n
s s f
o

equa ti on s wi de/c a re t a l i rl
f or a ll co ordzua /e s s/em s,
-

y M a t i s,
ta ble}: r i a n t for a l l p i l le { ra i n y
a re cova
/ br ut a l i om It i
osxs .
'

cle a r t h a t a physics w h ic h sa t i s es t h is postu l a t e wi l l be

un objecti on a blc fro m t h e s ta nd poi n t of th e gen era l

'

rel a ti v ity postul a te Bec a use a m on g a ll su bstit utio n s

.

the re a re i n every c a se cont a i ned those wh ich correspond

, , ,

to a ll rel a ti ve i n ot ion s of th e cc ord i n a te sys tem (i n -

.

th ree d i m ens ion s ) Th is con d i tion of gen era l cova ri a n c e

.

wh ich ta kes a w a y t h e l a st rem n a n ts of physica l objecti vity

from s pa ce a n d ti m e i s a n a tu ra l re q u i rem ent a s seen
, ,

from the fol low i n g con sider a tions A ll ou r wel l substa n ti a ted .
-

s pa ce ti m e proposi t i ons a m o un t to t he d eterm i n a tion

-

of spa ce ti m e coi nci den ces '

If for ex a m ple t h e even t .
, ,

con sist ed i n the m oti on of m a t eri a l poi n ts t he n for th i s , ,

l ast case n oth i n g el se a re re a l ly observa ble except th e

,

en cou n ters between two or m ore of these m a teri a l poi n ts .

Th e resul ts of our m e a su rem en ts a re n oth i n g el se th a n

w ell prov ed th eorem s a bout such coin cidences of m a teri a l
-

poi n ts of ou r m ea s u ri n g r ods w ith other m ate ri a l poi n ts

, ,

coi nci dences between t he h a nd s of a clock d i a l m a rks a n d ,

-

po i n t even t s occuri n g a t th e s a m e pos iti on a n d a t the sa m e

-

ti me .

The i n trod uctio n of a system of cc o rd i n a tes serve

.
s n o -
.

oth er p urpose t h a n a n ea sy d esc ri ption of tota l i ty of s uch

coi n c iden ces W e t to t h e wor ld our spa ce ti m e vari ables
. -

18
98 r em ai n s or a am rvrr r

(. v, x
, ) such th a t to a n y a n d every poi n t even t
. v, a -

correspon ds a system of v a l ues of ( u Two co .

,
. c
,
. r
,

i n ci dent poi n t even ts correspond to the sa me v a l ue of t h e

-

va ri a bles ( u x .
, the coi ncidence i s ch a
. n
, ,

ra cteris e d by the equ a l i ty of the co o rd i n a tes If we n ow -

.

i n tr od uce a n y fou r fu n ctions as co i

'

,
. a

,
.

ord i n a t es so th a t th ere i s a n u n i que correspondence betw een

,

them th e equ a l i ty of a ll the fou r co o rd i n a tes i n t h e new

,
-

syste m will sti ll be th e expression of the spa ce tim e -

coi n ciden ce of two m a teri a l poi n ts A s the pu rpose of .

a ll physi ca l l a ws i s to a l l ow us to remem ber s uch coi n ci

d euces there i s a pr iori n o re a so n presen t t o prefer a
, ,

ce rta i n cc o rd i n a te system to a noth er ;

-
we get t h e
cond i tio n of gen e ra l cov a ri a n ce .

4 . Rela ti on offour co ordi n a t e

-
s t o spa ti a l an d
t i m eli k e m ea sur em en ts
-
.

An al
yti ca l es pressi on
for til e Gr a vi ta ti oa -

eld .

I n ot t ryi n g i n th is com m u n ica ti on to ded uce tbc

am

g e ner a l R e l a ti v ity th e ory a s t he si m pl es t logica l sy stem

-

pos si b l e , wi th a m i n i m um of a xiom s But it i s my ch i ef .

aim to dev elop the theo ry i n such a ma n n er th a t t h e

rea der pe rcei ves the ps ychologica l n a tu ra l n ess of the wa y

r o po sed a n d the fu nd a m en ta l a ssu m ption s a ppe a r t o be

p ,

m o st re a so n a ble a ccordi n 8 to the li gh t of experien ce In

-
.

th i s sen se w es h a ll n o w i n trod uce the fo l l o w i n g su ppos itio n ;

,

t h a t for a n i n n i tely s m a l l fo ur d i m en sion a l reg ion t h e -

rel a ti vi ty th eory i s va l id i n the speci a l s en se wh en the ax e s

a re s ui ta bly ch os en .

Th e n a tu re of a cceler a tion of i n n i tely s m a l l (posi an

ti on al) co o rdi n a te system is he reby to be so chosen th a t

-
,

t h e g ra v ita tio n a l eld d oes n ot a ppea r ; th is i s pos si bl e for

an i n n i tely sm a l l regi on X X X , a re th e spa ti a l .
, , ,
1 00
~
, rn m cm r. s or n n m n vrr r

m easurem en ts wi th r ods an d clocks . Th e gw s a re h ere to
r
be e
o f

c
h osen ,
th a t t he s u m m a tion is to be

exten d ed over a ll v a l ue s of 0 an

dr, th a t th e sum i s to
so

be e x te n d ed over 4 x 4 ter ms ,
of wh ic h 1 2 a re eq u a l i n
pa i rs .

the metho d a dop ted here th e ca se of t h e usua l

F ro m ,

rel a ti vi ty th eory co mes o ut when o wi n g to th e sp ec i a l

beh a viou r of ym i n a n i te regio n i t is possible to ch oose t h e

s y stem .
of c o
. .
-
ord i n a tes in s uch a w ay th a t 9 a s s um es

c n o st a n t v a l ues

0 l 0 0

0 0 1 0

O 0

W e wou ld a fterw a rd s see th a t t h e ch oice of suc h a system

of co ord i n a tes for a n i te reg io n i s i n gen era l not possi b l e
-
.

F rom t he co n sidera tion s i n 2 an d 3 i t i s clea r ,

th a t from the phys i ca l st a nd poi nt the qu a nt ities 9 0 7 a re to -

. be looked upon a s m a gn i tudes wh ich descri be the gra v i ta

ti o n
eld wit h reference t o th e ch osen syste m of a xes
-
.

We a ssu me rst l y th a t i n a cer ta i n fou r d i mens io n a l

,
-

region considered the spec i a l rel a t i vi ty theory i s true for

,

som e pa rticu l a r ch oice of co ord i n a tes T he {1 s theni -

.

h a ve the v a l ues gi ven i n ( l ) A free m a teri a l poi n t mo ves .

w i th reference to such a system u n i form ly i n a stra i ght

l i n e If we n o w i ntro du ce by a n y substitutio n the sp ace
.
, ,

,
ti m e co ord i n a tes a -
then i n the ne w system y V 8 a re
t
,
F

n o lon ger consta n ts bu t fun ctions of sp ac e a n d ti me A t

,
.

t h e sa m e ti m e the m otion of a free poi n t m as s i n th e n ew

-
,
 os m aa m ss n T EOH RY or a n n a rrvrr v , ;l 01
,

co- o rd i n a tes wi l l a ppea r a s cu rvi li nea r a n d n ot u n ifo rm i n

, , ,

wh ich the la w of motion wi l l be i n depen den t of M e ,

M m ovi n g m a ss poi n ts We th us s i gn i fy th i
n a t ur e
of e ca n -
s .

moti on as one u nder t he i n uence of a gr a vi ta tio n el d '

.

We see th a t the a pp ea ra nce of a gra vi ta tion eld is con -

u seted w ith space ti me v a ri a bi li ty of y s I n the g e n era l

- .

ca se we ca n not by a n y sui ta ble choice of a xes m alts

, ,

s peci a l rel a t i vi ty th eory v a l id th ro ughout a n y n i te regi on .

We th us ded uce th e concepti o n th a t yw s desc ribe the
gra vi ta ti on a l eld A ccordi n g to th e gen e ra l re l a ti v ity
.

th eory g ra v i ta ti on t h us p l a ys a n exceptio n a l rol e a s di s

,

t i n g ui sh ed from the othe rs s pec i a l l y the el ect rom a g n eti c ,

fo rces i n a s m uch a s the 1 0 fu nctio ns g represe n t i n g

,

gra vita ti on de n e i m medi a tely the m etrica l properti es of

,

the four d i me n si on a l region

-
.

M ar n s m a r i cu A UX I LI A R I ES r os Esr a s m sn m o m s
A
G EN ER L C O V AR I A N '
I EQ U A TI O N S .

We h a ve se en befo re th a t the gener a l rel a t ivity post u -

l a te lea ds to the co n dition th a t t he system of equ a t ion s

for Physi cs m ust be co v a ri a nts for a n y possible s ubst i t u
,
-

tion of co ordi n a tes l -

we h a ve now to see
J

how suc h gen era l c o v a ri a nt eq ua tions ca n be obta i n ed

-

We s ha l l n ow tu rn our a tte ntion to t hese pu rely m a t h em at i

ca l pro positio n s I t w i ll be s ho wn th a t i n the so l ution the
.
,

i n v a ri a n t rle gi ven i n equ a tion (3 ) pl a ys a fu nda men ta l

,

rle wh ich we fo l lo wi n g G a u ss s T heory Of Surfa ces '

, ,
,

style a s the li n e elem ent -

.

T he fun da menta l idea of the genera l co va ria n t th eo ry -

is t h i s With reference to a n y co o rd in a te system let

-
-

ce rta i n th i n gs (te n so rs ) be den ed by a n u m be r of fun c

tion s of co o rdin a tes whic h are ca lled t h e co mpon e n ts of
-
1 02 or n m a n vrrv
'

m x c 1 r1 . n

t h e t en
sor There a re n o w cert a i n ru les a cco rd in g to w h ich
.

t h e com po nents ca n be c a l cul a ted i n a n ew syste m of

co ord i n a tes
-
when th es e a re kn own for t he ori gi n a l
,

S stem
y a n d wh en the t r a nsform a tion co n n ect i n g
. the tw o
sy st em s is known T he th i n gs herefrom desi gn a ted as .

Ten sors h a ve fu rt her the p ro pe rt y th a t the t ra nsform a

tion e qu a tion of thei r com ponents a re l i n ea r a n d h om ogen e
ous so th a t a ll the co mponents in the new s ystem v a n i sh
if they a re a ll z ero i n the ori gin a l syste m Th us a la w .

of N a tu re ca n be formu l a ted by putt i n g a ll the com po nents

of a tensor equ a l to z ero so t h a t it is a gen er a l co ya ri a n t
'
-

equ a tion ; th us whi le we seek t he l a ws of form a tion of

t h eten sors we a lso rea c h the me a ns of est a bl ish i n g gen era l
,

eo va ri ant l a w s
-
.

5 Con tra va r i a n t an d ao va r i a n t [ four vector

- -
.

C ontr a v a ri a nt F our vector

- -
. The l ine elem e n t i s de n ed
-

by th e fou r com po nents dr

y
w hose t ra nsfo rm a tion la w

is expressed by t he eq ua tion

Th e (I : s
. a re e x pres sed as l i nea r an d h omogen eous fu nc
a

ti on of d r

8 we ca n look u pon the di eren t i a ls of the
y

cc ordi n a tes as th e com ponents of a tensor wh ic h we

-
,

des ign a te speci a lly as a cont ra v a ri a nt F ou r vector Every -

.

G
th i n wh i ch 1 s d en ed by F ou r qu a ntiti es A with referen ce
g

to a co o rdi n a te
- system a n d t ran sfor m s a ccordi n g to ,

t h e sa m e la w ,

aw
A 5 v
Tm V
1 04i P RI N CI P LE or a n m r rvrr v

R em a r ks
on Me si m
p i
lf wri ti n ca ti on
g f Me
o m ode o

M e ex p ressi on s A gl a nce a t .th e equ a tio n s of th is

para gra ph w i ll s how th a t th e i nd ic es wh ich a ppea r t w ice
wi th i n the sign of su m m a tio n [for ex a m ple v i n are

tho se over wh ich the su m m a ti on is to be m a de a n d th a t

on ly over th e i ndi ces w h ic h a ppea r twice It is t herefo re .

possible without loss of cle a r ness to l e a ve off the su m m a tion

, , .

si gn so th a t we i nt roduce the rul e wherever t he

i n dex i n a n yterm of a n expression a ppe a rs t wi ce it is to ,

be su m m ed over a ll of them except when it is not express

edlys a id to the cont ra ry .

The di eren ce between the co v a ri a nt a n d the C o ntra -

va ri a n t fou r v ect or l ies i n the t ra nsform a tion l a ws

-

an d Both th e qu a n titi es a re ten sors a ccordi n g to t he

a bove gen era l rem a rks ; i n it li es its si gn i ca nce In .

acco rda nce wi th R i cc i a n d Levi ci v it a th e con t ra va ria n ts -

a n d co v a ri a nts
-
a re desi gn a ted by th e over a n d under
i n dices .

6 . Ten sors ofth esecon d a n d h i gh er ran ks .

C on t rava ri a nt tensor If we n ow ca lcul te a ll the a 16

p rod ucts A of the com po nents A B

y
of two con

tra va ri a n t four vectors

(8 ) A M e

A wi ll o d in g to ( 8 )
acc r an d (5 a ) sa tis fy th e fol lowi n g
,

t ra n sform a t ion la w .

We ca ll a thi ng which w ith refere n ce to a n y reference

,

sy stem 1 8 de n ed by 1 6 qu a ti ties an d fu lls the t ra nsfer

n
m at i o n rel a ti on a co ntra v a ri a nt ten sor of the s econd
 en n sm ss n r n soa i i or n s m n vrr ir 10
5

ra n k N ot every s u ch te n sor can be b u i lt from tw o fou r

.

v ectors (a ccord i n g to
, B ut i t i s ea sy to s h ow t h a t an y

16 qua n
titi es A , ca n be repr esen ted as th e sum of A

"
B of
properly ch osen four pa i rs of fou r v ec tors F ro m it .
,

w e ca n p rove i n the si m ples t w a y a ll la ws wh i ch h old true

for t h e te n sor of the secon d ra n k de n ed th rou gh by

provi ng it on ly for the speci a l ten sor of t h e type
con tra va ri a n t Ten sor of an
y ra n k I f is cl ea r tha t
co rr espo nd i n g to ( 8 ) a n d we ca n de n e co n tra v a ri a n t
t en sors of the 3 rd a n d h igher r a n ks w i t h 4 , etc com
3
, .

pon en t e T hu s i t i s clea r from ( 8 ) a n d ( 9 ) th a t i n th is

.

sen se we ca n
,
l ook upon cont ra va ri a n t fou r v ectors as -
,

con t ra va ri a n t ten sors oft h e rs t ra n k .

Co va ri a n t ten
-
sor .

If on t h e oth er h a nd , we ta ke t h e 1 6 prod uc ts A of

th e pon e n ts of two va r ia n t fo ur v ectors A d

com co - -
an
y .

( 1 0) A A B
V
W F

the m hold s t h e tra n sform a tio n la w

6 6 V
P 0

By m ea n s of th ese tra nsfor m a tion l a ws th e co va ria ri t ,

-

ten sor of the secon d ran k i s de n ed All re m ar k s w h i ch .

-

w e h a ve a l ready m a d e con ce r n i n g th e con t ra var i a n t ten sors ,

h old a l so for eo va ri an t ten sors

- .

R em a rk

It i s con ven i en t to trea t th e sca la r I n va ria n t ei ther

a s a con t ra v a ri a n t or a co v a r i an t te
-
n sor of zero ra n k .

1
1 6 0 Pi uN Ci P Ls or J i sm ri v
i r ir
'

M i x ed ten sor
We l den e ten of the
'

. ca n '
a so a sor .

secon d ra n k of the type

V V
A A B
[A p .

wh ich i s co v a ria n t with referen ce to M a n d con

-
tra va ri a n t v
with reference to v I ts tra n sform a ti on la w i s .

a ama
18

a 6 '

B
O

N a tu ra l ly there a re m i xed tensors wi th a n y n u m ber of

co v a ri a n t i n dices a n d w ith a n y n u m be r of con tra v a ri a n t
'
- -
,

i n d i ces The co v a ri a nt a n d con tra v a ri a n t te nsors ca n be

.
- -

looked u po n a s speci a l c a s es of m i x ed ten sors .

Sym m etr i ca l ten sors

A
con tra v a ri a n t or a co v a ri a n t tensor of th e secon d
'

or h i gher r a n k i s c a ll ed sy m m etrica l when a n y two com

on en t s obt a i ned by th e m utu a l i n terch a n ge of two i nd ic e
p s

a re equ a l . The ten sor A or A is sym metri ca l w h en ,

ll

we h a ve for an
y combi n a tion of i nd ices

! W
A A
0

(1 4 a) A =A

be proved tha t
'

It ust sym metry so de n ed i s a property

m
'
a

i ndependent of the system of reference It fol lows i n fact .

from ( 9 ) r ememberi n g ( 1 4 )

6 6 ; a wa r ' a a r f
I 37 } 13 '
07 0

} V ; ro
A A
1 08 P RI NCI PL E or n n m r rvrr r

ob ta i n the te n sor T fro m the ten so rs A an dB of di eren t

k i n ds
A B ,
"
n a

a
yd A a
B7 8
T

The proof of th e tensor ch a r a cter of T fol low s i m me ,

di a tely from th e express ion s 1 0

( ) or or t h e
tra n sform a tio n equ a tions eq u a tions
( )
1 0 a n d ( 1 2 ) a re themsel ves ex a m pl es of th e ou ter
m ultipl ic a tion of ten sors of the rst r a n k .

R educti on i n ra n k o
fa m i ssed Ten sor .

F rom
every m i x ed ten sor we ca n get a ten s or wh ich is
t w o r a n ks lower wh en we pu t a n
, i ndex of co va ri a n t -

ch a ra cter equ a l to a n i n dex of th e con tr a v a ri a n t ch a rac t er .

a n d sum a ccord i n g to these i ndices ( Red uction ) We get .

for ex a mp le o ut of t h e m i x ed t en sor of the fou rth ran k

,

7 8
A the m i x ed ten sor of th e s econ d ra n k
a t?
i

.
g 3 (i i?)A i

an d f ro m i t ag a in b y r educti on the ten or of

s t h e z e ro
ran k

Th e proof th at the resul t of red uction reta i n s a tru ly

ten sori a l ch a ra c t er fol l ows e i the r from the re prese n tat i on
,
 s en s n x m ss n T EOH RY or n n t a r rvrr v 1 09

of tensor a cco rd i n g to th e gen e ra l i sa tion of i n com bi

n a ti on with ( 6 ) or out of th e ge nera l i sa ti on of

In n er an d m i x ed m ul ti pl i ca ti on o
f Ten sors .

i
Th is co nsists i n the com bi n a ti on of outer mul ti pl ica ti on
wi th red uctio n E xa m ples .F ro m th e co v a ri a n t tensor of -

the secon d ra n k A a n d the co n tr a v a ri a nt tensor of

h rst r n k
t e a B
o
we get by ou te r m u lti pl ic a ti o n th e
'
m i x ed ten so r

Th ro ugh red uction acco rd i n g to i nd ices v an d0 '

put
ti n g v a ) th e co v a ri a n t fo ur vecto r
z
,
-

y y
D D A B is ge n era ted .

T h ese we d enote as th e i n n er p rod uct of th e ten sor A

i7
an dB Si m i l a r ly we get fro m t he ten tors A an d B
w
th rou gh ou te r m u lti pl i ca ti on an d two - fold red uc tio n th e

i n ner p rod uct A B Th rou gh o uter m u ltipl ica tio n

an d on e -
fold red uc t i on we get out of A an d B

i
r
m ix ed ten sor of th e second r a n k D A B We
i t
can tly ca l
l th i s opera ti on a m i x ed on e ; for it i s ou ter
W i th referen ce to the i nd ic es u a n d r , a n d i n n er wi t h
.

res e ct to th e i n d i ces v an d a
p .
 110 P R INCIPL E or R EL AT I vyrr
We n o w prove a la w w h ich wi l l h e often a ppl ic a bl e for
,

provi n g t h eten so r ch a r a cter of cert a i n qu a n ti ti es A ccordi n g

-
.

/
in
to the a bove represent a tion , A B is a sc a l a r wh en
, A

an dB a re ten sors We a lso rem a rk th a t wh en

. A a is

an i n v a ri a n t for every c hoice of th e tensor B th en A ,

h as a ten sori a l ch a ra cte r .

Proof A ccord i n g to the a bov e a ssu mpti o n

,
for an y
substi tutio n we h a ve

F rom the i n version of (9 ) we h a ve ho wever

G avL 6 V
/
6 - 0 ]
0
6 37
1
]

i ,

Substi tu tio n of th is for B i n the a bove equ a tion gi ves

m
A B =0

Th is ca n be true for a n y ch oi ce of B
,
on l y whe n
the term wi th i n the br a cket v a n i sh es F rom wh ic h by .

refer ri n g to the th eo rem a t o nce fol lows Th is la w . .

correspon di n gly hold s for te nsors of a n y ra n k a n d ch a ra cter .

The proof i s qui te si m i l a r Th e l aw ea n a lso be pu t i n th e

,
'

fol lowi n g fro m , I fB
 ra i N C I P LE or h em m vrrv

dc pl a ys the role of an
y ar bi t a ri ly chosen con tra v a ri a n t

vec tor sin ce fu rther g
,
, g i t fol lows from the con s i
m m

dera tion s of t he la s t pa r a g ra p h th a t g is a sy m m etri ca l

co va-
ri a n t tensor of th e seco nd r a n k We c a l l i t t h e .

fu nd a ment a l tensor A fterw a rds we sh a l l ded u ce
.

some properti es of t his ten so r w hic h w i l l a lso be true for ,

an
y ten sor o f th e s econ d r a n k B ut the spec i a l role of t h e .

fu nd a menta l ten sor i n our Theory w h ich h as i ts physica l ,

ba sis on the pa rticul a rly exception a l ch a ra cter of g ra v ita

tion m a kes it cl ea r th a t thos erel a tion s a re to be developed
w h ich wi ll be requ i red on ly i n the ca se of the fu nd a m en ta l
ten so r .

Tn e co va ri a n t fun da m
-
en ta l ten sor .

If we for m fro m the determ i n a n t s ch e m e g th e

!

m 1 n ors of g
v
an d di v ide them by t he determ i n at y
:
I g I
w
we get certa i n qua n tities g wh ich
as we s h a l l
prove gen e ra tes a con t ra v a ri a nt ten sor .

A cco rd i n g to the wel l k n own -

la w of D eterm i n a n ts
V
( 1 6) =8
p

V
w h ere S is l , or 0 , a ccord i n g as p z v or n ot .

I n stea d
p .

of t h e a bove exp ress ion for da 2

, we ca n l
a so wri te
a

g 3 h
c h
c
V
P v F

or a ccord n i g to ( )
1 6 a ls o i n the form

9 gw g dz (Le
P v
 G EN ER A LI SED TH EO R Y or n n m rrvrrr 1 13

No w a cco rd i ng to t h e r ul es of m u lti p li ca ti on , of t h e

fo re goi n g pa ra gra ph th e m a gn itudes

-

(3 50 = g do
p or

.

fo rm s a co va ri a n t fou r v ector a n
-
i n fa c t (on a ccou n t
-
, d
of the a r b i tra ry cho ic e ofd a n ya r b i tra ry fou r v ector a -
.

If w e i n t rod uce i t i n our ex p ress i on , w e get

dd = g
?
df df ,
o
,
f

For an y ho i
c ce of th e
p
eet ers 6150 .
(
PT
t h is is sca lar, a n d

y a c or c d i n g to i ts den t i hn
o
i s a sy m m et rica l t h i n g in a

an d r, so it fol lows fro m t h e a bov e r es u l ts, th a t g is a

v
cont ra v a ri a n t ten sor . O ut of ( 1 6 ) it l o fol lows th a t
a s S
p .

is a ten sor wh ich we m a y ca ll th e m i x ed fu n d a m en ta l

te n so r .

D eter m i n an t f
o tn e fn
n da m en ta l ten sor .

A ccordi n g to t h e la w ofmulti pl i ca tio n of d eterm i n an ts,

we h a ve

9 9
M
I la

On th e other ha nd w e h a ve
 P R INCIP L E OF RE L A TIVITY

[w a r ra n t o f vol um e
.

We see rst the tra nsform a tion

x la w for th e determ i n a nt
A ccord i n g to ( 1 1 )

8
6 x
(7
1 6

F rom th is by a pplyi n g the la w of m ut i pli ca t i on tw ice ,

we obta i n .

On the other h a n d the la w of tra nsform a tion of th e

vol um e el em en t
'
cl/r z
fw, dz , dx
d dz ,

is accord i n g to th e wel lk no wn la w of J a cobi .

by m ultipl ic a ti on of the t w
o l as t equ a ti on A
( ) an d (B ) we
get .

4; dr
'
(1 8 ) dr : .

I usted of J } we sh a l l a fter wa rds i ntrod uce

, g
-

wh ich h a s a re a l va lue on a ccou nt of the hyperbol ic ch a ra cter

of
116 P RI N CI P L E or a sm n vrrr

W i t h t h is choice of co ord i n a tes -

, o n ly su bsti tut i on s w i th
d eter m i n a n t 1 a re a l low a bl e
, .

I t would howeve r be erron eous t o th i nk th a t th is step

si gn i es a pa r t i a l ren u nci a t ion of t he genera l re l a ti vi ty
pos t ul a te W e do n ot s eek th ose l a ws of n a tu re wh ich a re
.

co v a ri a n t s
-
with rega rd to th e tra n form a ti on s h a vi n g
t h e de t erm i n a n t 1 but we a sk
, wh a t a re th e gen era l
ck a ri a n t l a ws of n a tu re F i rst we get t he la w a n d th e n ,

w e s i m p l ify i t s expression by a speci a l choice of t h e syste m

of refe ren ce .

n da m en ta l
Bui ldi n g up of n lelp o
ew ten sor: wi th t/l e f f M e fu

ten sor .

Th rou gh i n n er ou t er a n d m i x ed m u ltipl ica ti ons of a

,

ten sor w i th the fu nd a men ta l ten so r ten sors of other ,

k i nds a n d of other ra n ks ca n b e form ed .

Ex a m pl e

A 'w
= y A
0

I
A 9 A
M

W e would po n i t out speci a lly the fol lowi n g co m b i n a tio n s

3A
A f { u
A A B G

g yV
er
n a

(c om pl em en t t o t h e, co -
va ri a n t or con t ra v a ri a n t t en sors )

BA
an d
p g
ym
g a

W e ca n ca ll B the re
du ced te n so r re la ted to A
f p v
 on m uu u sn n ra s oa r or RELA TI VI TY 117

Si m i la rly

B f "
l w
'

A
B u
:
g ga

.

m
I t i s to h e rem a r k ed th a t g i s n o other tha n the com
ple m en t of {1 for we h a ve ,

V
9 9 9a =9 8
3 w

9 . Equa t i on of th e geodeti c li n e

( or of poi n t m oti o
-
n ) .

Al th e l in e elem en t ( i s is a d e n i te m a gn itude i a
depe nden t of th e co ord i n a te system we h a ve a lso between
-

t w o poin ts P 1 a n d P 2 of a fou r d i men si on a l con ti n u u m a

l i n e for wh i ch fte i s a n extre m u m (geodetic l i n e ) t e on e
a
,
. .
,

wh ich h as got a s i gn i ca nce i n depe ndent of the ch oice of

co o rd in a tes
-
.

I ts equ a ti on is

( ls =0

F rom th i s equ a tion we ca n i n a wel l kn own w ay ,

ded u ce 4 tot a l di eren t ia l equ a tions w h ic h d e n e t h e

g eod etic l in e ; th is d ed uction is gi ven her e for the sa k e
of com pl eten es s .

Let A, be a fun ctio n of the co or-

d i n a tes a: Th i s
de nes a seri es of s u rfa ces w
. hi c h cut the geodetic l i n e
s ou ght for as wel l as a ll n eigh bouri n g l i nes from P , t o P ,
-
.

We ca n su ppose th a t a ll s uch cu rves a re gi ven wh en th e

va l ue of i ts co ord i n a tes x
-
a re g i ven i n term s of A T he .

v
118 P RI N C I P LE or R ELB I I VI TY
'

si g n 8 corresponds to a p a ssa ge from a poi n t of th e

geodetic cu rve sought for to a poi n t of th e co ntiguous
-

cu rve b oth lyi n g on the s a me s u rf a ce A

, .

The n ( 2 0) ca n be repl a ced by

Sw dh = 0

da: div

But
ag
daz da
y
m .
p

20 a at CIA dA

we get by th e s ubst it ution of

So 81 0 i n ( 2 0a ) , rem em
beri n g th a t

a fter p a rti a l i n tegr a tio n ,

dk k =0
0 0
' '

w h ere k
1 20 pa m crr n a or R EL A H V I TY
'

10 . F orm a ti on of Ten sors th r ough Di fferen ti a t i on .

Relyi n g on t h e eq u a tio n of the g eod e t ic l i n e we ca n ,

now e a si l y d educe l a ws a cco rdi n g to w h ich n e w ten so rs ca n

be for m ed from g i ven tensors by di eren t ia t i on For th is .

pu rpose we wou l d rst est a bl is h the genera l co v a ri a n t

,
-

d i ffe ren ti a l equ a tion s We a ch i eve th is th rough a repe a ted

.

a ppl ic a tion of th e fol lowi n g s i m ple la w If a certa i n .

cu rve be gi ven i n ou r conti n u u m wh os e poi nts a re ch a ra cter

ised by the a re d ista n ce s 8 m ea su red fro m a x ed poi n t on
-
.

t h e curve a n d i f fu rth er
, be a n i n va ri a n t sp a ce fu n ction ,

th en
it? is a lso an i n va ri a n t . The proof fol lows from

the fa ct t h a t q as wel l as de, a re both i n v a ri a nts

d< t>
am
Si n ce 6 46
5 aw 6 8

so th a t it a d P

is l so i n v a r i a nt for a ll u r ves
: a an c
de

w h i ch g o out from a po i n t in ont i n u u m i s for

th e c , . .
,

a n y ch o i ce of the vector do F r om w h i c h fo l l ows i mme

,

di a t ely th a t

is a co -
v a r i a nt fo ur vec tor ( g r a di ent of
-

A c co r
d i ng to ou r la w , th e di er en t i a l -
quot i ent X

ta ke n a l on g an y c ur ve l
i s i kew i se an i n v a ri a nt
Subst i tut i n g th e v a l ue of up we , get

:
x
V
 GE N ER L I S EDA TH E ORY OF R ELA Tl V l TY

H e re h o w e ver we ca n n ot a t once ded u ce th e ex isten ce -

.

of a n y ten sor I f we h oweve r t a ke th a t th e cu rves a lo n g

.
.

w h i c h we a r e d if fe r en t i a t i ng a r e g eode s i cs w e g et f ro m i t
.
,

by rep l a c i ng a cco rd i n g to ( 22 )

6 S py ) a
I:
3

a l a rv '
7
) 8
p

F rom th e i n ter c h a nge a b i i ty of th e di er en ti a t i on

l w i th
d a l so a cco rd i n g to ( 23 ) a n d ( 2 l )
i

reg ar d to p . an d v, an . w e see

th a t th e b ra c ke t is symmetr ic a l w i th respect to pi

an dv .

As we ca n dra w a geodet i c li n e i n an y d i rect i on from an y

po i nt i n th e conti n uu m P

is th us fou r vector ith

, a -

, w an
dr

ar bitr a ry ra t i o of compo nen t s so th a t ,

. it fo l l ows fro m th e
r esu l ts of 7 th a t .

A
I
out
o ey
S m ea
8
n d , T l

is a co v a r i a nt te nsor of th e se con d r a n k W e h a v e th us got

- .

th e r es ul t th a t out of th e cc v a r i a n t tensor of th e rst ra n k -

A :
a di we ca n get by di fferent i a t i o n a co -
v a r i an t ten sor
a4 .

p.
 P R IN C IPL E or n a m r x vn r

W e c a l l th e tensor A the extens i on of th e ten so r

r
,a

A Th en w e ca n e a s i l y show th a t th i s combi n a t i on a l so

l e a ds to a ten so r ,
w h e n th e vector A is n ot representa b l e
IL I

as a gr a di en t . In order to see th i s we rst re m a rk th a t

dab
is a co -
v a r i a n t four vector w h en 4 -
1 an d d
; are

sc a la rs . Th i s is al so th e c a se for a .
sum of fou r su ch
ter ms
s =em w

w h en ( N 4) a re sca la rs . Now it i s h o w ever

c l e r th t eve y
a a r co -
v a r i a nt four vector -
is represent a b le in

th e form of S

I f for ex a mp le ,
A is a fo ur vector -
w ho se co m pon ents

a re a n y gi ven functi ons of m
y
we /e ,
h aw ( w ith reference to

th e ch osen co -
ord i n a te sys tem ) on l y to put

atla s ,

an ) A, =z

< t 3l z
f rc,

n ew . n ew ,

i n order to a r i ve r
at t h e res ul t th a t S i s equa l
.

In order to prove th en th a t A
F J in a tensor wh en on th e

rig h t s i de of ( 2 6 ) we su bs ti tute a n y co v ar i a nt fou r v ecto r - -

for A w e h a ve t on Ly to sh ow th a t th i s i s tr ue for th e

 . PR I NC I PLE or sh m n

vrrif

It woul d th erefore be s ui ci en t to d educe th e expressi on

of ex t en sm n , for on e such spec i a l t en sor . A ccordi ng to

( 2 6 ) we h a ve th e exp ress i ons

a re tensors . Th rou g h outer m u l ti pl i c a t i on of th e r st

wi th B an d th e 2 n d w i th A we g et t e n so r s of the
y
th i rd ra nk . T h ei r ad dit i on gi ves th e t ensor of th e th i rd
ra nk

w h ere A 18
p t z A
a B Th er i gh t h a nd side of ( 2 7 )
LV } V
, I ,

l
i s i n ea r an d homo geneous w ith r eference to A

an d i ts
!

rst d ifferenti a l cc -
ci e t
ef n so th a t th i s la w of form a t i o n l eads
to a tensor not on l y in the c a se of a tensor of th e type A

By but al so in th e ca se of a i
s u n m a t i on for a ll such
te n s ors , i e,
. . i n th e ca se of an y (t o -
v a ri a n t tenso r of th e

eerten etensor A
.

s econd r a nk W e ca l l
'

. A th s i on of th
F 0
, '

I t isc lea r th a t ( 26 ) a n d ar e on ly speci a l c as es oi ~ .

( ) (
2 7 ex t en s i n
o of th e te n sor s of t h e r st a n d z ero ra nk ) .

ten sor s from ( 2 7 ) comb i n e d w i th t en sor mu l t i p li ca tio n } .

 os ss u u ss n T H E ORY '

os R ELA TI V I EY

Som e speci a l ca ses of P a rti cula r I m port a n ce.

f da m en ta l
'

A f
ew a ux i li a r y l em m as coucer m
'
wg t/t e un

t w ee r \V e sh a l l rst deduce some of th e l emm a s m uch used

.

a fterw a rds A cco r di n g to th e l a w of di

. er en t i a t i on of
d et er m i n a nts w e h a ve ,

= W
( 28 ) dg 9 d
a y 9 ads

Th e l st for m fo l l ows f om th e rst w he n we remember

a r

th a t
M V = SF an d th e r efore vz i
I 9 g g
i
1
p v
F

v
co n s equ en t l y g

dg + gm
dg =O .

F rom it fol l ows th a t

t,

R/
g

g
I

V
A ga i n , since 9 g =8 We h a ve ,
by di f
fe rent i a t i on ,
fl .

dg
9

By m i x ed m ul tip li ca t i on wi th 9 an d g
yA
re spec ti ve l y
 P R IN C I P L E or R E L AT I V I T Y

_g ya y dg
y a
B

ea V ii

Th e exp r ession ( 3 1 ) a llow s a t ra n sform a tion w h ich we

sh a ll often use; a ccord i n g to ( 2 1 )

t
If we s ubst i tute th i s in th e seco n d of th e for m ula
w e get , remembe r i n g

Bysubsti tutin g th e r i gh t h a nd s id e of ( 3 4 ) i n
-
we
 28 m useum s or s st a r rvn

r

R el a ti o n f
o Me cova ri a n
( t) f our -
vector .

Th e se co n d mem be r in ( 26 ) i s sy m m etr i c a l in the

I i" an d v . H en ce A A is an an t i sym metr i ca l

I
V
f

bu i l t u p in a ve ry s i mp l e m a n ne r . W e obt a i n

6 A GA V
B
l "
6 . v
v
6 w

m i a/ d r i ed !
A n ae Ex ten i Si x vector

s on oi a -
.

I f we a pp l y
oper a t i on ( 2 7 ) on a n a nt i sym metr i ca l
th e

ten so r of t h e se con d r a nk A a n d for m a ll th e equ a tion s .

a r i s i n g from th o cyc l i c i nterc h a n g e of the i nd i ces p , v, an d

a dd a l l t he m , w e ob t a i n a tensor of th e t h ird r a nk

(3 7 ) B A + A + A

8 A 6A
6 e 8 6
V

fr om w h i ch it is e a sy to see th a t th e ten sor is an t i sym m etr i

ca l .

De
n erg ei w e of M e Si x vector -
.

VB m i xed mu l ti pli cat i on )

I f (27 ) is mu l ti p li ed by (
'

g g ,

th en a te n sor is obta i ned . Th e rst member of t h e r i g h t

h a n d s i d e of ( 2 7 ) ca n be w i r tten in th e fo r m

6 E B 6
1(
V
y
J AN
a
g
A
6 0
 o s x s n A u s en H ORY
T E or us u r l vm r 1 29 .

B B BA
rep l a ce
m V V
I f we by A
g g
'
A , g
0
"

A
Q
Ba n d rep l a ce in th e t ra nsfo r med rst m ember
V
B (1
gi 2
an d 9

0

g

w i th th e h e l p of then f rom th e r i g h t h a n d s ide of ( 2 7 ) -

th ere a r i ses an express i on w i th seven t erms of w h ich fo ur ,

ca nce l . Ther e rem a i n s

w e
( 38 ) A
M3 a
l
t 3 5
Th i s i s the express i on for t h e exten s i on of a c on t ra v a r i a n t
ten sor of th e second r a n k : extens i on s ca n a l so h e formed for

co rr espond i n g cont ra v a r i a nt ten sors of h ig h e r an d l ower

ra n ks .

We
'

r em a rk th a t in th e same w a y, we ca n a l so for m th e
exten s i on of a m i xed ten sor A
:
r
;
aA
a
s 2Ao a ( U 7
2
(39 )
q a m
a
T
5 7
Z n
s

By th e reduct i on of ( 3 8 ) w i th r efer e nce to th e i nd i ces

( i n ner mu l t i p l i c a t i on w i th
8 an d a
8 ,
\ w e get a co n
,

t r a va ri a n t fou r vecto r
-

aA
a
B B
_ x

a x x x
A + A
1 30 P RI N I C P LE o r a sm ri vr rr

On th e a cco unt of th e s
ym m et r v of

reference to th e i nd i ces 8
, , an d x ,
th e th i r d member of th e

r i gh t h a n d
c

Sl
0

de v a n
0

i sh es w h en A
a
B o

18 an a n ti symmetr i c a l
o a

ten sor wh i c h we a ssu me h ere

,
t h e secon d member ca n be

tr a nsfor m ed a ccord i n g to ( 2 9 a ) we th erefore g et

Th i s i s th e expressi o n of th e d i ver g ence of a con t r a

v a r i a nt si x -
vector .

f M e m i x ed ten
D i vergen ce o sor f
o M e recon /l ra n /r .

L et us for m th e r educt i on of ( 39 ) w i th reference to th e

i nd i ces 0 an
. d we obt a i n remember i n g ( 29 a )

)

6 q A

V i
( )
4 1 A
g /l

I f w e i ntr oduce i nto th e l st term th e contr v r i n t

a a a a

' U
A pa pr A it t a kes form
ten sor z
g th e
T

0 H
P
V
g A .

P
I f furt her A is sym metri c a l it is reduc ed to l
 1 32 P R IN C IPL E or R ELA Tl V I TY

i t a ne w ten sor n a m ely the extension of the fu nd a m ent a l

,

te n so r We ca n ea si ly convi nce o ursel ves th a t th is

.

va n ishes iden ti ca l ly We prove i t i n t h e follow i n g w a y ; we

'
-

. .

s u bsti tute i n ( 2 7 )

i e,
. . the exten sion of a fou r vector-
.

Th us we get (by slightly ch a n gi n g

h
th e i nd ices ) t e

tensor of the th i rd ra n k

as 6A

i
?
6 A

5s
9
n o p
p
San d a l:
A

IM "
p
a w} t)
Gr
5
8 [M 7

p ( a

W s use these expression s for the form a tion of t h e tenso r

'

A Thereby th e fol lowi n g term s i n A

n or M U PW"

c a n ce l the correspond i ng terms in A ; the fi rst m em ber ,

m e
t he fou rth m e m ber a s wel l a s t h e mem ber correspond in g
,

t o the l a st term with in th e squ a re b ra cke t Th ese a re a ll

'
'
.

s ym m etric a l i n o a n d r T he s a me is true for the s u m of

r
,
.

t he second a n d t h i rd m em bers We t hu s get

A A B A
m F p
'

m
 G E N E RA LI S E D T EOH RY or R ELA I I V I TY

1 33

The essen ti a l th i n g i n th is resu lt is th a t o n th e

right h a nd s ide of (4 2 ) we h a ve on ly A but not its
p

di fferenti a l co e
i ci en t s -
. Fro m th e tensor ch a ra cter of
-
A
I ?

A an d from the f a ct th a t A is an a rbit ra ry fou r

pr o p
vector , it follows ,
ccou nt of the result of 7
on a ,
th a t
p
B is a tensor ( R i em a n n C h risto ffel Tenso r )
-
.

The m a th em a tic a l sign i c a nce of t h is tensor is a s

fol lo w s ; wh en t he cont i n u u m is so sh a ped th a t there i s a ,

Z
B a ll

co -
ordi n a te system for w h ich 9 s a re const a n ts ,
W

v a n ish .

If we ch oose i nste a d of t h e origi n a l eo -

ord i n a te svst em

an
y n ew one so wou ld t he y ,

s referred to this l a st system
pv

B lm a
be no l on ger con s ta nts . T he ten sor ch a r a c ter of
shows us however t h a t these com pon ents v a n ish collecti vely
, ,

a lso i n a n y ot her ch osen system of reference The .

va n ish i n g of the R ie m a n n Ten sor is thu s a n ecess a ry con

d iti o n th a t for s om e ch oice of th e a x is syste m -
ca n be

ta ken a s con sta nts I n ou r problem it corresponds to the

.

c a se when by a sui ta ble choice of the co ord i n a te sy t e m -

s ,

the speci a l rel a tiv i ty th eory hold s th roug hout a n y fin ite
regi on By the red uct io n of
. wit h reference to i n d ices
1 0 r a n d p we get the cov a ri a n t ten so r of the second r a n k

+ S
a

B _ R
I #v uv W

6
+
i ?W?) f

(M i 6
213 52 5 .

S a l og \/
g 8 10g :
6 4: Gr
 1 34 P R INCIPL E or a s LA l I v1 r r
'

Rem ar k s upon M e c/i oi ceo

f co I t has a l rea dy
been rem a rked i n 8 wi th referen ce to the equ a tio n ( 1 8 a ) , ,
'

th a t the co ordi n a t es ca n w i th a ds a n ta ge be so chosen th a t

-

g 1 . A
gl a nce a t th e equ a tion s got in the l a st two
p a ra gra phs shows th a t th rou gh such a choice th e la w of , ,

form a tion of th e tensors su ffers a s i gn i c a n t si m pl i fic a

tion . It is speci a lly true fo r the ten sor B whi ch pl a ys
HU
a fu nd a m ent a l r ole i n the theory . By th is si m pli fic a
tion S , v a n ish es of itself so th a t ten sor B r ed uces to

sh a l l gi ve i n th e fol lo w i n g p a ges a ll rel a ti ons i n t h e

I
si m pl i ed form wi th th e a bove n a med speci a l is a ti on of
,
-

th e co ord i n a tes I t is th en very e a sy to go b a ck t o th e

-
.

gen er a l cov a ri a n t equ a tion s i f i t a ppe a rs desi r a bl e i n ,

an
y spec i a l c a se .

C TH E TH EORY OF
. TH E GR A V I TA TI ON F I EL D - .

1 3 .
Eq uat i on of m oti on of a m a t eri a l poi n t i n a

g ra vi t a t i on -
eld Ex pressi on
. for th e eld com pon en t s
-

of gra vi t a ti on .

A freely movi n g body n ot a c ted on by extern a l forces

m oves a ccordi n g to the speci a l rel a ti vity theory a long a
, ,

stra i gh t li n e a n d u n iform ly T h is a lso holds for th e .

gen era l ised rel a ti vi ty theory for a n yp a rt of th e fou r di m en -

siou a l region i n wh ich the co o rdi n a tes K 0 ca n be a n d

,
-
,

a re,so cho sen th a t y s h a ve speci a l const a n t va lues of

th e expressi o n
Let us d iscuss th is m otion from the sta nd poi n t of a n y -

a rbitra ry co ord i n a te system K it m oves with reference t o

- -

K (as expl a i n ed i n
l
i n a gr a vi ta tion a l eld The l a ws .
 256 P B l N C l P LE or R EL A TI V I TY

M4 . Th e Fi eld -
eq ua ti on of Gra vi ta t i on in th e
a b sen ce of m a t ter .

,
Infol l owi n g we di fferen t i a te gra v it a tion
th e , eld from -

m a tter i n the sense th a t everyth i n g besides th e gra v it a

tion eld w i l l be sign i ed a s m a tter ; t h erefore th e term
-

i n cl udes n ot o n ly m a tter i n th e usu a l sense but a lso th e ,

el ectro dy n a m ic eld O ur n ext problem i s to seek the

-
.

eld e qu a tion s of gr a vi t a tion i n t h e a bsen ce of m a tter

-
F or .

thi s w e a pply th e s a m e m ethod a s em ployed i n t he fore

goi n g pa r a gra ph for the ded uction of t he equ a tion s of
m oti on for m a teri a l poi nts A speci a l c a se i n wh ich t h e .

eld e qu a tion s sought for a re evidently sa tis ed is th a t of

- -

th e s peci a l re l a ti vity theory in w hich g

s h a ve certa i n
LU
[
con st a n t v a l ues T hi s wou l d be t h e c a se i n a cert a i n
.

n i te re g ion with reference to a d e n i te co ord i n a te

- -

system K 1 th reference to t h i s sy stem a ll t h e com

O
.
,

i [equ a t ion 4 3]

pon en ts B of th e R i em a n n s Ten sor

m

v a n ish These v a nis h then a lso i n the re g i on con side red

. ,

with referen ce t o every other co ord in a te s vst em -

.

Th e equ a ti o n s of the g ra v it a tion eld free from m a tter -

p
m u st th u s he in ever y c a se s a tised when a ll B v a n ish .

uor
,

But th is condition i s clea rly on e wh ich goes too fa r F or .

i t i s cle a r th a t th e gr a vi ta ti on eld gen er a ted by a m a teri a l - ~

poi n t i n its own n ei ghbou rhood ca n n ever be tr a nsfo rm ed

a wa
y
/ by a n v ch oice of a xes i t c a n n ot be tr a nsformed
,

to a c a se of con s t a n t y 5 .

e
T h refore it is cl e
a r th a t for a gra vit a t i on a l :
eld free ,

from m a tter i t i s desi ra bl e th a t th e sym metr ica l ten

,

sors B de duced fro m the tensors B

m
sh ould v a n ish '
.

l
 s ex n em sn n r u mour or 1 37

We t hus get 1 0 equ ation s for 1 0qu a n tities (1 wh ich a re

ful l led i n the speci a l c a se wh en B

Z UT

S a ll vn is h
a .

( 44 ) w e see th a t i n a bsence of m a tter

R emem be ri n g

the
eld equ a tion s com e ou t a s fol lows ; ( when referred
-

to the s peci a l eo -
ord i n a te system chosen ) -
.

=
5 1 :

It ca n a lso be s h ow n th a t t he choice . of these equ a

tions is con nect ed w ith a m in i m u m of a rbi t ra ri ness . For

besides B t here is n o tenso r of the secon d r a n k wh ich ,

M

d th ei r deri va ti ves n o h ig her

ca n be bu ilt out of gl s an
U
l .

th a n th e second , an d wh ic h is a l so l i n ea r i n th em .

It wi l l be shown th a t the equ a tions a risi n g i n a pu rely

y
,

m a t hem a tica l wa ou t of th e cond i t ion s of the gen era l

rel a tivity together with equ a tion s
,
gi ve us th e New
t on i a n la w of a ttra ction as a rst a pprox i m a tion , an d le a d
in th e second a pproxi m a ti on to the expl a n a tion of the
peri hel ion m o t ion of m erc u ry d iscovered
-
by Leverri er
( the residu a l effect wh ic h cou ld n ot be a ccou n ted for by
the con side ra tion of a ll sor ts of d istu rbi n g fa ctors ) . My

v iew is th a t th es e a re con vi nci n g proofs of the physica l

corr ectn ess of my theory .

18
1 38 P RI N C I P LE or n em r rvrrr

l5 . H a m i lt on i an F un cti on for t h e Gra vi ta t i on

'
-
-
eld
.

L a w s of I m pulse a n d En ergy .

I n order to show th a t th e eld equ a tions correspon d to

th e l a ws of i m pulse an d energy i t i s m o st con ven ien t to
,

wri te it i n the fo l lowi n g H a m i lton i a n form

H ere the v a ri a ti on s v a n ish at th e l i m its of th e n ite

fou r dim en sion a l i nt egra ti on sp a ce considered
- -

It is rst necess a ry to sho w th a t the form ( 4 7 a ) is

equ i v a l ent to equ a tions F or thi s pu r pose let us ,

' w I

2

I

con s i der H as a fun ct i on of an d q 9

q
(T r
.

0
'

We h a ve at rst
140 h um a n s or n a

rt vtr r

an d consequen tly

a
ex a

aH
6
?
x
69 0

we obt a i n th e equ a ti on

s
a v
as ?

e" 8 H
(T 1,
6 4
1

Owi ng to the rel a tion s the equ a t ions (4 7 ) an d

uv B
i
}
z ? {
l r F

V a
M
,
F r
FB

It is to be n oticed th a t t
i is n ot a tensor so th a t the
,

equ a tion ( 4 9 ) h olds on ly for system s for w h ich =l

g .

This equ a t ion expresses th e l a ws of conserv a tion of i m pulse

a n d e nergy i n a gra vit a tion eld I n fa ct the i ntegra
-
.
,

tion of thi s equ a tion over a th ree d i mension a l vol um e V -

lea ds to the fou r eq u a tion s

 EN ER A LI SED
(: r un n er up un t a r i vn
'
r [H

where the d irection cos in es of the i n w a rd

a
, a re -

di a w u n orm a l to the su rfa ce elem eut dS i n the Euclide a n -

Sense . Vt e recogn ise i n th is the usu a l ex pres sion for the

W e denote the m a gn i tud es r

l a ws of conse rv a tion . t
; as the
en ergy com ponen ts of th e g ra vi ta tion
-
eld -
.

1 will n ow put the equ a t ion ( 47 ) i n a th i rd fo rm wh ich

wi ll be ve ry service a ble for a qu ick re a l is a tion of ou r obj ect .

By m ult i plvi n g the eld equ a tio n s ( 4 7 ) wit h
-
th es e 5
1 a re

obta i ned in the m i xed form s I f we rem ember th a t .

( ii )
"

I
S I "
a
.

which owi n g to ( 3 4 ) is equ a l to

y
_( Br 0 i
'
m a V a
F J
m
,
B w a ,

(1
V r
a
pr !"

or sl i ghtly a lteri n g the n ot a tion equ a l to

a
r
B
r
(1 .
m ), m

The th i rd m em ber of th is ex pres sio n c a ncel wi th t h e

seco nd mem be r of the eld equ a tions I n p l ace of -

t he seco nd term of th is expression we ca n on a ccoun t of .

,

t h e rel a ti ons put

 P RI I P
N C L E or R h LA Tl V l TY

Therefore i n the p l a ce of the equ a tions

i

w e obt a i n

f
6 1
)
a U
_ 3
8 !
J r x A
Gm a /LB ) 2 p
( 51 > 4
,

16 .
Gen e ra l for m ul a t i o n of t h e eld eq ua ti o n
-

of Gr a vi t a ti on .

The eld eq ua tions est a bl ish ed i n th e pr ecedin g p a r a

-

'

gra ph for sp a ces free from m a tter is to be comp a red with

the equ a tion v = 0 of the Newton i a n theory We h a ve
9
.

no w to nd the equ a tion s wh ich wi l l correspond to

Poisso n s Equ a ti on
( p sign i es the density of
m a tter ) .

Th e speci a l rel a ti vity theory h a s l ed to the conceptio n

th a t the i n erti a l m a ss (Tr a ge M a sse ) i s n o other th a n
energy It ca n a l so be ful ly ex pressed m a them a tic a lly bv
.

a sym metric a l tensor of t h e secon d r a n k t h e en ergy tensor

, ,
-
.

We h a ve therefore t o i n trod uce i n ou r gen er a lise d theory

energy tensor T 3 a ssoci a ted with m a tter wh ic h l ike th e
-
,

g ra v i t a t i on eld (equ a t i ons

a
energy com pon ents t of th e -

4 9, an d 50)
h a ve a m ixed ch a ra cter but w h ic h however ca n .

be con n ected with sy m metric a l cov a ri a n t ten sors The .

equ a tion ( 51 ) tea ches us how to i trod uce t h e energy tensor n -

( correspondi n g to the densi t y of Poisson s equ a tion i n the

)
e l d equ a tion s of gra vita tion I f we con sider a com p lete .

sys tem (for ex a m p l e the Sol a r sys tem ) i ts tot a l m a ss a s -

a l so its tota l gr a v it a ti n g a ction wi l l d epend on t h e tot a l

,

energy of t h e system po nder a ble a s well a g ra vi t a ti on a l

,
s .
 P R N PL E
I CI R EL A TI V I TY

17 . Th e la w s of c on serva t i on in th e g en era l ca se .

The equ a t i on s ( 52 ) ca n be e a s i ly so t ra nsform ed th a t

t h e second m em ber on the ri ght h a nd side v a n i sh es We

-
.

reduce ( 52 ) with reference to t he i nd i ces a a n d fr a ud

subtract the equ a tion so obt a i ned a fter m ulti pl ic a t io n with

i
1
S from

We obta i n

we opera te on it by .

f
f f
a
g
am a s

69 ag
8, e
a s: a m )t
P

The rst an d t h e thi rd mem ber of the rou nd bra cket

,
l ea d to ex pressions wh ich c a ncel on e a n other , as ca n be
 G I QN ER A I J SF . H ORY
T E OF R EL A TI V I TY

T h e sec ond term ca n be t ra n sform ed a cco rd i n g to

So th a t we get ,

( 54 )
B
12)
a 3

6 . r_
o
.
6
p .

The second m em ber of t he expression on the left h a n d -

s ide of ( 52 a ) le ad s fi rst to

a
.
i a . . isl e
F i

w ege
t

1 a

Th e ex pression a risi n g out of the l a st mem ber wi t h in

.

t h e rou nd b ra ck e t v a n ishes a cco rd i n g t o

.
on a ccount .

of t h e ch oice of a xes T he two others ca n be t a ken

.

toge t her a n d gi ve us o n a ccou n t of t h e ex pression

6
a " aJ
B

So th a t remem beri ng ( 54 ) we h a ve

1
0
'
AB (1
FA 3 0
B
2 .
l l ti
'
P R I N C I P LE or m am ri vr i v

l
rom ( 55) an d ( 52 a ) i t fol l ows th a t

a
)
( I)

( 5)
3 1 f r
c a
.

n
it

F rom t he eld equ a tion s of gra vit a tion i t a lso fol lows ,

th a t the conserv a tion l a ws of i m pu lse a n d cn ergv a re

-

s a tised .We see i t most si m ply fol lowi n g the s a m e

re a son i ng wh ich l e a d to e qu a ti on s ( 19 a ) ; on l y i nste a d of
the energy com ponen ts of t h e g ra vi ta t i on a L
-
eld we a re to ,

i ntrod uce the tot a l energy com ponen ts of m a tter a n d g ra vi

i

t a t i on a l eld .

l8 . Th e I m pul se en er g y l a w for m a t t e r
-
as a

c on sequen ce of t h e eld equa ti on s -

.

w
. aq
If we m ulti ply (53 ) with we g et in a wa v
are ,

s i mi l a r to l 5 rem emberi n g t h a t
,

v a n ishes ,

th e equ a ti on s

or rem em beri n g ( 56 )

er a,

(I .

A com p a rison with ( 4 1 h ) shows th a t these equ a t ion s

for the a bove choice of co ord in a tes g l ) a sserts
- -

n oth i n g but the v a n ish i ng of th e di vergen ce of the tensor

of the en er g y com ponents of m a tter
-
.
14 8 PRI N CI PLE or R E A TI L V ITY

wheth er th e th eories of the el ectro m a gnetic eld a n d the -

g i a vi t a t i on a l li eld together wi l l form a sufci ent ba sis for

-

th e theory of m a tte r Th e genera l rel a ti vi t y postu l a te ca n

.

te a ch us n o n ew p ri nci ple But by bu ildi n g up the .

theory it m ust be shown whethe r electro m a gn etism a n d -

gra vit a tion together ca n a ch ieve wh a t th e form er a lone

d id n ot succeed i n doi n g .

19 . Euler s eq ua t i on

s for fri ct i on less a d i a b ati c
li q ui d .

Let p a n d p be two sc a l a rs of wh ich the rst den otes

, ,

the pressu re a n d the l a s t the dens i ty of the fl u id between

them there i s a rel a tion Let t h e con t ra va ri a n t sym metric a l
.

ten sor
( hr t he
8 a B B
T
a a
' ' I
l
f f '

( I s S

be the con tra v a r i a n t en ergy ten or of the l i qu i d

- -
s . 10 i t

a lso be l on gs t h e cov a ri a n t ten sor

a B
t58 d ) 1
;
_ _
l 1 ) J
,
p
A 1.
.

( .

as wel l as th e m i xed tensor

If we put the righ t h a nd side of ( 58 h ) i n (57 a ) we

-

et t he gen er a l hyd rody n a m i ca l eq u a ti ons of Eu ler a ccord

g
i n g to the g en e ra l is ed rel a ti vi ty theor y Th is i n princi ple .

com pl etely sol ves the problem of m otion ; for the four
 N
G E ERA I ED Tli so ii r LS '

or R ELAr i vrr r

equ a ti o n s ( 537 3 ) together wi t h th e given equ a tio n betwee n

7 a n d p a n d t h e eq u a tion
;
,

(1 .

yu
B I la

a re s u fcient with the gi ven v a lues of lu P

f for i n di n g
f
/
,

out th e si x u nk n own s
if ,
d ?
I)

, p
,
(i s
-
i
t

If g s a re u n k nown we h a ve a lso to ta ke the equ
w
tion s Th ere a re no w 1] equ a t io ns for nd i n g out
10 fu nction s 3/ ,
se th a t th e n u m ber is more th a n s uf
cient . Now i t i s be noticed th a t equ a tion ( 57 a ) is
the

a l re a dy co n ta i n ed i n so th a t t h e l a tter on l y represents
( 7 ) i ndependen t eq u a t ions . Th is i n den i t en ess is due to

the wide fre edo m in the c hoice of co ordi i i a tes ,

.
-
so t h a t
m at h en i
i a t ca llv t h e prob l e m is i nd e n ite i n the sen s e th a t
th ree of t he s pa ce fu nctions -
ca n

be a rbi tra ri l y chosen .

20 . M a x w ell

s Ele ct r a M a g n -
et i c eld eq ua t i on
-
s .

Let V be the com po n ents of a cov a ri a nt fou r vec tor -

the electro m a g netic poten t i a l

-
from i t l et us form a ccord
i n g to (3 6 ) the com pon en ts F of th e cov a ri a n t si x vecto r -

?
m
of the el ectro m a gnetic e l d ac co rd i n g to the system of
-
,

equ a tio ns
1 50 ra i x cl r t n or

F rom it fol lows t h a t the system of e qu a tion s

GE

6 1 6 F
6 6 6
p

"
is tised of wh ic h th e l eft h a nd si de a ccord i n g to
sa -

i s a n a nti syi i i m et ri ca l ten s or of t h e th i rd k i nd

-
.

Th is system ( 6 0) cont a in s essen ti a ll y fou r equ a tion s w h ich ,

'

ca n be th us w ritten

Th is system of equ a tion s corresponds to the secon d

system of equ a ti on s of M a xwel l W e see it a t o nce i f we
.

put

I n ste a d of ( 6 0a ) we ca n therefore wri t e a ccord i ng to

t h e usu a l nota tion of t h ree d i m ension a l vec to r a n a lys is
- -

rot E= o

di v H z o .
 pa m m r m a or am ari vi r i
'

The equ a tions a n d ( 6 3 ) gi ve th us a gene r a l i

s a tion of M a xwel l s eld equ a tion s i n v a cuu m wh i ch

'
-

rem a i ns true in ou r ch osen system of co ord i n a tes -

.

I / w cuci yy com p ouculs o yuelv

'

f -
cl ecl r o n m -
c eld .

L et us form t h e i n n er -
prod uct

( 6 0) b
a

A ccordi n g
to ( 6 1 ) its com pon ents ca n be w ri t ten d own
i n th e th ree d i m en sion a l n ot a tion
-
.

P E: H ] :

( i E) . .

K is a cov a ri a n t fou r v ector w hose com ponen ts

.
-
a re eq ua l
0
'

to th e n ega ti ve i m pulse a n d en ergy wh ich a re tr a n sferred

to t h e electro m a gn etic eld per u n i t ot t i m e a n d per u n it
.
-

of vo l um e by th e e l ect ric a l m a sses If the el ectric a l

,
.

m a sses be free th a t i s und er the i n uence of the el ectro

, ,

m a gn e t ic e l d on lv then t h e cov a ri a n t fou r vecto r ,

-

K wi l l v a n ish .

0
'

' V
In order to get th e en erg v 0
com pon en ts l of the el ec
(r

t ro - m a gnetic eld we requ i re on l y to gi ve to the equ a tion

,

K o the form of
,
th e equ a tion
(T

F rom (6 3 ) an d ( 6 5) we get rst ,

8 P
F M
14
azy

? F
a V ( F
 G EN ER ALI ssb TH E RY os O '

R EL AT I V I T Y 1 53

O h accou n me m be t
r on of 0
( ) t be second
6
"
th er gh t ha n d

i -

side ad m its of the t ra n sfo rm a ti o n

aF
1 FF .
"
lW
2 v)
ax o

O wi ng to sym m etry th is exp ress io n , ca n a lso be wri tten i n

t h e for m . li t. w t)

6
p
'
' l i !

PB 6 0
0
l

u i t -
I I I

l
l , l l i '

l l l l . F
g 9
w ul llww r . n
ew

wh ich ca n a l so be put i n the fo rm

'
i f r l l

i a L
t H
Il a
'

V -
l 4 I H I t
v
"

g g I

x 0 '
18 m F"

I
|
| | I N

'
N " I u

ll l
a B
I i - n i l l
F
I ,
,

a F F
i
Q B l

I t

lll w it h ! au i
m
q

The rst of t h ese term s ea n

'

be N e
ws short ly '
as" " 3

l a lo
'
u tw , w
"
. l . J ru m

5 1!

M ln a
l '
m n , 1 FM

BW E . l l m i 4 t iu r~

P .
Il l J ll i I m ul h
J i L al
l 4 .

o u of! ll l
'

9 ! a t u i I I
tl n '
i t '

an d the
s teren t i ation
econ d a tte di f
l m ca
n be t ra n sf ortn e
dm i

m i l w ad ru m n l
i n n tu lw

l it a l , b| l a gm ii l t .
r
an in :

J ll I no i l VR l A
a w i de 1 ti l i i an " I t
1 54

KBE
N QIPL E Q E1 R7ELAtTI lvI TY11 i .
'

l. 1

-
i m lse l
a l h
t emh reeiterm s to
f g eth sa we. get t h e

rel a tio n . 10 . t 1 11 m l
.
M 1
1.

7 s
i
ayw
1 l V
T7
1

T g
.

v
aw 0

a

F F + 1 5 F
3 a
s

oi rm , I u . 1 1 l uM
'
H .
1 l 1 l
H ul' l a .
1 1 m i n t )

On accou n t of (3 0) t he equ a t i on (6 6 ) becom es equ i val ent

n T s a re th e
:

wh e (K v a n i sh e h s T
to ( )
57 a n d ( 57 a ) s u
0
.

r
?
energy com pon en ts of th e el ectro m a g riet i c eld
- W ith .

th e h el p of ( 6 1 ) a n d (6 4 ) we ca n ea si ly sh ow t h a t the
en er co m
p o n en ts of th e e l ect o
r m a gn etic eld i n the c a se

q
,

ot he spe ci a l r e
s
,
l a ti v ity th eory gi ve rise to th e well k n own ,

M a xwel l Poy nti n g expressi on s-

.

i l
We h a ve n ow deduc e
l H
d th e m o
l '

. l l l ' -
I
st gen er a l l a ws wh ich
the gr a vit a tio n eld a n d m a tter s a tisfy when we use a
co o rd i n a te sys t em for wh ich
g z ] Thereby we .

a ch ieve a n i m po1 ta n t si m pl i c a tion i n a ll our form ul a s a n d

c a lc ul a ti ons wi th out 1 enou nci ng the cond itions of genera l
,

s we h a ve obta in ed th e equ a tion s th rough a

'
chva ri a n ce a ,

s pec i a l is a tion of the co ord i n a te system from the genera l

co v a ri a n t equ a ti on s Sti l l th e qu e
-
stion is n ot wit ho ut form a l

i nterest whether whe n t h e energy com pon en ts of the

, ,
-

gra v i ta ti on eld an d n a tteli 18 d e n ed 1 11 a gener a lised m a n ner

t '

w ith out a n y spec i a l is a tion of co ordi n a tes th e l a ws of con -

,

serv a tion h a ve th e form of the equ a tion a n d the eld

quat idn s of gra V 1 ta ti on h old i n tlit fo rm ( 52 ) or

l l
e '
'
' " '

such th a t on the left h a nd side we h a ve a di vergenc e1 d th e ,

usu a l sense a n d on t h qwi g h t han d side the sum of the

, r
f -
,

en er gy com po nents of m a tter a n d gr a vi ta t ion

-
I h a ve .
1 56 a s a st x rm. rr,

c
an take {an ym a l n es Th i s si gn i es th a t an y l 11 1 1 , 1
-

u 1 '
i 4 1 114 1 4 1 4 1 1- 1 1
/
9

I" v= | l x ,
l
dv4
l i ll i
dd: 4
'
l . 1 1 ll1 1 1

ca n ppea r w h ich i s l ess th a n th e vel oc ity of l i g ht i n

a

vacuum (1 If we n a l ly l i m it ou rsel ves to th e

ca sc rrasssa r t hef
ia sewh eii sassm a rt oa a re
e
aa 1 15 1 e
v el o i ty of li ght i t sign ies th a t the com pon e n ts
c m l
,
1 1 1

1
-
l d f hu t ( drug M a l i 1

. s
'
1 1 ii i -
1 1
14
ds
- 1
'
l ( 10 1 1 i 1 ds 1
1 v l '
V ! l

d
equ a l t1
ca n 11 1
e
1
qu a n ti ties ; wh erea s
'

rea t d a s sm a l l
t 15

e
'
1
1
1 l1 | 1 !
d
'

the s c on d or er m a g n i t
.

1 , ,up to udes (th e seco n d poi n t of ,

vi y
g l
v or a pp roxi m ti on )
a w,
.

Now we s e th a t a c i to the rst view of a pprox i

e c ord n g ,
l

mat ion the ma gn itudes I us a rea ll s m a l l qu a n titi es of

;

,

at least th e rst o rder A gl a nce a t (4 6 ) wi l l a lso sh ow .

,

th a t i n this equ a tion a ccordi n g to th e second vie w of ]

l 1

a ppro xi m a tion we a re on ly to ta ke i n to accou n t those ,

terrhsforw hic
' '
hp v 4 .
-
.

Byli n i i ti hg o urselv e
s on ly to ter i n a of th e loWest ordei
1 o
" ' ' '

firs
l

w eget i n
Ul I I
st a

M q
d of t , th e

t
M d
x i l l o

f
i i i l .

r 4 1 1
wh ere
dt "

ui 1 II ! 1

or byl i m i t i n g o u rs elves on ly to t h oseterms w h ich a ccord i n g

w t he r st
i
'

st a n poi n t a re a ppr ox
'
im h
a t i o s of 1 th e rst
orde rrl ,
11 1 1 n a w .

l 11 1 11 1 1 1
 G EN ERA LJ SBD wh en . REf rt w r r 1 1 571

If we furth er a ssum e t ha t t h e g ravi ta t iom eld i s . 1 1 .

q u a s i sta tic t e it is l im ited on ly to the c a se w h en th e

-

, . .
,

m a tte r produci n g the g i a Vita t ion eld is m ovi n g s lowly -

el ti e th e l li h e l t l th e
( i f i
g ) e
r a v t o ve b t vl o ' t w ca n l n e c l
c g
1 1

di eren t i a t i on s of the pos i t i on a l co b rdi n a tes on t li e ri gh t

/
'
1

ha n d s ide w i th resp ect to n i m e so w

1 ba m wm get1 1 1 a
- n -
1 1

1

2
1 1
.

7
,
6 9 1

dt

Th is is 1 11 1 equa t i b n f 11 1 01 1011 of a m a te r
i a l poi n t

a ccord i n g t o Newto n s theory wh ere g pla ys the pa rt of , ,

gravi tati on a l poteh t i a l! Th e rem ar k able th i n g i n th e

'
'
1 " 1 1 1

res u l t i s th a t i n the fi rst a pp rox i m a tion of m oti on of t h e -

m a teri a l poi n t o n ly the co m pon en t 51 of the fu nd a m en ta l

,

ten sorl appea rs . 1 1

! 1
1 1

Let us n ow tu rn to the field equ a tion In th i s -

c a se weh a ve
, t h a t the en ergy . ,

m a tter is ex clus rvel v de n ed i n a n a rrow sense by t h e

den s i ty p of m a tte n e by t h e second m em ber on the
r w ) , 1 1

right h a nd s i de of 58 [( 58 a o r I f we m a ke th e ,

n ecess a ry a ppro x i m a tion s th en a ll com pon en t v a n ish ,

l oolo bus dh
'

ex ce t
p n b
a ou 3 i m 1 m to 1 1 1 01 "
SS ei 1

vu M i i 30 11 1 1 1 38 11 1 1 1 n le
i di w di vm 0 l i la3?
1 i 7 1
a

On th e" 1
111 ( s l esm
eea
oeawt1 111 1 12
51
1 e an

in n i tes im a l of th e second o rder i so th a t the rst lea ds to

i l 1 /( V 9
the folldw n g te ms m tthe a prox m a ti on wh i c h w e ra her
1
4 1
. . 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1

i 0 w p i ,

re
i [ " 5"
si r b fg1 us ;
"3
i n te
11

1 1 1
-

9
l1 1 0 m i 1 i l1 1 11

i
: 1 1 1 1 1

ll
.

i i l i i
i
i
f m a t

s t w a s .
i ta l 1 1 1 1 11 1 1 l
'

ll i -

1 1 1 11 1 1 v1 . 11 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1

By neglecti n g a ll di eren t i a t i on s wi th reg a 1 d to tim e ,

i
th s lea ds lw h en m ii 1 1
to t h eex press i on II : 1 1 11 1
1
,

l 1

2 4
a v
1 58 1
11 11 1 11 c 1
;
or usu r i vm

Th e l a s t of the equ at i on si ( 53 ) th u s leadsl 113

ll
4 1 11 .
1 1

( 68 )
M I
The eq ua t i on s (6 7 ) a n d ( 6 8 )
1
togeth ev, aie equi va len t to

N ew ton 3 law of g ra vi ta t ion

'
1
. 1 . 1 1 1
1 1
1 H

Fo r th e g ra vitat i on poten t i a l w e g et from l ( 6 7 )

- '
and (66 )
the ex p .

1 1

1 1 1 lI U
'

1 " 4 - I i .
'
J 1 I J l
'
i l .

w h erea s the Ne w t on i an t h e ory [ for t h e ch osen u ni t ofn ti m e

gi ves . 1 1 . 1 1 01 1 1 11 -
1 1 11 1 H i 1
'
1 l1 1 a

w h ere K denotes usua lly t h e '

l
gr a vi t a tio 1 i -
c onsta nt 6 7 x e
d ua tin
g th e m w eg e
t

=1 8 7 x 10 3 1 -

l 1 I i t

22 . Beh a vi our of m
ea suri n g rods an d clocks i n 1 a a

sta ti ca l gra vi ta t i on eld cu rva t ureof li gh t ra ys -

.
-
.

P eri h eli on -
m ot i on ,of t h e pat h s of1 .th e P la n ets .

i i l i 1 1 1
l

q 1 1 ) 1i . 1 1 11 1

In
orde l to o i ta n i N ew ton th i or y as H St
Lon
ia i l l iI
'
s i '

matio n we
l l 1r ! n
'
l
'
5 l 1

to calc u la te on ly g 4 4 out
1

h ad 1 0 (31311 0
9 39
.
,
l 0

n e uts g of the grav i tation poten tial for th at 1 3 th e on l y -

,
m o n
com pon ent whi ch com es i n the r st a pp rox l m at
p equ a ti on s

of motion of a mat erial po i n t i n a g rav i tati on al eld .

fa
I
I 1

W e see h ow evser ,
t h a t th e other com pon en te lof 1 9 1 11 1

should also di er fro the v al u es g i v en i n ( L)

i
e

as r q x ed
u by
m
the cond i tion g l 7
.
1 60 ( 1 1 !
P R INCI P L E or
f

If t h e un it m ea s ri n g rod li es on
u
1 11 11
1 11
ax is , th e
rst of
t h e equa t i on s( 7
0 i veg l 0 1 Ill l
)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1I
g
-
.

1 I 1
1 1111 1

9 1 1

1 1
1
1

F ro m bot h these relati ons i t fol lo ws

as a
rst a pprox i
m ati o n thet
f
1 M : 1

T he un it m easu ri n g rod appears whe n referred to the ,

co 01 di n a t e syste m sh orte n ed by the

l ula te m a n i tude
ap d ,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1
o

t h ro
1

ra vi ta t i on a i
1

ti h the presence of
-

g the g e ld whe n we ,

pl ace i t rad ially i n the eld 1 .

S i m i larly we its co o rd i n atel en ca n get - -

g th in (a
tan gen tial position if we put for exam ple ,

1 , c l ,
z
e 3z 2 0 : . v,

W t h e ' lo e 1 1 ,1
c

t
.

11 I '
1 1 1 ! . 1

I1I 1 1 11 3 1 . l 1l 1
l t l 1 l1 on
,
a 9

(71a) dt 5
.

6
i -

1 171 71
'
11 1 11 1
11 1 1
g

g ra vi tati on al lehgt h
'

1 1 11 11
1
eld h a s n 101111 9 11 1311 u po n 1 11 11 1
'
13 o

i od w hen we put it tan gential ly

oli 't h e i n t he eltl .

l
Thus E uclidean geom e try does n ot hol d th e grav
1 a 1

ID 1

t t i o l eld e
a ve n i n th e rst
n a pp

toi i h 61 111 11: t We co cei ve

t a r 1

r n

th at one an d the sam e 0d i nde pe den t of fi ts po itio n n d 1 n s a

its or ientati on c an serve t h e measu re of the same as

exten sion But a gla n ce at (7 0a) (6 9 ) sh ows that the

.

expected diffei en ce i s m uc h too smal l to be noti c e able

i n the M easurem e
" " l
nt Ofeart h s su rface
'
.

1
1 1 1 1 1 1

l
ol !
We woul d fu rt her i n ves ti ga te the rate of gm n g of a
un it c loc k w h ich i s pla ced i n w s tat i ca l gravitational eld
- .

H ere we have fo r a period of the clock

i
ds z l , d . = d ea = 0 ; .
 G EN ER A I J RED


TH EO R Y OF R ELA TI V I T Y
th en w e have

The refore t he cl oc k g oes slow ly wh a t it i s pl a c ed i n

the n ei ghbou rh ood of ponde rable masses It fol lows fr om .

th i s that th e spectral l i nes i n th e l ight com i n g to us f rom

th e su rfaces of bi g s tars should appea r s h if ted towards the
red end of th e spect ru m .

Let us f urt h er i n v esti ga t e the path of l igh t rays i n a -

s ta ti ca l grav i ta tion al eld A cco rd in g to th e s pec ia l rel a ti

.

v i l y th eory the vel ocity of li ght i s gi ve n by t h e equa t i on

,

3
+ d1 .
1 .

th us also accord i n g to t h e gen eral ed rela t i vity t heory i t

is gi ve n by the equation

(73 ) 1
( 3

z
g U'
l
-

If t h e d i rec t io n ,
th e ra t io 1 1 1 1

,
is g i ven ,
t h e e q ua t ion ( 7 3 ) gi ve s th e magn it ud es

and wi th it the velocity ,

11 da
1

1 112 1
011 ,
3 111 . 1 7 l

i n t h e sen se of the E uc lidean G eom et rv We ca n eas i ly see .

that with referen ce to th e co ordi n ate system the rays of

,
-
,

l igh t m ust appear cu rved i n case y v s are n ot c onstan ts

'

p
If u be th e di r ection perpend icu lar to the d i recti on
of propagation we have from H uygen s pr i nci ple that
, ,
.

,

l igh t ra ys } (ta k en i n the plan e (7

-
m ust suer a ,

c u rvatu re 67
6 71

Let us nd out th e cu rvatu re wh i ch a li gh t ra y suers -

w hen i t g oes h v a m a ss M at a d i stance A from i t If w e

1

.

use th e 110 or di n ate system a c cord i n g to t h e abo ve sch em e

-

t hen the total bendi n g B of l i gh t rays ( rec k oned posi ti ve -

w hen i t is c on c ave to the origi n ) is gi ven as a s uf ci en t

approx i m ati on by

wh ere ( 7 3 ) and ( 7 0) gi v es

]
_f 1 _a
Y
92 1
1

Th e c al c u l a t ion gi ves
2a
B
A

A ray of l i gh t j ust g razi n g t h e sun wou ld su ffer a bend

i ng of w s on e c om in g by J up i ter w ould h a ve
/
cs l "
h l
 N O TES
N Th e fu ndamen tal elect ro m a g n e t i c e q ua t i on s
ote 1 . -

M axwel l for stat ionar m e dia are

y
l
cu rl H

1 GB
curl E

p
di v s li s

di v B z o D z lrl l

A cc ord i n g to H e rt and H eaviside t hese requ i e m od i

z
, t ~

ca t i on in the case of m m in g bo dies .

No w i t is k n o wn tha t due t o m otion alon e t here is a

chan ge i n a vector 7? gi ven by
GR
due t o m ot i on z z u . di v lt + c url [R u]
61

where is the vecto r vel oci ty of t h e m ovi n

n
g body an d
[ ]
R n th e vector pr od uct of I t and 71 .

H en ce equation s ( 1 ) an d ( 2 ) be c o m e
6 D
c cu rl H + 11 di v D + eurl V ect .
[D u] + pl '

(l l)
'

6 !

B
_c cu rl E
2 1
+ 7 : di v ll c u i l Ve n t .
[Bu]
wh ic h g i ves ti n a ll
y fo r z o an d di v
, p

Q ]
5 ? +u di v D : r cu rl
( ll 1
(
V fp t

N W)

6 13
6 1
c cu rl E
( V ect .
D B]
1 66 pa m m r m or n a rs rl vm v

Let us con sider a beam t ravel l i n g a l ong the r ax is .

-
,

with appa rent veloc ity 1 vel ocit y w i th respect to th e

xed ether ) i n m edi u m m o vi n g wi t h veloc i ty u u i n the : ,

sam e d i rectio n .

Th en if the electric and m agn e t ic ve ctors a re

{ A (er v!
)
p p t
ro ori onal to e we have
6 6 6 8

of
,
at 6 3, a :

a Dy 6 11 6 D,
Then -
r
:

Gt 6:
GB .
_0 BE, BB .

t
Si n ce D
'

z K E an d B= p H we have
,

+ uK E, )
c i A (H x

{ Av (p H J c i A ( E , + 2m H , )
v ( K n
) E ,
=c H ,

u
, ( 1) u) H ,
=c E ,

in
i

M u lti ply g by

4
1

K ( v w) 2

H en ce (v
vz v + u,
,

mak i n g F res n eli a n con vec t i on co -

etci en t si mply u n ity .

E quation s an d may be obta i ned m ore

s i m ply from physical considerations .

A ccordi n g to H ea viside and He rt z th e real seat ot

'

bot h el ectr i c an d m agnet ic polarisat i on i s th e m ovi ng

med i um itself ; No w at a po i nt w h ich is xed with respect
to th e ether the rate of ch a n ge of electric polarisat ion i s
,

J
1 68 P RI N CI P L E or R E L A TI V I TY

Ei cben wa h l ( A n n ale n der Phys i k rota ted 1 9 03 , 1 9 04 )

together both cond en ser a n d d i elec tric an d fou n d that the
m ag net ic cect w a s p ropor t ional to the p oten t i al d i fference
and to th e an gu lar veloc ity but was com ple tely i ndepe nden t ,

of K T h is is of c ourse qu ite con si s ten t wi th R owland

"

a n d R o n tg en .

(C om ptes Rc udus 1 9 01 ) p a ssed a curren t

Bl on dl ot ,

of ai r i n a steady m ag netic eld H ( H If , ,

th is c u rren t of ai r m o ve s w i th v elo c i ty u al ong t h e ,

v axis an el ect rom oti ve fo rce w ou ld h e set up alon g t he

.
-
,

ax i s due to the relat i ve m oti o n of m atter an d m a gn etic

-
,

tu bes of i nd u c t i on A p a i r o f plates at z = + a wi l l be .
,

c harged up w ith dens i ty p = D = K E = K u H /c , . ,

,
.

But Blo n dlo t fa iled to detect an y suc h e ffect .

H A Wi lson ( P h il T ran s R oy a l S oc
. . 1 9 04 ) repeat ed . . .

the ex per i m en t wit h a cvli n dri Ca I co n den ser m ad e of

ebon y rotati n g i n a m agn etic eld paral lel t o i ts own
,

axi H e observed a c h an ge proporti onal to K l a n d

s .

n o t to K .

T hus t h e ab ove set of electro m ag n eti c experimen ts -

con trad ic t the H ertz H eav isid e eq uati ons a n d these m ust -

be aban d on ed .

(P ( I M ) . . .

I o 0

N ot e 2 Lore/Lt:
1

Loren t z V ers uch einer theori c d c r ele k tri ch en

. s uud

optisch en Ersch ci n un g en i 1n b ew egt en K o rpcr n

( Lei den
Lorentz Th eory of E le c t ron s ( E ng l ish
. ed ition ) ,

p a ge
s 1 9 7 2 00 2 3 0 also n otes 7 3 8 6 pages 31 1 8
-
, , , , ,
3 28 .

wan te d to explai n t h e M ich elson M orl ey

Loren tz -

n ul l effect I n o rd er t o do so i t was obviously n ecessary

-
.
,

to ex plai n t h e F itzger a l d c ontra c tion Lorentz w or k ed .

on the hyp othesis th a t an electro n itsel f u n dergoes

 N OT E S 169

con t ractio n w hen mov i n g H e i n t rod u ced new variables .

for t he m ov i n g system d e n ed by the fol low i n g set of

equa t i o ns .

9 l = = z, t
3
l m
18 y y,
0 "
z
2

and for veloc i t i es used ,

v.
[
31 1 8
,
0, and p
= p/B
1
.

W i t h t h e h el p of the above set of e q uati o ns wh ich i s

'

k nown as th e Loren t z tran sformation he su c ceeded i n ,

show i n g ho w t h e F i tzge rald co n traction resul t s as a

co nsequence of
fortu i tous co m pe n sat i o n of opp i w os U

etfects

It sh ou ld be obser ved that t h e Lore n t z trans fo rma t ion

is n ot id en tical w i th t he Ei nstei n t ransform a t ion T he .

E i nstei n ian add i tio n of velo c it ies is q u ite d i fferen t a s

also t h e express io n fo r the relative density of electric i ty .

I t is t rue that the M ax we l l Lo ren tz el d e q uati ons -

remai n p r a cti ca lly u nchan ged by the Loren tz transfo rma

tion but they a re chan g ed to so me sl igh t exten t O n e
, .

m ar k ed a d van t age of the E i nstei n tran sform ati on con s ists

i n the fact that the eld eq uations of a movi n g sys te m
p res erve er a ct/y the sam e fo rm as t hose of a stat i o nary
sys te m .

It sh ou ld a l so be n oted that th e Fresn elia n con vection

c oef cient co m es out i n t he t heory of relativ i ty as a d i rect
co ns equen ce of E i n stei n s a dd it ion of v eloci ties a n d is

q u i te i nde pe nden t of any el ec trical th eory of m atte r .

[ c M
P . . .
)
N ot e 3 .

S ee Loren tz , Th eory of E lectron s ( E n g l ish edi ti on ) ,

18 1, page 21 3 .
1 70 I IP L E
PR N C or R E L A TI V I TY

H ; Po i n care S u r la dy n a m i q ue el ectro n
,

, R end icon t i
del c i rcolo m a tem atico d i Palerm o 2 1
[P C M . . .
]
N ot e 4 I i ela l i m ty T/ worcm d R ela ti vi ty P r i n ci pl e
'

. an -
.

Lorent z sh owed that t h e M ax wel l Loren tz sys tem -

of el ec t rom ag n eti c eld e q ua t ions rem ai n ed pract i cal l y

-

u nchan ged by th e Lorentz transformation T h us th e .

ele c trom a g n e t ic l a w s of M ax wel l an d Lorentz ca n be

de n i tel to be i nd epend en t of th e man ner i n
f i y proved
w h i c h they a re referred to t w o c oordi nate systems w h ic h
have a u n iform tra nslatory moti o n relati ve to eac h o t her .

( S ee E lectrod y n am ics of M ov i n g Bod i es

page T h us ,

so far as th e electromagn eti c la w s are concern ed the ,

pri nci ple of relati v ity ca n 7 m p roved /0 be l r n e .

But i t is n ot k no w n w hether th i s pri nciple w i l l rem ai n

true i n t h e case of oth er phys ical l aw s we can al w ays .

proceed on th e assu m pti o n th at i t does remai n true T h us .

i t is al w a y s possibl e to con struct ph vsica l l a ws i n such a

w a v th at t h ev retai n thei r form wh en referred to mov i n g

coord i nates Th e ulti mate grou n d for form ulati n g phys i

.

cal la w s i n th is way is m erelv a s ub j ec t i ve con v i c tion th at

th e pri nci ple of r elati v ity is u n i versal l y true T here i s .

n o a p ri or r log i c al necessi t y that i t should be so Hence

the P ri n c i pl e of Rela t i vi ty ( s o far as i t is appl i ed to

p hen o m ena oth er than el ec tromagn eti c ) m ust be re arded
g

as a pod /da l e w h ic h w e have as s u m ed to be true but for

,
,

wh ic h w e ca n not a dduce a n y de n ite proof u n ti l after ,

the gene ral isatio n is m ad e and i ts conse q uen c es tes ted i n

the l igh t of ac tual experien ce .

[P C . . M .
]
N ote 5 .

See
E le c trodynam ics of M ovi n g Bod ie s,
p . 58 -
 172 PR INCIPL E op RE L A TI V IT Y
an d we get n a llv

af4 Q a f Q
_ p
'
.

a w, 6x ,

[P . o M . .
]

f gM
Com i c /m y(if M e I elor i ly o i
'

N ot e9 . L .

P age 1 2 l
'
efer also to page 6, of E i n s te i n s

paper .

O n e of the t wo fu ndamen ta l Postulates of th e P ri n ci pl e

of R e la ti vit y i s th at the veloci ty of l i ght should rem ai n
c ons tan t whether the sou rce is movi n g or stat ionary It .

foll ows that even i f a rad ian t s ou rce S m ove wi th a veloci t y

u i t s hou ld a lw a vs remai n th e cen t re of spherica l waves
,

ex pan d i n g ou t wards wi th veloci tv 0 .

At fi rst si gh t i t may n ot a ppear clear w hy t h e

,

veloci tys h ould remai n con s ta n t I n deed acco rd i ng to the

.

t he or y of R i t z the velocity should becom e c + u whe n the

, ,

sou rce of l i ght mov es towards th e obs erver with , the

velocity u .

Prof de S itt er has g i ven an as t ronom ical argu m en t for

.

decid i ng bet w een these t wo di vergen t wi ew s L et us .

su ppose there I S a double s ta r of wh i ch on e is revol vi n g

a bout the com m on c entre of gravi ty i n a ci rcula r orbit .
 NOT E S 1 73

Let the obse rver be i n th e pl a n e of th e orb i t at a great

,

d is tan c e A .

c +u

T he l igh t em i tted by t h e star wh en at t h e p os i tio n A

wil l be recei ved by the observer afte r a ti m e wh i le

th e l igh t e m i t ted by the s tar when at th e posit i on B wi l l

be re cei ved a fter a ti m e L et T be t h e rea l h a lf

per i od of t he star . T h en th e obse rved h a lf pe ri od from -

C)
A n
approxi m a t ely T
~

B to A i s an d from A to B i s
02

No w if be c om parable to T the n , it

is i mposs i ble that the observa t io n s sh ou ld sa ti sfy

K epler s
La w . In m ost of th e s
pect C Opi c b in ary s ta rs ,

2 za A
q
are n ot on ly of t he sam e o rd er as T bu t are m os tly ,
0
.

m uc h larger F or e xa m pl e if a 1 00 [fi n /sec T= 8 days

.
,
z
, ,

A/ c = 3 3 yea rs (corres pond i n g to an an n ual pa ral l a x of

th en T Th e exis ten ce of th e S p ec t roscop i c
bi nar i es and th e fa c t t hat they fol lo w K epl er s La w is
,

therefore a p roof that c is n ot a ect ed by t h e m ot i on of

the sou rce .

In a la ter mem oi r reply i n g to the c rit ic isms of

,

F reu ndl ich an d G ii n t h i ck th at an appa re nt ecce n tricit y

occu rs i n the m otion pro por t ional to M A O n o be i n g th e ,
174 r a m cw w or R EL A TI V I I Y

m ax i m u m val ue of u, the v eloc ity of l i gh t em i tted bei n g

" 0 c kn ,
k O Loren t z -
E instein
t
I : 1 R i tz .

Prof de S itte rad m its th eval id ity o f th e criti c isms But

. .

h e remar k s that a n u pper val ue of k m ay be calculated from

th e observation s of th e double sar B A u ri gae F or th i s s tar -
. .

Th e paral lax e=

005 ,
k i u/sc e T= 3 9 6 , '

A 65 l i gh t years -
,

t
I is

OU

an experi me n tal proof see a paper b y C

Fo r , . Ma j orana .

Ph il M a g V ol 3 5 p 1 03
.
, .
, . .

[M N . . S] .

N ot e 1 0 . R est zlc/w i y of
-
El ec tri c i ty .

l fp th e
volu me den si ty i n a mov i ng sy stem t hen
is
w"
) is t h e c orrespo n di n g q uan ti ty i n t h e c orrespond

i n g vol u m e i n th e xed syst em that is i n th e system at , ,

res t an d hence it is te rm ed th e rest den s i ty of el ectric ity

,
-
.

[P C . . M .
]
N ot e 1 1 ( pa g e
Spa ce l i m e vectors
-

f o Alec r s! a n d M e secon d k i n d .

A s w e had al ready occasio n to mention S om merfeld ,

h as i n t wo papers on fou r d i men si on al geom e t ry ( vi dc

, ,

A n nale n der P hysi k Bd 3 3 p i l 9 ; and Bd 3 3 p ,

.
, .
l -
.
, .

translated the id eas of M i n k ows k i i n t o the la nguage of fou r

d i mension al geo me t ry I n stea d of M in k ows k i s spac e ti m e .

-

ve c to r of t h e rs t k ind h e uses th e m ore expressi ve term ,

fou r vector -
thereby ma k in g i t qu ite clea r that it
,

represen ts a d i rected q uanti ty l i k e a straigh t l i ne a fo rce ,

or a m omen tu m a n d has got 4 com pone nts th ree i n the

.
, ,

d i rectio n of space a xes and o ne i n the d i re c tio n of the

-

ti me a x i s -
.
1 76 P R INCIPL E or RE LA TI V I TY
C om p lem en t of Th en we have th e fol lowi n g rel ation s
betw een the com ponen ts of the t wo pl an e
5 2
:
I f) =
f y l z a z y fl :

* *
T he proof of t hese asserti on s is as follows L et n .
,
v

be th e fou r vec tors de n i n g T hen we have

fol low i n g rel ation s
=0
u: a r t -
n : n a ,

: u k aj f
" t
a f
l -
vy + u

uy + r f u, + 1 7? 1l i

at
f t v: v, + vf 1 5 4
i
v tar - -
14 17 ,

If we m u l t i p ly th ese equ at i ons by v, u v an d , ,, , ,

sub tra c t th e sec ond fr om th e rs t t h e fou r th fr om th e ,

t h i rd we obta i n

n f I
<> + u
*
qb =0
=0
v: + v l f) 1
<)

m u lt i ply i ng th ese equati on s by i f a ? o r by

""
v

we ob tai n
W5 . 95 $ 5 .
an d Ff <t>u
,
+ 495 . t l
=o

from wh i ch we h ave
935 9 it : 957 1

In a c orres pon d i n g way we h ave

: I
< > L : f, :
3'
i e.
(u )
wh en th e s ubscrip t (M ) d en o t es the c om pon ent of 4; i n
t h e plan e con tai ned by t h e l i n es o t h er t han ( i t ) Th erefo re .

th e t h eorem i s proved .

We h ave q ,

2 (Tu l 3

0
 N O TE S 177

T he gene ral s i x vec tor f is co m pos e d from the vec tors

-

i n t he fol lo w i n g way
*
f pd) p M ,

d "
d e noti n g the con t en ts of th e pi ec es of m utual ly
'

p a n p
perpe nd ic ul a r plan es c o m pos i n g f T he c o n j u gate .

V ector f * (or i t m ay be cal led th e com plem en t of f) i s .

obtai n ed b y i n t e rc ha n g i n g p a n d p *

We have ,

ie = ri
f 4)
J
r P 4)

We can veri fy t h at
f; f , , ete .

an d f 2 =

( f/p
* =f
3ee
*

a n d (j f ) m ay h e sai d t o h e i n variants of the si x

*

ve c tor s for thei r values a re i nd ependent of th e c hoice of

,

th e system of co ord i n ates -

.

[M N s ] . . .

N ot e 1 2 . Lig h -
m J n c i /ym 11 m ax im um .

Pag e 23 , and E le c tro -

dynam i c s of M ov i n g Bod i es ,
p . 17 .

Pu tt i n g v= c . r, an d zo z c A, we get

20 20

20 (w + A)
20

Th us v< c, so l on g as m > 0
.

Th us the veloc ity of l i ght i s the abs ol u te max i m u m

veloc i ty \V e shal l n ow see t h e conseq uenc es of ad m i tt i n g
.

a vel oc i ty W > c .

B be separated by d istance 1, an d let

 1 78 P R IN C IPL E or RE LA TI V IT Y
(observi n g ) sys te m S ha ve vel oc i ty

+ 17 wi t h resp ec t to
the system S .

T hen vel oci ty of si gn al wi th respec t to sys te m S is

W_v
g i ven by W
0

W v cg
l /
Th us
ti m e from A to B as m easu red i n S

,
is gi ven
Z (l
by I W -

t
W v

Now if v i s less t han c t hen W bei n g greater t han , 0

(by hypo t hesis ) W is grea te r than v W>v , .

L et W = c + p an d l7 =C

Th en A) = 09
M .

Now we can al ways c hoos e 1) i n s uch a wa yt ha t W 1) is

gr ea ter th an 0 s i nce W e i s > c2 i f (p + A)c p)\ is > O .

that is ,
if n + A > 4
? wh ich can al ways be sa tis ed by
a su itable ch oice of A .

Th us for W > c we can al ways choose A in suc h a

way as m a k e W v> c
to l W r /c n egati ve 9
But ,
2
.

VV r is al ways posi ti ve H en ce with W > c we ca n .

,

al ways m a k e t t h e t i m e from A to B i n equation ( 1 )

n egat i ve That i s the sig nal star ti n g fr om A w il l r ea c h
.
,

'
B (as observed i n system S ) i n less t han n o ti m e Th us the .

e ect w i l l be perc ei ved before the cause com m en c es to act ,

i e t h e fu t u re w i l l p recede the past

. .
,
Wh ich i s absu rd . .

Hence we concl ude t hat W > c is an i m possibil i ty t here ,

ca n be no veloc i ty greater than that of l i ght .

It is con cep tua lly possi ble t o i magi ne velocit i es grea ter
than that of l i gh t but such veloc i t ies can n o t occ ur i n
,

rea l ity V eloci ties grea te r th a n 0 wi ll

. n ot pr od u c e ,

any e ffect C au sal e ffect of any phys i cal type can n ever
.

trav el w i th a velocity grea ter t h an tha t of l ight .

[ P c M ) . . .
 P R I NCIP L E OI
"

RE L TI V I TY A

frequ en t occu rre nce i n th is paper i t wi l l be bet te r t o for m ,

an idea of the i r geometrical mean i n g T he f ol low i n g .

is ta k e
n fro m t h e above m en t io n ed paper of S om m erfeld .

We can also form a vectorial co m bi na ti o n of a fou r .

vector and a s i x vector g ivi n g us a vec tor of t h e th i rd

-

type If t h e si x vector be of a special type

.
-
a piece ,

of plan e then th is vector of the th i rd type d en otes the

,

paralle 10piped formed of th is four vector and t h e c om ple ~

m en t of th is piece of plane I n th e ge neral case t h e .

,

pr oduc t wi l l be th e geometric s um of two paral lel op i peds ,

but i t ca n a l ways b e repres en ted by a fou r vecto r of the -

l s t type F or two pie c es of 3 space volum es can always

.
-

be added together by t he vector ial a dd ition of th e i r c om

p on en t s S o.by th e add ition of t w o 3 space vol um es -

we do n ot obtai n a vector of a m ore general type but ,

on e wh i c h ca n al way s be represe nted b y a fou r vector -

Io c c it p Th e stat of affa i rs here is t h e same a s

( ,
. . e

i n t h e ordi n ary ve c to r calcu lus w here by the vector ,

m u ltipl i c atio n of a v ec tor o f th e li rst an d a vector of t h e ,

se c on d ty pe a pol a r vec tm ) w e ob tai n a v ector of the ,

rs t typ e (ax ia l v ector ) Th e form a l sch em e of t his .

m u l ti pl icat ion i s ta k en from th e t ln cc di m ens ional c a se '

-
.

Let denote a vector of the rst

A = (A A A
ty p e ,
B B ) d en o te a v ector of the se c ond
,

type F ro m th is l a st let us for m th ree sp ec ial vectors of

.
,

the rst k i nd nam ely ,

B
. B , )
B = ( e B B B
B B

S i n ce is zero B is perpend icul ar to t h e j ax is

B , .
-
.

The j om pon ent of the vector prod uct of A and B i s

-
c -

equ i valen t to t h e scalar p rod uct of A a n d B i e .

, ,
. .
,

( A B, )
-

A , B .
 N br n s 18 1

e a s i ly th at th is coi nc ides wi t h th e usu al ru le

We see

for t h e v ec t o r product c g fo r j = -

,
. .
,
a: .

B , ,
-
A . B ,

C orrespo n d i ngly let us de n e i n th e fou r d i mens ion al -

case the product ( Pf) of a n y fou r vector P an d the si x -

vector f T he j co m po nen t .
y z or Z ) is g i ven by -

, ,

( / l
R D T P x
f. - -
+ P vfu o +P :
f
E ac h
on e of these com pon e n ts is obta i ned as t h e scalar
prod uc t of P an d the vecto r f w h ic h i s perpen d i c ul ar to
, ,

j ax is and is ob ta i n ed from
-

, by t he rulef Hf , ,

f j x i f ) f
f' J J
O] '

96

Yt e ca n
also n d ou t h ere th e geo m et ri c al si gn i c ance
r

of vectors of t h e th i rd t y pe w h en f t i c f represen ts ,
: c
, . .
,

o n ly one pla ne .

We replace (is by t he parallelog ram deli n cd by th e t w o

four vectors U V a n d let us pass ove r to th e co n j ugate
-
, ,

plane wh ich i s form ed by t he perpen d icu la r fou r vector s -

U *
V *
T he c om pon en ts of ( Pct ) are then e q ual to t h e
,
.

1 th ree row ed u nder de te rm i nan t s D D D D

' -
of the -

, , z :

m atri x
1 P P P
, ,

* *
U ,
* U ,
* U . U ,

* *
V , V ,
* V V ,

Leavi ng as ide t h e li rs t c ol u m n we ob tai n

U ,
*
V U

wh ic h co i n cides w ith accord i n g to our d e n i tion .

 P RI N I P L E C or R ELA T V I IT Y
E am ples of th is type of vectors w i l l be fou n d on
x

page 3 6 , the ele c trical rest force a n d - -

the m agnetic r es t force The rest ray - -

also .
-

belon g to the sam e type ( page It i s ea syto sh ow

th at

a a v s a
W h en ( m m
ww wa ) o ,
w4 i, (2 re du c e s to the th ree
dimen sional ve c tor
Q 02 3 9 3

3 8

Si n c e i thi c ase n s ,
=e , ( th e e l e c tri c for c e )
m , (th e m agn eti c for ce)
we h ave ( 9 ) an alo gous to th e
P oynti n g ve c tor
-
.

[M N . s]

N ote 1 6 . Tire el ec tri c r est force -

.
( Pa ge
T he fou r ve c tor = wF wh ich i s cal led by M i n k o w s k i
-

th e elec t r i c rest foree (ele k t r i sch e R n h K raft ) i s very

- -
-

closely con n ec ted to L oren tz s Pon derom oti ve force or ,

th e force acti n g o n a m ovi n g c harge I f p i s th e den sit v .

of c harge we h ave w hen , p l fo r free space

,
z
,

1
V
/
c
2
li
d +
0

N ow si n c e p0 = p /l V "
/c
2

I
W e h ave -

( a
h v h
C

N b .

.
W e have put com pon ents of 8 e q u ivalent
th e
an d the c om pon ents of m e q u i valen t to
 184 r lrrn c rr r r: or" RE L A TI V I TY
bec om e clear when al on g w it h M i n k ows k i s m ethod of

treat men t we al s o s t udy the geom etrical m eth o d of

Sorn m erfeld M i n k ows k i beg i n s h ere wi t h th e case of
.

lo r S wh ere S i s a si x r eeto r (s pace t i m e v ector of t h e

,
- -

2 n d k i n d) .

Th i s bei n g a com pl ica ted case , we ta k e th e si m pl er

case of lo r a
,

w here s is a fou r vec t or

- : s
I ,
s e
. s
4

and

T he fol lo w i n g g eomet rical m e t hod ta k en fr om S om

m erfeld .

S calar D i vergence den o t e a smal l fou r di m en

L et
A2 -

sioual vol u me of any sh a pe i n th e n ei gh bou rh ood of t h e

s pace ti m e
-
poi n t Q ( I S den ote t h e th ree d i m e n sion al
,
-

bou n d i n g su rfac e of A 2 71 be t h e outer n orm al to ( IS , .

Let S be a uv fou r vector P i ts n or mal com pon en t

-
, ,
.

Th en
I VS
D i v Sz Li m .

A 2=0 A 5

N ow i f for A 2 we choose th e fou r d i mension al paral -

lelepi ped wi th sides (rl r fla

g
( Ia
3 we h ave then l , ,
-

Dlv S
as 1 8 8
Q 6 s
3 6 S
I 01

a a
.

6 I
P
n
2 6

I f d enotes a space ti m e vecto r of th e second k i nd lor

-

rs eq u i valen t to a space ti me vecto r of th e rst k i nd

-
The .

g eo m etrical s ign i can ce can be t h u s brou gh t out e h ave .

r

seen t rat th e operato r l or behaves i n every res pect l i k e

'

a fou r vector Th e ve c tor pro duct of a fo ur vector an d a

-
.
-
,
-

s i x vec tor is agai n a fou r vecto r Therefore i t is easy

- -
.
 N O Tas 1 85

to see tha t lo r s w il l h e a fou r vecto r Let us

. n d -
.

t h e c om ponen t
. of t his fou r vecto r i n any d i rectio n x -
.

L et S den ote t h e t h ree space wh ic h passes t h roug h t h e -

poi n t Q (:r H 7 2 r
,)
and is. perpend
-

,
icul ar t o 3 A S a
.
,
-

very sm a ll part of i t i n t h e regi o n o f Q do is an elem en t ,

of i ts two d i m en s i onal srrrface Let th e pe rpend icular

-
.

to th is su rface ly i n g i n th e sp a ce be den oted by w an d ,

lct f den o t e th e com pon en t of f i n th e plan e of (3 11 )

wh ic h is eviden t ly con j u ga t e to th e pl ane 1 70 T hen t h e .

3 com pon en t o f t h e vec t o r

-
d i ve rgence of f becau se t he
O P I a l OI l or m rrlt i li es f ve ctorial ly )

P p o

W here th e i n tegra t i on i n do is to be extended over

the w hol e su rfa ce .

If n ew s is sel ec ted as th e r d i rec t i on A s i s t h en .

-

a th ree d i men sion al para l lel opi p ed w ith th e sides fly d:

-

, ,

1 11 th en we h ave
,

1
ll
af af
Dir f I (I
Z/ + ( ll ( 1y I
4
(

a
.
,
dydz ( ll 8 11]
.

+ ( 7J7 r?
Sf
d] 2 _ 6] 6f 8f: .

z o 6y 6 Gt

an d gen er a lly
af Qi J
( w h er ef
l

a .

Hence th e fou r c om po n ents of the fou r vec to r lor S - -

or D i v f is a fou r v ector w i th t h e com pon en ts given on

.
-

page 4 2 .

to t h e form ul ae of space geom etry D

A cco rd i n g , ,

denote s a paral lel opi ped l a i d i n t h e (y z l ) s pa ce form ed - -

* * "
(U U U ) (v v: vi )
* *
out of t h e vectors ( P P , , .
186 P R INCIPL E or R h L A TI V I TY

D , i s therefore th e pro j ection on th e y c L space of - -

the pera llelopi ped for med out of these th ree fou r vectors -

( P ,
U *
,
and cou ld a s wel l be den oted by D y zl .

e see d i rec tly that the fou r ve c tor of t he k i nd represen t

r -

ed by ( D D D D ) i s perpend icular to th e paral lelo

, , , , ,

*
pi ped formed by (P U

G en eral ly we ha ve

( f)
P PD P D
* *
.

T h e vector of the th i rd type represe n t ed by ( Pf)

i s gi ven by t h e ge ometrical su m of th e t wo fou r vectors of -

th e rs t type P D an d P D
* *

[M N S ] . . .
 PLEA SEDO N O T RE
M OV E

C A RDS O R SLIPS FROM TH IS POC KE

T

UN IV ERSITY OF TO RO N TO LIBRA RY

Ei n st ei n , Al b er t
Th e pr i n ci pl e of r el a t i vi t y