Agriculture

Agriculture or farming is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber,
biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life.Agriculture
was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of
domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. The
study of agriculture is known as agricultural science.

The growth rate for the agriculture and allied sectors is estimated to be 4.1 per cent for 2016-17.

Agriculture Contribution to GDP-16.5%,employed 49% of the total workforce in 2014.

Branches Of Agriculture

Agronomy: Agronomy is a branch of agricultural that deals with the study of crops &
the soils in which they grow. The work of Agronomists is to build methods that will improve the use
of soil & increase the production of food and fiber crops.

Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry: Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry is traced
back to the Chemical Section headed by Imperial Agricultural Chemist. Soil Science deals with the
chemical, physical, biological & mineralogical composition of soils as they relate to agriculture.

Horticulture: Horticulture is the study of plants. Horticulture includes the cultivation of

medicinal plants, fruits, vegetables, herbs, sprouts, nuts, seeds, algae, flowers, mushrooms,
seaweeds and non-food crops such as grass & ornamental trees and plants.

Agricultural Engineering: Agricultural Engineering is the area of engineering concerned with

the design, construction, agricultural structures, and improvement of farming equipment &
machinery. Agricultural engineers help to integrate technology with farming.

Agriculture Statistics: Agriculture Statistics Deals with collecting and analyzing data on
various aspects of Indian agriculture with view to assist in policy making of Agriculture.

Agricultural Economics: Agricultural economics studies the allocation, utilization, and

distribution of farming resources, as well as the commodities produced by farming. Agricultural
economics make graduates especially attractive to agricultural / Environmental-based employers,
such as government ministries, and non-governmental organizations.

Animal Science: Animal Science program may include microbiology, genetics, animal
behavior, nutrition, physiology, and reproduction. Animal Science Courses in support areas, such as
genetics, soils, agricultural economics & marketing, legal aspects, and the environment also are
offered.
 Plant Breeding and Genetics: Plant breeding is the process by which humans change the
characteristics of plants. Agricultural genetics is the applied study of the effects of genetic variation
& selection used to propagate valuable heritable trait combinations in crop plants and farm animals.

Plant Pathology: Plant pathology is the scientific study of diseases in plants caused by
pathogens and environmental conditions.

Seed Technology: Seed Technology is the science dealing with the methods of improving
physical & genetical characteristics of seed.

Entomology: Entomology concerned with the harmful and beneficial effects of insects and
agricultural practice.

Forestry: Forestry is the science, art & practice of understanding, managing and using wisely
the available natural resources associated with, and derived from forest lands. These all resources
include water, fish, wildlife, soil, plants, timber, and recreation.

Agricultural Biotechnology: Agricultural biotechnology is a collection of scientific techniques

used to improve plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Plant Physiology: Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of botany concerned with the

functioning, or physiology, of plants.

Scope of Agronomy
Yield maximization with introduction of new cultivars.
Reduced cost of production due to proper crop management
Better water use efficiency due to agronomic knowledge
Special tillage and intercultural operations for better crop growth and maximizing harvesting
index
Appropriate soil fertility management can increase crop yields with lesser use of fertilizer for
increased profit
Reduced post harvest loss due to agronomic knowledge and practices
Intensive cropping patterns and integrated farming systems for sustainable agricultural
growth and increased food production per unit area to feed teeming millions every year.

Basic Principles of Agronomy

Agronomic principles are the ways and means for the better management of soil, plant and
environment for economically maximum returns per unit area for years.
The Basic Principles of agronomy may be listed below:

1. Planning programming and executing measures for maximum utilization of resources ( land,
sunshine, rain water, temperature, humidity , winds) and inputs( labor, seeds, capital ,
irrigation water, fertilizer/ manures, farm equipment, marketing facilities etc ) for increased
yield and maximum profits
Choice of proper crop varieties adaptable to the particular agro-climate, land situation , soil
fertility , season and befitting to the cropping systems
Proper field management by tillage, preparing field channels and bunds for irrigation and
drainage, checking soil erosion, leveling and adopting other suitable land improvement
practices
 Adoption of multiple cropping and also mixed or intercropping to ensure harvest even under
adverse environmental conditions.
Choice of quality seeds or seed materials and maintenance of requisite plant density per unit
area with healthy and uniform seedlings
Proper water management /better water use efficiency
Adoption of adequate plant protection measures.
Adoption of suitable management ractices/intercultural operations
Adoption of suitable method of harvesting of crops as well as suitable post harvest
technologies

ROLE OF AGRONOMIST
An Agronomist aims at obtaining maximum production at minimum costs. He makes best use of
knowledge developed by basic and allied applied sciences for increased crop production. In a
broad perspective, an agronomist is concerned with the production of food and fiber to meet the
needs of the growing population.

Field crops can be classified according to their economic importance as

follows:
1-Cereal or grain crops: Cereals are grasses grown for their edible seeds such as wheat,
oats, barley, rye, rice, maize, and grain sorghum,

2- Legumes of seeds such as faba bean, pea nuts, fenugreek, lupine, cowpea,
soybean, chick pea, and lentil.
3- Sugar crops: they include sugar beet and sugar cane.
4- Oil crops: they include: flax, soybean, peanut, sunflower, safflower, sesame,
caster bean and rape.
5- Fiber crops: they include cotton. Flax, jute, sisal, and ramie.
6- Fodder crops: they include alfalfa, Egyptian clover, sorghum, Suddan grass, grass
pea, lablab, Napier grass, millet, white clover, and red clover.
7- Rubber crops: including para rubber, Castilla rubber, and guayule.
8- Tuber crops: such as potatoes and Jerusalem artichoke.
9- Root crops: such as sweet potatoes and sugar beet.
10- Medical plants: such as caster bean and others.
11- Stimulates such as tobacco, tea and coffee.

The Planning Commission has categorised 15 agro-climatic zones in India, taking into

account the physical attributes and socio-economic conditions prevailing in the

regions.

1. Western Himalayan division

2. Eastern Himalayan division
3. Lower Gangetic plain region
4. Middle Gangetic plain region
5. Upper Gangetic plain region
6. Trans-Gangetic plain region
7. Eastern plateau and hill region
8. Central plateau and hill region
9. Western plateau and hill region
10. Southern plateau and hill region
11. East coast plain and hill region
12. West coast plain and hill region
13. Gujarat plain and hill region
14. Western plain and hill region
15. Island region

Cropping System in India

The Kharif crops: The crops grown in rainy season are called as Kharif crops (Paddy, Soya
bean, pigeon pea and maize). They are grown from June to October.

3. The Rabi crops: The crops grown in winter season are called Rabi crops (Wheat, gram, peas,
and mustard). They are grown November to April. Compare Kharif crops and Rabi crops:

. The Crop varietal improvement:

a) Hybridization: It refers to crossing between genetically dissimilar plants;It is all to get higher yield,
improved quality, biotic and abiotic resistance, change in maturity duration, wider adaptability and
desirable agronomic characteristics

S.No Type Context

1 Intervarietal between different varieties

Hybridization

2 Interspecific between different species

Hybridization

3 Intergeneric between different genera

Hybridization

4 Genetically Modified Another way of improving the crop is by introducing

Crops (GMC). a gene that would provide the desired characteristic.

Cropping patterns

Difference between - Inter Cropping & Mixed Cropping

Sr. No Inter Cropping Mixed Cropping

The main object is to utilize the To get at least one crop under
1
space left between two rows of favorable conditions
 main crop
More emphasis is given to the
2 All crops are cared equally
main crop
There is no competition between There is competition between all
3
both crops crops growing
Inter crops are of short duration &
The crops are almost of the same
4 are harvested much earlier than
duration
main
Sowing time may be same or
5 It is same for all crops
different
Crops are sown in different rows
Either sown in rows or mixed
without affecting the population of
without considering the population
main crop when sown as sole crop
6 of either. Ex. Wheat+ Gram;

Soyabean + Wheat+ Mustard; Wheat+ gram;

maize/bajra+Cowpea Groundnut+ sunflower.

Dry farming or Dry Land Farming refers to an improved system of cultivation whereby
maximum amount of water is conserved by soil and water management. It involves efficient system of
soil and crop management in the regions of low land and uneven distributed rainfall.
Importance of Dry land Farming for India
Considering the present rate of development of irrigation facilities and also water potentiality of the
country, it is estimated that at any point of time 50% of cropped area in India will remain under
Rainfed farming system. Such vast areas as of now consume hardly 25% of total fertilizer
consumption of the country. Due to poor level of management, crop productivity is also very low
resulting in socio economic backwardness of the people.
Dry land farming is different from Rainfed farming. The difference is given in below table:
Constituents Dryland farming Rainfed farming
Rainfall (mm) < 750 >750
Moisture Shortage Enough / Sufficient
Growing regions Arid and Semiarid & up lands of sub humid & humid Humid and slub humid regions.
regions.
Cropping system Single crop or Intercropping or double
cropping.
intercropping
Constraints Wind and water erosion Water erosion.
Characteristics of Dryland Agriculture
Dry land areas may be characterized by the following features:
Uncertain, ill-.distributed and limited annual rainfall;
Occurrence of extensive climatic hazards like drought, flood etc;
Undulating soil surface;
Occurrence of extensive and large holdings;
Practice of extensive agriculture i.e. prevalence of mono cropping etc;
Relatively large size of fields;
Similarity in types of crops raised by almost all the farmers of a particular region;
Very low crop yield;
Poor market facility for the produce;
 Poor economy of the farmers; and
Poor health of cattle as well as farmers.

Seed Village Concept

A village, wherein trained group of farmers are involved in production of seeds of various

crops and cater to the needs of themselves, fellow farmers of the village and farmers of

neighbouring villages in appropriate time and at affordable cost is called a seed village

Objectives:

Increasing the seed production

Increasing the seed replacement rate

Organizing seed production in cluster (or) compact area replacing existing local

varieties with new high yielding varieties

Self sufficiency and self reliance of the village

To meet the local demand, timely supply.

The present programme of seed village scheme is having two phases:

1. Seed production of different crops: The area which is suitable for raising a particular

crop will be selected, and raised with single variety of a kind.

2. Establishing seed processing unit: If the seeds are not processed and handled

properly, all the past efforts in production may be lost. Thus seed processing and

packaging is very important aspect in seed production.

Benefits

Seed is available at the door steps of farms at an appropriate time.

Seed availability at affordable cost even lesser than market price.

Increased confidence among the farmers about the quality because of known source of

production.

Producer and consumer are mutually benefited.

Facilitates fast spread of new cultivars of different kinds.

Precision Farming refers to precise application of agricultural inputs based on soil, weather and
crop requirement to maximize sustainable productivity, quality and profitability. It includes the use of
latest technologies such as remote sensing (RS), GPS, and geographical information system (GIS) with an
objective to improve profitability and productivity. Precision Farming gives farmers the ability to use crop
 inputs more effectively including fertilizers, pesticides, and tillage and irrigation water. More effective
use of inputs means greater crop yield and/or quality, without much polluting the environment.

Technologies used in Precision Agriculture

Mapping & Data Collection
Maps generation is the first step in Precision Farming. The maps measure spatial variability and provide
the basis for controlling spatial variability.
Mapping is done with data collection in the filed related to various spatial variables such as soil type,
soil nutrition status, crop density, infestations etc.
The data is collected using soil probes and other such tools. Mapping and data collection can be done
using the RS, GIS and manual inputs.
Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers
The GPS satellites broadcast the signals that allow the GPS receivers to compute their location. The
information is provided while in motion.
Having precise location information at any time allows soil and crop measurements to be mapped.
Yield monitoring
The grain yield monitors measure and record the yield of the crop, which is essential for making sound
management decisions.
If the yield maps are used properly, they would provide important feedback in determining the inputs
such as fertilizer amendments, seed, pesticides and cultural practices including tillage and irrigation.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing refers to collection of data from a distance. The data sensors can simply be hand-held
devices, mounted on aircraft or satellite-based. The remote sensing provides information about the
crop health, moisture, nutrients, compaction, crop diseases etc.
For example, the near infrared images that are highly correlated with healthy plant tissue can be
recorded in the cameras.
RS also provides information about the in-season variability that affects crop yield and extent of crop
stress.
Geographic information systems (GIS)
Geographic information systems (GIS) use feature attributes and location data to produce maps.

Lecture-2 Topics
System of Crop Intensification-(SRI)-

SRI is based on improved planting and growing techniques, rather than improved seed varieties and
other inputs. It aims to produce more from less, using fewer seeds and less water, but carefully
managing the relationship between the plant and soil. This low-input approach and the results it can
achieve have made it popular among resource-limited farmers.

It uses younger seedlings8-12 Days old instead of 21-30 days(Traditional) singly spaced and typically
hand weeded with special tools.Planted in Square Pattern.

How it Works??

1-Seed Selection.Good Seed Settle at bottom

2-Germinate Seeds.Need Sprouted Seeds(Ankurit)

3-Prepare Seed Bed with Organic Substances and Spread Sprouted seeds.

4-Prepare land for cultivation as used in traditional farming and create square pattern
in field.

5.After 10-12 days remove germinated seed from sea bed and put in corners of
square pattern.

6-Create drain for irrigation.No need to submerge half Seed.As in this technique it
only requires Moisture.

Ex-Rice

Advantage Over Traditional Farming-

1-Increases Yield by 50%.

2-Reduced Seed Requirement by 70%

3-Less Water Required.

4-No inorganic fertilizer.

5-Little use of Agro chemical Protection.

Soil:
i) Soil is the thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth.

ii) Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks found on earth.

iii) Soil profile refers to the layered structure which spreads from the parent rocks to the top soil
surface. (

iv) The four layers of soil profile are: 1st layer-Top soil with humus and vegetation,

2nd layer-Sub soil with sand, silt and clay,

3rd layer-weathered rock material,

4th layer- Parent rock.

Factors of Soil Formation:

1. The major factors of soil formation are the nature of the parent rock
and climatic factors.
2. ii) The other factors of soil formation are the topography, role of
organic material and time taken for composition of soil formation.
3. iii) Parent rock determines the colour, texture, chemical properties,
minerals, content and permeability of the soil.
4. iv) Relief determines the altitude and slope and accumulation of soil.
5. v) Flora, fauna and micro-organism affect the rate of humus formation
in soil.
6. vi) Climate determines temperature and rainfall which influence the
rate of weathering and humus in process of soil formation.
7. (vii) Time determines the sickness of soil profile. It takes hundreds
of years to make just on centimeter of soil.
Temperature and rainfall are the two main climatic factors responsible for Sol formation.

When the Soil survey of India was established in 1956, they studied soils of India and their
characteristics.
The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use Planning, an institute under the
control of Indian Council of Agriculture Research did a lot of studies on Indian soil.
 Alluvial soil [43%]
Red soil [18.5%]
Black / regur soil [15%]
Arid / desert soil
Laterite soil
Saline soil
Peaty / marshy soil
Forest soil
Sub-mountain soil
Snowfields
Alluvial soil:

Mostly available soil in India (about 43%) which covers an area of 143 sq.km.
Widespread in northern plains and river valleys.
Humus, lime and organic matters are present.
Highly fertile.
Transported and deposited by rivers, streams etc.
New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as Bhangar.
Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey.
Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.
Rich in: potash
An Essential Macronutrient
Potassium (K) is one of the three essential macronutrients, along with nitrogen and
phosphorus. Potassium is vital for a plant to resist drought and disease as well as for
promoting healthy growth. Your crops need proper potassium levels to assure quality,
appearance, overall yield and harvest success.

Poor in: phosphorous.
Promotes root growth.Deficiency-Stunted growth in Plant,Graying in Leaves
Thus, phosphorus is essential for the general health and vigor of all plants. Some specific growth factors
that have been associated with phosphorus are:

Stimulated root development

Increased stalk and stem strength
Improved flower formation and seed production
More uniform and earlier crop maturity
Increased nitrogen N-fixing capacity of legumes
Improvements in crop quality
Increased resistance to plant diseases
Supports development throughout entire life cycle

Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed etc are cultivated mainly.
Red soil:
Seen mainly in low rainfall area.
Also known as Omnibus group.
Porous, friable structure.
Absence of lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate).
Deficient in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus and potash.
 Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or yellow.
Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.
Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potato etc are cultivated.
Black soil / regur soil:
Regur means cotton best soil for cotton cultivation.
Most of the Deccan is occupied by Black soil.
Mature soil.
High water retaining capacity.
Swells and will become sticky when wet and shrink when dried.
Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it develops wide cracks when dried.
Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum and magnesium.
Deficient in: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and organic matter.
Colour: Deep black to light black.
Texture: Clayey.

Laterite soil:

Name from Latin word Later which means Brick.

Become so soft when wet and so hard when dried.
In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
Formed as a result of high leaching.
Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil.
Organic matters of the soil will be removed fast by the bacteria as it is high temperature and
humus will be taken quickly by the trees and other plants. Thus, humus content is low.
Rich in: Iron and Aluminum
Deficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus
Colour: Red colour due to iron oxide.
Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are cultivated mainly.

Desert / arid soil:

Seen under Arid and Semi-Arid conditions.

Deposited mainly by wind activities.
High salt content.
Lack of moisture and Humus.
Kankar or Impure Calcium carbonate content is high which restricts the infiltration of water.
Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal.
Texture: Sandy
Colour: Red to Brown.
Peaty / marshy soil:

Areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity.

Growth of vegetation is very less.
A large quantity of dead organic matter/humus which makes the soil alkaline.
 Heavy soil with black colour.
Forest soil:

Regions of high rainfall.

Humus content is less and thus the soil is acidic.
Mountain soil:

In the mountain regions of the country.

Immature soil with low humus and acidic.

Types of Soils States where found Rich in: Lacks in: Crops grown

Large variety of rabi and

Mainly found in the plains of kharif crops such as wheat,
Gujarat, Punjab, Haryana, UP, rice, sugarcane, cotton, jute
Alluvial Bihar, Jharkhand etc. Potash and Lime Nitrogen and Phosphorous etc.

Deccan plateau- Maharashtra,

Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra
Pradesh,Tamil Nadu, Valleys of Lime, Iron, Magnesia Phosphorous, Nitrogen and Cotton, sugarcane, jowar,
Black (Regur soil) Krishna and Godavari. and Alumina, Potash organic matter tobacco, wheat, rice etc.

Eastern and southern part of the

deccan plateau, Orissa,
Chattisgarh and southern parts of Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Wheat, rice, cotton,
Red the middle Ganga plain. Iron and Potash humus. sugarcane and pulses

Karnataka, Kerala, Tamilnadu,

Madhya Pradesh, Assam and Organic matter, Nitrogen, Cashewnuts, tea, coffee,
Laterite Orissa hills. Iron oxide and potash Phosphate and Calcium rubber

Only drought resistant and

salt tolerant crops such as
Western Rajastan, north Gujarat barley, rape, cotton, millets
Arid and Desert and southern Punjab Soluble salts, phosphate Humus, Nitrogen maize and pulses

Western Gujarat, deltas of eastern

coast, Sunderban areas of West Sodium, Potassium,
Saline and Alkaline Bengal, Punjab and Haryana Magnesium Nitrogen and Calcium
Types of Fertilizers-

1-Organic

2-Inorganic(Chemaical)-N,P,K

Nitrogen-Based Fertilizer
Nitrogen plays a vital role in the protein formation process of plants. It supports overall plant
growth and the development of healthy leaves. Nitrogen fertilizer refers to one of the most
common categories of fertilizers produced out of nitrogen chemical combinations. Most of l
nitrogen based fertilizers are made from the ammonia (NH3), which is produced by the haber-
bosch process. Readily soluble in water and quickly available to plants. Sodium nitrate (16%
N), Calcium nitrate (15.50% N); Potassium nitrate (13% N) are used worldwide.

Phosphorus-Based Fertilizer
Phosphorous aids in root and flower development and increases the rate of growth. It is used
by plants to store and transfer energy. Single superphosphate (SSP: 16-18% phosphate);
Double super phosphate (DSP: 32% phosphate); Triple super phosphate (TSP: 42%
phosphate).

Potassium-Based Fertilizer
Fruit trees, potatoes and chilies need a potassium-releasing fertilizer.

Potassium sulphate (50% K20), and the muriate of potash (60% K2O). NPK are complex
fertilizers designed to supply all the three primary nutrients; are marked in different grades
indicating the respective percentage of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P 2O5), and potash (K2O) e.g.,
NPK 15-15-15 grade means that the fertiliser contains 15 percent each of N, P2O5 and K2O.

Soil erosion is defined as the wearing away of topsoil. Topsoil is the top layer of soil and is the
most fertile because it contains the most organic, nutrient-rich materials. Therefore, this is the layer
that farmers want to protect for growing their crops and want to protect for growing grasses for
their cattle to graze on.

Factors Leading to Soil Erosion-

1-Human Factor
2-Natural Agents(Rivers)
3-Deforestation
4-Mining
5-Overgrazing
6-Farming

Soil conservation is the prevention of soil loss from erosion or reduced fertility caused by over
usage, acidification, salinization or other chemical soil contamination. Slash-and-burn and
other unsustainable methods of subsistence farming are practiced in some lesser developed
areas.

Running water which is a natural agent cuts through the clayey soils and make deep channels called
gullies and this type of erosion is called gully erosion.

In certain areas, the top soil is washed layer by layer. This type of soil erosion is called Sheet erosion.

Soil Conservation Measures-

1-Countour Ploughing

2-Terracing

3-Strip Cropping

4-Afforestation

Countour Ploughing

Terracing
Watershed Management-
A area of Land where water drains to one point.Rainfall,snowmelt,precipitation into Lake river or stream.

Comes under Water Harvesting-Paaani ka sahi Upyog

is basically when water flowing in a particular geographical area drains/ meets into lake, river or any
other water body. Management of this water is known as water shed management.It includes the
overall planning & proper utilization of watersheds. There are various agencies which run different
watershed management programs. These programs aimed at protecting and restoring water quality,
controlling water pollution and ensuring adequate water supplies
Growing more trees in watershed areas increases retention of more rain water and protection of soil
from erosion. Therefore, watershed management develops the primary resources of land and water. It
enhances the evelopment of secondary resources of plants, animals and other biota. The enhanced
productivity increases the income of watershed community. There are fewer droughts and floods
downstream. Silting of downstream dams and reservoirs is also reduced. .
More to Learn-https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZzLF9lQ4ocw

Lec-3
Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water
include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The majority
of human uses require fresh water.
97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two
thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found
mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.
(0.3%) of the Earth's total freshwater reserves.

Irrigation is the artificial exploitation and distribution of water at project level aiming
at application of water at field level to agricultural crops in dry areas or in periods of
scarce rainfall to assure or improve crop production.

Methods of Irrigation-
1)Traditional-Time consuming,Less effective,More Labour but Cheap.Uses More water.

2)Modern-Save time,More effective,Less Labour,Effective,Costly but uses less Water.

The various traditional method of irrigation are

1)Moat(pulley system)

2)Chain pump

3)Dhekli

4)Rahat(lever system)

The two main modern methods of irrigation are:

1)Sprinkler system:A main pipeline is laid in the field.Perpendicular pipes having

rotating nozzles at the top are joined to the main pipelines at regular intervals.

Advantages

1)It is more useful for the uneven land where sufficient water is not available.

2-Drip system

There is network of narrow pipes with small holes in the fields.When water flows
through the narrow pipes,it fall drop by drop at the position of roots of the
plants.This water is absorbed by the soil in the root zone of the plants and utilised
by the plant.There is no wastage of irrigation of water.
Advantages

1)It provides water to plants drop by drop.So water is not wasted at all.

The major objective of PMKSY is to achieve convergence of investments in

irrigation at the field level, expand cultivable area under assured irrigation,
improve on-farm water use efficiency to reduce wastage of water, enhance the
adoption of precision-irrigation and other water saving technologies (More crop
per drop), enhance recharge of aquifers and introduce sustainable water
conservation practices by exploring the feasibility of reusing treated municipal
waste water for peri-urban agriculture and attract greater private investment in
precision irrigation system. The decision was taken on 1 July 2015 at the meeting of
Cabinet Committee on Economic Affairs

For 2015-16, an outlay of Rs.5300 crore has been made which includes Rs. 1800
crore for DAC; Rs. 1500 crore for DoLR; Rs. 2000 c rore for MoWR(Rs. 1000 crore for
AIBP; Rs. 1000 crores for PMKSY).

currently, the scheme is being implemented under Water Resources Ministry.

Centre- States will be 75: 25 per cent. In case of north-eastern region and hilly states it will be 90:10.
The PMKSY has following four components:
 Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme of the Ministry of Water Resources
Integrated Watershed Management Programme of the Ministry of Rural Development
Farm water management component of the National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture.

The crop water Requirement is defined as the depth (or amount) of water needed to
meet the water loss through evapotranspiration. In other words, it is the amount of water
needed by the various crops to grow optimally.

The crop water need always refers to a crop grown under optimal conditions, i.e. a uniform
crop, actively growing, completely shading the ground, free of diseases, and favourable soil
conditions (including fertility and water). The crop thus reaches its full production potential
under the given environment.

The crop water need mainly depends on:

the climate: in a sunny and hot climate crops need more water per day than in a cloudy
and cool climate

the crop type: crops like maize or sugarcane need more water than crops like millet or
sorghum

the growth stage of the crop; fully grown crops need more water than crops that have just
been planted.

a)Transpiration loss through leaves(T)

b)Evaporation loss (E)

c) amount of weather(WP)

d)Percolation loss(WL)

e)Water for other purposes(WSP)

WR(WATER REQUIREMENT) SUM OF ALL THESE.

The Centrally sponsored Command Area Development (CAD) Programme was

launched in 1974-75 with the main objectives of improving the utilization of created irrigation potential
and optimizing agriculture production and productivity from irrigated agriculture through a multi-

disciplinary team under an Area Development Authority. Min of Water

A Command Area Development Authority was established to maximize the productivity in the
irrigation command areas .
Construction of field channels and field drains
Land shaping wherever necessary
Introduction of rotational supply of water

But the CAD Programme was not particularly successful because of three constraints:
 The water supply at the outlet was unreliable. Soil and topographical surveys help in carrying out OFD
works more systematically. Soil surveys aim at assessing the physical and chemical properties of the soil
in order to plan proper soil, water and crop management.
The available technology was could not be adopted properly
Farmers particularly did not participate in the scheme.

This programme was restructured and renamed as Command Area Development and Water
Management Programme (CADWMP) since April 1, 2004. The scheme was further restructured
and was thrown to states to implement in 2008-09.
Currently, Command Area Development Programme has also been amalgamated with the
Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) AIBP to reduce the gap between irrigation
potential that has been created and that is utilized.

Lec-4 Water Conservation

Water conservation includes all the policies, strategies and activities made
to sustainably manage the natural resource fresh water, to protect the water environment, and to
meet the current and future human demand. Population, household size, and growth and
affluence all affect how much water is used.

Commercial applications
Many water-saving devices (such as low-flush toilets) that are useful in homes can also be useful
for business water saving. Other water-saving technology for businesses includes:

Waterless urinals
Waterless car washes
Infrared or foot-operated taps, which can save water by using short bursts of water for rinsing
in a kitchen or bathroom
Rain water harvesting

Agriculture-
1-Drip Irrigation

2-Sprinkler Irrigation

3-Ponds

4-Lakes

Contour trenching
Contour trenching is an agricultural technique that can be easily applied in arid sub-
Sahara areas to allow for water, and soil conservation, and to increase agricultural production.
Trenches can be artificially dug along the contour lines. Water flowing down the hill is retained by
the trench, and is infiltrating the soil below.
Between two trenches crops can benefit during the growing season (when there is less rain) from
the subsoil water reserve gathered during the rainy season.
Advantages
Immediate advantages are the following:

The rain water does not immediately run off the hill,
Water does not evaporate uselessly
The water balance is enhanced
Crops do not suffer later on from water shortage,
Fertile soil particles are not lost by water and wind erosion.

The Union Cabinet also gave its approval for declaring the year 2013 as
Water Conservation Year 2013. A number of mass awareness activities will
be undertaken during Water Conservation Year 2013 with emphasis on
sensitizing the masses on water related issues, encourage them to conserve
and use it judiciously.

World Water Day is an annual event celebrated on 22 March 2017

2017 Why Waste Water?
Drip, or Micro-Irrigation
Drip irrigation delivers water (and fertilizer) either on the soil surface or directly to the roots
of plants through systems of plastic tubing with small holes and other restrictive outlets. By
distributing these inputs slowly and regularly, drip irrigation conserves 50 to 70 percent more
water than traditional methods while increasing crop production by 20 to 90 percent. The
water and fertilizer are also more easily absorbed by the soil and plants, reducing the risks of
erosion and nutrient depletion.

Types of Irrigation Pumps-

A pump is a device that moves fluids from one place to other.

Floating Pumps

Booster Pumps

Turbine/Jet Pumps

Submersible Pumps

Centrifugal Pumps

Major,Minor,Medium Irrigation-

1. Major Irrigation:

Culturable command area (CCA) more than 10,000 hectares.

2. Medium Irrigation:
Culturable command area more than 2,000 hectares but less than 10,000 hectares.

3. Minor Irrigation:

Culturable command area up to 2,000 hectares.

Ground water schemes comprise of dug wells, deepening of dug wells, dug-cum-bore wells,
borings, private shallow tubewells, filter points and deep tubewells. The command area of
private ground water schemes varies from 1 to 5 hectares. The State Governments provide
assistance in installation of such schemes which confines mainly to technical guidance,
custom service for boring and arrangements for credit facilities at reasonable rates of
interest. The subsidies are also made available for installation of these schemes to weaker
sections of farmers.
http://www.india-
wris.nrsc.gov.in/wrpinfo/index.php?title=Major_%26_Medium_Irrigation_Projects

The dam holds excess waters during the monsoon and provides a regulated release during the
year . It also prevents damage due to monsoon floods. The dam provides irrigation to 10 million
acres (40,000 km) of fields in Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.

Major irrigation projects of India

Name River State CCA, ha Completion Year

 Bhakra Nangal
Sutlej Punjab and Himachal Pradesh 40,00,000 1963
Project

Beas Project Beas River Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan 21,00,000 1974

Indira Gandhi
Harike (Satlej and Beas) Punjab 5, 28,000 1965
Canal

Koshi Project Kosi River Bihar and Nepal 8.48,000 1954

Hirakund
Mahanadi Orisa 10,00,000 1957
Project

Tungabhadra
Tungbhadra -Krishna AP-Karnataka 5,74,000 1953
project

Nagarjuna Sagar
Krishna AP 13,13,000 1960
Project

Chambal Project Chambal Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh 5,15,000 1960

Damodar valley
Damodar Jharkhand, West Bengal 8,23,700 1948
project

Gandak project Gandak Bihar-UP 16,51,700 1970

Farm and Agri Engineering

SCOPE OF AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Jobs in tractor-manufactures, irrigation companies, fertiliser and seed companies, and dairy
firms.
State agriculture departments recruit Agriculture Engineers at district and sub-district levels for
processing, farm mechanisation etc.

SOURCES OF FARM POWER A farm power for various agricultural operations can be broadly
classified as:

(1) Tractive work such as seed bed preparation, cultivation, harvesting and transportation, and

(2) Stationary work like silage cutting, feed grinding, threshing, winnowing and lifting of irrigation
water. These operations are done by different sources of power, namely human, animal, oil engine,
tractor, power tiller, electricity and renewable energy (biogas, solar and wind).
HUMAN POWER -Human beings are the main source of power for operating small tools and
implements. They are also employed for doing stationary work like threshing, winnowing, chaff
cutting and lifting irrigation Water. It is generally believed that there is surplus human power
available for agricultural operations in India. According to 2001 census figures, the total Indian rural
population is about 74 crores.

ANIMAL POWER The most important source of power on the farm all over the world and particularly
in India is animal. It is estimated that nearly 80 per cent of the total draft power used in agriculture
throughout the world is still provided by animals, although the number of agricultural tractors has
become double after every ten years since 1930. India with its 22.68 crore cattle possesses the
largest number of cattle in the world.

Advantages: Easily available, Used for all types of work, Low initial investment,

Disadvantages: Not very efficient, Seasons and weather affect the efficiency, Cannot work at a
stretch, Require full maintenance when there is no farm work.

MECHANICAL POWER The third important source of farm power is mechanical power that is
available through tractors and oil engines. The oil engine is a highly efficient device for converting
fuel into useful work. The efficiency of diesel engine varies between 32 and 38 per cent, whereas
that of the carburettor engine is in the range of 25 and 32 per cent. In recent years, diesel engines
and tractors have gained considerable popularity in agricultural operations.

Advantages: Efficiency is high; not affected by weather; can run at a stretch;

Disadvantages: Initial capital investment is high; fuel is costly and repairs and maintenance needs
technical knowledge.

ELECTRICAL POWER Now-a-days electricity has become a very important source of power on farms
in various states of the country. It is steadily becoming more and more available with the increase of
various river valley projects and thermal stations. On an average about 1/10th of the total electrical
power generated in India, is consumed for the farm work. The largest use of electric power in the
rural areas is for irrigation and domestic water supply. Besides this, the use of electric power in dairy
industry, cold storage, fruit processing and cattle feed grinding has tremendously increased.

Advantages: Very cheap form of power; high efficiency; can work at a stretch; maintenance and
operating cost is very low and not affected by weather conditions.
Disadvantages: Initial capital investment is high; require good amount of technical knowledge and it
causes great danger, if handled without care.

WIND POWER The availability of wind power for farm work is quite limited. Where the wind velocity
is more than 32 kmph, wind mills can be used for lifting water. Even today in India the wind power
has not been fully harnessed. The most important reason is its uncertainty.

Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy, Govt. of India have been making efforts to popularise the
wind mill for power generation and water lifting in rural areas. But this source could not become
attractive due to the following limitations of the system :
Initial investment is high,
 Repair facilities are not available in rural areas,
Even the matching pump sets and electric generators are not readily available in the country,
It not suitable for all situations in the country. For the present, the wind mills have limited scope of
the use in the country.
India is the worlds fifth largest wind power producer and these wind energy facilities are installed in
eight major states across India, Tamil Nadu,Gujarat,Maharashtra,Karnataka As of the end of March
2017 the total installed wind power capacity was 32.17 GW.

Lec-5

Water Harvesting Structure-

Inspite of large-scale development of surface and ground water through major, medium and minor
projects by the government, the rural people in different parts of the country still have to depend on
traditional water harvesting to meet their water requirements. The techniques and methods used
vary from region to region depending upon their specific problems, nature of terrain, climate,
hydrogeological conditions etc.

Rainfall-Report by Ministry of Statistics and IMD

 REGION DEFICIT/EXCESS
EAST AND NORTEAST
INDIA -13%
NORTHWEST -2%
SOUTHERN -12%
CENTRAL 1%(EXCESS)

ROOF TOP HARVESTING-

This system can be seen in the northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,
Manipur and Nagaland. This is also in use in Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Jodhpur districts of Rajasthan.
2-TANKA/ KUND/ KUNDI-Rajasthan

3-PONDS/ TANKS

4 GROUND WATER HARVESTING

HILL SLOPE COLLECTION In this system, which is in vogue in many hilly areas with good rainfall, lined
channels are built across the hill slopes to intercept rain water. These channels convey water for
irrigating terraced agricultural fields. The water is also used to fill small ponds for domestic use and
the cattle. These practices can be seen in Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Arunachal
Pradesh etc.

During the last 100 years there has been considerable technological
development in the design and construction of water harvesting structures for various purposes. The
structures, which are commonly built for surface storage and/ or ground water recharge are :

(i) Check Dams : These are concrete or masonry structures built across small
streams for surface storage and incidental benefit of ground water recharge.
The design of these structures are done taking into consideration the volume of
water that can be stored in the stream channel upstream, the surplus flood
 discharge that must be evacuated safely, stability of the structure against
various forces and the likely ground water recharge. These are usually built by
the State Government agencies like the departments of Irrigation/ Water
Resources, Agriculture and Forests. These are the modified and improved
versions of the traditional temporary or semi-permanent structures that people
in the villages usually build across natural streams or drainage channels.

Percolation Tanks : Percolation tank is an artificially created surface water body,

submerging in its reservoir a highly permeable land so that surface runoff is made to
percolate and recharge the ground water storage. Moderate to high porosity of soil and/
or underlying rocky strata is the main criteria for the choice of percolation tanks.
Ex-Take Gravel in one Beaker and Sand in other Beaker.Suppose Beaker is of 300 ml.
You have 200 ml Water in another beaker.Fill the beaker of Gravel first you find that you are
left with 80 ml water and 120 ml is used.So porosity is 120/300 *100 comes out 40%.In second
Beaker of Sand when you add water you find it used 100 water because of less pores.So
porosity is 100/300*100 comes out 33%.

.
Sub-Surface Dykes : A subsurface dyke is a barrier impermeable to water that is placed
underground to control the groundwater flow in an aquifer, and to raise the water table.
The dyke was constructed in the 25 hectare farm of Krishi Vigyan Kendra Kannur in 2007 to solve the
problem of water scarcity. The experience of KVK indicated that subsurface dyke was an efficient
barrier to arrest the subsurface flow of water and conserve ground water.

(i)
These are :
(i) Contour Bunding :

(ii) These are small earthen bunds built horizontally in parallel rows across the hill
slope. These help in augmenting soil moisture and prevent erosion of topsoil.
Use-sloping, and hilly land where the soil productivity is very low.
Rainfall<650mm


(i) (ii) Gully Plugging : These are soil and water retaining structures built across
gullies in hilly areas. These are built with locally available materials like stone
boulders, earth, brushwood etc

Ground water thus forms the largest source of fresh water, next to glaciers and ice caps.

The reason for this is that although India receives about 400 million hectare metres (mham)
of rainfall each year, only 50 mham filters down to the ground water aquifer and can be
pumped back. A large part (115 mham) is lost to the sea in the form of run-off and rest is
evaporated.

Agro processing involves the processing of raw materials from the field and the farm into finished
products for rural and urban markets. Major agro-processing industries are food processing, sugar,
pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee and cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (cotton, jute,
silk), rubber, etc.

Food Processing Agro processing includes canning, producing cream, fruit processing and
confectionery. While some preserving techniques, such as drying, fermenting and pickling, have
been known since ancient times, these had limited applications to cater to the pre-Industrial
Revolution demands.

All economic activities namely primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary, revolve around obtaining
and utilising resources necessary for survival. Secondary activities add value to natural resources by
transforming raw materials into valuable products. Cotton in the boll has limited use but after it is
transformed into yarn, becomes more valuable and can be used for making clothes. Iron ore, cannot
be used; directly from the mines, but after being converted into steel it gets its value and can be
used for making many valuable machines, tools, etc
Advantage-
1- Reduce wastage of fruits and vegetables worth Rs 9,000 crore per annum because the same value of these
commodities can now be processed.

2-helping the farmers to realise better income for their produce and on ther side, it will also keep the prices of
perishables under check..

3-creating employment opportunities.

4-export of agro-food products

Upstream industries are engaged in the initial processing of agricultural commodities. Examples are
rice and flour milling, leather tanning, cotton ginning, oil pressing, saw milling and fish canning.

Downstream industries undertake further manufacturing operations on intermediate products

made from agricultural materials. Examples are bread, biscuit and noodle making, textile spinning
and weaving; paper production; clothing and footwear manufacturing; and rubber manufactures.

The regulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide nitrogen, as well as

the temperature and humidity levels along with the regulation of temperature is known
as controlled-atmosphere storage. Rooms are sealed so that gaseous exchange can be effectively
controlled. Many horticultural products, such as fruit, can be kept fresh for as long as a year under
these controlled conditions.

Dry commodities

Grains, legumes and oilseed are stored in a controlled atmosphere primarily to control insect
pests. Most insects cannot survive indefinitely without oxygen or in conditions of raised (<30%)
carbon dioxide. Such controlled atmosphere treatments of grains may take several weeks at
lower temperatures (<15 C).

Fruit and vegetables

Modified Storage-Modified atmosphere is the practice of modifying the composition of the

internal atmosphere of a package (commonly food packages, drugs, etc.) in order to improve
the shelf life.
The modification process often tries to lower the amount of oxygen (O2), moving it from 20.9% to
0%, in order to slow down the growth of aerobic organisms and prevent oxidation reactions. The
removed oxygen can be replaced with nitrogen (N2), commonly acknowledged as an inert gas,
or carbon dioxide (CO2), which can lower the pH or inhibit the growth of bacteria. Carbon
monoxide can be used for preserving the red color of meat.
Ex- fruits and vegetables, meat and meat products, and seafood.
Perishable foods are those likely to spoil, decay or become unsafe to consume if not kept refrigerated
at 40 F (4.4 C) or below or frozen at 0 F (-17.8 C) or below. Examples of foods that must be kept
refrigerated for safety include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, and all cooked leftovers.
Refrigeration slows bacterial growth and freezing stops it. There are two completely different families
of bacteria that can be on food: pathogenic bacteria, the kind that cause foodborne illness, and
spoilage bacteria, the kind of bacteria that cause foods to deteriorate and develop unpleasant odors,
tastes, and textures.
Bins and Grain Silos- Grain() Ex-FCI(FOOD CORPORATION OF INDIA)

Grain Storage-High temperature and high moisture affect grain quality in storage and
cause rapid decline in germination, colour, oil composition, and many other
characteristics. Insects and fungus impair the quality of grains directly by their feeding
and development, and indirectly by generating heat and moisture. High temperature
and moisture favour development of insects and moulds. Insects cannot develop at
temperatures below 10C and moisture below 9% in cereals.

Silos-

A silo a structure for storing bulk materials. Silos are used in agriculture to store grain or fermented
feed known as silage. Silos are more commonly used for bulk storage of grain, coal, cement, carbon
black, woodchips, food products and sawdust. Three types of silos are in widespread use today:
tower silos, bunker silos, and bag silos.

Bins-

Bins are vented, silver, corrugated steel structures fatter in diameter than silos and have varying
heights. They generally store dry corn and soybeans, which meet domestic or export market demand
for feed, food and fuel use.

Facts- Globally, one-third of the food produced is wasted, costing the world economy
about $750 billion (more than Rs 47 lakh crore), the Rome-based Food and Agriculture
Organisations report said. It said Asian countries, especially India and China, were the
worst culprits causing loss of 1.3 billion tonnes of food every year.

India is a significant contributor on account of both pre and post harvest waste in
cereals, pulses, fruits and vegetables.
Agriculture produce to the tune of Rs 58,000 crore---40% of the total
produce---was wasted every year in the country.

The Food Corporation of India owns a storage capacity of about 156 lac
tonnes including the storage space hired by it. The total storage capacity
comes to about 336.04 lac tonnes. However, the Stock of Food grains
procured in the year 2011-12 was 667.89 lac tonnes, leading to severe strain
on the FCI storage facilities.

study that says 21 million tonnes of wheat -- equivalent to the entire

production of Australia -- goes waste in the country.
According to ICAR-The total post-harvest losses to agricultural commodities are estimated to be
from 6 to 18%.