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Chapter 1
Introduction to Highway
Engineering
HISTORY OF ROADS
ROMAN ROADS
Roman roads, dating back to 312 BC, were built using rocks bounded by lime grout and other
natural pozzolans as binders.
HISTORY OF ROADS
TELFORD PAVEMENTS
Thomas Telford started building roads in the late 1700s while he was Surveyor of Public
Works in Salop county.
He attempted to build relatively flat roads (no more than a 1 in 30 slope).
The pavement thickness was between 14 to 18 inches.
Telford pavements did not use binding agents to hold the stones together
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BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Rosnawati Buhari
HISTORY OF ROADS
MACADAM PAVEMENTS
Introduced by John McAdam (often known as Macadam) in the early 1800s.
He introduced the usage of angular agregates on well compacted subgrade for better
performance.
The subgrade was sloped to improve drainage.
The angular agregates were placed in two layers for a total depth of 8 inches (maximum
aggregate size was 3 inches).
On top of this a wearing course was placed, about 2 inches thick (maximum aggregate size
was 1 inch).
He did not use binder to hold the stones together because he realized that the broken
stones would eventually become bound together by fines generated by traffic.
HISTORY OF ROADS
BITHULITIC PAVEMENTS
One of the earliest Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) pavements in history.
Introduced by Frederick J. Warren when he issued patents for a hot mix asphalt paving
material and process which he called bitulithic.
A typical bithulitic mix contained 6% bituminous cement and graded aggregates
proportioned for low air voids. 5
The first recorded use of asphalt by humans was by the Sumerians around 3,000 years.
Around 1500 A.D., the Incas of Peru were using a composition similar to modern bituminous
macadam to pave parts of their highway system.
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Tar, often called "coal tar" is a byproduct of the destructive distillation of coal.
Asphalt is a petroleum residue left over from the distillation of crude oil.
In pavement applications, tar is generally more brittle and less elastic than asphalt causing it to
crack under typical loading and environmental conditions.
Tar will, however, not dissolve as easily in the presence of lighter petroleum distillation products
such as gasoline and kerosene.
While asphalt is used throughout the pavement industry, tar is generally limited to sealant
use.
PAVEMENT TYPES
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
- Those which are surfaced with bituminous (or asphalt) materials.
- These types of pavements are called "flexible" since the total pavement structure "bends" or
"deflects" due to traffic loads.
- A flexible pavement structure is generally composed of several layers of materials which can
accommodate this "flexing".
- Flexible pavement uses more flexible surface course and distributes loads over a smaller
area.
- It relies on a combination of layers for transmitting load to the subgrade
PAVEMENT TYPES
RIGID PAVEMENT
- Those which are surfaced with portland cement concrete (PCC).
- These types of pavements are called "rigid" because they are substantially stiffer than
flexible pavements due to PCC's high stiffness.
- Rigid pavement, because of PCC's high stiffness, tends to distribute the load over a
relatively wide area of subgrade.
- The concrete slab itself supplies most of a rigid pavement's structural capacity.
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BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Rosnawati Buhari
PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Sub-base
Formation Level
Subgrade
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PAVEMENT STRUCTURE
RIGID PAVEMENT
Concrete Slab
Sub-base
Formation Level
Subgrade
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RIGHT-OF-WAY (ROW)
Shoulder
Clear zone Travel lanes Median
Verge
Embankment
Ditch
Divided Rural Highway 12
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BFC 31802 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING Lecturer: Rosnawati Buhari
C
D
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For rural cross sections, the roadway width is the combined width of the
traveled way
median
shoulders
auxiliary lanes
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TRAVEL LANE
provide the path for travel
lane width greatly influences the safety and comfort of driving
travel lane widths generally vary between 2.7 m and 3.6 m depending on
functional classification, traffic volumes, and project scope of work
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MEDIAN
also known as the central reservation
the median width is measured from the inside edge of the two traveled ways and
includes inside shoulders and/or median curb and gutters
provides segregation between opposing directions of the traveled ways
assists in draining of surface runoff
when planted with trees and shrubs, a median will help reduce glare from vehicle
headlights
median can be used for future expansion of the highway (for additional number
of lanes due to traffic increase)
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SHOULDER
The road shoulder is a reserved area by the verge of the road. It may be either paved
(HMA or concrete) or unpaved (aggregate or turf).
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CLEAR ZONE
Clear zone is defined as the total roadside border area, starting at the edge of the
traveled way, available for safe use by errant vehicles.
Simply stated, it is an unobstructed, relatively flat area beyond the edge of the
traveled way that allows a driver to stop safely or regain control of a vehicle that
leaves the traveled way.
The desired minimum width is dependent upon traffic volumes and speeds and on
the roadside geometry.
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The road development in the Malay Peninsula started during the British
occupation.
Tin mining and rubber industry were the important reasons for road construction.
The first road was built in Perak, linking Kamunting and Ujung Tembo.
The construction then was extended to Pulau Pinang. The active mining activity
in Lembah Kinta also become the reason of road construction from Taiping to
Ipoh in 1891.
Currently, Peninsula Malaysia has about 847.7 kilometers of road linking North
Malaysia to South Malaysia. The total length of highway throughout Malaysia is
about 1192 kilometers, including expressways such as NKVE, ELITE, KESAS
and BESRAYA.
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Standard Description
R6 / U6 - highest geometric design standard
- serves long trips with high speeds, comfort and safety
- with divided carriageway
- full access control
- e.g. rural and urban expressways
R5 / U5 - high geometric design standard
- serves long to intermediate trips with high to medium speeds
- partial access control
- e.g. highways, primary roads and arterials
R4 / U4 - medium geometric standard
- serves intermediate trip lengths with medium speeds
- partial access control
- e.g. primary roads, secondary roads, minor arterials and
major collectors
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CATEGORIES
OF
ROADS
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RURAL ROADS
Expressways
divided interstate highways for through traffic
has full access control
with grade separated intersections
for fast traveling
serve long trips
provide higher traveling speed and comfort
designed to the highest standards
Highways
constitute the interstate national network
complement the expressway network
link up directly or indirectly the federal and state
capitals, and points of entry/exit to the country
serve long to intermediate trips
high to medium speed
smooth traffic is provided
partial access control
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RURAL ROADS
Primary Roads
constitute the major roads forming the basic
network within a state
serve intermediate trip lengths and medium
traveling speeds
smooth traffic is provided
partial access control
link up state and district capitals or other major
towns
Secondary Roads
constitute the major roads forming the basic
network within a district or regional development
areas
serve intermediate trips
partial access control
link up major towns within the district or regional
development areas
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RURAL ROADS
Minor Roads
applies to all roads other than those described
above
form the basic road network within a land
scheme or other inhabited areas
include roads with special functions such as
holiday resort roads, security roads or access
roads to microwave stations
serve local traffic with short trip lengths
partial or no access control
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URBAN STREETS
Expressway
Arterial
Collector
Local Street
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URBAN ROADS
Expressways
divided highways for through traffic
form the basic network in urbanised area
has full access control
with grade separated intersections
for fast traveling
serve long trips
provide higher traveling speed and comfort
designed to the highest standards
complement the rural expressways
Arterials
continuous roads with partial access control for
through traffic
convey traffic from residential areas to the vicinity
of the central business
district, or from one part of the city to another
which does not intend to
penetrate identifiable neighbourhood
smooth traffic flow is essential since they carry 31
large traffic volumes
URBAN ROADS
Collectors
roads with partial access control designed to serve on a
collector/distributor of traffic between arterials and local road systems
major roads which penetrate and serve identifiable neighbourhood,
commercial areas and industrial areas
Local Streets
the basic network within a neighbourhood and serves to offer direct
access to abutting land
links to the collector roads and thus serve short trip lengths
through traffic should be discouraged
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Tolled Highways
- link cities/towns/new developments in order to increase mobility and reduce
congestion on federal highways
- for through traffic with full access control
- involve grade-separated intersection
- each carriageway consists of two to three traveling lanes and an emergency
lane
- provide facilities such as rest and relax areas, shelters for motorcyclists,
emergency phone service, etc.
- e.g. PLUS, NKVE, ELITE, SPRINT, KESAS
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Federal Roads
- roads that are gazetted under the Federal Road Ordinance
- roads linking state capitals, airports, railway stations and ports
- also includes roads within FELDA land schemes and those in other
regional land schemes constructed with federal funds
- maintenance of these roads is the responsibility of the federal government
- maintenance is carried out through the state JKR and funded by the
federal government
State Roads
- all other roads within the states outside the jurisdiction of the local authority
or district office
- built to JKR standards
- constructed with state funds
- maintenance of these roads is the responsibility of the state government
- maintenance is carried out through the state JKR
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Objectives :
- improve road safety by monitoring motorized vehicles and drivers
- collection of road taxes
Functions :
- enforce the Road Transport Act 1987
- update the tax collection system
- assist in reducing road accidents
- assist the government in their effort reduce the effects of transport on the
environment
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