THE STATE OF ART FOR FAULT LOCATION IN
MULTI-TERMINAL DC SYSTEM
M.M. Xu* , L.Y. Xiao*, H.F. Wang#
* Institute of Electrical Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences,Beijing,China
(xumingming@mail.iee.ac.cn)
Keywords: Multi-terminal DC system, Fault location, Survey
Abstract
This paper presents a comprehensive survey on the fault
location in Multi-terminal DC (MTDC) system: The paper
firstly reviews the progress of some key technologies in
MTDC, including converters, control strategies and
topologies. The key issues in fault location are addressed.
This is then followed by a critical examination of two
categories of recently proposed fault location methods:
impedance-based methods and travelling-wave methods.
1 Introduction
DC system is regarded as a promising scheme for future
power grids due to its higher efficiency, flexible compatibility
with distributed generations and sound stability. Therefore,
researches and projects on DC system are ever-increasing
around the world. Multi-terminal DC (MTDC) system is a
new focus point in these researches for its high reliability and
applicability in cases like wind farm integration and power
supply for urban loads [1-9]. Fault location, the precondition
of relay protection, is an issue that needs full consideration
before MTDC comes into real service [10]. The fault in this
survey refers to the fault occurs to distribution lines, namely
cables or overhead lines. The fault includes pole-to-pole short
circuit and single-pole-to-ground fault, which can be triggered
by the puncture of insulation, maloperation, bad weather, or
animals. In case of fault, the fault section should be identified
and isolated fast to reduce potential damages caused by the
fault current and avoid cascade accidents. After the activation
of relay protection, the isolated fault point should be
identified accurately to facilitate maintenance staff to fix the
problems. The traditional fault-location methods in AC
system cannot be applied in DC system directly as they have
different fault features. A few researches have been
conducted in the field and this paper provides a
comprehensive survey. In the first section, the progress in key
technologies of MTDC system, which are the basis of fault
location method, are presented. The issues influencing fault
location are summarized. The two categories of fault
location methods, i.e. impedance-based methods and
travelling-wave methods, are then critically examined.
2 Progresses in MTDC
# Brunel University,London,UK,
The converter is the most important device in a MTDC
system. Up to now, three types of MTDC have been
researched based on different converters: CSC (current source
converter), VSC (voltage source converter) and MMC
(multiple modular converter) [10]. VSC is more popular than
CSC and more mature than MMC in the researches on MTDC
system. Therefore, most of fault location methods are based
on VSC-MTDC system.
Converters in a VSC-MTDC system should be well
coordinated to keep the power balance, adequate power
dispatch and a stable DC voltage[11]. Three types of control
strategies have been presented: direct control, master-slave
control, and voltage-droop control [11]. Direct control is
simply based on calculating current references through load
flow study. However, the unlimited current would threaten
the valves in converters. Therefore, this strategy is replaced
quickly by later ones. Master-slave control is currently the
most popular strategy. It proposes that at least one converter
serves as the slack node (master control), maintaining system
voltage [6]. The other converters control their own active
power and reactive power. The slack node also maintains the
power balance in the system. However, any disturbances in
the slack bus may cause the voltage instability of the whole
system. Voltage-droop control has thus been put forward to
solve the problem. Different voltage references are set for
multiple slack nodes. The voltage-power relationship could be
used to control the power distribution [12]. In this way, the
voltage stability and power balance are contributed by several
converters instead of one. Most of researches on MTDC
system are based on the master-slave control and
voltage-droop control.
Two types of system topologies have been proposed: radial
structure and meshed structure [10]. Radial structure is
similar to the traditional AC distribution system, without
loops. It benefits from the easy control and relay protection
system. However, the single-ended power supply reduces its
reliability. Meshed structure provides more redundant supply
channels, improving the reliability, but it increases the costs
of infrastructure.
3 Issues on the fault location
With respect of the fault location in VSC-MTDC systems, the
following issues should be fully considered.
3.1 System grounding
According to the type of neutral grounding, MTDC system
could be divided into two categories: grounding and
non-grounding (including high-resistance grounding) systems
[13]. Like their counterparts in AC system, these two types
of grounding have different fault responses. Grounding
system is usually used in high voltage dc system to reduce the
cost of insulation [14]. In the case of DC fault with a small
fault resistance, the fault current will be large and voltage will
drop obviously, which provides obvious fault features for
protection. The non-grounding system is proposed to be used
in middle or low-voltage system, for the purpose of
improving the reliability of power supply in the case of
single-pole-to-ground fault [15, 16]. However, with respect of
non-grounding system, the DC fault current in the case of
single-pole-to-ground fault is small and hard to detect [17].
3.2 Fault resistance
The issue of fault resistance is an intractable problem in fault
location. Faults occurring to overhead lines could be caused
by metal wires, falling trees, birds, wet utility pole and so on.
The fault resistances can change from zero to dozens of ohms,
which exerts direct influences on the results of fault analysis
[18]. Therefore, researches on fault location must solve this
problem.
4 Fault location
Fault location plays two important roles in power system.
Firstly, the identification of fault section is the pre-condition
for relay protection [19]. The fault location should be
accomplished quickly to activate relay protection system and
avoid loss caused by overcurrent. However, the requirement
of fault location accuracy is not strict, because the protective
zone of each relay is large and only the fault section needs to
be identified. Secondly, the identification of fault point helps
staff find fault point accurately [19]. Both these two roles are
important to improve the quality of power supply.
4.1 Selection of fault section
The most obvious fault feature in VSC-MTDC system is the
large discharging current and obvious voltage decline in
DC-side capacitor in case of DC short-circuit fault [18]. DC
converters are much vulnerable to fault current than AC
transformers. Fault location algorithm should be able to
identify the fault section before the discharging current
damages converters and subsequently activate the
corresponding relay protection system as soon as possible.
Reference [2] proposes to set certain thresholds for both the
current increment and voltage decline. Once these two criteria
are satisfied, the DC-side fault could be detected. However,
this method can only distinguish AC-side fault and DC-side
fault. To identify the fault section in DC side, more criteria
are needed. Reference [20] presented a method of locating
fault section in meshed MTDC system, by comparing the
increasing speed of fault current at each converter. The
increasing speed of fault current of the converters at the two
ends of fault section is the highest [20]. This is reasonable in
principle, but difficult to distinguish the rising speed when the
feeder is short or the fault is near the converter. In reference
[21] the magnitudes and directions of fault currents on both
sides of each converter are compared [21]. By setting the
direction from bus to branch as positive for each converter,
three criteria, namely 'i , P0 and ' P, are proposed [21].
'i is used for both pole-to-pole and pole-to-ground faults. It
means the incremental change of the fault current in the faulty
line exceeds a set-value faster than that of other healthy lines.
P0=0.5(Vp-Vn)(Ip-In) is used for the single-pole-to-ground
fault. Vp, Vn, Ip and In are the voltages and currents
measured at the DC side of each converter. The criterion P0
means the signs of the voltage and current differences are
opposite in the fault line and is the first to decline to a set
value. ' P=0.5 ' Vdc( ' Ip+ ' In) is used for pole-to-pole
fault. It means the signs of the incremental changes of
DC-side voltage and current are opposite in the faulty line.
These three criteria have certain redundancies to increase the
reliability. Reference [22] proposes to compare the wavelet
coefficients of transient voltage and current to detect and
select the faulty cable. However, this method is also
vulnerable to noises in transient process. The common
precondition for these methods is fast communication among
converters, which reduces its attractiveness in real
application.
4.2 Identification of fault point
The accurate calculation of fault distance relies on correct
model of the fault loop. The zero-sequence model, widely
used in AC system, does not work well in DC system. Two
types of fault model have been used in fault analysis. The first
one is the traditional time-domain analysis model. The second
model is the superimposed model of non-fault circuit and
fault circuit [23]. When fault happens, the fault point can be
regarded to be connected to a negative voltage source and the
fault transients are the responses to such a source.
Previous researches on locating fault point in MTDC system
can be categorized into two types: impedance-based method
sand travelling-wave methods. These two methods are both
widely researched in AC systems. However, certain
improvements have been made to apply them to DC systems.
(1) Impedance-based methods
Impedance-based methods are based on Ohm`s law in fault
circuit [23]. The basic idea is to calculate the impedance
between the fault point and measuring device through
measuring the voltage and current of the fault loop [23]. With
the impedance of per-unit distance, the distance could be
calculated. Such an algorithm has been used for the distance
protection in AC transmission system. In MTDC system, the
application of traditional impedance-based method encounters
a series of difficulties. In a DC system, there is no nominal
frequency, which means no common concept of impedance
exists. In addition, the vulnerability of electronic devices (like
IGBT) in case of large fault current requires a quick
interruption (usually within several milliseconds). However,
traditional impedance-based method, based on the
steady-state measurement, cannot locate the fault quickly
enough. Considering these difficulties, some improvements of
the impedance-based methods have been proposed.
(a) An improvement is to measure the characteristic time of
transient voltage to identify the impedance instead of
measuring stable voltage or current [18]. Reference [18] uses
the traditional time-domain model to analyze the two types of
faults. For short-circuit fault, transient process of fault is
divided into three different stages: DC-side capacitor
discharging, diode freewheeling and grid-side current feeding
[18]. For single-pole-to-earth fault, the transient process
includes two stages: DC-side capacitor discharging and
grid-side current feeding [18]. The time-domain expression of
the capacitor voltage can be obtained. By measuring the time
when the capacitor voltage declines to critical point, the fault
distance can be calculated. One critical time node is the end
of the first stage, which is normally within 5 ms after fault.
Based on this method, further protection scheme has been
proposed [5]. However, its results are severely influenced by
the values of fault resistances. Although the author put
forward a single iteration to improve the accuracy, the method
is essentially defective with respect of fault resistance.
(b) Another improvement of impedance-based method
involves the high-frequency impedance [23]. In AC system,
the impedance is calculated based on fixed frequency (50Hz
or 60Hz). However, in DC system, no fixed frequency exists.
Therefore, it implies that impedances in any frequencies
could be used to identify fault location. Considering the quick
time requirement of isolating fault section, the high-frequency
impedance could be used [23]. Reference [23] employs the
superimposed model to analyze the fault loop. Fast Fourier
Transform is used to analyze the transient voltage and current
in fault circuit. Then the author uses the Ohm`s Law in
frequency domain. In Equation (1), DFT is the operation of
Discrete Fourier Transform and Z(f) denotes the impedance of
fault circuit in various frequencies [23].
DFT (V ( t ))
taken by the travelling wave to propagate from fault point to
measuring point, the distance can be calculated [19, 24-26].
This method has been tested in AC transmission systems and
some researchers have tried to apply it to MTDC.
Reference [19] proposes a method for star-connected MTDC
system based on travelling wave. The authors compares the
times taken by the travelling wave to propagates to different
terminals to identify the fault lines and fault points. In order
to guarantee the accuracy of the method, the author involved
wavelet analysis to identify the accurate arrival time of the
travelling wave [19]. In addition, the GPS clock is used to
realize the synchronized measurement in different terminals.
A known fault scene is used to calibrate the propagation
velocity of travelling wave. This method was improved later
to be applied in the combination of cable and overhead lines
[27]. Travelling-wave methods have some unique advantages
over the impedance-based methods. For example,
traveling-based methods do not suffer from the system
topology, fault resistance, line parameters, and fault types.
However, there are also some challenges for travelling wave:
the accurate measurement of arrival time, propagation
velocity, high sampling frequency and interference signals. In
addition, it can only be applied in simple star-connected
topology like transmission system [19]. In complex system,
laterals and meshed topology will cause many reflections,
which increase the difficulties in identifying the correct wave
heads.
Conclusions
This paper reviews the methods of locating DC faults in
MTDC systems. The recent progress in MTDC systems,
focusing on the converters and control methods, is briefly
summarized. Two key issues influencing fault location have
been discussed. The methods of locating the fault section and
fault point are critically examined. The methods of locating
fault points are divided into two categories: impedance-based
methods and travelling-wave methods. On the whole, the
performance of these methods still suffers from various
shortcomings. In addition, there is no mature MTDC project
Z( f )  1  to test the practical performance of these methods. In some
DFT ( I ( t ))
The impedances of cables or overhead lines of different
lengths in various frequencies can be calibrated through
experiments or the data from manufacturers. By comparing
Z(f) with the calibrated impedance-frequency relation, the
distance of fault can be identified. The usage of impedance in
high-frequency section helps reduce the length of sample and
the response time. The author also uses an iteration method to
eliminate the influences of fault resistance [23]. However, the
application of this method needs to eliminate the interference
of high-frequency noises and the accuracy of calibration also
influences the final result.
(2) Travelling-wave method
Travelling-wave methods are based on the theory that a
travelling wave is generated from the fault point and
propagates along the conductors [24]. By detecting the time
other fault conditions, like single-pole-to-ground fault in
non-grounding system, few researches have been conducted.
Future efforts are necessary to develop a comprehensive and
reliable fault location method for various types of faults.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge the support of China
Scholarship Council.
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