Sallam N et al.

Proc Aust Soc Sugar Cane Technol Vol 32 2010

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MONITORING SUGARCANE MOTH BORERS IN INDONESIA:

TOWARDS BETTER PREPAREDNESS
FOR EXOTIC INCURSIONS

By

NADER SALLAM1, ETIK ACHADIAN2, ARI KRISTINI2,

MUCHAMAD SOCHIB2, HERWAN ADI2
1
BSES Limited, Gordonvale,2Indonesian Sugar Research Institute,
Pasuruan, Indonesia
nsallam@bses.org.au

KEYWORDS: Moth Borers, Chilo, Scirpophaga,

Indonesia, Sugarcane.
Abstract
SUGARCANE moth borers were surveyed on 931 farms across Java,
Indonesia in 200809. Five moth borer species caused varying levels of
damage to sugarcane plantations: Chilo auricilius, C. sacchariphagus,
Scirpophaga excerptalis, Sesamia inferens and Tetramoera schistaceana.
The first three were the most abundant. All five species caused dead
hearts in sugarcane, with S. excerptalis (top borer) being responsible for
the majority of dead heart symptoms in both young and mature cane.
Chilo species (stalk borers) cause dead hearts only in young cane and
later tunnel inside cane stalks and damage the internodes. Farms managed
by sugar factories suffered more S. excerptalis dead hearts than those
managed by individual growers. This may be the result of crop
diversification and shorter crop cycles practiced by individual farmers. In
addition, S. excerptalis dead heart symptoms were more common in older
ratoons, indicating progressive build up of infestation in older crops. C.
sacchariphagus was more widespread in Java than C. auricilius, with the
former species preferring irrigated areas while C. auricilius was more
abundant in drier areas. S. excerptalis was equally abundant in both
irrigated and rainfall areas. Parasitoid species recovered were Cotesia
flavipes from C. sacchariphagus, Diatraeophaga striatalis from both
Chilo species, and Rhaconotus roslinensis, R. scirpophagae, Stenobracon
sp., Elasmus sp. and Isotima sp from S. excerptalis. All moth borers have
a high potential of colonising sugarcane in Australia, especially in central
and north Queensland where climatic conditions are similar to conditions
in their area of origin. Knowledge of the distribution and dynamics of
these pests is essential to the development of sound Incursion
Management Plans to ensure better preparedness for any incursion into
Australia.
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Introduction
In Indonesia, the sugarcane industry is an important source of income, with 58
sugarcane factories processing 30 Mt of cane grown over 400 000 ha, mostly on the
island of Java. Numerous pests and diseases attack sugarcane crops in Java and
productivity and profitability are significantly reduced due to periodic heavy
infestations and cost of pest control. However, very few published studies have
looked at the range of sugarcane pests and diseases in Indonesia and no data are
available on their impact on sugar production in that country.
This paper reports on preliminary results of a pest survey conducted as a part
of a joint research project between the Australian Centre of International Agricultural
Research (ACIAR), the Indonesian Sugarcane Research Institution (ISRI) in Java and
BSES Limited in Australia (Magarey et al., 2010).
The project aims to survey sugarcane pests and diseases in Java over two
years, with special focus on moth borers, which are major pest species not only in
Indonesia but in all cane-growing areas except Australia and Fiji (Harris, 1962;
Legaspi et al., 1997; FitzGibbon et al., 1998). So far, the Australian sugar industry has
been free of major moth borers, but several borer species occur in neighbouring
countries and it is in Australias interest to collaborate with research organisations in
these countries and maintain comprehensive pest monitoring and surveillance programs.
Prior to studying the impact of moth borers on cane productivity in Java, we
needed first to identify the range of borer species on that island, study their
geographical distribution and examine aspects of their biology and ecology.
Our study focused on investigating the geographical distribution of moth
borer species in Java and on relating surveillance results to factors such as crop age,
locality (region) and farm management practices.
This information will lead to better assessment of the economic impact
inflicted by each of these species on cane productivity and will assist in the
establishment of species-specific management strategies in Java. This information is
also important for improved sugarcane biosecurity in Australia and to ensure the
establishment of a quick and accurate emergency response strategy in case of a borer
incursion.
Materials and methods
We surveyed 931 farms that supply to 30 sugar factories across Java for
species of stalk borers during April 2008April 2009. Of these farms, 620, 226 and
85 belonged to the main three regions of East, Central and West Java, respectively. In
one field on each farm, all plants in ten 10-metre transects were checked for
symptoms of moth borer infestation.
Fields examined represented a range of crop ages (in months), crop classes
(plant cane or ratoon crops) and management systems (factory-managed or grower-
managed), and covered all sugarcane growing regions in Java. Plants showing boring
symptoms either in the leaf, shoot, stalk or the growing point were recorded. Shoots,
stalks and growing points were dissected and the pest species responsible for the
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detected damage was identified directly or, if no borer was found, by the feeding
pattern on the leaves, the shape of the feeding tunnel, the shape of the exit hole and
the presence or absence of a dead heart. Any borer larvae collected were taken to the
laboratory and bred out until they produced an adult moth or a parasitoid, in which
case the parasitoid was identified and rate of parasitism recorded.
Information on crop age, class and farm management was obtained and used
in the data analysis as independent variables with pest species and infestation levels
as dependent variables (SAS, 2003). Climates at Pasuruan and Bogor were matched
with those in major canegrowing areas of Australia using the program CLIMEX as
used by FitzGibbon et al. (1999).
Results and discussion
Species identification and damage symptoms
We found five species of moth borers belonging to four families: Chilo
auricilius and C. sacchariphagus (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), Scirpophaga excerptalis
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), Sesamia inferens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), and Tetramoera
schistaceana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). Both S. inferens and T. schistaceana were
very rarely encountered and were not included in the data analysis. The following are
observations on the identification and damage symptoms of these pest species.
Chilo auricilius (stalk borer)
This pest causes dead hearts in young cane and damages internodes in
advanced crops. The larval stage is distinguishable by the five dark longitudinal lines
along the body, while damage symptoms can be distinguished by the transparent
feeding marks early instar larvae cause on young leaves before they unfold. Feeding
by mature larvae causes a thin, straight feeding tunnel inside the internode (Figure 1),
while the moths exit hole is neatly round.
Chilo sacchariphagus (stalk borer)
Similar to C. auricilius, this pest causes dead hearts in young cane and
damages internodes in advanced crops. The larval stage can be distinguished by the
four longitudinal stripes formed by the spots on the dorsal side (Kalshoven, 1981).
Unlike C. auricilius, feeding by young larvae leaves a line of holes on young leaves,
while mature larvae cause irregular tunnels inside the internodes (Figure 1). The
moths exit hole is oval in shape.
Scirpophaga excerptalis (top borer)
Feeding by young S. excerptalis larvae leaves parallel horizontal rows of shot
holes that become apparent when young leaves unfold (Figure 1). Unlike species of
Chilo, larvae of S. excerptalis do not tunnel in cane stalks and so do not damage the
internodes, but instead move down the plant top towards the growing point, mainly
causing a dead heart and a bunchy-top appearance of shoots (Arora, 2000).
Sesamia inferens (shoot borer)
This species is mainly a pest of rice and is rarely found infesting sugarcane in
Java. It was found occasionally during the general survey in East and Central Java but
not in West Java. This species is a shoot borer and causes dead hearts in young cane
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plants (Figure 1). Larvae are distinguished by their purple or pink dorsal colour and
white ventral colour (Kalshoven, 1981; David et al., 1991).
Tetramoera schistaceana (shoot borer)
This species was found occasionally in all the three regions of East, Central
and West Java. Tetramoera schistaceana is an early-shoot borer which mainly causes
dead hearts in young plants (Williams, 1978; Cheng and Wang 1997). In mature
plants, larvae feed externally on the internodes and around the buds but usually cause
minor damage (Figure 1).

Fig. 1Damage symptoms of Chilo auricilius, Chilo sacchariphagus, Scirpophaga

excerptalis, Sesamia inferens and Tetramoera schistaceana (from left to right).

Infestation levels
Figures 2a-c show damage levels for C. auricilius, C. sacchariphagus and S.
excerptalis in 30 sugar factories across Java. C. auricilius was responsible for low
damage levels in a number of sugar factories through Java, but it was mainly
widespread in Pesantren Baru sugar factory (East Java) where infestation resulted in
an average of 3.3 bored internodes per 10 m row. This was significantly higher than
damage levels caused by this species in all other sugar factories, where infestation
levels ranged between 0.00.2 damaged internodes per 10 m row (F = 17.49;
df=29,901; P<0.0001). On the other hand, damage by C. sacchariphagus was found
in all sugar factories across Java, with significantly higher damage levels in
Sumberharjo and Jombang Baru sugar factories (F= 9.44; df=29,901; P<0.0001)
where infestation levels averaged 3.2 and 3.1 bored internodes per 10 m row,
respectively. Most sugar factories had more than 0.2 bored internodes per 10 m row.
This species was the main cause of bored stalks in Java, with an overall average of
1.13 bored internodes per 10 m row, compared to 0.19 bored internodes per 10 m row
caused by C. auricilius (F= 193.75; df=2, 2790; P<0.0001).
S. excerptalis was present in all sugar factories across Java, and it was the
main cause of dead heart symptoms in young and mature plants in Java. Damage
levels ranged between 0.125.3 dead hearts per 10 m row, with 15 sugar factories
recording more than 1.5 dead hearts per 10 m row. Overall, S. excerptalis caused an
average of 1.4 dead hearts per 10 m row across Java, which is significantly higher
than mean dead hearts caused by C. sacchariphagus and C. auricilius (0.13 and 0.005
dead hearts per 10 m, respectively) (F=293.87; df=2,2790; P<0.0001). In addition,
this species was also the main cause of leaf damage symptoms due to borers, with an
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overall average of 0.33 damaged leaf tops per 10 m row across Java. This was
significantly higher than leaf damage caused by C. sacchariphagus and C. auricilius
(0.27 and 0.005 bored leaf tops per 10 m, respectively) (F=77.76; df=2,2790;
P<0.0001).
Borer infestations varied according to crop age (in months) and crop class
(plant cane or successive ratoons). Infestations by C. sacchariphagus and
C. auricilius resulted in dead hearts and leaf damage symptoms in younger cane, but
mainly caused bored internodes as the crop aged. However, for S. excerptalis, there
was a tendency towards both leaf damage and dead hearts being more apparent as the
crop aged and in older ratoons, with 5th and 6th ratoons showing significantly more
dead hearts than earlier ratoons or plant cane crops (F=3.87; df=6,924; P=0.0008)
(Figures 3 and 4).
Data analysis also showed that S. excerptalis damage varied according to farm
ownership, with farms managed by sugar factories suffering significantly more dead
hearts (1.82 per 10 m row) and leaf damage (0.42 per 10 m row) than an average of
1.23 dead hearts and 0.27 leaf damage per 10 m row in farms managed by farmers
(F=13.44; df=1,929; P=0.0003; F=8.81; df=1,929; P=0.0031) (Figure 5). This is
probably because individual growers tend not to grow as many ratoons as the sugar
factories. In addition, individual farmers tend to diversify their crops and do not rely
solely on sugarcane and this is likely to interrupt the pests life cycle. However, this
correlation with farm ownership was not significant in most cases for
C. sacchariphagus and C. auricilius damage.
C. sacchariphagus damage symptoms were more prevalent than those caused
by C. auricilius in irrigated cane plantations, where crops receive larger quantities of
water compared to areas relying only on rainfall (Figure 6), indicating that
C. sacchariphagus may be more adapted to wetter regions whereas C. auricilius may
be more tolerant of drought. This agrees with studies by Suhartawan (1998), who
observed that high humidity was correlated with increased infestation levels by
C. sacchariphagus.
The status of different populations of C. sacchariphagus needs confirmation.
The species is often treated as three subspecies: Chilo sacchariphagus
sacchariphagus (Bojer), Chilo sacchariphagus stramineellus (Caradja) and Chilo
sacchariphagus indicus (Kapur), or alternatively as several phylogenetically young
species (Bleszynski, 1970). Different populations show considerable variation in
behaviour across their natural range. For example, despite C. sacchariphagus being
mainly a pest of sugarcane, it has been reported to attack maize and sorghum in
Madagascar, Mauritius and Reunion (Betbeder-Matibet and Malinge, 1968; Williams,
1983), while Chundurwar (1989) reported it to be a key pest of sorghum in some
parts of China and Mallik et al. (2003) reported it as a pest of rice in eastern India.
However, it has never been observed in any of these crops in Java, despite their
availability and proximity to sugarcane plantations (Etik Achadian, personal
observation). A recent DNA study by Lang et al. (2004) showed phylogenetic
differences among populations from India and Thailand compared to those from
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Mauritius and Reunion (which were probably introduced from Java in the mid 1800s
(Bleszynski, 1970; Williams, 1983)). Hence, further genetic studies are required to
clarify the status of the C. sacchariphagus complex.
Similarly, while our survey suggests that C. auricilius is a less abundant stalk
borer compared to C. sacchariphagus in Java, it was recognised by Indonesian
scientists to have been more widespread than C. sacchariphagus in Java in the early
1990s and its status seems to have changed in recent years (Joko Pramono, personal
communication). In addition, C. auricilius is considered to be one of the most
damaging sugarcane pests in northern India and it is also recorded to feed on rice and
considered to be one of its key pests in Bangladesh and parts of India and China
(Husain and Begum, 1985; Meng et al., 1997; Neupane, 1990). Yet C. auricilius is
not recorded as a significant pest of rice in Java, and has always been known to
mainly feed on sugarcane until Hattori and Siwi (1986) reported it feeding on rice in
Java and South Kalimantan. Again, DNA phylogenetic studies are needed to assist in
the understanding of each of these pest species and, ultimately, ensure the
establishment of pest management strategies that are accurate and pest specific.
(a)
2.5 C. auricilius
Dead heart Leaf damage Bored internodes
2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

East Java Cantral Java W ast Java

(b)
C. sacchariphagus
Dead heart Leaf damage Bored internodes
2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

East Java Cantral Java W ast Java

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(c)
S. excerptalis
Dead heart Leaf damage
2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0

East Java Cantral Java W ast Java

Fig. 2Mean damage caused by a) C. auricilius, b) C. sacchariphagus and c) S.

excerptalis in 30 sugar factories across Java.
(a)
C. auricilius
Dead heart
3.0
Leaf damage
Bored internodes
2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.5 13.5
Crop age (months)

(b)
C. sacchariphagus
Dead heart
Leaf damage
3.0
Bored internodes

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 10.0 10.5 11.5 13.5
Crop age (months)

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(c)

Fig. 3Comparison of mean damage caused by (a) C. auricilius, (b) C. sacchariphagus and
(c) S. excerptalis at different crop ages across Java.

3.0

Plant cane 1R 2R 3R 4R 5R 6R
2.5 **

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
Dead heart Leaf damage Bored internodes Dead heart Leaf damage Bored internodes Dead heart Leaf damage
C. auricilius C. sacchariphagus S. excerptalis

Fig. 4Comparison of mean damage caused by C. auricilius, C. sacchariphagus

and S. excerptalis in plant and ratoon crops across Java. (*) indicates significant
difference within the same category and borer species.

Fig. 5Comparison of mean damage caused by C. auricilius, C. sacchariphagus

and S. excerptalis in farms owned by the sugar factory or by individual framers in
Java. (*) indicates significant difference within the same category and borer species.
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Fig. 6Comparison of mean damage caused by C. auricilius, C. sacchariphagus and S.

excerptalis in irrigated and rainfed cane plantations across Java. (*) indicates significant
difference within the same category and borer species.

Fig. 7Climatic match index showing percentage of climatic similarity between

the townships of (a) Pasuruan and (b) Bogor in Indonesia to selected cane
planting areas of Queensland and New South Wales, Australia.

Parasitoids
Two main parasitoids attacked C. sacchariphagus larvae Diatraeophaga
striatalis Townsend (Diptera: Tachinidae) and Cotesia flavipes (Hymenoptera:
Braconidae). However, C. flavipes was not recovered from C. auricilius despite it
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being widely regarded as a key parasitoid of this species across Asia (Nair, 1958;
Butani, 1972; Nigam, 1984; Tanwar and Varma, 1996). Mohyuddin (1991) stated that
a local Indonesian strain of C. flavipes was encapsulated in C. auricilius in Sumatra,
but a strain from Thailand was introduced and this resulted in high rates of parasitism
of both C. auricilius and C. sacchariphagus. Our results suggest that encapsulation
may remain a problem in Java, where C. auricilius has proven to be an unsuitable
host for C. flavipes even when larvae were stung by parasitoids in the laboratory (Etik
Achadian, unpublished data); more work is needed to investigate this problem. For S.
excerptalis, four parasitoids attacked the larval stage Rhaconotus roslinensis Lal.,
Rhaconotus scirpophagae Wilkinson, Stenobracon sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)
and Elasmus sp. (Hymenoptera: Elasmidae) while one species attacked the pre-
pupal stage, Isotima sp. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). All parasitoids were
responsible for low parasitism levels, and more work is required to investigate ways
of improving their impact in cane fields in Java.
Climate matching
Figure 7 show indices matching climatic conditions in Pasuruan (East Java)
and Bogor (West Java) to selected cane-growing areas of Queensland and New South
Wales. The matching indices demonstrate the climatic similarity of those two regions
to areas in central and north Queensland.
Conclusions
It is likely that the Indonesian moth borers would quickly colonise areas of
tropical and subtropical regions of Queensland if introduced and it is important to be
prepared for any sudden incursion. Incursion Management Plans have been developed
by BSES Limited, and these contain comprehensive dossiers on the biology, ecology
and management of world moth borers, including the Indonesian species (Sallam and
Allsopp, 2008 a, b). In addition, our study highlighted some behavioural variations
between Indonesian moth borers and other populations of the same species across the
species range in Asia and Indian Ocean islands. Hence, detailed DNA phylogenetic
studies are required to clarify the status of the moth borer complex in Asia. Moreover,
information gained during this work highlights the importance of further studying
pest/natural enemy relationships in the sugarcane ecosystem in Java, and
investigating reasons for the failure of Cotesia flavipes to parasitise larvae of Chilo
auricilius. There is also need to examine the range of similar natural enemies in
Australia to determine whether they can exploit exotic pest species for their
development. A study is currently underway to test the indigenous Australian
parasitoid Cotesia nonagriae (Olliff) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) against exotic moth
borers (Kate Muirhead, personal communication).
In light of the information highlighted through this work, it is advised that
moth borer monitoring in Indonesia should continue and be considered a key part of
any management program. This will ensure accurate targeting of the correct pest
species, and will enable the timely detection of any change in pest status and
distribution over time. Information obtained during this general survey and an on-
going monthly survey will improve our knowledge of the nature of these pests, and
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will ultimately ensure a coordinated Emergency Response by the Australian sugar

industry in case of a sudden pest incursion.
Acknowledgments
We thank Lilik Putra and Trikuntari Dianpratiwi (Indonesian Sugar Research
Institute) for help with field work and Dr Peter Allsopp for providing helpful
comments on this manuscript. Drs Rob Magarey and Peter Samson are thanked for
assisting with data collecting and recording. This work would not have been possible
without the funding received from the Australian Centre of International Agricultural
Research (ACIAR) and BSES Limited.
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