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ENGINEERING GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS

(SUMMARY OF UNIT LECTURES)

1. The materials that constitute the earths crust are arbitrarily divided by the civil
engineers into soils and rocks.
2. Soil is a natural aggregate of mineral grains that can be separated by such gentle
mechanical means as agitation in water.
3. Rocks are natural earth materials composed of aggregates of one or more minerals,
regardless of the mechanical properties of the mineral. A rock has no definite
chemical composition. Most rocks are not sound; they are neither homogeneous nor
isotropic.
4. A rock differs from soil in the degree of consolidation and in the limit of the size of
the particles. Rocks are highly directional/anisotropic in their deformability, strength
and other properties. Mechanically, rocks are extremely complex material, and so for
engineers, it is difficult to work with.
5. A formation at some depth beneath a mantle of unconsolidated material/soil is termed
bedrock, and the unconsolidated material/soil above as overburden.
6. Rock substance is the solid part of the rock mass typically obtained as a drill core. An
intact rock is a rock material which can be sampled, and tested in the laboratory, and
which is free from the structural discontinuities. Rock mass is the in situ rock made up
of the rock substance plus structural discontinuities. The nature and distribution of
structural features/discontinuities within the rock mass is known as rock structure.
7. Engineering geology is the science concerned with putting geologic knowledge to
practical uses in an economic way. Rock mechanics deals with the response of rock to
the force fields of its physical environment.
8. The earth is composed of three well-defined shells: crust, mantle and core. The
topmost shell of the earth is crust, which has a thickness of 30-35 km in continents
and 5-6 km in oceans. The oceanic crust is made up of heavier and darker rocks called
basalts compared to light-coloured and light-density, granitic rocks of the continental
crust.
9. A mineral is defined as a natural, inorganic substance composed of one or more
elements with a unique chemical composition, arrangement of elements (structure),
and the distinctive physical properties.
10. Silicates (quartz, feldspars, amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas, garnets, olivine, clay
minerals) and carbonates (calcite, dolomite) are rock-forming minerals. Silicate
minerals form the bulk (around 95%) of the earths crust. Of the silicates minerals,
quartz and feldspar are the most common ones in the crust.
11. The sequence of crystallization of minerals in magma is determined through the
Bowens reaction series.
12. Coal and petroleum, though of organic origin, are also included among minerals.
Almost all minerals are solids; the only exceptions are mercury, water and mineral oil
(oil petroleum).
13. Crystals are solid geometric figures and have well-defined, more or less plane faces,
which bound the solid. Within the mineral kingdom, 98% of the minerals are
crystalline.
14. The physical properties of minerals are the following: colour, streak, hardness,
cleavage, fracture, luster, specific gravity, odour, taste and feel.
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15. The Mohs scale of hardness is based on 10 minerals, starting with talc, which has a
hardness of 1. The diamond, which is the hardest mineral, has a hardness of 10. The
fingernail has a hardness of 2.5.
16. A rock is a naturally formed aggregate mass of mineral matter, whether or not
coherent, consisting an essential and appreciable part of the earths crust.
17. The rock forming processes (cooling of the magama; settling, depositional or
precipitation processes; and heating or squeezing processes) form the basis for rock
classification, and are also significant factors in establishing the mechanical properties
of rocks.
18. Based on the rock forming processes, rocks are classified as: igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.
19. Rocks derived from magma are called igneous rocks, which are usually hard and
crystalline in character. Igneous rocks make up about 95% of the volume of the
earths crust. Examples: granite, basalt, dolerite, gabbro, rhyolite, etc.
20. The products of weathering are subjected, under favorable conditions, to
transportation mostly by natural agencies such as running water, wind, glaciers and
gravity, deposition, and subsequent compaction/consolidation, resulting in
sedimentary rocks. Examples: sandstone, shale, conglomerate, breccias, limestone,
etc.
21. Rocks which have undergone some chemical and/or physical change subsequent to
their original form are called metamorphic rocks. Examples: quartzite, slate, marble,
graphite, gneiss, etc.
22. In nature, one type of rock changes slowly to another type; this forms the rock cycle.
23. For a rock mass, discontinuity is a collective term for all fractures or features such as
joints, faults, shears, bedding planes and other defects that have zero or relatively low
tensile strengths. Due to the presence of discontinuities in rock mass, rock mechanics
works both in plane and in space; whereas due to the absence of discontinuities in soil
mass, soil mechanics generally works in plane.
24. Orientation (or attitude) of a discontinuity plane in space is described by the dip and
dip direction.
25. True dip or simply dip is the maximum inclination of a discontinuity plane to the
horizontal. It varies from 00 to 900.
26. Dip direction (or dip azimuth) is the direction of the horizontal trace of the line of dip,
measured clockwise from true north. It varies from 00 to 3600. It is usual to quote
orientation data in the form of dip direction (three digits)/dip (two digits).
27. Strike is the trace of the intersection of the discontinuity plane with the horizontal
plane. It is at right angles to the dip and dip direction of the discontinuity plane.
28. Plunge is the dip of a line, such as the line of intersection of two planes or the axis of
a borehole or a tunnel.
29. Trend is the direction of the horizontal projection of a line, measured clockwise from
north. It corresponds to the dip direction of a plane.
30. Folds are defined as wavy undulations developed in the rocks of the earths crust due
to horizontal compression resulting from gradual cooling of the earths crust, lateral
deflection, and intrusion of magma in the upper strata.
31. Faults are fractures in crustal strata along which the adjacent rock mass has been
displaced. The amount of displacement may vary from only a few tens of millimeters
to several hundred kilometers.
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32. The exposed rocks at the surface of the earth are subject to continuous decay,
disintegration and decomposition under the influence of certain physical, chemical
and biological agencies; this phenomenon is called weathering of rocks. Soil
structure refers to the orientation and the distribution of particles in a soil mass, and is
governed by the environment of deposition. The principal clay minerals are: kaolinite,
illite and montmorillonite.
33. Earthquakes are vibrations induced in the earths crust that virtually shake up a part of
the earths surface and all the structures and objects lying in that part of the earths
surface. Earthquakes caused by the movement inside the earths structure are called
tectonic earthquakes, which are the most common and most destructive events.
34. Human activities based earthquakes may be less energetic, but they are important to
the engineers because they can cause damage to nearby standing structures and
objects.
35. The deepest well has reached only about 12 km; the earths structure has been largely
determined by various indirect methods. Lithosphere is elastic solid and is
approximately 100 km thick. Asthenosphere is the upper mantle, which is ductile and
3% of liquid (partially melting). Its thickness is approximately 600 km.
36. The temperature increases downwards inside the earth at an average rate of 30 C per
km.
37. Tectonic earthquakes are explained on the basis of continental drift, plate tectonics
and elastic rebound theories. The basic hypothesis of plate tectonics is that the
lithosphere consists of a number of large, intact, rigid blocks called plates, and that
these plates no longer move with respect to each other along the boundary of SiAl and
SiMa, but floats like rafts on the asthenosphere due to its viscosity and move as a
result of convection currents, the force behind plate tectonics.
38. Seismic waves are classified as the body waves (P-waves and S-waves), and surface
waves (Love waves and Rayleigh waves). Body waves travel through the body of a
solid. Surface waves travel at the surface of the body of a solid. P-waves travel in all
media, that is, in solids, liquids and gases. S-waves travel in a medium that has a shear
strength.
39. Some important earthquake-related terms are: Focus (or hypocentre), Epicentre,
Focal depth, Epicentric distance, and Hypocentric distance. Seismograph is the
instrument used to record earth moth set up by seismic waves, and seismogram is the
earthquake record measured with a seismograph.
40. The intensity of an earthquake is a measure of the local level of ground shaking as
estimated on the basis of human perceptibility and its destructivity. The magnitude of
an earthquake is a quantitative measure of its size based on the amplitude of elastic
waves it generates at known distances from the epicentre using seismographs. The
magnitude scale presently in use was first developed by C.F. Richter, which is based
on P-wave amplitudes.
41. The dynamic analysis of retaining walls subjected to earthquakes can be done by trial
backfill failure wedge method.
42. Hydrogeology deals with occurrence, distribution, storage and movement of
groundwater in the subsurface. Aquifers are the rocks and soils having both porosity
and permeability.
43. Unlike other civil engineering materials, soils and rocks have significant variability
associated with them.
44. Site investigation refers to the appraisal of the surface and subsurface conditions at the
proposed construction site.
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45. A typical site investigation includes preliminary studies such as desk study and site
reconnaissance, geophysical surveys, drilling boreholes, in situ testing, sampling and
laboratory testing of samples, and groundwater observations and measurements.
46. The site investigation project can cost about 0.1 1.0% of the total construction cost
of the project.
47. Drill core is the sample record for the subsurface geology at the borehole location.
48. Core recovery (CR) a measure of how much rock has been lost during drilling. A core
recovery of 100% indicates the presence of intact rock; for fractured rocks, the core
recovery will be smaller than 100%.
49. Rock quality designation (RQD) is widely used as a single parameter for classification
of rock mass. It is calculated by measuring the total length of all pieces of core in a
drill run with lengths greater than 100 mm (4 in.), discounting fractures due to
drilling. These lengths are then added together, and the total length is expressed as a
percentage of the length of the drill run.
50. Geophysical methods can be used to determine the distributions of physical
properties, e.g. elastic moduli, electrical resistivity, density, magnetic susceptibility,
etc. at depths below the ground surface that reflect the local subsurface characteristics
of the materials (soil/rock/water).
51. Geophysical methods may be used for the investigation during the reconnaissance
phase of the site investigation programme since it provides a relatively rapid and cost-
effective means of deriving areally distributed information about subsurface
stratification.
52. The range of resistivities among earth materials is enormous, extending from 10-5 to
1015 -m. The marble has a resistivity 1012 -m, whereas the clay has a resistivity of
1 to 120 -m.
53. The ratio of P-wave velocity to the S-wave velocity depends only on the Poissons
ratio of the material.
54. Dip () and dip direction () measurements (/, e.g. 60/135) facilitate the graphical
presentation of planes.
55. Spherical projection technique allows the three-dimensional orientation data to be
presented and analyzed in two dimensions. It removes one dimension from
consideration so that lines or points can represent planes, and points can present lines.
56. A planar feature such as joint sets, bedding planes, fault planes or slope faces is
represented by the curved lines or points on the projection of a reference sphere. A
line (e.g. borehole axis) is represented by a point on the projection of a reference
plane.
57. Because of the ease of interpretation of data, commonly equal area projection is
adopted.
58. The intersection of the plane with the reference sphere is a circle called a great circle,
which will define uniquely the orientation of the plane in space.
59. The pole is a point on the surface of the reference sphere that is pierced by a radial
line in a direction normal to the plane. A single point as the pole can represent the
complete orientation of a plane.
60. Planes and lines with shallow dips have great circles and points, respectively that plot
near the circumference of the stereonet, and those with steep dips plot near the centre.
61. The pole a shallow dipping plane plots close to the centre of the circle, and the pole of
a steep plane plots close to the perimeter/circumference of the stereonet.
62. Equatorial equal area stereonet or equal area equatorial net can be used to plot both
great circles and poles. Polar equal area stereonet or equal area polar net can only be
used to plot poles.
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63. Equal area projection helps in contouring of pole plots to find concentrations of poles
that represent preferred orientations of sets of discontinuity.
64. The primary purpose of plotting great circles of discontinuity sets in a slope is to
determine the shape of blocks formed by intersecting discontinuities, and the direction
in which they may slide.
65. The two intersection planes may form a wedge-shaped block. The direction in which
the block may slide is determined by the trend of the line of intersection.
66. Mineralogical composition is the intrinsic property controlling the strength of rock.
Although there exist more than about 2000 kinds of known minerals, only about 9 of
them partake decisively in forming the composition of rocks. They are: quartz,
feldspars, micas, hornblende, augite, olivine, calcite, kaolinite and dolomite. Rocks
containing quartz as the binder are the strongest, followed by calcite and ferrous
minerals as the cementing agent glue. Rocks with clayey binder are the weakest.
67. Usually, igneous and metamorphic rocks have greater unit weight than sedimentary
rocks.
68. The porosity of sedimentary rocks depends upon the cementing material of the
aggregate present. Usually the largest porosity values are observed in sedimentary
rocks.
69. Most rock contains moisture of less than 1% to more than 35% in porous rocks such
as sandstone.
70. For the uniaxial compressive strength, the length to diameter ratio of cylindrical
specimens shall preferably be 2 to 3.
71. The typical stress-strain curves for rock materials in uniaxial compression to failure
indicate the following types of rock behaviour: elastic, elastic-plastic, plastic-elastic,
plastic-elastic-plastic, and elastic-plastic-creep.
72. Laboratory tests are generally carried out on intact rock specimens, which will not
reflect the discontinuities present within the rock mass.
73. Uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of rocks is described as: Very high strength
(>220 MPa), high strength (110 - 120 MPa), medium strength (55 - 110 MPa), low
strength (27.5 55 MPa), and very low strength (<27.5 MPa).
74. UCS of 1 MPa is the cut-off between soils and rocks.
75. UCS is the most used strength parameter in the designs and analysis in rocks.
76. The point load test may be used to provide an indirect estimate of uniaxial
compressive strength when the facilities required to prepare specimens and carry out
uniaxial compression tests are not available. This test is conducted in a point load
tester. The specimen is a roughly chiselled spherical mass with diameter ranging from
30 mm to 50 mm. The simple apparatus can be taken to the site where several
specimens can be tested within few minutes, which will be of good value in
preliminary assessments.
77. The rock at the construction site is rarely in a state of uniaxial compression. In the
general case, there will be a state of polyaxial stress (1 2 3).
78. It is difficult to carry out a proper tensile strength test on rocks. Brazilian indirect
tensile test is a simple way around this problem. In Brazilian indirect tensile test,
tensile failure is induced in the rock specimen by applying a vertical compressive load
diametrically.
79. The tensile strength of rock is only about 10% of its uniaxial compressive strength.

80. Direct shear test is usually conducted to determine the shear strength parameters along
a joint plane.
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81. Durability of rock depends on the nature of the rock environment such as climate
and atmosphere. The estimates for the life of rock as a building stone are: 20 to 40
years for limestone; 40 years for coarse marble; 50 to 200 years for fine marble; 75 to
200 years for granite.
82. The slake durability test is conducted on rocks to ascertain their resistance to
disintegration when subjected to two specified cycles of drying and wetting.
83. Schmidt hammer test is used to determine the rebound hardness of rocks and concrete.
It is not recommended for very weak or very hard rocks. It is a non-destructive test
that can be carried out on rock cores in the laboratory or in the field outcrops. It gives
a dimensionless empirical relative hardness number in the range of 1-100.
84. Flexural strength test is used to determine the load capacity of rock beams and slabs.
85. The ratio of tangent modulus (Et) at 50% ultimate strength to the ultimate strength
(ult) is termed as the modulus ratio. On the basis of modulus ratio, the rocks are
placed in three classes: High (H), Medium (M) and Low (L).
86. Triaxial tests are effective in assessing the strength variation with confining pressures.
87. Most rocks are dielectrics. The resistivity of rocks varies from 10-2 to 1016 ohm-cm.
88. An increase in temperature lowers the rock strength and increases ductility.
89. In some mines, the rock temperature ranges from about -18 C to +60 C.
90. For a rock mass, discontinuity is a collective term for all fractures or features such as
joints, faults, shears, bedding planes and other defects that have zero or relatively low
tensile strengths. Due to the presence of discontinuities in rock mass, rock mechanics
works both in plane and in space; whereas due to the absence of discontinuities in soil
mass, soil mechanics generally works in plane.
91. The factors affecting discontinuities are: orientation, spacing, persistence, roughness,
wall strength, aperture, filling, seepage, number of joint sets, and block size and
shape.
92. A close spacing may change the mode of failure of a rock mass from translational to
circular or even to flow.
93. Persistence implies the areal extent or size of a discontinuity within a plane.
94. Aperture is the perpendicular distance separating the adjacent rock walls of an open
discontinuity in which the intervening space is filled with air or water.
95. Total number of joints intersecting a unit volume of the rock mass (volumetric joint
count, Jv), is defined as the sum of the number of joints per metre of each joint set
present.
96. Filling has a major influence on the shear strength of discontinuities. It also affects the
permeability and deformability.
97. The rock mass is weaker and more permeable than the intact rock, mainly due to the
discontinuities present.
98. While all laboratory tests are carried out on the intact rock, it is the strength and
deformability of the rock mass that governs the stability.
99. Intact rock strength is only one of the parameters that govern the rock mass
behaviour.
100. RQD is a reflection of joint spacing or volumetric joint count.
101. The rock mass is classified based on intact rock properties (intact rock
strength), joint characteristics (e.g. spacing, roughness) and the boundary conditions
(stress field, water).
102. The friction angle at the joint is derived from two components: The basic
friction angle b and the joint roughness angle i. i.e. = b + i. The basic friction
angle b is approximately equal to the residual friction angle r.
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103. Rock Mass Rating (RMR) and Tunnelling Quality Index (Q) are the two
popular rock mass classification systems. They both rely on similar parameters, with
slight difference in the weightings of these parameters. These were developed for
tunnelling but are used in other applications as well.
104. The uniaxial compressive strength (UCS) of the rock material has been
included as a classification parameter in the majority of rock classification systems.
The second parameter most commonly employed is the rock quality designation
(RQD).
105. Rock mass classifications form the backbone of the empirical design approach
and are widely employed in rock engineering. Most tunnels now constructed make
use of some classification system.
106. Terzaghis rock load classification is the most used and best known of early
rock mass classifications; this classification is the first rational method of
classification by evaluating rock loads appropriate to the design of steel arch
supported tunnels.
107. Squeezing rock slowly advances into the tunnel without perceptible volume
increase. Swelling rock advances into the tunnel chiefly on account of expansion. The
capacity of swell seems to be high to those rocks that contain clay minerals such as
montmorillonite, with a high swelling capacity.
108. Rock structure rating (RSR) classification, developed in the Unites States in
1972, considers two general categories of factors influencing rock mass behaviour in
tunneling: geological parameters (rock type, joint pattern, joint orientations (dip and
strike), type of discontinuities, major faults, shears and folds, rock material and
properties, weathering or alteration), and construction parameters (size of tunnel,
direction of drive, and method of excavation). All these factors are grouped into 3
basic parameters: A, B and C. RSR = A + B + C, with a maximum value of 100.
109. The rock mass rating (RMR) system, developed by Bieniawski during 1972-
1973, uses 6 parameters to classify a rock mass.
110. The Q system, developed in Norway in 1974 by Barton and team members at
the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute for tunnel support design, uses 6 parameters to
classify a rock mass.
111. Geological Strength Index (GSI) is useful in determining the parameters in
Hoek-Brown failure criterion. It is obtained from two qualitative parameters
describing the interlocking of the rock pieces and the surface quality. It can also be
derived indirectly from RMR or Q.
112. RMR and GSI are numbers that range from 0 to 100. Q varies from 0.001 to
1000+, similar to grain sizes. Larger the value, better the rock mass characteristics.
113. NATM classification involves a combination of many established ways of
excavation and tunneling, but the difference is the continual monitoring of the rock
movement and the revision of support to obtain the most stable and economical lining.
114. The presence of discontinuities makes the rock mass behave anisotropically.
However, when there are too many discontinuities (e.g. joints) the block size is
reduced and with increased degrees of freedom for movement, the rock mass becomes
isotropic and acts like soils.
115. In rocks, the horizontal stress is often larger than the vertical stress. This is
opposite to what we see in soils.
116. Rock overburden pressure can be estimated using an average unit weight of 27
3
kN/m .
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117. Isotropic linear elastic constitutive is the simplest of all models present. The
stresses and strains can be related by two constants Youngs modulus E and Poissons
ratio .
118. Plane strain, plane stress and axi-symmetric loadings are three special
situations that we encounter when solving engineering problems.
119. The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is freely used for soils. In rocks, it does
not work very well in tensile region. c, t, t can be related to c and , based on the
Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
120. The peak shear strength can be significantly larger than the residual one (p >
r, cr 0).
121. The Hoek-Brown failure criterion is more popular than the Mohr-Coulomb for
rock mechanics applications. It can be applied to the intact rock as well as the rock
mass.
122. The Hoek-Brown constant mi is analogous to the friction angle in the Mohr-
Coulomb failure criterion. The constant s is analogous to cohesion.
123. The Hoek-Brown constant mi of an intact rock is approximately equal to the
ratio ci/ti.
124. Typical values: m = 0 (weak) to 35 (strong); s = 0 (weak) to 1 (strong); a =
0.50 (strong) to 0.65 (weak).
125. In the Hoek-Brown model, the parameters for rock mass and the intact rock
are related through GSI which accounts for the quality (interlocking of the blocks and
joint surface) of the rock mass.
126. When the failure envelope is drawn on 1 -3 space, the intercepts of the
failure envelope on the two axes give the uniaxial compressive and tensile strengths.
This is true for both Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown failure criteria.
127. For massive rock mass with widely spaced discontinuities, with GSI or RMR
approaching 100, the rock mass will have the same strength and modulus as the intact
rock.
128. The causes of slope stability: the gravitational forces, seepage forces,
vibrations from earthquakes, pile driving, blasting or vehicle movement, construction
operations, rapid drawdown, rains and melting snow, erosion from streams and rivers,
deforestation
129. Types of soil slope failures: rotational slides/slips, translational slides/slips,
compound slides/slips,
130. Types of rock slope failures: plane failure, wedge failure, circular failure,
toppling failure
131. Plane failure occurs when a geological discontinuity, such as a bedding plane,
strikes parallel to the slope face and dips into the excavation at an angle greater than
the angle of friction.
132. Wedge failures occur when two discontinuities strike obliquely across the
slope face and their line of intersection daylights in the slope face. In this failure
mode, the wedge of rock resting on these discontinuities will slide down the line of
intersection, provided that the inclination of this line is significantly greater than the
angle of friction.
133. Circular failures occur when the rock is very weak, as in a soil slope, or when
the rock mass is very heavily jointed or broken, as in a waste rock dump. This failure
will be defined as a single discontinuity surface but will tend to follow a circular
failure path.
134. Toppling failure involves rotation of columns or blocks of rock about a fixed
base.
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135. The factor of safety of a soil/rock slope is defined as a ratio of sum of the
resisting forces to the sum of driving forces.
136. Factor of safety of a rock slope against plane failure with ground water and
bolting forces acting on sliding surface can be derived analytically. In earthquake-
prone areas, seismic forces should be considered.
137. The strategies for the treatment of unstable slopes are: avoidance, correction,
desensitization and acceptance. Avoidance involves the relocation of elements at
risk to a less hazardous location. Correction strategy is the engineers favourite
recourse. Desensitization strategy is adopted when the underlying problem cannot be
addressed.
138. Correction methods for slope stabilization are: geometric methods,
hydrological methods, and chemical and mechanical methods.
139. Geometrical methods involve alteration of slope geometry, either its profile by
cut and/or fill, or its internal details, for example by digging out and replacing the
landslip mass
140. Hydrological methods involve improvement of soil or rock properties, most
often by decreasing the pore water pressures through groundwater table lowering or
reduction in water content.
141. Chemical and mechanical methods involve increase in the shear strength of
sliding soil/rock mass or reduction in the external force causing the slope instability.
142. Grouting can be used to increase the shear strength and to lower the
permeability of coarse-grained soils.
143. The shear strength of soils can be increased with quicklime and cement. Lime
is generally more effective in case of highly plastic clays; whereas it is advantageous
to use cement when the soil is sandy or silty.
144. Geosynthetics can be used to stabilize unstable slopes/landslides by various
ways.
145. Rock bolts have been used primarily to stabilize slab slides in rock by
increasing the normal force acting on a potential sliding surface and by dowel action.
146. Soil nailing is a form of soil reinforcement that is particularly useful to prevent
relatively shallow slides. With this method, steel reinforcement bars, 15 to 30 mm in
diameter, are grouted in holes drilled into the slope. The length of bars is 3 to 10 m
depending on the location of the estimated slip surface. The spacing is typically 2 m.
147. Driven piles are used to stabilize unstable slopes when the affected area is
small.
148. Crib walls, gabion walls, reinforced earth, welded-wire walls, and reinforced
concrete walls have been used successfully to stabilize unstable slopes by increasing
the resisting force at the toe.

149. A foundation is considered as shallow if its depth is generally less than or

equal to its width. The most common types of shallow foundations on rock and soil
are spread footings and mats (or rafts).
150. In hard rocks, with ultimate compressive strength of 10 MPa or above arrived
at after considering the overall characteristics of the rock, such as fissures, joints,
bedding planes, etc., the minimum depth of foundation is taken as 0.6 m, whereas in
all other types of rock, it is 1.5 m.
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151. The value of net allowable bearing pressure (qna) is generally recommended
for design of shallow foundations. The allowable pressure values of rocks for average
condition may be taken as follows: for hard rocks, qna = 2 to 3 MPa; for soft rocks, qna
= 1 to 2 MPa; and for weathered rocks, conglomerates and laterites, qna < 1 MPa.
These values should be modified after taking into account the various characteristics
of rocks at the construction site.
152. In many cases the allowable bearing pressure is taken in the range of one-third
to one-tenth the unconfined compressive strength obtained from intact rock samples
and using RQD as a guide, for example, as one-tenth for a small RQD.
153. The foundation is considered as deep if its depth is generally greater than its
width. The most common types of deep foundations on rock and soil are piles and
drilled piers.
154. In most cases, calculation of the load-carrying capacity of pile resting on rock
based on the yield strength the pile material is sufficient.
155. It is common to use large safety factors (2.5 to 10) in estimating bearing
capacity of rock foundation.
156. The foundation excavation and treatment procedure is highly governed by the
geological features of the site as well as by the experience of the person doing the
excavation work.