Globalization and Orthodox Christianity

Globalization and Orthodox
Christianity
Downloaded by 201.37.160.92 at 12:43 15 October 2017
In this book Roudometof offers a brilliant examination of the manifold

entanglements between Orthodox Christianity and globalization processes
across history. Broad in scope and rich in material, this book fills a gap con-
cerning a Christian tradition that remained, until recently, mostly untheo-
rized. This is an indispensable book for all those interested not only in the
relations between globalization and religion, but also in Eastern Orthodox
Christianity and its historical transformations. Vasilios N. Makrides, Uni-
versity of Erfurt, Germany
With approximately 200 to 300 million adherents worldwide, Orthodox

Christianity is among the largest branches of Christianity, yet it remains rela-
tively understudied. This book examines the rich and complex entanglements
between Orthodox Christianity and globalization, offering a substantive con-
tribution to the relationship between religion and globalization as well as the
relationship between Orthodox Christianity and the sociology of religion
and more broadly, to the interdisciplinary field of Religious Studies.
Although deeply engaged with history, this book does not simply narrate
the history of Orthodox Christianity as a world religion, and it does not
address theological issues or cover all the individual trajectories of each sub-
group or subdivision of the faith. Orthodox Christianity is the object of the
analysis, but author Victor Roudometof speaks to a broader audience inter-
ested in culture, religion and globalization. Roudometof argues in favor of
using globalization instead of modernization as the main theoretical vehicle
for analyzing religion, an approach that displaces secularization to argue for
multiple hybridizations of religion as a suitable strategy for analyzing reli-
gious phenomena. This approach offers Orthodox Christianity as a test case
that illustrates the presence of historically specific but theoretically distinct
globalizations that are applicable to all faiths.
Victor Roudometof is Associate Professor in the Department of Social and

Political Sciences at the University of Cyprus. His main research interests
include religion, nationalism, culture and globalization. He is the author of
over 30 scholarly articles and two monographs. He has also edited several
volumes and issues of scholarly journals.
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C.S. Monaco Victor Roudometof
Globalization and Orthodox
Christianity
The Transformations of
a Religious Tradition
Victor Roudometof
First published 2014
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2014 Taylor & Francis
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Roudometof, Victor, 1964
Globalization and Orthodox Christianity : the transformations of a religious
tradition / by Victor Roudometof.
pages cm. (Routledge studies in religion ; 32)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Orthodox Eastern ChurchHistory21st century. 2. Globalization
Religious aspectsOrthodox Eastern Church. I. Title.
BX106.23.R68 2013
281.9dc23
2013013554
ISBN: (hbk) 978-0-415-84373-7
ISBN: (ebk) 978-0-203-75416-0
Maps by Sophia Vyzoviti
Typeset in Sabon
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents
List of Maps ix
List of Tables xi
List of Abbreviations xiii
Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
1 Globalization and Orthodox Christianity:

Preliminary Considerations 1
2 The Fragmentation of Christianity 18
3 From Christian Orthodoxy to Orthodox Christianity 38
4 Transitions to Modernity 59
5 Nationalism and the Orthodox Church:

The Modern Synthesis 79
6 Colonialism and Ethnarchy: The Case of Cyprus 102
7 Orthodox Christianity as a Transnational Religion 119
8 Territoriality, Globality and Orthodoxy 137
9 Religion and Globalization: Orthodox Christianity

Across the Ages 155
Appendix 173
Notes 175
Bibliography 193
Index 219
Maps
2.1 The Eastern Roman Empire with border changes

between the sixth and 12th centuries 21
4.1 Eastern Europe in 1789: the Ottoman and
Russian empires 60
5.1 Eastern Europe under communism, 19451989 90
5.2 Eastern Europe after the fall of communism (2012) 92
Tables
2.1 The vernacularization of Chalcedonian Christianity 26

2.2 Indigenizations of Christianity in the Eastern
Mediterranean (3001589 AD) 31
9.1 Historical eras of globalization and
Orthodoxys glocalizations 158
Abbreviations
EC-PATR Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople

EU European Union
OCA Orthodox Church in America
OCG Orthodox Church of Greece
OCL Orthodox Christian Laity
ROC Russian Orthodox Church
ROCOR Russian Orthodox Church Outside of Russia (also known as
Russian Orthodox Church Abroad or ROCA)
UAOC Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church
UOC-KP Ukrainian Orthodox ChurchKievan (or Kyivan) Patriarchate
Preface
This book represents nearly a decade of work in the field of the sociology of
Orthodox Christianity. Attending and presenting papers at the conferences
and congresses of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion (Houston,
United States, 2000), the International Society for the Sociology of Religion
(Zagreb, Croatia, 2005; Leipzig, Germany 2007; Aix-en-Provence, France
2011) and the Association for the Sociology of Religion (Philadelphia, 2005;
New York, United States, 2007) offered me the opportunity to meet, talk
and collaborate with the other scholars who form the relatively small but vi-
brant group of people interested in Orthodox Christianity. This interaction
has been a source of inspiration and has contributed greatly to shaping my
thinking about this project. My participation in the 20092010 workshop
series on Nation, State and Religion in the Mediterranean: From 1789 to
1960, sponsored by the Van Leer Jerusalem Institute, helped me to further
sharpen the scope and aims of this project.
I should publicly express my gratitude to the University of Cyprus Li-
brary, whose resources were extensively used. In particular, my deep ap-
preciation goes to librarian Evie Antoniou, for her invaluable assistance in
delivering books and articles from other libraries. Many thanks also go to
Aleca Spyrou, who supervised the librarys purchases. I further owe a debt
of gratitude to Denise Rothschild for her expert professional assistance in
proofreading and editing the manuscripts final drafts. For their assistance
with the manuscripts final stage, I should thank the publishers staff. Of
course, all mistakes or other shortcomings in the final manuscript are my
own responsibility. For the cartography, I should thank Dr. Sophia Vyzo-
viti (Department of Architecture, University of Thessaly, Greece). Further
thanks go to Robert Swanson for this professional assistance in the con-
struction of the books index.
The text contains numerous references to names, places, organizations
and titles. These require rendering words into English or transliterating from
several languages. This is always a challenging task. For some languages
(such as Greek), no standard transliteration system exists. Sometimes, there
are differences in the names of cities or places (for example, Kiev). Other
xvi Preface
times, different citation styles render the same term differently. To the extent
possible, these matters have been dealt with according to standard scholarly
conventions, and an effort was made to achieve consistency. I would like
to apologize in advance for whatever shortcomings the readers careful eye
detects in the manuscript. The preparation of this manuscript has benefited
from the work and advice of numerous individuals. I would like to thank
my long-term collaborators and co-authors Vasilios N. Makrides (Religious
Studies, University of Erfurt, Germany), Alexander Agadjanian (Russian
University of the Humanities, Moscow, Russia), Michalis N. Michael (De-
partment of Turkish and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Cyprus) and
Anna Karpathakis (Sociology, Kingsborough Community College, New
York) for their assistance, encouragement and help as I have sought their
judgment, advice and expertise on numerous occasions. My warm thanks

also go to my colleagues, Lucian Leustean (Aston University), Tassos An-
astasiadis (McGill University), Effie Fokas (London School of Economics),
Nicos Kokosalakis (University of Liverpool), Lina Molokotos-Liederman
(London School of Economics), Roberto Cipriani (University of Rome III,
Italy), Irene Dietzel (University of Erfurt, Germany), Dimitris Antoniou
(Oxford, UK), Heinz Richter (University of Mannheim, Germany), Athena
S. Leoussi (University of Reading), Catharina Raudvere and Trine Stauning
Willert (University of Copenhagen), George Kourvetaris (Northern Illinois
University) and Gavril Flora (Partium Christian University, Oradea, Roma-
nia) for all their generous offers of knowledge, expertise and assistance over
the years.
I should extend my gratitude to Elisabeth Arweck, editor of the Journal
of Contemporary Religion; David Yamane, editor of Sociology of Religion;
Khacig Tololyan, editor of Diaspora; and Gerard Delanty, editor of the Eu-
ropean Journal of Social Theory, for their constructive role and useful feed-
back in the process of submission and evaluation of the articles published
in these journals. Further thanks go to the anonymous reviewers of these
journals for their sound criticism and useful remarks that contributed to
improving the quality of the work. These articles offered me the opportu-
nity to develop ideas and interpretations that ultimately coalesced into this
manuscript.
Finally, I would like to thank Dimitris Vogiatzis, Giota Politi, Marios
Constantinou, Marianna Papastephanou, Nikitas Hadjimichail, Elisa Dia-
mantopoulou, William Haller, Fabienne Baider, Monica Andreou, Daphne
Halikiopoulou, Nikolaos and Panayiota Roudometof, Costas Danopoulos
and Panagiotis Christias.
Acknowledgments
Scattered throughout the books chapters are paragraphs and sentences that
have been previously published in various articles, chapters and books. This
material has been extensively revised or extended into its current format to
form part of this books broader arguments. In all these instances, references
to the earlier publications are made in the text or in each chapters notes. It
is nonetheless necessary to acknowledge that material previously published
is included in all or parts of the following chapters.
Chapters 1 and 9 include material from my article The Glocalizations of
Eastern Orthodox Christianity, which appeared in the European Journal
of Social Theory 2013 (Vol. 2) 2, pp. 22645. Chapter 6 incorporates most
of Church, State and Politics in 19th Century Cyprus (co-authored with
Michalis N. Michael), published in Thetis: Mannheimer Beitrge zur Klas-
sischen Archologie und Geschichte Griechenlands und Zyperns 2010 (Vol.
16/17), pp. 97104. Chapter 6 also includes material from The Trans-
formation of Greek Orthodox Religious Identity in 19th century Cyprus,
published in Chronos: Revue dHistoire de lUniversit de Balamand 2010
(Vol. 22), pp. 723.
In Chapter 5, the section on Orthodox institutions in the Ottoman Em-
pire includes material previously published in The Evolution of Greek-
Orthodoxy in the Context of World-Historical Globalization in Orthodox
Christianity in 21st Century Greece: The Role of Religion in Politics, Eth-
nicity and Culture, edited by V. Roudometof and V. N. Makrides (Alder-
shot, UK: Ashgate, 2010, pp. 2138).
In Chapter 7, a portion of the section on the Greek American experience
includes material previously published in From Greek-Orthodox Diaspora
to Transnational Hellenism: Greek Nationalism and the Identities of the
Diaspora in The Call of the Homeland: Diaspora Nationalisms, Past and
Present, edited by A. Gal, A.S. Leoussi and A.D. Smith (London: Brill/UCL,
2010, pp. 13966). In the same chapter, the section on the dilemmas of
ethnic and religious identity in the United States includes updated and re-
vised material from the chapter Greek Americans and Transnationalism:
Religion, Class, and Community (co-authored with Anna Karpathakis)
xviii Acknowledgments
in Communities Across Borders: New Immigrants and Transnational Cul-
tures, edited by P. Kennedy and V. Roudometof (London: Routledge, 2002,
pp. 4154).
Finally, Chapter 8 is a heavily revised and extended version of Greek-
Orthodoxy, Territoriality and Globality: Religious Responses and Insti-
tutional Disputes, published in Sociology of Religion 2008 (Vol. 69) 1,
pp. 6791.
1 Globalization and Orthodox
Christianity
Preliminary Considerations
With approximately 200 to 300 million adherents worldwide, Orthodox

Christianity is among the largest branches of Christianity, yet it remains
relatively understudied.1 Orthodox Christianity is still often cast in the role
of the subaltern Other and falls victim to a latent yet widespread Orienta-
lism. In Western Europe and North America, knowledge of Orthodox Chris-
tianity is all too frequently tainted by negative stereotypes, partiality and
partisanship.2 This volume examines the variety of entanglements between
Orthodox Christianity and globalization. At the heart of the arguments
pursued in the books chapters lies an effort to show the rich and complex
nature of these entanglements. With this effort, the book aims to make a
substantive contribution to the relationship between religion and globaliza-
tion as well as to the relationship between Orthodox Christianity and the
sociology of religionand more broadly, to the interdisciplinary field of
religious studies. To the extent possible, the book has been written with the
goal of rendering the arguments accessible even to nonspecialist readers.
Although the book is deeply engaged with history, its objectives are not to
offer a history of Orthodox Christianity as a world religion, to address theo-
logical issues or to exhaustively cover all the individual trajectories of each
subgroup or subdivision of the faith. Orthodox Christianity is the object of
the analysis, but the goal is to speak to a broader audience interested in the
general themes of culture, religion and globalization. The broader objective
is to use the historical record of Orthodox Christianity as empirical material
to theorize the varied historical entanglements between local cultures and
world religions within the context of world-historical globalization.
This introductory chapter begins with a critique of widely held precon-
ceptions about Orthodox Christianity. Rejecting these preconceptions, the
chapter views Orthodox Christianity as capable of adapting to various eras
and settings. To contextualize the books topic within the scholarly tradi-
tions on the study of religion in the social sciences, this chapter examines
the recent re-evaluation of the secularization paradigm and the emergence
of globalization as a distinct problematic for analyzing the relations among
religion, culture and social change. The use of globalization as the overarch-
ing framework offers a new way to understand the historical trajectories of
2 Globalization and Orthodox Christianity
Orthodox Christianity and has the potential to offer a more evenhanded
treatment of this religious tradition. This chapter concludes with a discus-
sion of various issues regarding historical periodization in relation to the
books topic and outlines the themes pursued in the following chapters.
Readers unfamiliar with the hierarchical order of the faith may consult the
appendix for a brief outline of Orthodox Christianitys hierarchal structure.
BEYOND THE CONVENTIONAL IMAGE

OF EASTERN ORTHODOXY
Traditionally, most of the Orthodox countries have been included in the cat-
egory of Eastern Bloc nations and, following 1989, in the ambiguous category
of postcommunist Eastern Europe. Since the 17th century, Western ob-
servers have, in general, negatively evaluated the Orthodox religious tra-
dition (Wolff 2001). These evaluations were part of the broader Western
European prejudice against Eastern European countries, which were viewed
as backward and failing the Western European standards of civilization
(Wolff 1994). During the Cold War era, this long-standing assumption in
public and academic opinion was expressed by holding the Orthodox cul-
tural legacy, at least in part, responsible for the political imposition of com-
munism. During the 1990s, influential commentators (Kaplan 1993; Kennan
1993; Huntington 1996) suggested a link between the cultural traditions of
Eastern Europe and the failure of most of these countries to successfully
transition to democracy or to successfully integrate into the new post-1989
Europe (Clark 2000). According to this essentialist approach, communism
was but a temporary manifestation of an anti-Western and antimodern re-
action that is deeply encoded in the Orthodox cultural tradition. Extended
to the postcommunist era, this line of reasoning suggests that this cultural
tradition has endorsed the two most recent forms of anti-Western and anti-
modern reaction: ethno-nationalism and fundamentalist protectionism. The
special link of Orthodoxy with local national identities is frequently used
to support this thinking. As Kitromilides (2007a: xiii) insightfully observes,
[Western] prejudice dies hard and is often rekindled by power politics and
an inability to understand the Eastern half of a shared continentto the
point that iron curtains are imagined to be replaced by velvet curtains as-
sociated with the aesthetics of Orthodoxy.
With the collapse of communism, sociological research has to some de-
gree focused on the contemporary situation within Orthodox Christianity
(Borowik 1999, 2006; Borowik and Tomka 2001; Roudometof, Agadjanian,
and Pankhurst 2005; Byrnes and Katzenstein 2006, part III; Naumescu 2007;
Rvay and Tomka 2007). In most cases, however, the combination of the
experience of communism in the former Soviet Union, Romania, Albania,
Bulgaria and former Yugoslavia and the cultural heritage of Orthodox
Christianity in Eastern and Southeastern Europe has made it quite difficult
Globalization and Orthodox Christianity 3
to discern the role of Orthodox Christianity as such on contemporary politi-
cal and cultural developments.3 Instead of focusing on historical specificity,
in many cases, generalizations are made about the faith. Ramet (2006:148)
writes, Whatever changes may impact the world, the Orthodox Church
refuses, for the most part, to accommodate itself to change, standing fixed
in time, its bishops gaze riveted on an idyllic past which serves as their
beacon. This statement aptly summarizes Orthodox Christianitys prevail-
ing image. The preservation of a presumed unbroken religious tradition has
been the conscious goal of the overwhelming majority of religious move-
ments, authors and activists in the Orthodox cultural landscape (Agadjanian
and Roudometof 2005). By and large, the entire material and symbolic
order of the faith has been used to preserve or even enhance a sense of differ-
ence that remains anchored in the preservation of such a (literal and/or con-
structed) religious tradition (for a discussion, see McGuckin 2008). In most
nations of the Eastern European Orthodox heartland, this religious tradition
is fused with local identities into a single genre of identity, whereby church,
ethnicity or nationality become signifiers of a single collective entity. The
phrase religious tradition in this books subtitle underscores precisely this
feature of the faith, but it is also an acknowledgement that, as MacCulloch
(2009:7) insightfully observes, the Bible . . . embodies not a tradition, but
many traditions.
In Orthodox Christianity, there has been a taken-for-granted unity be-
tween religion and community (Berger 2005:441). The Church, as Ortho-
dox theologians tirelessly repeat, is not simply the religious hierarchy or
the formal institution but the entire body of those who are publicly affili-
ated with the faith. The importance of the faith lies at the level of public
culturein contrast to individualized expressions of religiosity. Indeed, to
the extent that Orthodoxy allows persons to navigate the symbolic universe
of religious metaphors on their own, it promotes the individual privatiza-
tion of religious experience (Kokosalakis 1995:25960). However, the ac-
commodation of individuality should not be conflated with the public role,
function and importance of faith. Instead, the preservation of a dominant
position in society and vis--vis the state has been a long-held objective for
most Orthodox churches, which thus operate as national churches rather
than as denominations.
This finding should not lead to misguided perceptions that Orthodox
Christianity is incapable of tolerating social change or of instigating new
practices and institutions that can adjust to newfound realities. According
to Orthodox theology, the ancient principle of expediency (oikonomia) al-
lows for subtlety and flexibility in canonical procedures as these necessar-
ily adapt to popular faith. Accordingly, the Church can compromise
in order to accommodate transgressions against established doctrine and
practice on certain occasions (Kokosalakis 1987:41). Even when there are
texts that establish doctrine on specific issues, these may be subject to flex-
ible interpretation under the principle of expediency. As a result, the Church
in general is not concerned with the imposition of strict rules of religious
conduct and belief; it can afford accommodations to different situations as
these arise. The Church can use popular forms of religious expression even
when they seem at variance with its own doctrine and, in turn, can use them
to strengthen its own position in society and in its relations with the state.
Culture and religion intertwine in a reciprocal relationship in which change
is both implicitly accommodated and explicitly refuted (for examples, see
Roudometof and Makrides 2010). Although formal introductions of reli-
gious innovation are theologically refuted, their practice can be accepted
thanks to the aforementioned principle of expediency.
Therefore, it is important to separate practice from rhetoric. If religious
rhetoric or the projected image of an unbroken religious tradition is taken at
face value, the image of religious traditionalism is transformed into the ob-
servers reality. Orthodox Christianity is then cast in the role of an inherently
conservative antidemocratic or antimodern religion that lacks the resources
or the capacities to adapt to the realities of contemporary life. To combat
such stereotypes, it is necessary to adopt a far more nuanced approach, one
that recognizes the diversity of Orthodox Christianityhence the reason I
speak of transformations (in the plural) of Orthodoxy. Orthodox Christianity
should be regarded as possessing the same mutability and capacity as other
branches of Christianity to fuse into different contexts.
SHIFTING PARADIGMS: FROM

SECULARIZATION TO GLOBALIZATION
Although the study of religion was previously marginal to mainstream socio-

logy, the field has become far more central to sociology in the last 30 years.4
Until the recent past, sociology conceptualized religion mainly along two
dimensions: the institutional and the individual. Lost in this dichotomy was
the noninstitutional but collective and public cultural dimension of religion
(Besecke 2005:179). This collective and public cultural dimension is par-
ticularly relevant to the study of Orthodox Christianity.
The rise of globalization as a new central concept for the study of religion
is related to the decline of the traditional secularization paradigm and the
subsequent reframing of its use in sociology and related fields. For most of
the 20th century, the agenda of the sociology of religion has been dominated
by the debate over secularization (Turner 2009). Social scientists have heat-
edly debated the scope, nature, extent and parameters of secularization in
an effort to unveil the overall patterns and/or trajectories of the modern
world. These arguments have been superseded by reevaluations favorable
to the skeptics of the secularization thesis (Berger et al. 1999, Berger 2002;
Sociology of Religion 1999). In this reappraisal, Western Europe, once re-
garded as the paradigmatic case of secularization, is viewed as an excep-
tion to global patterns, whereas the United States, once regarded as an
exceptional case, is viewed as more typical of global patterns of religiosity
than previously thought (Davie 2002; for an exploration, see Berger, Davie,
and Fokas 2008). As a result, the terms of the secularization debate have
been reframed (Taylor 2007; for a critical assessment, see Torpey 2010).
Ours is a secular age, not because of a mere decline of individual religios-
ity or a growing churchstate separation, but because our framework of
understanding has shifted radically. Whereas one could scarcely be ignorant
of God in the Western world of 1500, that is certainly an option today. Secu-
larization is understood as a shift in the overall framework of the human
condition; it makes it possible for people to have a choice between belief and
nonbelief in a manner hitherto unknown. This generalization remains based
on the historical trajectory of the Western or trans-Atlantic world.5
Reconsidering secularity remains a project high on the agenda of the socio-

logy of religion. In such reconsiderations, secularism is conceived of as an
active project that is articulated alongside the Western modernity of the
post-1500 world (Gorski and Altinordou 2008; Calhoun, Juergensmeyer,
and Van Antwerpen 2011). Furthermore, Casanova (2006) argues in favor
of refining secularization and addressing Eurocentric biases in the framing
of that debate. He suggests that future revisions of the secularization para-
digm must take into account the construction of both sides of the secular
religious dichotomy. To do so, one must inquire into the complex negotia-
tions involved in defining the boundaries between them. In turn, this inquiry
raises the issue of the role that cultural traditions and, more broadly, culture
play in such processes.
Western social theory has been based on the themes of modernity and
secularity and has thus ignored Orthodox Christianity (Hann 2011). How-
ever, nearly all theories of religious modernity, including both sides of the
secularization debate, have been in large part unable to recognize or evalu-
ate the social and cultural power of religious expression (Robertson 2007).
Instead, these theories accept as natural or self-evident culturally specific no-
tions of religion, secularity and secularism. These notions have been deeply
involved in the making of the Western self-image (Asad 1993, 2003). When
one considers Orthodox Christianity, this cultural specificity is exposed,
and as a result, the Western self-image becomes problematic (McMylon and
Vorozhishcheva 2007).6
To consider the articulation of Orthodox Christianity, it is necessary
to extend the historical framework further into the pastinto Western
Europes Middle Ages. Although various theological issues were involved in
the OrthodoxCatholic disputes in these centuries, the divergent rationale
of the two sides centered on two major points. First, the conflict between
East and West was . . . over the relation between the authority of the bishop
of Rome and all other authority in the Church (Pelikan 1977:272). The
East rejected arguments in favor of papal primacy. Second, there were differ-
ences concerning the understanding of the relationship between sacerdotium
and imperium or regnum, or the spiritual realm and the realm of the state
(Sherrard 1992). In the Orthodox tradition, imperium was juxtaposed with
sacerdotium. For the Orthodox East, several papal practices overextended
ecclesiastical authority into the realm of state authority.7 These two realms
carry the connotations of sacred and profanebut not those of secular and
religious per se. Emperor Justinian I (527565 AD) succinctly summed it up
in his Sixth Novella (535):
There are two main gifts bestowed by God upon men: the priesthood
and the imperial authority (sacerdotium et imperium). Of these, the for-
mer is concerned with things divine, the latter with human affairs. . . .
Nothing is of greater importance to the Emperors than to support the
dignity of the priesthood, so that the priests may in turn pray to God for
them (quoted in Zernov 1963:66).
Even if the quotation above provides only a very rough sketch, it is fair
to say that in the longue dure, Orthodox Christianity is a culture with
a profound understanding of the sacredprofane division but also one
in which the secularreligious division became relevant only in the after-
math of the social and cultural modernization of Eastern and Southeastern
Europe, whereby modern states applied the Western-inspired logic of secu-
larism to their domains. It should therefore not be surprising that the theme
of secularity does not occupy a central place in this book.
The significance of culture for the study of religion and particularly of
Orthodox Christianity is revealed in issues of worship, rituals and popu-
lar practices. In Orthodox countries, religious worship and rituals are not
necessarily manifestations of individual belief, and religious practice does
not necessarily reflect the depth of personal conviction or belief (Tomka
2006). A case in point is the celebration of the Orthodox Easter, which is the
focal point of Orthodox Christianitys religious calendar (Berger 2005). Far
from a matter of individual religious self-expression, its celebration is quite
public. The entire rhythm of social life is adjusted to follow the religious
calendar of the Holy Week, culminating in the celebration of the Resurrec-
tion, symbolically set at midnight on Good Saturday but also involving the
Epitaph possession on Good Friday along the streets of towns and villages.
Public officials participate prominently in these rituals, and educational in-
stitutions go on a two-week hiatus, returning to classes one week after Eas-
ter Sunday (for additional examples, see Naletova 2009). Orthodox Easter
reflects broader differences among cultures or traditions. In turn, these dif-
ferences shape the role of religion in society.8
Far from engaging with this problematic, the overwhelming majority of
work in the sociology of religion naturalizes the trans-Atlantic cultural con-
text of its surroundings. Thus, the Orientalism of the past resurfaces as aca-
demic parochialism. Orthodox Christianity has been the object of academic
and lay stereotypes precisely because it exposes the limits of theoretical par-
adigms that work only for a selected group of Western nations or religious
traditions. Culture is thus often a means of exoticizing the Other, even when
this is clearly not intentional. Eastern Christianity (both in its Chalcedonian
and non-Chalcedonian variants) never experienced the trials and tribula-
tions of Western Christianity, and as a result, it has long been exceedingly
problematic to fit the experiences and cultural logic of this tradition within
the generalizations made on the basis of the Western experience.9
For this reason, the use of globalization as the overarching concept allows
less biased and certainly less Western-centered perspectives for studying his-
torical events and contemporary developments. Globalization is a term that
has been subject to multiple and often-competing definitions and perspec-
tives that reflect differences in research foci (for overviews, see Robertson
and White 2003; Ritzer 2007; Rossi 2008; Guillen 2001). In Robertsons
(1992:8) original statement, globalization is defined as the compression

of the world. By compression, Robertson means the accelerated pace of
contact among cultures, peoples and civilizations or the sense that the world
is shrinking.
Since the early 1990s, scholarship has explored various facets of the re-
lationship between globalization and religion.10 Although researchers have
examined the consequences of contemporary interconnectivity for religious
expression, scholarship addressing the historical intertwining of religion
and globalization has been far less prolific.11 In highlighting the histori-
cal dimension of globalization, the perspective adopted in this book does
not view globalization as a consequence of Western European modernity
(Giddens 1990:1) or as the result of a post-World War II second modernity
(Beck 1992; cf. Holton 2009; Roudometof 2009b). On the contrary, it is the
emergence of modernity in Western Europe and North America (typically
referred to as the rise of the West) that is viewed as taking place within
world-historical globalization (Hobson 2004)12 It is in this sense that the
use of globalization offers the possibility of liberation from the conventional
Western self-image that is implicit in the narrative of Western modernity and
reproduced in the conventional framings of the secularization debate.
This book aims to explore this hitherto relatively understudied concep-
tual link between a religious tradition and historical globalizationor the
problematic that Obadia (2010) has termed globalization and religion.
This problematic concerns the relations and the impact of globalization
on religion. From this point of view, even religionssuch as Orthodox
Christianitythat are not conventionally considered global are never-
theless influenced by globalization (Agadjanian and Roudometof 2005). In
pursuing a historical sociology of the relationship between Orthodox Chris-
tianity and globalization, there are some important scope restrictions: The
objective is to study a single branch of a religionand in fact an explicitly
conservative onein its public role. Privatized contexts of religiosity, indi-
vidual expressions of religious piety and noninstitutionalized religious ex-
pressions are not under consideration. This stipulation clearly places specific
scope restrictions on this inquiry. Although the following chapters primarily
concern institutionalized religion, institutions per se are not examined in
isolation from their broader social environment.
The use of historical globalization as the master heuristic device for this
books organization implies that there is no single monolithic master nar-
rative of modernization and secularization that is universally applicable.
Globalization, not modernization, provides the overall framework for
presenting and analyzing the transformations of Orthodox Christianity in
world history. Globalization is not a process that can be easily accounted
for within a single authoritative narrativerather the very notion of vari-
ous locales coalescing into the global promotes the construction of multiple
narratives that reflect the manner in which each group, religious tradition
or region contributes to the construction of the global. These multiple
alternative pathways result from the combinations of different historical

contingencies within contexts and cultures. The view of the global is always
a view from somewhere, and in this book, it is the view from within the
religious and cultural landscape of Orthodox Christianity.13
The paradoxical juxtaposition between the asserted immutable tradition
that lies at the heart of Orthodox Christianity and the social change expe-
rienced in historical time forms the core of the inquiry. The development of
different forms of Orthodox Christianity is viewed as a response to shifting
contexts and historical periods. The notion of globalization entails a plural-
ity of responses as outcomes instead of a single master narrative of secular-
ization (Beyer 2007). The notion of transformations provides a means for
capturing these plural religious responses of Orthodox Christianity. It offers
a conceptual vehicle to examine the different ways in which globalization
manifests itself in the historical record. Although certainly not intended
as an exhaustive account, the following discussion sums up some of these
ways.
First, there is the issue of the worldwide spread (or globalization in
the sense of spreading all over the world) of various religionsor what
might be termed the globalization of religion (Obadia 2010). Although
various religions are spread all over the globe, these are also simultaneously
localized; that is, they are reconstituted in new locales and reconstruct com-
munal attachments in new forms. This process might lead to global forms
of religiosity or an ecumenical orientation that decouples particularistic at-
tachments in favor of a global religious community, or it might lead to the
construction of new branches of a religion or religious varieties. It is im-
portant to stress that this is not an exclusively contemporary phenomenon.
The creation of distinct branches of Christianitysuch as Orthodox and
Catholic Christianitybears the mark of this particularization of religious
universalism. As Inglis (2010) suggests, this more historically oriented per-
spective on globalization is compatible with civilizational perspectives (Nel-
son 1981; Eisenstadt 2002). The interactions among different civilizational
or cultural constellations or politicalmilitary empires offer the opportunity
to account for the articulation of some cultural differences vis--vis others.
Second, there are the processes whereby a religions links to territory are
disrupted. Globalization entails a geographical component, which is best
expressed in terms of the dialectic of deterritorialization and reterritoriali-
zation (Held et al. 1999; Scholte 2000). Old forms of territorial attachments
are decoupled, and new forms of such attachments are forged. This dialectic
is prominently displayed both in trends toward greater ecumenical orienta-
tion and in transnational religion. It is the mechanism by which globaliza-
tion operates concretely to construct new forms of attachment. This dialectic
reshapes the worlds religious geography through increased cross-cultural
contact. It makes possible the lifting of social relations from their origi-
nal setting, whereby a locale ceases to be always geographically circum-
scribed. The opposite trend is also present, as the same processes lead to the
possibility of reconstructing, creating or recreating locality. In this sense, the

construction of locality can be viewed as a global phenomenon (Robertson
1992; Appadurai 1995). A distinct feature of this dimension concerns the
emergence of transnational religion, whereby communities living outside
the national territory of particular states maintain religious attachments to
their home churches or institutions.
Third, there are the various processes referred to as indigenization, hy-
bridization or glocalization (Roudometof 2003; Burke 2010; Canclini 1995;
for specific examples, see Altglas 2010). These processes register the ability
of religion to mold into the fabric of different communities in ways that
connect it intimately with communal and local relations. Religion sheds its
universal uniformity in favor of blending with localities. Global-local or
glocal religion thus represents a genre of expression, communication and
legitimation of collective and individual identities (Robertson 1991:282;
Robertson and Garret 1991:xv). Groups and individuals use this religious
tradition symbolically as emblematic of membership in an ethnic or national
group. Both institutional avenues and private means are employed in this
symbolic appropriation, and these are usually interwoven into a web of
other associations and relationships. Although communities continue to be
formed around the notion of locality, this category can be divorced from
its connection to a specific geographical area. Locality can be constructed
transnationally or symbolically alongside its traditional connection to a spe-
cific place (Kennedy and Roudometof 2002). These processes involve the
construction of cultural hybrids that blend religious universalism with sev-
eral forms of local (national or ethnic) particularisms. As the chapters in this
book will show, Orthodox Christianity is particularly prone to developing
such hybrids.
Therefore, from a globalhistorical perspective, the basic theoretical is-
sues are as follows: How does a religious tradition come into being in the
context of the broader interactions and cross-cultural contacts that consti-
tute globalization? How does a religious tradition respond and adapt to
the challenges instigated by the two major forces of the last two centuries,
namely, nationalism and modernity? What is the nature of the cross-national
entanglements that fall under the terms of deterritorialized and transna-
tional religion?
To effectively address these general theoretical issues, this book trans-
forms the above issues into historically specific questions about the relation-
ship between globalization and Orthodox Christianity. These questions are
as follows:
1. How has Orthodox Christianity become a religious tradition in the con-

text of historical globalization? What is its relationship to glocalization?
2. How has Orthodox Christianity responded to its encounters with na-
tionalism and modernity?
3. Is Orthodox Christianity a deterritorialized, transnational or
globalized religion? Can we perceive it as a global religion?
To answer these questions, cases and contexts have been selected accord-
ingly.14 The analytical strategy is to discuss different cases from the historical
record stressing those dimensions and features that are thematically relevant
for answering the above-mentioned central research questions. Both in this
introductory chapter and in the chapters that follow, the issue of case selec-
tion is addressed, and the theoretical rationale for referring at greater length
to specific cases or examples is spelled out. From this books perspective,
the sheer numerical strength of Russian Orthodoxywhich accounts for
nearly half of all Orthodox Christians today (Robertson 2008)does not
translate into a need to concentrate on that particular variant of Orthodoxy
alone. Such a choice would unduly restrict the range of historical variation
and would fail to include other historically relevant examples. Rather, the
strategy pursued is to focus on different historical cases. The goal is to per-
mit the emergence of a complex image of various historical configurations
that would otherwise be silenced in favor of a single monolithic narrative.
This strategy allows the placement of contemporary developments within
Russian Orthodoxy into their proper historical contexts. After all, this book
aims for an interpretation of the transformations of Orthodox Christianity
through its encounters with globalization in the longue dure of world his-
tory. The goal is to compensate for recent tendencies to overemphasize the
importance of communism and/or to identify the legacies of communism
with the cultural features of Orthodoxy.
PERIODIZATION AND THEMES
Berger (2005:441) suggests that throughout its history, Eastern Orthodoxy

has existed in four social forms: (a) as a state churchfirst in the East-
ern Roman Empire (Byzantium), then in Russia and later in the indepen-
dent states that grew out of the slow disintegration of the Ottoman empire;
(b) as a tolerated minority under Muslim rule, as in the Ottoman millet system;
(c) as a persecuted community under Communist rule; and (d) as a diaspora
community in Western Europe and America. There are important advantages
to this classification, such as the acknowledgement of the millet system and
the diaspora as two major historical conditions in Orthodox Christianity.
However, there are also limitations. For example, this books chapters show
that a world of difference separated the status of Orthodoxy in the Eastern
Roman Empire from its status as a national religion in the modern Eastern
Orthodox nation-states. Thus, to come to terms with the transformations
of Orthodox Christianity as a result of globalization and with the multiple
modernizations pursued in the Orthodox religious landscape over the last
centuries, the approach adopted in this book departs from Bergers classifi-
cation in the sense of connecting the historical stages or waves of globaliza-
tion to Orthodoxy and tracing the ways in which Orthodoxy responded to

the opportunities and challenges of each successive era.
To explore the complexity of the historical interactions between globa-
lization and Orthodox Christianity, it is necessary to frame the above-
mentioned questions in a conceptual scheme that offers both an operational
definition of globalization and a historical periodization of the process. In
the most comprehensive empirical study of globalization within the social
scientific literature, Held et al. (1999:16) operationalize globalization as a
process (or set of processes), which embodies a transformation in the spa-
tial organization of social relations and transactions. This transformation
generates transcontinental or interregional flows and networks of activ-
ity and interactions, influencing the exercise of power. In their book, Held
et al. (1999) measure the shifts in spatial organization in terms of their ex-
tensity, intensity, velocity and impact upon the individuals life worlds. Held
et al. (1999) argue that these indicators are rather thin during the pre-
1500 periods. Subsequently, globalizations thickness (that is, its ability
to penetrate and influence individual life-worlds) is a feature of the post-
1500 period.15 Although they acknowledge the reality of pre-modern or
proto-globalization, Held et al. (1999) place greater emphasis on post-1500
developments, whereby a threefold periodization of globalization is devel-
oped: early modern globalization (1500s to mid-19th century), followed
by the modern era of globalization (roughly from the mid-19th century to
1945) and the contemporary period (1945 to the present) (see Held et al.
1999:41436). In this last stage, globalizations effects are visible almost
everywhere on the planet, and people have acquired an immediate aware-
ness of it through electronic media and mass communication.
This periodization offers important advantages. First, it allows one to
include the notion of globality as a feature that becomes critically important
for the contemporary era (1945 to the present), albeit without denying its
existence in earlier times. This is a theme that will be addressed in Chapter 8
of this volume. Second, it allows one to treat historical globalization as a
long-term phenomenon while simultaneously allowing for an examination
of the impact of Western modernity on Orthodox Christianity and the way
in which this branch of Christianity has responded to modernization, na-
tionalism and modernity. These themes are addressed in Chapters 4 and 5
of this volume.
However, this scheme has its own shortcomings. Its temporality reflects
the Western organization of historyparticularly in terms of its division of
globalization into early modern and modern eras. In the conventional nar-
rative of the social sciences, a privileged place is reserved for Western mo-
dernity, and as a result, Orthodox Christianity becomes a more marginal
concern and only enters the story at a later stage (Beyer 2006:122). How-
ever, the term modern itself is an ambiguous word that has been used to
denote various historical periods (LeGoff 1980). Originally, the term mod-
ern times (temps modernes) emerged in approximately 1800 and denoted
the three immediately preceding centuries. Still, this has never been simply a
matter of chronology: The modern age was also a philosophicalhistorical
perspective that was in turn shaped by the changes that the Age of Dis-
coveries, the Renaissance and the Reformation brought to Western Europe
and its trans-Atlantic territories (Habermas 1987:511). The periodization
of globalization in terms of its status vis--vis modernity implicitly accepts
modernity as the central organizational template of human history. In addi-
tion to this general and theoretical objection, there is also a specific one: Or-
thodox Christianity has a rather critical stance toward modernity, which is
often identified with rationalization and Westernization (Clendenin [1994]
2002; Makrides 2005) and rejected on theological grounds. The use of the
term modern as a central reference point inherently casts this branch of
Christianity in the role of an agent working against the currents of history.
The promise of using globalization as a heuristic device lies partly in
enabling research to go beyond the centrality of modernity in the organiza-
tion of history. It is also necessary to transcend the limits or biases of the
aforementioned periodization to come to terms with the key periods in the
history of Orthodox Christianity. In terms of considering pre-modern eras
of globalization, theorists and historians have suggested that pre-modern
globalization was both important and consequential for humanity (for ex-
amples, see Hopkins 2002; Robertson 2003; Hobson 2004). With regard to
religion in particular, a long-standing argument concerns the Axial Age of
civilizations and world religions (Eisenstadt 1986) as a period of an exten-
sive trend toward religious unity. In Therborns (2000) account, this wave
of globalization operated historically through the formation and diffusion
of world religions and the establishment of transcontinental civilizations.
Between the fourth and the seventh centuries AD, Christianity became the
Roman Empires official and dominant religionfamously soduring the
reign of Emperor Constantine I the Great (306337 AD), who also founded
Constantinople as the new seat of the Roman Empire.
For the purposes of understanding the crystallization of Orthodox Chris-
tianity as a religious tradition, the pre-modern era of globalization is criti-
cally important. Chapter 2 of this volume offers an account of this historical
trajectory. After addressing several important issues of social-scientific and
historical bias with regard to the study of Byzantium, the historical narrative
of this chapter concentrates on the manner in which historical globaliza-
tion, particularly the social and cultural vernacularization of Christianity,
accentuated the differences between the two parts of the Mediterranean. It
thus argues that by the ninth century AD, the Orthodox East had achieved a
level of self-awareness of its distinctiveness as a separate religious tradition
versus the West (i.e., Western Europe). Christian Orthodoxy did not fully
feature all the characteristics that later became part of Orthodox Chris-
tianity. Orthodoxy was deeply intertwined with the Eastern Roman Em-
pire. The chapter further addresses the initialization of a long-term process
of indigenization of Orthodoxy itself in the course of missionary activity
among the Slavs. The creation of Church Slavonic, the establishment of a

symbiotic relationship between religious authorities and Slavic leaders in
Russia, Serbia and Bulgaria and the subsequent fusion of ethnic identities
with religious adherence all led Orthodox Christianity to eventually become
a distinct religious tradition. These processes also effectively circumscribed
the importance of Greek as the ecclesiastical script language.
Chapter 3 of this volume continues the discussion of the formation of this
religious tradition by addressing the intercivilizational encounters between
the two parts of the Mediterranean from the First Crusade until the second
fall of Constantinople to the Ottomans (1453 AD). These encounters have
been deeply implicated in the construction of the very fabric of both Eastern
and Western Christianity. Orthodox Christianity as a religious tradition has
emerged in the course of these historical interactions. Of key importance
was the experience of the Crusades and, in particular, the first fall of Con-
stantinople (1204 ) in the Fourth Crusade. In its aftermath, religious hierar-
chy was forced to operate in an environment of clearly diminished imperial
authority. The chapter analyzes the actions undertaken in the post-1204
formative centuries and argues that it was in this era that Orthodox Chris-
tianity assumed its final form. It tracks institutional developments, theologi-
cal articulation and ecclesiastical practices that coalesced to crystallize this
religious tradition in the format that endures to this day.
These two chapters temporal organization reflects (a) the necessity to in-
quire into the longue dure to trace the historical intertwining of globaliza-
tion and the formation of the Orthodox religious tradition and (b) the fact
that Orthodoxy did not experience the Protestant Reformation or the con-
sequences of the discovery of the Americas with the same force as Western
Europe did. In Chapters 4 and 5 of this volume, the discussion shifts to ad-
dressing the impact of Western modernity on Orthodox Christianity. The
period covered in Chapter 4 roughly coincides with the era that Held et al.
(1999) refer to as the era of early modern globalization (1500s to mid-19th
century), whereas in Chapter 5, the period covered coincides roughly with
the era of modern globalization (1840s1945 ). That chapter, however, also
addresses the Orthodox churches institutional arrangements and prevailing
trends in the post-1945 era of contemporary globalization or Global Age
(Albrow 1997). Nonetheless, in these chapters, the analysis does not follow
a strict or mechanical chronological order: The impact of modernity on
Orthodoxy has been uneven, and strictly temporal generalizations are highly
problematic. For the purposes of these chapters, the terms modern and
modernity are understood as shorthand expressions that denote the social
transformations that were originally experienced by 19th-century European
societies and that later extended to numerous other non-European contexts
around the globe.
Chapter 4 concentrates on the different historical trajectories of the
Russian and Ottoman empires. The two empires included the majority of
the post-1453 Orthodox population. The chapter addresses both the diver-
gences and convergences between the two different contexts. In the Russian
Empire, Orthodoxy was indigenized until Patriarch Nikons 17th-century
reforms caused a major schism (raskol) within the Church and the formation
of the Old Believers. In the Ottoman Empire, the Ecumenical Patriarchate
revived the vernacularization that was typical of the earlier Roman Em-
pire. This policy contributed to the cohesiveness of the Ottoman Orthodox
confessional community known as the Rum millet. However, the chapter
also identifies some convergences in the responses of Orthodox institutions
to modernity. State-induced church modernization occurred in both the
post-1721 Russian Empire and the 19th-century Orthodox nation-states
of Southeastern Europe. Additionally, Enlightenment ideas were influential
among Orthodox clergy and scholars. By far, the most influential response
was the 18th-century Mount Athos monastic revival, which was success-
fully transplanted into the Russian Empire and has offered highly visible
and popularized images of Orthodox spirituality. Another instance of such
a transnational uniform religious response to modernity concerns the reli-
gious conservative response to the adoption of the Gregorian calendar.
Chapter 5 examines the nationalization of Orthodoxy. Analyzing the his-
torical encounter and intertwining of Orthodox Christianity and modern
nationalism requires distinguishing between the notion of a state church
(such as, for example, the post-1721 Russian Orthodox Church [ROC]) and
the notion of a national church. National churches are a feature of the mod-
ern era of the nation-state. They claim a unity with the nation as such and
gain leverage, prestige and legitimacy through this association. The chapter
argues that a modern synthesis between church and nation was constructed
in the course of the 19th century in the mostly Orthodox countries of South-
eastern Europe. Of particular importance is the consequence of the modern
synthesis for religious pluralism. Although religious diversity has been tol-
erated, religious pluralismat least in Beckfords (2003) interpretation of
pluralism as a positive social norm or idealhas not been part of the recent
historical past of Southeastern Europe. Next, the postcommunist experience
is analyzed in terms of this model. The chapter argues that postcommunist
developmentsespecially in the former Soviet Unioncan be understood
as the result of ecclesiastical strategies that attempt to (re)assert the church
nation link that constitutes the hallmark of the modern synthesis. In this
manner, the chapter employs the historical analysis of the 19th- and early
20th-century Southeastern Orthodox nations as a template for interpreting
the post-1989 developments. Defending the modern synthesis of church and
nation is the modus operandi of the overwhelming majority of national Or-
thodox churches in the 21st century.
Chapter 6 of this volume complements the previous chapters discussion
on the encounter between modernity and Orthodox Christianity by address-
ing the role of colonialism. Colonialism is a part of Western modernity, but
Orthodox Christianity is generally not considered an institution impacted
by colonial rule. However, there is a historical case in which the boundaries
of an Orthodox church correspond to colonial boundaries, thereby allowing

the interrogation of the relations among Orthodox Christianity, colonialism
and nationalism.16 This is the case of Cyprus, which in 1878 was transferred
from Ottoman control to Great Britain. The chapter analyzes the impli-
cations of British colonial modernity for the Orthodox Church of Cyprus
(OCC) and the manner in which the Church emerged as the key political in-
stitution for popular representation in 20th-century Cyprus. The argument
suggests that the post-1878 reassertion of ecclesiastical authority under the
guise of Greek Cypriot nationalism was an effective strategy pursued by the
hierarchy to preserve their important political role and prestige in the local
society. It was a reaction to a colonial model of externally induced mod-
ernization. The newfound relationship between Church hierarchy and the
people was expressed in the transformation of the archbishops office into a
post of national leadership for the Greek Cypriot political community. This
ethnarchic (e.g., nation-leading) role of the Church came to characterize
Cypruss political life for most of the 20th century. However, it is also im-
portant to point out that this model was quickly dissolved when the islands
political life became sufficiently normalized. The Cypriot ethnarchy was ef-
fectively dismantled after the passing of legendary Archbishop Makarios III
in 1977. By the early 21st century, the Church of Cyprus took further steps
toward the organization of a full synodin effect adjusting its organiza-
tional structure to standard Orthodox practice (Roudometof 2009c).
Chapter 7 of this volume examines the transnationalization of Ortho-
dox Christianity. The migration of various faiths across the globe has been
a major feature of the world throughout the 20th century. One of these
features is the deterritorialization of religion (Martin 2001; Roy 2004)
that is, the appearance and, in some instances, the efflorescence of religious
traditions in places where these previously had been largely unknown or
were at least in a minority position. International migration has provided
the means to theorize the relationship between people and religion in a
transnational context (Casanova 2001; Ebaugh and Chaftez 2002; van der
Veer 2002; Hagan and Ebaugh 2003; Levitt 2003, 2004, 2007). Orthodox
Christianitys conventional form of transnationalism is that of transnational
national communities typically associated with Eastern European immi-
grants and their descendants (Roudometof 2000b). A survey of the immi-
gration patterns suggests that in many Western nations (Australia, Germany
and Canada), numerically significant migration of Orthodox Christians is a
post-World War II phenomenon. Orthodoxy accompanied immigrants from
Southeastern and Eastern Europe into their journeys across the Atlantic and
into the New World in the post-1870 period; hence, it found its way into
North America.
In this chapter, greater attention is placed on the United States, both be-
cause of the relatively long history of Orthodox institutions in this coun-
try and because such institutions had to adjust to a society with a vibrant
religious economy. Still, most U.S.-based Orthodox communities remain
connected to their original mother church. Religious institutions perform

both secular and religious functions in most communities and are impor-
tant agents for the preservation of the ethnic identity of second- and third-
generation immigrants. Chapter 7 focuses on the Greek American community
precisely because it exemplifies these mixed functions of the ecclesiastical
institutions. In the post-1990 period, the rise of an indigenous U.S.-based
Orthodox movement casts doubt on the continuation of these conventional
strategies of ethnic survival and reproduction. The case of the Greek American
community is important because it makes abundantly clear that the reor-
ganization of Orthodox Christianity into a universalistic religion under the
influence of the North American culture of religious pluralism is not an easy
feat. This example is therefore useful for assessing the potential and the dif-
ficulties of such a project.
Thus far, the existence of transnational communities of Orthodox Chris-
tians has been overwhelmingly an experience identical to their experience as
ethnic migrants. By and large, deterritorialized religiosity also has been the
religiosity of these transnational national communities, but the link between
deterritorialized religion and transnational national communities is neither
apparent nor necessary. Chapter 8 of this volume argues in favor of a con-
ceptual distinction between deterritorialization and transnationalism. The
chapter explores the interplay between processes of deterritorialization and
reterritorialization and the condition of globality. Specifically, the chapter
contrasts the reterritorialization of the religious identities brought about by
the 19th-century modern syntheses of church and nation with current alter-
native visions of deterritorialized Orthodox Christianity. To illustrate the
autonomy of this problematic from other issues, the chapter examines the
20032004 dispute between the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Orthodox
Church of Greece (OCG) as an instance in which the divergent outlooks of
these institutions clashed.
In the final chapter, there is a general summary of the arguments devel-
oped in the volumes chapters, which are framed in terms of answering the
main research questions introduced in this chapter. Furthermore, the dif-
ferent cases examined are synthesized to present a comprehensive analysis
of Orthodox Christianity in the longue dure. The books chapters offer
detailed descriptions of the historical instances of Orthodoxys vernacular-
ization, indigenization, nationalization and transnationalization. These pro-
cesses exemplify the multifaceted entanglements between religion (in this
books case, Orthodox Christianity) and historical globalization. Finally,
based on the evidence presented in the books chapters, there is a critical
overview and assessment of the conventional interpretations of Orthodox
Christianity. In light of the evidence presented, this overview leads to a theo-
retical reassessment of the conceptual terminology capable of capturing Or-
thodoxys historical specificity without projecting stereotypes or totalizing
logic on the faith and its practices.
2 The Fragmentation of Christianity
This chapter focuses on the emergence of a distinct religious tradition of

Christian Orthodoxy in the context of Christianitys fragmentation. The
spread of Christianity was part of a wave of historical globalization that
involved the rise and expansion of world religions across the globe. This
wave entailed both Christianitys spread and its fragmentation. Inevitably,
discussing the emergence of Christian Orthodoxy as a religious tradition
requires a comparison with developments in the western part of the Medi-
terranean. To a degree, the emergence of Roman Catholicism and Ortho-
dox Christianity was shaped by their interactions. Through their contact,
these two branches gained reflexive self-awareness, and in some ways, they
defined themselves through mutual opposition. However, a complete com-
parative historical analysis of this relationship would require a full com-
parative history of Christianity covering nearly a millennium. This is clearly
an impossible task. Hence, for current purposes, attention is focused more
on the historical trajectory of Christianitys Orthodox branch.
This chapters opening section offers a reassessment of the conventional
view of the Eastern religious tradition. Arguing that this view suffers ex-
tensively from the Orientalism of the past, this section spells out a different
vocabulary for historical narration. In line with current perspectives from
historical scholarship and religious history, this vocabulary has not yet pen-
etrated the social sciences. Its use in the historical narratives in this volume
aims to recast the readers view and offer a different perspective on the his-
torical record. As will be shown, the conventional historical benchmark used
to designate the articulation of Roman Catholicism and Orthodox Christi-
anitythe Great Schism of 1054does not reflect historical reality. Instead,
the alienation of Christianitys main branches was the result of protracted
ecclesiastical controversies, political conflicts and military conquests.
Two long-term forces shaped Orthodox Christianitys crystallization as
a religious tradition. The first is vernacularization, that is, Christianitys di-
vision on the basis of high culture vernacular languages. In this chapters
second section, there is an outline of the factors underlying the vernaculari-
zation of Christianity in the two parts of the Mediterranean until the turn
of the first millennium. The discussion focuses on the analytically significant
The Fragmentation of Christianity 19
aspects of the division between the two main branches of Christianitythe
Greek East and the Latin West. It is important for the reader to keep in
mind that these terms designate both religious traditions and civilizational
constellations.
The chapters third section focuses on the other major long-term process,
which is Christianitys indigenization. From the eighth century until the fall
of Constantinople in 1204, indigenization entailed the conversion of Slavs
to the Orthodox branch of Christianity. Indigenization persisted through the
centuries, as Serbian, Bulgarian and Russian rulers sought to use ecclesiasti-
cal autocephaly to enhance and legitimize their rule. Both vernacularization
and indigenization provide long-term processes instigated and enacted by a
multitude of actors across historical eras. Recognition of their significance
offers a key to understanding the historical trajectory of the Orthodox re-

ligious tradition. By the ninth century, Christian Orthodoxy had emerged
as a self-aware religious tradition, and there was already a list of religious
differences separating it from emerging Roman Catholicism.
BEYOND THE LEGACY OF ORIENTALISM
For several centuries, Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism did

not form truly distinct branches of Christianity.1 However, to date, narrat-
ing the history of Christianity in the Middle Ages remains confined mostly
to Western Europe (see, for example, Logan 2002). Orthodox Christian-
itys contribution and participation in the history of Europe has been
conventionally cast aside in large part due to the images that prevailed in
past centuries over the role and status of Byzantium (Arnason 2000). The
term Byzantium itself is a relatively recent invention: The inhabitants
of the Byzantine Empire called themselves Romans and they would not
have known themselves as Byzantines (Gregory 2005:1). Hieronymus
Wolf (15161580) first introduced the term Byzantium into scholarship
(Kazhdan 1991a). George Findlays 1853 History of the Byzantine Empire
From 716 to 1057 is reportedly the first English-language book that used the
word Byzantium in its title (Mango [2002] 2006:22). Edward Gibbons
multivolume The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire is generally held
responsible for the wide proliferation of Byzantiums negative image among
the English-language public (Gregory 2005:3). To date, no uniformity or
scholarly consensus exists in distinguishing the Roman and Eastern Roman
empires, and there is no specific historical event that can be unambiguously
used to signify such a differentiation. Scholarly periodizations typically re-
flect each authors own perspective (Geanakopoulos [1979] 1993:2426).
Although the historians who used this label were not necessarily nega-
tively predisposed, Byzantiumviewed as a constructhas been used to
foster an image saturated with Orientalist predispositions. Its use for the
purposes of classification reflects a Western perspective that for several
centuries refused to accept the legitimacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. The
term Byzantine has helped to transform this claim into scholarly classifica-
tion. The Eastern Roman Empire was written off, and its place was occu-
pied by a different entityByzantium. From the 19th century forward, the
word Byzantine has assumed its contemporary negative connotation in
English. Its connotation was then connected back to its original region, not
unlike Balkanism in this sense (see Todorova 1997). As a result, the preju-
dices, worldviews and negative images usually referred to as Orientalism
(Said 1978) have tainted scholarship on Orthodox Christianity and Byzan-
tium. These predispositions can be traced back to the ways that Westerners
viewed Byzantines and the Byzantine Empire in the Middle Ages. [Western
attitudes] were characterized by suspicion, distrust, and a tendency to re-
gard the Byzantines as haughty, dishonest, and not exactly proper Chris-
tians (Gregory 2005:2).
Although no full-fledged historical account of the terms employment can
be offered in this context, the discussion above should offer sufficient evi-
dence of the necessity to free social-scientific terminology from this negative
heritage of the past. In reality, Romania was the Latin term that appeared
in the fourth century AD to designate the Roman Empire (Kazhdan 1991b).
It was later applied to all formerly Roman subjects under the control of
the Arab and, later on, the Ottoman Empires. To this day, the memory of
this identity remains alive in the Mediterranean, as Arabs and Turks refer
to Orthodox Christians as Romans (Rum). This designation can refer to
Orthodox Palestinians or Arabs or people of other nations. Although the
Roman label remained in use, the Arab conquest of the Fertile Crescent
in the seventh century AD forced the Eastern Roman Empire to merge the
ancient Roman heritage with new features: a military government based on
meritocracy and imperial patronage, new rural settlements and a Christian
Greek-speaking society (Herrin 1987:13840). The Eastern Roman Empire
hence acquired new characteristics based on a fusion of Roman, Christian
and Medieval features.
In its contemporary employment in scholarly debate, the use of the term
Byzantium most often signifies this fusion (Whittow 1996:97). To combat
the negative heritage of the term, the term Eastern Roman Empire (instead
of Byzantium) is used throughout this book. Map 2.1 shows the empires
territorial shifts from the reign of Justinian I, prior to the Arab conquest and
up to the era of the Crusades.
Many of the empires neighbors used the word Greek to designate it.
This was a reflection of the empires dominant language and culture, but
this further reinforced stereotypes: To Goths fanning Italians prejudices,
Greeks carried intimations of frippery and rapaciousness (Shepard 2008:5).
Following the establishment of the Carolingian court and its own claim to the
Roman imperial title, Western Europeans employed the term Graeci to refer
to all the inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire (McCormick 2008:397).
For them, the Eastern Roman emperors were emperors of the Greeks,
Map 2.1 The Eastern Roman Empire with border changes between the sixth and 12th centuries
even though, a certain readiness to accept the empires claim to be Roman
surface[d] periodically among Frankish courtiers (Shepard 2008:5). Within
the Greek-speaking universe of the Eastern Mediterranean, however, an-
other redefinition occurred: the term Hellen (which was rendered Greek
in Latin) was gradually redefined to mean pagan (Rapp 2008:138). For
Greek-speaking religious elites, the term had a negative connotation.
The Orientalism of the past is certainly no longer explicit in contempo-
rary scholarship. However, its legacy still clouds the social scientific perspec-
tives on Orthodox Christianity, and its remnants can be readily observed in
the classification system generally in use in North American and Western
European scholarship. In this system, Christianitys broad division is be-
tween Western (Protestant and Roman Catholic) and Eastern Christianity.
Eastern Christianity is typically subdivided into the (Eastern) Oriental (also

called non-Chalcedonian) churches and the (Eastern) Orthodox churches.
This classification is but a retrospective interpretation that does not cor-
respond to the chronological succession of the divisions experienced within
Christianity, but it groups together two different families of churches (the
Eastern churches) that experienced a split long before the Great Schism
of 1054 between Orthodox and Catholics. After the Council of Chalcedon
(451 AD) introduced the formula of Christ having two natures united yet
completely distinct, a group of churches that did not accept the councils
formula broke away to form the non-Chalcedonian churchesincluding the
Coptic, Armenian, Assyrian and Ethiopian Churches (Zernov 1963:6465;
Esposito, Fasching, and Lewis 2008:5254). Some of them did not partici-
pate in that council or even in earlier councils. In this regard, Chalcedon
was important in terms of self-definition: the Chalcedonian churches started
using the term Orthodox (literally meaning the correct doctrine) to des-
ignate themselves (Clendenin [1994] 2002:3437; McGuckin 2008:1820).
For both Catholics and Orthodox Christians, their Declaration of the Faith
states that they believe in a single Orthodox (i.e., correct) and Catholic
(that is, universal) Church. This common reality of a single universal Chris-
tian Church lasted for several centuries.
It was only several centuries later that the Chalcedonian churches di-
vided once more into Roman Catholics and Orthodox, whereby the terms
Catholic and Orthodox gradually came to indicate specific branches of
Christianity. To date, the Roman Catholic Church lays an equal claim to the
term Orthodox, just as the Orthodox Church lays an equal claim to the term
Catholic. The Orthodox Churchs full title is the Holy Orthodox Catholic
Apostolic church (of the East). However, to avoid unnecessary confusion
and in accordance with the conventions in the literature, the choice made
here is to employ the less wordy term Orthodox Church (Ware 1964:16;
Clendenin [1994] 2002:30).
Most often, the general classification system currently used in the social
sciences lumps together all the Eastern churches, which are set against
the Western ones. The system thus contributes to making Orthodox
Christianity appear exotic by explicitly using a label (Eastern) that marks
its exclusion from the West, with all of the traditional negative implica-
tions. This is the case for the Eastern Oriental (that is, non-Chalcedonian)
churches as well. To avoid the biases of this classification, the phrase Or-
thodox Christianity is used throughout this book. From the Council of
Chalcedon (451 AD) until the gradual alienation between the two parts of
the Mediterranean world, a single Chalcedonian Orthodoxy was set against
the heretical non-Chalcedonian churches of the Eastern Mediterranean
(as well as other minor groups); Orthodoxy did not imply religious con-
servatism or traditionalismas often assumed due to the words contem-
porary connotationbut the sole correct Christian faith (Clendenin [1994]
2002:31). Chalcedonian Orthodoxy was a form of religious universalism
bent on preserving the universal and correct Christian faith.

The precise content as well as the administrative arrangements of this
faith became contested with the division between Orthodox Christianity
and Roman Catholicism. Thus, the terms Orthodox and Catholic to desig-
nate these two branches of Christianity are the product of historical progres-
sion and of conventions. The Great Schism of 1054 AD is the conventional
symbolic demarcation point for Christianitys division into Roman Catho-
licism and Orthodox Christianity; it entailed the condemnation of Patriarch
Michael Cerularius and all who followed him by the papal delegates in
Constantinople (Pelikan 1977:147; Geanakopoulos [1979] 1993:36870;
Chadwick 2003:20618). Afterward, the patriarchs synod responded in
kind by excommunicating the papal delegates (Harris [2003] 2007:45). Be-
cause the papal see was vacant at the time, this action was unauthorized.
The condemnations were never endorsed or revoked by an ecumenical coun-
cil or papal decision. Contemporaries did not attribute to that event the sig-
nificance that is attributed to it today (Papadakis [1994] 2003:112). Contact
between Catholic and Orthodox monastic orders continued, and Roman
Catholic churches in Constantinople were not disrupted (Kolbaba 2010).
Therefore, 1054 is a post hoc convenient historical benchmark.2 Nonethe-
less, it was only in 1965 that the pope and ecumenical patriarch alike cast
aside these condemnations. However, as the historical record shows, the
correspondence and communication between the two sides was not dis-
rupted. Rather, the events of 105354 were more symptomatic of a state of
mind than a primary cause (Chadwick 2003:218).
The actual rift between the Greek East and Latin West has been the result
of a long-term process shaped by historical events other than those of 1054.
A word of clarification is required here to explain these terms. Because of
the historical significance of the Greek letters in the Orthodox ecclesiastical
tradition (as illustrated in the Bible and in liturgical language, the language
of the Church fathers, etc.), Roman Catholic sources during the Middle
Ages and even later on used to refer to Eastern Orthodox Christianity as the
Greek rite. Similarly, Orthodox Christians in the Eastern Mediterranean
used to refer to Roman Catholicism as the Latin rite (Romanides 1975;
Sherrard 1992). For centuries, the terms used for the designation of Ortho-
dox and Catholics were Greek and Latin, respectively; these indicated
the specific liturgical language and reflected broader differences between the
two parts of the Mediterranean. Hence, the shorthand expressions Latin
West and Greek East came to signify the broader civilizational constella-
tions of the two parts of the Mediterranean.3 To date, these expressions are
part of historians vocabulary. Although these terms are employed in the
following discussion, the reader should bear in mind that they refer to pre-
Reformation Orthodox Christian and Roman Catholic cultural contexts
alone. These terms should not be construed or misinterpreted as identical to
what in contemporary discussions is referred to as the West or non-West.
VERNACULARIZATION EAST AND WEST
As Therborn (2000:160) argues, vernacularization involved the rise of differ-

ent vernacular high-culture languages with their own script. Even before the
rise of Christianity, Greek and Latin were high-culture languages in the east-
ern and western parts of the Mediterranean. After the spread of Christian-
ity, their status as vernacular high-culture script languages further amplified
cultural differences that became encoded in religious categories. As a result
of specific institutional, historical and cultural factors, Christianity was ver-
nacularized differently in the two parts of the Mediterranean. A full account
is not possible within the present scope restrictions and space constraints of
this volume. As a result, for this books purposes, greater emphasis is placed
on Christianitys vernacularization in the Eastern Mediterranean.
When Christianity became the Roman Empires official religion in the
fourth century, complementarity provided the basic principle of governing
the relationship between state and religious leadership. Justinians Sixth No-
vella (quoted in Chapter 1) offers a paradigmatic statement. This notion
persisted over time and was reaffirmed in the ninth-century legal revision
issued under Emperor Basil I under the name Epanagoge:
The task of the Emperor is to safeguard and secure the strength of the
nation by good governance, to restore the strength when it is impaired
through watchful care, and to obtain new strength by wisdom and by
just ways and deeds. The aim of the patriarch is . . . to preserve in piety
and purity of life those people whom he has received from God. . . . The
aim of the Patriarch is the salvation of the souls entrusted to him. . . . It
is for the emperor to support, first, all that is written in Holy Scripture,
then all dogmas established by the Seven Holy Councils, and also se-
lected Roman laws (quoted in Gvosdev 2001:8586).
As the above quote shows, the ecclesiastical establishment assisted the

emperor in the execution of his duties. The high clergy provided spiritual
leadership and exercised moral control over state authority, whereas the
Emperor was expected to play a role in protecting, expanding and serv-
ing Christianity. In his praise of Emperor Constantine I, Bishop Eusebius
of Caesarea expressed this principle succinctly: Constantine I was praised
because he succeeded in exterminating polyarchy at the political level and
polytheism at the religious level. From that point on, the Roman Empire,
having united all peoples under its power, would reclaim its central stage in
ecumene and spread the Christian message according to divine providence
and power (Gvosdev 2001:3947; Shepard 2008:6; Makrides 2009:64).
This sentiment was codified in the hymn of Cassia the Nun. On Christmas
day, this hymn was sung in churches and stated the following:
When Augustus reigned alone upon earth, the many kingdoms of men
came to end; and when Thou was made man of the pure Virgin, the
many gods of idolatry were destroyed. The cities of the world passed
under one single rule, and the nations came to believe in one sovereign
Godhead. The peoples were enrolled by decree of Cesar; and we, the
faithful, were enrolled in the Name of Godhead, when Thou, our God,
was made man. Great is Thy mercy; glory to Thee.4
Ideally, the ecumene should embrace the entire world; yet precisely be-
cause this notion functioned ideologically, practical curtailment of imperial
rule did not invalidate the notion as such (Gvosdev 2001:50). The ideal
persisted, and if it fell short of being realized this was attributed to human
weakness.
The Greek word basileus gradually came to replace the Latin imperator,
and it was officially used beginning in 629, whereby the Roman emperor
was king [basileus] and emperor of the Romans (McCormick 2008:409).
In the Eastern Roman worldview, basileus was Gods vicar on earth (Harris
[2003] 2007:13; Shepard 2008). This complementary relationship did not
imply confusion between the different realms. Conventionally, complemen-
tarity has been misconstrued as caesaropapism, or the secular rulers undue
intervention into the affairs of the Church (Weber [1922] 1968). This inter-
pretation is predicated on the modern division between a secular and a
religious sphere. Only from within this framework is it possible to deem
that a political leaders actions violate the separation of the realms. How-
ever, for the Christian Roman Empire, the understanding of the relationship
between the religious order and the state was vastly different. The emperors
were the guardians of the faith, and consequently, they were empowered
to intervene in religious affairs. The emperors exercised this authority in
full. Between 379 and 1451, 36 of the 122 patriarchs of Constantinople
were forced into retirement under imperial pressure (Meyendorff [1982]
1990:20).5 Imperial authority was limited by the rulers religious adherence
and the successful performance of his role as well as by his continuing obser-
vance of the correct faith. When imperial authority resorted to coercion,
the result was protracted controversysuch as with the Iconoclast contro-
versy (726843) and later with the failed attempts at union with Rome.
Both instances are discussed in this and the following chapters.
For centuries, the Eastern Roman Empire was a paradigmatic case of
this mutual agreement (symphonia) between Christianity and the state
(Mango 1980). Between the sixth and 11th centuries, imperial author-
ity contributed extensively to the prestige of the Ecumenical Patriarchate
(Meyendorff [1982] 1990:25). Being the legitimate heirs of Rome made the
Eastern Romans feel superior to other peoples and reluctant to confer the
title of basileus to other rulerssuch as Bulgarian Tsar Symeon, the Frankish
King Charlemagne, the Saxon ruler Otto I or the Grand Prince of Moscow,
Vasilij I.6 In the empires hierarchical order, the emperor reigned supreme
as the father of all other rulers (Gvosdev 2001:4445; Angold 2003:29;

McCormick 2008:409). Recognition of this symbolic order was one of the
main long-term objectives of the empires foreign relations and diplomacy
(Harris [2003] 2007).
The alienation between the two parts of the Mediterranean took several
centuries to develop; from time to time, differences emerged regarding vari-
ous ecclesiastical or political affairs, for religion and politics were deeply
intertwined (Herrin 1987; Chadwick 2003). Christianity was vernacular-
ized in a manner that exacerbated cultural differences; a list of such diffe-
rences appears in Table 2.1.
There were two main factors that contributed heavily to this result. The
first factor concerned the difference in the number of patriarchs in the two
parts of the Mediterranean and the institutional context in which ecclesiasti-
cal authorities were forced to operate. Whereas the pope was a single patri-
arch in the West, the existence of four patriarchs in the East made it more
congruent to think in terms of conciliarity. In the West, the collapse of the
Western Roman Empire in 476 allowed the pope to appropriate the formerly
imperial title of pontifex maximus and to articulate the notion of a divinely
sanctioned apostolic see. Although only the pope could successfully claim
Table 2.1 The vernacularization of Chalcedonian Christianity
Eastern Mediterranean Western Mediterranean
Multiple high primates Single high primate (the pope)

Conciliarity (all bishops are equal; Hierarchal organization (notion of
decision making by consensus in apostolic see)
ecumenical councils)
Complementarity/symphonia with The Papacy as ultimate ecclesiastical
the emperor, division of labor and political arbitrator
Greek as predominant vernacular Latin as predominant vernacular
Numerous Christological disputes Absence of major Christological disputes
such an apostolic see in the West, there were dozens of cities in the East that
could make a similar claim (Meyendorff [1982] 1990:103, 274, 305). As a
result, the notion of an apostolic see never developed in the East.
Moreover, unlike the pope, the patriarchs of the East had to contend
with a powerful political authority that played a key role in ecclesiastical
affairs. The original symphonia between the Roman emperor and Chris-
tianitys high clergy involved a conception of ecclesiastical governance by
the so-called pentarchythe participation of the five original or ancient pa-
triarchates of Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem and Constantinople.
To be acceptable, ecumenical church councils required the participation of
these patriarchs or their representatives. From the imperial point of view,
which subsequently also became the Orthodox viewpoint, the bishop of
Rome was primus inter pares (first amongst equals). Pope Leo the Great
(440461) protested against this interpretation in the Council of Chalcedon
(Clendenin [1994] 2002:99).7 The Papacy considered its status as deriving
from St. Peter, the first among the apostles and first bishop of Rome. In due
course of time, the Papacy developed the Petrine claim to primacy, namely,
the notion that as St. Peters successor, the pope held a position above other
bishops, who should yield to his authority. This claim was more forcefully
expressed after the eighth century as northern European and Frankish con-
verts to Christianity offered strong support for the cult of St. Peter to de-
velop (Herrin 1987:105). Over time, attitudes shaped practices, and in turn
these practices shaped each sides ecclesiology. The two sides divergences
were manifested in Romes refusal to recognize the 102 rules and regula-
tions instituted in the 691692 Council in Trullo as most rules were heav-
ily in favor of the customs of the East and in conscious opposition to the
customs of the West (Herrin 1987:25090; Chadwick 2003:6670; Louth
2007:3033). From that point forward, mutual recognition of the councils
became problematic.8 However, divergences in liturgical practices and dif-
ferences in customs were initially deemed acceptable.
As a result of the above-mentioned factors, the Latin West came to think
in terms of a single universal authority. This divergence between the two
sides in the conception of churchstate relations might be summed up as
follows: whereas in the East, a plurality of ecclesiastical institutions related
to a single universal empire, in the West, a plurality of feudal states and
rulers stood related to a single ecclesiastical authority (Gvosdev 2001:4).
This difference was consequential in the way in which ecclesiastical institu-
tions related to each other. In the Council of Chalcedon, the patriarch of
Constantinople was elevated to second in order of seniority after Romes
bishop. This was meant to offer the new capitals bishop a comparable sta-
tus, but the bishop of New Rome and Constantinople (as it was officially
called) was and still is primus inter pares. The word ecumenical did not
and still does not mean universal but only superior bishop (Papadakis
1991); for the Eastern Roman Emperor ruled over the entire ecumene
which was a concept similar to those of Western Christendom or the
House of Islam (Harris [2003] 2007). Hence, the adjective ecumeni-
cal was a means of identifying the symphonia between the empire and the
ecclesiastical hierarchy (Gvosdev 2001:87). It was a central component of
the empires self-image.9 Nonetheless, in Orthodox ecclesiology, no bishop
has universal authority. That is, no bishop can settle disputes over doctrine
or pronounce doctrinal decisions unilaterally. Decisions on these issues can
be settled only in ecumenical councils with the participation of patriarchs or
their representatives.
Hence, the Greek East acknowledged Romes seniority but did not rec-
ognize the pope as primatus potestatis. The correspondence between Pope
Innocent III (11981216) and Patriarch John X Kamateros (11981206) is
instructive: Papal claims to primacy are rejected as is the notion that Rome
enjoys a special status vis--vis other churches because of the legacy of

St. Peter, the first among the apostles. The patriarch stated the Orthodox
view: that is, Peter is the rock of all of the Church, not just the Church of
Rome; Christian unity is a matter of doctrine and not a matter of adherence
to the pope; and finally, Romes prime status is derived from its status as
former imperial capital (Angold 2003:39).
Irrespective of the above, until the seventh century, both sides were
united against their shared heretical adversaries.10 After the sixth-century
Arab conquest of the Fertile Crescent, finding common ground with non-
Chalcedonian Christians emerged as an important geopolitical objective for
the Eastern Roman Emperors (Zernov 1963:8284; Herrin 1987:192219).
In the past, the emperors had persecuted the non-Chalcedonians. Arab rule
offered them a degree of protection. In the sixth and seventh centuries,
monotheletism and monoergism represented two lighter versions of non-
Chalcedonian theology. At different points, these were offered imperial sup-
port with the long-term objective that this might win back the allegiance
of the non-Chalcedonians under Arab rule. The Papacy participated exten-
sively in these ecclesiastical affairs and played an important role in preserv-
ing Chalcedonian Orthodoxy and in defeating such overtures.
The second major difference concerned each sides cultural milieu.
The East was shaped by the fusion between Christianity and the regions
Hellenistic cultural tradition (Geanakopoulos [1979] 1993). The over-
whelming majority of Christological disputes appeared in the eastern part
of the Mediterranean. This was the direct consequence of a vibrant philo-
sophical tradition inspired by ancient Greek philosophy. Unsurprisingly, Or-
thodoxy (i.e., upholding the correct doctrine) became the Easts paramount
concern. In contrast, administrative unity was never formalized. The ecu-
menical patriarch enjoyed a privileged position vis--vis the other Orthodox
patriarchs by virtue of his close association with the imperial government;
for in the Eastern Roman worldview, the Empires realm was that of the
ecumene (Harris [2003] 2007:13). In turn, the patriarchs under Arab rule
were sufficiently marginalized to be content with that arrangement. After
all, protection of the Holy Lands was an imperial responsibility: in 1027, a
treaty with the Islamic caliphate provided for the rebuilding of the Church
of the Resurrection (i.e., Holy Sepulchre) in Jerusalem and permitted the
emperor to designate the Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem (Harris [2003]
2007:24). In return, Muslim prisoners were released, and a promise was
made to repair Constantinoples mosque. Similarly, by the 11th century, the
patriarch of Antioch was an imperial appointee.
The Easts complementary relationship between church and emperor
stood in sharp contrast to the Roman Catholic Churchs policy, especially
after the 10th-century Gregorian reform effort. The crystallization of the
papal monarchy (Zernov 1963:97101; Morris [1989] 2001) entailed
the standardization of numerous religious practices, but it also involved the
initiation of and involvement in the Crusades and the attempt to remove
secular control over religious estates, which caused the famous Investiture
Controversy. The controversy concerned the authority of feudal overlords

to offer themselves the right of possession of fields to bishops and was
expressed with symbolic acts in the bishops coronation (Geanakopoulos
[1979] 1993:27279; Morris [1989] 2001; Clendenin [1994] 2002:41;
Papadakis [1994] 2003:4477). The Catholic Churchs efforts to regain ad-
ministrative control over the high clergy contributed to a policy orienta-
tion completely at odds with the Orthodox Easts traditional policy. In turn,
in the Orthodox Easts view, the pope exercised political privileges in the
West (Angold 2003:29) similar to those of the emperor; hence, it seemed
that the pope was usurping imperial authority.
The iconoclast controversy was a major factor that shaped the notion
of Christian Orthodoxy and signaled the increasing distance of the Papacy
from the Greek East. Iconoclasm condemned the practice of honoring icons
as idolatrous and contrary to Christianitys monotheism. As a movement, it
registered the influence of Islams rigorous monotheism. Its official support
and promulgation by Eastern Roman emperors caused an extensive contro-
versy that lasted over a century (726843). The Papacys support against
iconoclasmwhich for a long time was official imperial policycaused
the Eastern Roman emperor to remove the dioceses of Illyricum, Calabria
and Sicily from papal jurisdiction (Herrin 1987:34958, 370; Chadwick
2003:76).
However, Lombard assaults weakened imperial authority on Italian soil,
and by 751, the Lombards captured Ravenna, the seat of the Roman exarch.
Until that era, the Papacy had remained under the influence of Eastern eccle-
siastical personnel (monks, bishops, pilgrims) (McCormick 2008:41012).
Afterwards, the Papacy sought the political support of the Frankish rulers,
who were asserting their authority in the western part of the Mediterranean.
The Carolingian dynasty in particular developed strong ties with the Pa-
pacy, and the alliance between the two altered the Papacys traditional ori-
entation. Crowning Charlemagne in 800 as Roman emperor was a facet of
this involvement (Herrin 1987:379460; Geanakopoulos [1979] 1993:105;
Chadwick 2003:8487). Calling Charlemagne Roman Emperor and Au-
gustus challenged the universality of the Eastern Roman Emperor.11 This
reorientation of the Papacy also entailed a shift in attitude toward the East.
The ancient Roman heritage was viewed as safeguarded by Roman Catho-
licism in the West. Westerners referred to the Holy German emperors as Em-
perors of the Romans, whereas the Eastern Roman emperors were called
Emperors of the Greeks. It was within the broader context of this political
realignment that the papal court (Curia) concocted the so-called Donation
of Constantinea powerful forgery, according to which Emperor Constan-
tine I, prior to becoming a Christian, surrendered his authority to Pope
Sylvester I (314335), who returned it while retaining preeminence over the
other patriarchates (Tyerman [2006] 2007:5; MacCulloch 2009:351). This
forgery formed one basis for later papal claims and was considered authen-
tic until the 15th century.
In the East, the final resolution of the iconoclast controversy became the
occasion for the consolidation of Christian Orthodoxy. In 843, after the sec-
ond and final restoration of the icons, the Church constructed the Synodikon
of Orthodoxy. This was a collection of documents containing the decisions
of the eastern traditions ecumenical councils (Louth 2006:17). Organizing
and at times updating the Synodikon became a means of consolidating and
updating this tradition.12 The Synodikon was concerned with Christological
matters, and its formulation registers a growing self-awareness of a distinct
religious tradition. Although not all of the elements currently recognized as
indispensable components of Orthodox Christianity were present, there was
already an awareness of difference from the Latin West. In many respects,
a similar development is also observed in the West. Christian Orthodoxy
might be viewed as the cornerstone on which Orthodox Christianity was
subsequently constructed.
THE INDIGENIZATION OF CHRISTIAN ORTHODOXY
The EastWest contest also was political. Conversion of non-Christians to

the Eastern or Western forms of Christianity entailed the growth of each
sides sphere of influence: to accept baptism from subjects of the Eastern
Roman Emperor was tantamount to acknowledgement of the emperors
sovereignty (Chadwick 2003:110, 170). It is instructive that the Bulgar-
ian conversion to Orthodox Christianity in 864865 was the consequence
of an imperial military campaign combined with the effects of famine and
drought (Ivanov 2008:318). In fact, missionary activity in its own right does
not seem to have been the principal factor; instead, the conversion pro-
vided a tangible means for the Roman emperor to secure the Bulgarians
allegiance and acknowledgment of his status. For example, when Catholic
missionaries were invited to Bulgaria in 866, it caused a negative response in
Constantinople (Pelikan 1977:18384; McCormick 2008:421).
The conversion of the Slavs to Christianity offers the historical context
for the initialization of a long-term process that entailed the indigeniza-
tion of Orthodoxy. Certainly, all world religions have experienced, at least
to some degree, processes of indigenization. Nonetheless, the propensity
and ability of different faiths to successfully undergo such a process vary
widely. The experience of Christianity in the Eastern Mediterranean led to
extensive indigenizationwith several non-Chalcedonian Churches (Arme-
nians, Copts, etc.) forming over time. Table 2.2 offers a list of these various
indigenizations.
For this chapters purposes, however, attention is focused more on the
indigenizations of the Chalcedonian Christianity in the Eastern Mediter-
ranean. This Chalcedonian Christianitywhich in the previous section has
also been described as Christian Orthodoxyhas been quite susceptible
to such processes. In large part, this has resulted from two sets of prac-
tices. First, the established principle of ecclesiastical autocephaly for regions
that constitute politically independent units connected state authority and

ecclesiastical autocephaly from early on. Serb, Bulgarian and Russian rul-
ers were offered such autocephaly as a part of their state building efforts
and promptly proceeded to capitalize on this opportunity to construct auto-
cephalous churches. This autocephaly became a real or imagined depository
of ethnic difference and was seized upon in the 19th and 20th centuries as
part of the Eastern European nations process of nation building. This pro-
cess will be discussed in Chapter 5 of this volume. Most often, autocephaly
instead of full recognition of patriarchal authority was offered to political
leaders whose goal was to bolster their own authority by constructing an
ecclesiastical administration under their auspices.
Second, Orthodoxy has been willing to accept the use of different lang-
uages in liturgy for the purposes of conversion and in accordance with a
regions dominant language. Although Latin remained for centuries Catho-
licisms liturgical language, the language of the Eastern Orthodox Church
ecclesiastical Greekdid not occupy a similar status. In Syria and Palestine,
Aramaic or Syrian was used in liturgy, whereas the Orthodox Church of
Georgia used (Old) Georgian in its church services.13 Therefore, in the
Orthodox tradition, no sacred language per se ever existed (Gvosdev
2001:12425). The dominance of the Greek language in services in the East
Table 2.2 Indigenizations of Christianity in the Eastern Mediterranean (3001589 AD)
Chalcedonian Churches Non-Chalcedonian Churches
Bulgarian autocephalous Church Armenian Church

(Patriarchate, 1242)
Serbian autocephalous Church Ethiopian Church
(Patriarchate, 1375)
Russian Orthodox Church The Church of the East (Nestorians)
(Patriarchate,1589)
Georgian Orthodox Church The Coptic Church
Assyrian Orthodox Church Maronite Church
was a reflection of that regions Hellenistic culture and the fact that, after
the seventh century, Greek was the main language used throughout the em-
pire. Although the above-mentioned instances demonstrate Orthodoxys
propensity to indigenization, the conversion of the Slavs to the Orthodox
form of Christianity has been perhaps the most consequential of all the cases
of indigenization.14
The legendary mission of Constantine (later Cyril) and Michael (later
Methodius) is conventionally cited as the key historical event for the trans-
lation of the Gospel into Old Slavonic and the construction of the Cyrillic
script. Nonetheless, their Moravian mission of 863 was a complete failure.
After their followers were expelled from Moravia, by the 880s, Bulgarian
ruler Boris invited them to settle in his territory. Boriss reasons were prag-
matic: Greek-speaking clergy did not know Slavonic; therefore, training the
local clergy reduced their reliance on Constantinople (Ivanov 2008:316
20). Translation of the Gospel into Old Slavonic was a major strategy for
facilitating the absorption of Orthodox Christianity into the tradition of the
South Slavs. Old Slavonic became the foundation of a literary tradition that
further contributed to the creation and reproduction of ethnic difference
(Picchio 1980; Meyendorff [1981] 1988:44).
The application of these practices varied widely depending on the specif-
ics of each of the three historical cases: Serb, Bulgarian and Russian. Because
the Serb case came after 1204, it is discussed in the following chapter. The
Serb case followed the Bulgarian and Russian precedents. The Russian indi-
genization of Orthodoxy was slow. Although sources refer to baptisms con-
ducted in the 860s, the conventional historical benchmark is the baptisms
and Christianization of the Russ under Prince Vladimir in 988although
this is based solely on Russian sources without corroboration by Greek-
language sources (Meyendorff [1981] 1988:2627; Ivanov 2008:325). The
first evidence of a Russ metropolitan dates from 1039. In 1037, Prince Ja-
roslav erected the St. Sophia cathedral in Kievmodeled after Constantino-
ples cathedraland appointed the first Russian metropolitan (Meyendorff
[1981] 1988:40). These actions were most likely prompted by his designs to
gain the title of king.
Early sources refer to Christianity as such and not to Orthodoxy (pravo-
slavnyi) in particular (van den Bercken 1999:52:57). Initially, Rome was
included among those lands that were part of Christianity, something
actually quite reasonable for the standards of the era. The Eastern Roman
influence was decisive, especially in personnel selection: of the 24 metropoli-
tans between 988 and the 1240 Mongol invasion, only two were natives.15
It is only after the sack of Constantinople in 1204 that an anti-Western
element enters into the Russian perspective. However, only a few decades
later, the Russian principalities succumbed to the Mongol conquest. By
1240, Kiev itself had fallen to the Mongols of the Golden Horde. The re-
sult of the Mongol conquest was the gradual decline of Kiev and a period
of division among rival principalities. Independent Russian principalities
were squeezed between the Mongols and the German Order of the Teutonic
Knights. The latters Crusade into Livdandia was halted in a defeat by the
forces of the legendary Russian prince Alexander Nevksij in 1242 (Meyen-
dorff [1981] 1988:8688; van den Bercken 1999:123).16 Nevskij later be-
came a symbol of Russian Orthodoxy, and the ROC canonized him in 1546.
He rejected papal initiatives to side with the Western powers against the
Tatars. His choice was similar to that of the Eastern Roman Empires anti-
Union Orthodox constituency, which will be discussed in the next chapter
of this volume. Thus, in addition to increasing anti-Western attitudes in Or-
thodox lands, which were provoked by news of the sack of Constantinople
in 1204 AD, there were additional local factors contributing to increased
tensions with Catholicism. In the 13th and 14th centuries, Orthodox and
Catholics competed for the baptism of the Lithuanian princes, while the
Papacy supported military inroads into Russian lands. By 1368, the pope
offered absolution of sins for those fighting against the Russians, indirectly
subsuming the Russians with non-Christians and schismatics (Meyendorff
[1981] 1988:90102). This turn of events reflects the post-1204 realities,
which are discussed further in Chapter 3 of this volume.
More immediate and consequential was the Bulgarian case. Although
Catholic missionaries were invited to the Bulgarian court, in the end, its
rulers chose the Orthodox rite (Chadwick 2003:110). This pattern of invit-
ing delegates from both Constantinople and Rome and bargaining to gain
autocephaly is repeatedly observed and reflects the desire of various rulers
to negotiate a more satisfactory political settlement. Bulgarian rulers pre-
sented a formidable challenge to Eastern Roman authority in the Balkans.
Under Tsar Symeon (893927), the first Bulgarian empire spread over
most of the Balkans. Symeon aimed to claimby means of marriage
the title of emperor of Romans and Bulgarians, but his plans never suc-
ceeded. In 925, he proclaimed himself king and emperor of Bulgarians and
Romans (Wolff [1949] 2007:270), but his title was never recognized. In
927, his successor, Peter, was offered the title of king of Bulgarians (but
not that of Romans). Under Symeon, the use of (Old) Slavonic liturgical
language was generalized throughout the Church, with attention given to
translating ecclesiastical works from Greek (Gonis 2001:3238). Several
claims have been made regarding the construction of a Patriarchate or arch-
bishopric under Symeon. What is definitely recognized, nonetheless, is that
under his successor Peter (927969), a local archbishopric was established.
However, by 1018, Emperor Basil II was successful in crushing the
Bulgarian state. In effect, that was the end of that archbishopric. Subse-
quently, the archbishopric of Ohrid was revamped and assumed jurisdiction
over the Bulgarian landswhich in 11th- and 12th-century terminology
included the central Balkans (i.e., the contemporary region of Macedonia)
(Angold 1995:15862; Gonis 2001:4849; Papadakis [1994] 2003:36469;
Wolff [1949] 2007:17380). Its autocephalous status was justified on the
basis of its authority over Bulgaria. Still, because its status was granted
by the emperor, the Ecumenical Patriarchate did not recognize it. This
prompted local authorities to revive a factually incorrect claim of the see
as successor of a see originally founded by Emperor Justinian in 553. Local
archbishops used the title Archbishops of First Justinian and Bulgaria, al-
though many of them were not of Bulgarian origin, and the sees population
did not consist exclusively of ethnic Bulgarians. The archbishopric represents
an acknowledgement of the importance of religious authority for imperial
rule. Its existence has provided a major cultural benchmark in the history
of the South Slavs; and in modern national histories, it sometimes features
prominently as a depository of the South Slavs cultural identity. However,
its actual role for the indigenization of Orthodoxy is rather doubtful.
RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS AND

CIVILIZATIONAL CONSTELLATIONS
This chapter conducted an overview of the fragmentation of Christianity as

the faith spread across Europe and the Mediterranean. Additionally, atten-
tion has been focused on the fragmentation of Chalcedonian Orthodoxy,
which constituted the overwhelming majority of the Christianswithout
an attempt to include non-Chalcedonian Christians. Within these broad
scope restrictions, this chapters narrative has stressed the significance of
two major processes: vernacularization and indigenization represent two
central processes that are intimately connected to the fragmentation of
Christianity.
Vernacularization contributed to the construction of distinct language-
based high cultures in the two parts of the Mediterraneanand the subse-
quent creation of distinct spheres of influence marked by languages, cultural
habits, customs and practices. The use of the two main vernacular high-
culture languages of the eraGreek and Latinis responsible for the con-
struction of the two religious traditions that have become embedded in the
terms Greek East and Latin West. As explained in this chapters opening
section, this inquiry must come to terms with the negative image of Byzan-
tium, which has been deconstructed in the course of this chapters discussion.
Instead, the term Eastern Roman Empire is used throughout this volume.
Although both the Greek East and Latin West were united in their advocacy
of Chalcedonian Orthodoxy, their divergences over time suggest the inevi-
table formation of two distinct traditions: By the ninth century, Christian
Orthodoxy was a self-aware religious tradition with increasing differences
from the Latin-based or Roman Catholic religious tradition. Use of the term
Christian Orthodoxy is meant to highlight the extent to which this branch
of Christianity had achieved a level of self-awareness and distinction, but it
also suggests historical change and fluidity. Christian Orthodoxy is not yet
Orthodox Christianity. It would take at least another five centuries for that
to occur.
Indigenization added an important component that further increased
the difference between Christian Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism. Un-
like Latin, Greek did not maintain its status as a sacred language. The con-
struction of the Cyrillic script and the subsequent development of Slavonic
literary production contributed to the dissolution of the link between Chris-
tianity and a single liturgical language. Orthodoxys indigenization also
meant that autocephalous ecclesiastical institutions could be constructed in
accordance with the will of political regimes. This strategy is quite differ-
ent from the Roman Catholic premise of centralized ecclesiastical authority.
The chapter also addressed the issue of the conversion of Bulgarians and
Russians. However, indigenization never came to a halt; it continued in later
centuries as Serbian, Bulgarian and Russian rulers sought to use ecclesiasti-
cal autocephaly to enhance and legitimize their rule. These early processes
of ethnic indigenization should not be misconstrued as direct predecessors
of Orthodoxys nationalization. As Chapter 5 of this volume will argue, that
synthesis is a 19th-century phenomenon. Instead, claiming the imperial title
was an important symbolic strategy, and gaining recognition of autocephaly
or autonomy was another major component. However, the two Bulgarian
empires or the Russian Duchy were not nation-states. Instead, these were
ruled by divine monarchs, and it is for this reason that control over the
ecclesiastical apparatus was an issue of paramount concern. In the modern
era, the historical legacy of these efforts has been promptly exploited in
local processes of nation formation and has been incorporated into national
mythologies whereby these states are viewed as antecedents of modern-day
statehood.
The crystallization of distinct religious traditions must be considered
within the context of the broader civilizational constellations in the two parts
of the Mediterranean. That is, the Greek East was for a long period of time
coterminous with the Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) civilization, whereas in
the western part of the Mediterranean, the Latin West slowly emerged and
became under Roman Catholicism the originator of the post-1500 trans-
Atlantic civilization conventionally referred to as the West. However, during
the European Middle Ages, the Latin West was a civilization still construct-
ing its foundations. Roman Catholicism was shaped decisively by this pro-
cess. The difference between the two civilizations worldviews is enshrined in
the terms used to denote their own cultural universe: The Eastern Romans
ecumene contrasts with the Western Christendom (which meant the pre-
Reformation Roman Catholic Christian lands).17 The growing rift between
Latin West and Greek East was extensively impacted by the fact that after
the eighth century, the consolidation of European feudalism (Bloch 1961)
contributed to the Papacys changing attitude vis--vis the East.
By the early ninth century, there was already a short list of EastWest dif-
ferences that had become contested. These involved the use of unleavened
bread in liturgy, the Filioque, the administration of sacraments of confirma-
tion and the lower clergys celibacy.18 Of the above, the Filioque became the
focal point of controversy. Its story illustrates the decisive role of Western
elites in the division of Christianity. The term Filioque comes from two
Latin words: Filio que (and from the Son), which indicates a difference
between the Catholic and Orthodox Creed. The Catholic formulation is
that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and from the Son in con-
trast to the Orthodox formulation that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the
Father. In all likelihood, the difference results from a sixth-century tactical
translation error meant to assist with the proselytism of the Visigoths in
Spain (Zernov 1963:8990; Papadakis [1994] 2003:34547). It was du-
plicated as Christianity spread in France and Britain. Initially, Pope Leo III
(795816) refused to include it in liturgy, but the Carolingian court sup-
ported the Filioque and used it as a means of solidifying their alliance with
the Papacy (Chadwick 2003:8898). Pope Benedict VIII (10121024) even-

tually sanctioned the interpretation, which was subsequently absorbed into
Catholicism (for an Orthodox theological view, see Pelikan 1977:18398).
The Filioque illustrates the manner in which religious texts can be reinter-
preted as a means of redefining and offering legitimacy and cohesion to
rising civilizations.
In the mid-ninth century, the Photean schism provided the occasion to
articulate these emerging differences. It is named after Patriarch Photeus
(Zernov 1963:9394; Geanakopoulos [1979] 1993:15658; Chadwick 2003:
12492). Pope Nicholas I (858867) supported the deposed Patriarch Igna-
tius and objected to Photeuss ascent. The schism was subsequently mended
in an 879 synod, but it was in this context that the Papacy used the doctrine
of papal primacy and a claim to universal ecclesiastical jurisdiction, only to
have both rebuffed. In turn, Photeus wrote his Mystagogia, a theological
defense of Orthodoxy, which later became a reference point for anti-Latin
authors. Photeus rejected papal primacy and considered the Western theo-
logical approach (inclusive of the Filioque) as a departure from Christian
Orthodoxy.
From this point forward, the lack of linguistic skills necessary for under-
standing the other sides arguments became an important factor in the West
East dialogue. The barbarian invasions of the previous centuries caused an
increasing decline in knowledge of Greek in the West and of Latin in the
East. Lawyers were most often the ones who preserved language skills. Not
knowing the other sides language meant lack of access to their texts. Igno-
rance bred misunderstandings and increased prejudices and stereotypes
(Pelikan 1977:17983). This turn of events amplified cultural cleavages.
For example, in the translation of Patriarch Michael Cerulariuss January
1054 letter to the pope, his title (Ecumenical Patriarch) was rendered as
Patriarcha Universalis in Latin. Unsurprisingly, this was viewed as usurpa-
tion of the rightful universal jurisdiction claimed by the Papacy itself (Harris
[2003] 2007:44). The 968 AD visit of Liudprand of Cremona to Constan-
tinople offers a spectacular example of rancor, snobbery, mutual suspicion
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Globalization and Orthodox

In this book Roudometof offers a brilliant examination of the manifold

With approximately 200 to 300 million adherents worldwide, Orthodox

Victor Roudometof is Associate Professor in the Department of Social and

1 Judaism and Collective Life 10 Religion, Language, and Power

5 Metaphysics and Transcendence 14 Adam Smith as Theologian

6 Sufism and Deconstruction 15 The Entangled God

7 Christianity, Tolerance and 16 Aquinas and Radical

20 Popular Music in Evangelical 27 Religions in Movement

known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any

Maps by Sophia Vyzoviti

1 Globalization and Orthodox Christianity:

2 The Fragmentation of Christianity 18

3 From Christian Orthodoxy to Orthodox Christianity 38

5 Nationalism and the Orthodox Church:

6 Colonialism and Ethnarchy: The Case of Cyprus 102

7 Orthodox Christianity as a Transnational Religion 119

8 Territoriality, Globality and Orthodoxy 137

9 Religion and Globalization: Orthodox Christianity

2.1 The Eastern Roman Empire with border changes

2.1 The vernacularization of Chalcedonian Christianity 26

EC-PATR Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople

judgment, advice and expertise on numerous occasions. My warm thanks

With approximately 200 to 300 million adherents worldwide, Orthodox

BEYOND THE CONVENTIONAL IMAGE

SHIFTING PARADIGMS: FROM

Although the study of religion was previously marginal to mainstream socio-

Reconsidering secularity remains a project high on the agenda of the socio-

them (quoted in Zernov 1963:66).

(1992:8) original statement, globalization is defined as the compression

alternative pathways result from the combinations of different historical

possibility of reconstructing, creating or recreating locality. In this sense, the

1. How has Orthodox Christianity become a religious tradition in the con-

globalized religion? Can we perceive it as a global religion?

PERIODIZATION AND THEMES

Berger (2005:441) suggests that throughout its history, Eastern Orthodoxy

tion to Orthodoxy and tracing the ways in which Orthodoxy responded to

among the Slavs. The creation of Church Slavonic, the establishment of a

of an Orthodox church correspond to colonial boundaries, thereby allowing

connected to their original mother church. Religious institutions perform

This chapter focuses on the emergence of a distinct religious tradition of

offers a key to understanding the historical trajectory of the Orthodox re-

BEYOND THE LEGACY OF ORIENTALISM

For several centuries, Orthodox Christianity and Roman Catholicism did

Eastern Christianity is typically subdivided into the (Eastern) Oriental (also

bent on preserving the universal and correct Christian faith.

VERNACULARIZATION EAST AND WEST

As Therborn (2000:160) argues, vernacularization involved the rise of differ-

As the above quote shows, the ecclesiastical establishment assisted the

as the father of all other rulers (Gvosdev 2001:4445; Angold 2003:29;

Table 2.1 The vernacularization of Chalcedonian Christianity

Eastern Mediterranean Western Mediterranean

Multiple high primates Single high primate (the pope)

enjoys a special status vis--vis other churches because of the legacy of

Controversy. The controversy concerned the authority of feudal overlords

THE INDIGENIZATION OF CHRISTIAN ORTHODOXY

The EastWest contest also was political. Conversion of non-Christians to

that constitute politically independent units connected state authority and

Table 2.2 Indigenizations of Christianity in the Eastern Mediterranean (3001589 AD)

Chalcedonian Churches Non-Chalcedonian Churches

Bulgarian autocephalous Church Armenian Church

RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS AND

This chapter conducted an overview of the fragmentation of Christianity as

the Papacy (Chadwick 2003:8898). Pope Benedict VIII (10121024) even-