DO THE NONCAFFEINE INGREDIENTS OF ENERGY
DRINKS AFFECT METABOLIC RESPONSES TO HEAVY
EXERCISE?
ROBERT W. PETTITT, JOLYNNE D. NIEMEYER, PATRICK J. SEXTON, AMANDA LIPETZKY,
STEVEN R. MURRAY
Department of Human Performance, Minnesota State University, Mankato, Minnesota
ABSTRACT
Pettitt, RW, Niemeyer, JD, Sexton, PJ, Lipetzky, A, and
Murray, SR. Do the noncaffeine ingredients of energy drinks
affect metabolic responses to heavy exercise? J Strength Cond
Res 27(7): 19941999, 2013Energy drinks (EDs) such as
Red Bull (RB) are marketed to enhance metabolism. Secondary
ingredients of EDs (e.g., taurine) have been purported to
improve time trial performance; however, little research exists
on how such secondary ingredients affect aerobic metabolism
during heavy exercise. The purpose of this study was to inves-
tigate the effect of the secondary ingredients of RB on aerobic
metabolism during and subsequent to heavy exercise. In double-
blind, counterbalanced, and crossover fashion, 8 recreationally
trained individuals completed a graded exercise test to deter-
mine the gas exchange threshold (GET). Subjects returned on 2
separate occasions and ingested either a 245 ml serving of RB
or a control (CTRL) drink with the equivalent caffeine before
engaging in two 10-minute constant-load cycling bouts, at an
intensity equivalent to GET, with 3 minutes of rest between
bouts. Accumulated liters of O2 (10 minutes) were higher for
the first bout (17.1 6 3.5 L) vs. the second bout (16.7 6 3.5 L)
but did not differ between drinks. Similarly, excess postexercise
oxygen consumption was higher after the initial bout (RB mean,
2.6 6 0.85 L; CTRL mean, 2.9 6 0.90 L) vs. the second bout
(RB mean, 1.5 6 0.85 L; CTRL mean, 1.9 6 0.87 L) but did not
differ between drinks. No differences occurred between drinks
for measures of heart rate or rating of perceived exertion. These
results indicate that the secondary ingredients contained in a sin-
gle serving of RB do not augment aerobic metabolism during or
subsequent to heavy exercise.
KEY WORDS EPOC, gas exchange threshold, oxygen uptake,
taurine
Address correspondence to Robert W. Pettitt, robert.pettitt@mnsu.edu.
27(7)/19941999
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
2013 National Strength and Conditioning Association
the TM
1994 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
AND
INTRODUCTION
D
espite the lack of scientific evidence for the
performance-enhancing effects of energy drinks
(EDs), their popularity is impressive, with Red
Bull (RB) reporting sales exceeding 500 million
cases in a single year (16). Energy drinks are marketed to
boost energy or metabolism, and such marketing is persuasive
among competitive athletes (16). For instance, one group (10)
reported that 72.9% of the 203 athletes surveyed consumed
EDs with the primary reason being to enhance energy dur-
ing practice. Thus, sales and survey findings indicate that
EDs are used for a performance-enhancing benefit.
The claims for the ergogenic effects of the secondary
(i.e., noncaffeine) ingredients of EDs, such as taurine and
B vitamins, by manufacturers are ambiguous. For instance,
Red Bull markets that its secondary ingredients boost energy
(16). Such a claim would imply RB ingestion would positively
affect aerobic metabolism. To date, the literature on these
secondary ingredients and exercising metabolism is limited.
The isolated effects of taurine can reportedly enhance vascular
reactivity (20) along with muscular contractility (1,13,26),
whereas B vitamins may support aerobic metabolism directly
(25). Furthermore, when these secondary ingredients are stud-
ied in combination, investigators have reported enhanced
cycling time trial performances (12,17); however, noncaffei-
nated RB has been reported not to enhance exhaustive
performance (7). There is simply a paucity of research dem-
onstrating any positive metabolic effects of the secondary in-
gredients during submaximal exercise.
Energy drinks also are marketed to enhance recovery (16);
yet, there is little research on if (or how) EDs may influence
short-term postexercise metabolism. Caffeine, the primary
active ingredient of EDs, may enhance utilization of free
fatty acids at lower levels of metabolic demand (22), thereby,
augmenting the rate of return to resting postexercise homeo-
stasis. Such an effect from the secondary ingredients is
unknown. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to exam-
ine if the noncaffeinated ingredients of RB affected heavy
exercise and postexercise metabolism using intensities
corresponding heavy exercise (i.e., at or exceeding the gas
exchange threshold [GET]) (6).
 the TM

Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com

METHODS derive excess postexercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).

Experimental Approach to the Problem
V CO2 and V O2 data were divided to calculate the respiratory
A double-blind, counterbalanced, placebo-controlled, exchange ratio (RER). Ratings of perceived exercise (RPEs),
2-period within-subject, crossover experimental design was on a 620 scale (4), were obtained at the conclusion of each
used. A convenience sample of apparently healthy adults constant-load exercise bout.
(N = 8) completed a graded exercise test (GXT) to deter-
mine GET and maximum oxygen uptake (V O2max). On 2 Dietary Intake Screenings. Dietary intake can influence expired
additional visits, subjects completed 2 consecutive constant- gas analysis measurements. Because controlling for dietary
load cycling bouts at GET for 10 minutes, with 3-minute factors increases the accuracy of indirect calorimetric meas-
recovery in between bouts. Heart rate and expired gas urements, the subjects were interviewed about their use of
exchange were evaluated during exercise and 3 minutes sub- EDs and other supplements and drugs, along with a log of
sequent to each bout. We selected a heavy exercise intensity their food intake for 24 hours preceding each exercise bout.
because pervious studies have used longer-duration trials Food intake was input into a commercial dietary software
(12,17). Subjects consumed either blinded RB or a control program (Diet Analysis Plus, version 7.0; Wadsworth, Inc.,
(CTRL) drink while on another day consumed the opposite. New York, NY, USA) to help verify that the macronutrient
The CTRL drink contained identical calories and caffeine to intake was not different between the RB and CTRL trials.
RB; that is, we aimed to investigate any effects of the sec- The subjects were instructed to eat how they normally
ondary ingredients, beyond those of caffeine, on metabolism would for each day of the experiment to reduce disparities of
during and subsequent to heavy exercise. liver and muscle glycogen concentrations (19). The subjects
also self-reported their compliance with prior instructions to
Subjects
refrain from consuming food and beverages containing alco-
A convenience sample of 5 men and 3 women (age = 23 6 2
hol, caffeine, supplements, prescription, and nonprescription
years; body mass = 73.6 6 9.9 kg; height = 177.3 6 6.4 cm)
drugs for 48 hours before exercise. In particular, the half-life
volunteered for this study. The studys procedures were preap-
of caffeine is approximately 46 hours (14); therefore, our
proved by the host institution review board on human subjects,
48-hour washout period was adequate. Finally, the subjects
and informed consent was obtained. Men and women were
were asked to refrain from exercising 24 hours before each
included for generalizability of results and not for statistical anal-
data collection day.
ysis of sex differences. All subjects engaged in at least 150 minutes
of aerobic exercise per week. Exclusion criteria included any
Handling and Administration of the Experimental Drinks. The
reported history of serious medical illnesses or orthopedic
volume for both drinks was 245 ml (8.3 oz), the standard
injuries. Each subject indicated that he or she was not a regular
single serving size for RB. The control drink (ginger ale) was
user of EDs. Specifically, each subject noted that he or she pre-
modified with the addition of dry ingredients to equal 3.1 g of
viously had tried EDs, but none drank them on a regular basis.
sugar and 76 mg of caffeine (A&C Chemicals LTD, Montreal,
Procedures Quebec, Australia). Key secondary ingredients of RB include
Equipment and Metabolic Measurements. As indicated, a GXT taurine (1,000 mg), glucuronolactone (625 mg), and a volume
was determined preliminarily for each subject via cycle
ergometry. An electronically braked friction ergometer (Lode
Excalibur Sport Cycle Ergometer, Groningen, the Netherlands)
was fitted to each subjects stature and riding comfort. A cali-
brated metabolic analyzer (MedGraphics, Minneapolis, MN,
USA) and heart rate monitor (Polar Instruments, Inc., Oulu,
Finland) were used to gather dependent variables for this study.
A custom GXT was performed to determine GET and the
power-evoking GET (WGET) (21). In brief, gradation was
estimated to yield a 10-minute GXT from a series of regres-
sion equations, and the test was terminated when cadence
decreased below preferred cadence for more than 5 seconds
(3 subjects selected 60 rpm and 5 subjects selected 70 rpm).
Gas exchange threshold was determined using the V-slope
method (3), and power was interpolated with the presump-
tion of a 1-minute delay in gas exchange.
For each constant-load exercise bout, expired air, volumes,
and fractional concentrations of O2 and CO2 were sampled, Figure 1. Oxygen uptake during and after exercise for the Red Bull and
breath-by-breath, and averaged to 15 seconds. Integrated control drink trials (mean 6 SD).
values (sum of 15 seconds averaged values) were used to

VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 7 | JULY 2013 | 1995

Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
 Noncaffeine Ingredients and Exercise Metabolism

the independent variable of the

drink (2 levels: RB vs. CTRL)
TABLE 1. Dietary intake for the Red Bull (RB) and control drink trials, mean 6 SD.
and the independent variable
Variable RB Control t p of time. A 2 3 2 model was
used to test accumulated V O2
Daily expenditure (kcal) 1,957 6 425 1,862 6 600 0.38 0.72
for bout 1 and bout 2 and
Fat (g) 70 6 31 64 6 27 0.54 0.61
Carbohydrate (g) 232 6 73 246 6 81 0.43 0.68 the EPOC values subsequent
Protein (g) 109 6 38 82 6 36 1.48 0.18 to these bouts, respectively.
A 2 3 4 model was used to
evaluate heart rate at 2 time
points during exercise (5 and
10 minutes). A similar 2 3 6
of B vitamins exceeding the minimum recommended daily model was used for RER values (see Results for justification
intake. Volume for the CTRL drink was measured with of time period). Paired t-tests were used to compare 24-hour
a graduated cylinder, and the dry ingredients were mea- recall values of the RB with the CTRL trials for total kilo-
sured with a digital scale (TE212; Sartorius, Goettingen, calories, fat, carbohydrate, and protein intake, respectively.
Germany). We did not officially conduct taste testing under The Mann-Whitney U-test was used to compare between-
controlled study; however, the additional ingredients to the trial RPEs for each bout. Level of significance for rejecting
ginger ale altered the taste profile to where it tasted the null hypothesis was set at p , .05. Data are expressed in
remarkably similar to RB, as we noted during pilot testing. mean 6 SD.
The trials were double blinded such that neither the sub-
jects nor the investigators associated directly with data col- RESULTS
lection were aware of the drink consumed. Both drinks A V O2 slow component with a delayed steady state was
were served in a black covered plastic coffee mug. Half of observed for the RB and CTRL trials (Figure 1). These data
the subjects received RB first and the CTRL drink second, indicate that the subjects achieved the desired heavy exercise
whereas the order was reversed for the other half of the domain (i.e., intensities exceeded the GET) (18). Dietary
subjects. Both drinks were consumed 35 minutes before recall records indicated no differences (p . 0.05) existed in
a 5-minute cycle ergometer warm-up at an intensity of the total energy intake and proportion of macronutrients
50% WGET. The time frame for ingestion of the drinks (Table 1); thus, diet was unlikely a confounding factor for
was determined as optimum for maximizing bioavailability the following results.
of caffeine (14), an ingredient purported to enhance the Summary statistics for accumulated exercising oxygen
effect of secondary ingredients in EDs (12,17) (N.B., we uptake and EPOC appear in Table 2. Accumulated oxygen
were unaware of any data on the bioavailability of second- uptake was higher for the first bout (17.1 6 3.5 L) compared
ary ingredients at the time of this study). No additional with the second bout (16.7 6 3.5 L) (F = 5.91, p , 0.05);
drinks were permitted during the exercise trials. however, no differences were observed between the RB and
CTRL trials (F = 0.00, p . 0.05). Similarly, EPOC was higher
Statistical Analyses after the initial bout (RB mean, 2.6 6 0.85 L; CTRL mean,
Separate 2-way analyses of variance (ANOVAs) with 2.9 6 0.90 L) compared with the second bout (RB mean, 1.5 6
repeated measures were used to test for differences between 0.85 L; CTRL mean, 1.9 6 0.87 L) (F = 5.98, p = 0.04);
however, no differences were
observed between the RB and
CTRL trials (F = 0.57, p . 0.05).
TABLE 2. Stability of exercising and postexercising oxygen uptake
Accumulated oxygen meas-
measurements.*
urements between the first and
Bout 1 (L) Bout 2 (L) second bouts were remarkably
Variable Mean 6 SD Mean 6 SD ICC (a) SEM (L) CV (%) consistent for the RB and
CTRL trials, respectively
Exercising V O2 (L)
CTRL 17.0 6 3.8 16.8 6 4.0 0.99 0.35 2.5 (Table 2). Conversely, EPOC
RB 17.1 6 3.5 16.7 6 3.2 0.97 0.53 2.7 was more variable in compari-
EPOC son with exercising V O2. Inges-
CTRL 2.95 6 0.90 1.90 6 0.87 0.77 0.43 22.4 tion of RB did not seem to alter
RB 2.65 6 0.85 1.46 6 0.85 0.85 0.33 25.0 the individual EPOC responses.
*ICC = intraclass correlation coefficient; CV = coefficient variance; RB = Red Bull. For both trials, RER
decreased abruptly at the onset
of exercise reaching steady
the TM

1996 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research

Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.

Figure 2. Respiratory exchange ratio (RER) during and after exercise for
the Red Bull and control drink trials. *Significant between-trial main effect
(p , 0.05).
state at approximately 3 minutes of exercise (Figure 2). Peak
values of RER occurred at 2 minutes postexercise for each
bout; therefore, time points at 5 and 10 minutes during exer-
cise and 2 minutes postexercise were selected for the
ANOVA (2 3 6 model). On average (i.e., main effect),
RER was higher (F = 7.97, p = 0.03) during the RB trial in
comparison with the CTRL trial.
Heart rate, relative to exercise time, increased linearly for
both constant-load exercise trials (Figure 3). Neither main
effects (F = 0.00, p = 0.95) between trials nor main effects for
Figure 3. Heart rate response during the Red Bull and control drink
trials.
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
Figure 4. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) after the initial (filled bars)
and the second (open bars) cycling bouts in the Red Bull and control
drink trials.
time (F = 0.73, p = 0.58) were observed for heart rate. Sim-
ilarly, no differences in RPE occurred between the first bouts
(z = 1.12, p = 0.26) or the second bouts (z = 1.57, p = 0.12)
(Figure 4).
DISCUSSION
Investigators using animal models have reported that
taurine, a main secondary ingredient in EDs, can augment
the sustainability of force during repetitive skeletal muscle
contractions (1,13,26). Research on humans, engaged in rig-
orous exercise, has supported such claims, with 2 indepen-
dent laboratories observing improved time trial cycling
performances after subjects ingesting taurine-containing
EDs (12,17). Athletes, however, also consume EDs for
energy during practice (10); yet, little research is available
to support the efficacy of EDs to augment metabolism dur-
ing heavy exercise. The primary finding of this study was
that a single serving of the secondary ingredients found in
RB, one of the more popular EDs (16), does not augment
aerobic metabolism during, or subsequent to, heavy exercise.
As indicated, subjects in this study cycled at an intensity
that was sufficient to evoke a V O2 slow component. The V O2
slow component is a phenomenon attributed largely to the
recruitment of inefficient type II muscle fibers (11). An atten-
uation of the V O2 slow component denotes enhanced mito-
chondrial efficiency typically brought about by training
adaptations (8,9,18). The marketed benefit of secondary
ingredients in EDs is to boost metabolism; however, such
a claim lacks scientific support. Our results indicate that
ingestion of the secondary ingredients, found in a single serv-
ing of RB, evoked no discernible benefit on aerobic metab-
olism during heavy exercise.
With lower energy demands, caffeine has been suggested
to enhance free fatty acid utilization (22), although other
authors (15) have more recently disputed such claims. The
secondary ingredients of EDs, augmented by caffeine, have
been marketed to enhance recovery. Our findings indicate
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 7 | JULY 2013 | 1997
 Noncaffeine Ingredients and Exercise Metabolism
that the secondary ingredients for a single serving of RB do
not augment EPOC subsequent to heavy exercise. The
kinetics of the initial bout produced the expected increase
on accumulated O2 and decrease in EPOC for the second
bouts (5,23). The ingestion of the secondary ingredients in
RB did not seem to influence O2 kinetic differences between
the 2 bouts (Figure 1).
A tendency for greater nonmetabolic CO2 production
during and subsequent to exercise, as evidenced by higher
RER values (Figure 2), was observed for the RB trial. Such
a change occurred independent of changes in V O2 or heart
rate (Figure 4). Greater hydrogen ion production and buff-
ering could have occurred presumably during the RB exer-
cise trial, exhibiting a deleterious effect on metabolism. Such
differences, although statistically different, were negligible in
effect size. An equally plausible explanation for the RER
findings may be that carbonation differed between the
2 drinks (i.e., excess carbonation in RB drink could have
inflated the expired VCO2 values). We regret this shortcom-
ing of our procedures and encourage future investigators to
standardize carbonation to eliminate this as possible con-
founding variable. Finally, ingestion of the RB secondary
ingredients did not affect RPE (Figure 4), a finding consistent
with a recent time trial study (17).
Serving size for the secondary ingredients is acknowledged
as a delimitation of our study. For instance, taurine may
enhance vascular reactivity (20), thereby improving O2 deliv-
ery to exercising muscle; however, taurine found in a single
serving of RB (i.e., 1,000 mg) does not seem to augment O2
uptake during heavy exercise (Figure 1). Perhaps, higher
concentrations of taurine might augment efficiency. The sub-
jects in the time trial studies investigating RB (12,17) ingested
500 ml of RB, more than 2-times the volume consumed by the
subjects in our study (i.e., .2,000 mg of taurine). Conversely, it
is equally plausible that taurine only exerts an ergogenic effect
during exhaustive exercise. For instance, one group (2) having
subjects perform an exhaustive GXT reported that RB inges-
tion, with 1,000 mg of taurine, resulted in higher ventricular
contractility before and after exercise, based on electrocardio-
graphic measures of end diastolic volume. Conversely, others
(7) have observed no performance enhancement from a con-
stant-speed exhaustive exercise bout. The disparity of results
may be explained simply by the unreliability of time trials and
times for exhaustive exercise bouts (24).
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Based on the lack of prior scientific evidence, combined with
the results of this study, there is no justification to support
that a single serving of the secondary ingredients in RB
augments aerobic metabolism during or subsequent to heavy
exercise. Indeed, athletes seeking a boost of energy for prac-
tice (10) may obtain such benefits from beverages contain-
ing similar amounts of caffeine (e.g., 80-mg caffeine from an
8-oz cup of coffee). Conversely, if the athlete anticipates
exercising to fatigue, such as a time trial, EDs may provide
the TM
1998 Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
an ergogenic effect, although the precise mechanisms for
why remain unclear (12,17).
In conclusion, athletes consume EDs not only before
major events but also for boosting energy during practice.
The present study revealed that the secondary ingredients
found in a single serving of RB had no augmenting affects on
aerobic metabolism during or subsequent to exercise inten-
sities analogous to day-to-day practice (i.e., heavy exercise).
Future research should examine different doses of the
secondary ingredients in EDs while controlling for differ-
ences in carbonation as a confounding variable possibly
influencing expired VCO2 values.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Support was provided by the College of Graduate Studies
and Research at Minnesota State University, Mankato.
REFERENCES
1. Bakker, AJ and Berg, HM. Effect of taurine on sarcoplasmic
reticulum function and force in skinned fast-twitch skeletal muscle
fibres of the rat. J Physiol 538: 185194, 2002.
2. Baum, M and Weiss, M. The influence of a taurine containing drink
on cardiac parameters before and after exercise measured by
echocardiography. Amino Acids 20: 7582, 2001.
3. Beaver, WL, Wasserman, K, and Whipp, BJ. A new method for
detecting anaerobic threshold by gas exchange. J Appl Physiol 60:
20202027, 1986.
4. Borg, G. Perceived exertion as an indicator of somatic stress. Scan J
Rehabil Med 2: 9298, 1970.
5. Burnley, M, Doust, JH, Carter, H, and Jones, AM. Effects of prior
exercise and recovery duration on oxygen uptake kinetics during
heavy exercise in humans. Exp Physiol 86: 417425, 2001.
6. Burnley, M and Jones, AM. Oxygen uptake kinetics as determinant
of sports performance. Eur J Sport Sci 7: 6379, 2007.
7. Candow, DG, Kleisinger, AK, Grenier, S, and Dorsch, KD. Effect of
sugar-free Red Bull energy drink on high-intensity run time-to-
exhaustion in young adults. J Strength Cond Res 23: 12711275, 2009.
8. Carter, H, Jones, AM, Barstow, TJ, Burnley, M, Williams, C, and
Doust, JH. Effect of endurance training on oxygen uptake kinetics
during treadmill running. J Appl Physiol 89: 17441752, 2000.
9. Casaburi, R, Storer, TW, Ben-Dov, I, and Wasserman, K. Effect of
endurance training on possible determinants of VO2 during heavy
exercise. J Appl Physiol 62: 199207, 1987.
10. Froiland, K, Koszewski, W, Hingst, J, and Kopecky, L. Nutritional
supplement use among college athletes and their sources of
information. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 14: 104120, 2004.
11. Gaesser, GA and Poole, DC. The slow component of oxygen uptake
kinetics in humans. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 24: 3571, 1996.
12. Gei, K-R, Jester, I, Falke, W, Hamm, M, and Waag, K-L. The effect
of a taurine-containing drink on performance in 10 endurance-
athletes. Amino Acids 7: 4556, 1994.
13. Goodman, CA, Horvath, D, Stathis, C, Mori, T, Croft, K,
Murphy, RM, and Hayes, A. Taurine supplementation increases
skeletal muscle force production and protects muscle function
during and after high-frequency in vitro stimulation. J Appl Physiol
107: 144154, 2009.
14. Graham, TE. Caffeine and exercise: metabolism, endurance and
performance. Sports Med 31: 785807, 2001.
15. Graham, TE, Battram, DS, Dela, F, El-Sohemy, A, and Thong, FS.
Does caffeine alter muscle carbohydrate and fat metabolism during
exercise? Appl Physiol Nutr Metab 33: 13111318, 2008.

16. Gschwandtner, G. The powerful sales strategy behind Red Bull.
Available at: www.sellingpower.com/article/display.asp?aid=SP2229597.
Accessed May 25th, 2009.
17. Ivy, JL, Kammer, L, Ding, Z, Wang, B, Bernard, JR, Liao, Y, and
Hwang, J. Improved cycling time-trial performance after ingestion of
an caffeine energy drink. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 19: 6178,
2009.
18. Jones, AM and Burnley, M. Oxygen uptake kinetics: An
underappreciated determinant of exercise performance. Int J Sports
Physiol Perform 4: 524532, 2009.
19. Miller, JM, Coyle, EF, Sherman, WM, Hagberg, JM, Costill, DL,
Fink, WJ, Terblanche, SE, and Holloszy, JO. Effect of glycerol
feeding on endurance and metabolism during prolonged exercise in
man. Med Sci Sports Exerc 15: 237242, 1983.
20. Nishida, S and Satoh, H. Vascular modulation of rat aorta by taurine.
Adv Exp Med Biol 643: 3746, 2009.
Copyright National Strength and Conditioning Association Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
the TM
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research | www.nsca.com
21. Pettitt, RW, Clark, IE, Ebner, SM, Sedgeman, DT, and Murray, SR.
Gas exchange threshold and VO2max testing for athletes: An
update. J Strength Cond Res In press.
22. Spriet, LL. Caffeine. In: Performance-Enhancing Substances in Sport
and Exercise. M.S. Bahrke and C.E. Yesalis, eds. Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics, 2002. pp. 267278.
23. Tordi, N, Perrey, S, Harvey, A, and Hughson, RL. Oxygen uptake
kinetics during two bouts of heavy cycling separated by fatiguing
sprint exercise in humans. J Appl Physiol 94: 533541, 2003.
24. Whipp, BJ and Ward, SA. Quantifying intervention-related
improvements in exercise tolerance. Eur Respir J 33: 12541260, 2009.
25. Woolf, K and Manore, MM. B-vitamins and exercise: Does exercise
alter requirements? Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 16: 453484, 2006.
26. Yatabe, Y, Miyakawa, S, Ohmori, H, Mishima, H, and Adachi, T.
Effects of taurine administration on exercise. Adv Exp Med Biol 643:
245252, 2009.
VOLUME 27 | NUMBER 7 | JULY 2013 | 1999