POWER TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION EE368

INDEX
attentuation constant .......... 3
boost and buck transformers9
bundle
capacitance .................... 3
radius ............................ 8
calculus............................ 11
capacitance
inline voltage drop ......... 5
pos./neg. sequence ......... 3
zero sequence................. 3
capacitance matrix ............. 5
capacitance per unit length . 3
coaxial line ........................ 2
capacitance .................... 3
complex depth.................... 4
constants .......................... 11
corona.............................. 10
cross product.................... 10
dot product....................... 10
electric field....................... 6
electric shock ..................... 5
flashover .......................... 10
flux .................................... 7
flux linking ........................ 7
geomagnetic storm ............. 7
geometry.......................... 10
ground rod resistance ......... 9
impedance
characteristic.................. 3
surge.............................. 3
inductance
inline voltage drop ......... 5
pos./neg. sequence ......... 4
zero sequence................. 4
inductance per unit length .. 4
interference ........................ 6
lightning and transients ...... 9
lossless line........................ 1
magnetic flux ..................... 7
Markt Mengele method ...... 6
natural log........................ 11
noise .................................. 6
phase constant.................... 3
p-matrix ............................. 8
positive sequence ............... 4
propagation constant .......... 3
reflection coefficient
current ........................... 9
voltage........................... 9
standing wave ratio SWR ... 4
step voltage ........................ 5
substation........................... 9
telegraphers' equations ....... 1
transformers....................... 9
transit time......................... 5
transmission coefficient...... 9
transmission line ................ 1
traveling waves .................. 4
trickle pulse ..................... 10
trigonometric identities .... 11
velocity of propagation ....... 3
voltage
across insulators............. 6
between two points ........ 5
due to a single line......... 5
peak............................... 5
rms ................................ 5
step................................ 5
voltage regulator ................ 9
wavelength......................... 2

THE LOSSLESS LINE TRANSMISSION LINE BASICS

Most transmission lines fall into this category. The Locations along the d = length [m]
formulas are simplified since R 0 and G . transmission line are VS = voltage (complex) at the
L2 = (gamma) propagation traditionally referenced sending end [v]
constant from the receiving end. VR = voltage (complex) at the
= attenuation constant d receiving end [v]
= phase constant [rad/m] IS = source current (complex)
C
L2 A = volts [A]
B = volts VS VR IR = load current (complex)
z z Z0 = characteristic or surge
V = Ae + Be impedance [] z = -d z =0
[A]
z = distance from the receiving
Ae z Be z
I= VR = A + B
end (a negative value or
Z0 zero) [m]
1 = (gamma) propagation
when R << L and G << C then: I R = ( A B) constant. Refer to
z0 "ALPHA, BETA, GAMMA"
R C G L
= + and = LC on page 3.
2 L 2 C
VS = VR cosh d + Z 0 I R sinh d VS = VR cosh d + z0I R sinh d
VR
V L IS = sinh d + I R cosh d
I S = R sinh d + I R cosh d Z0 = z0
Z0 C

SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE TELEGRAPHERS EQUATIONS

A transmission line is considered short when there is a for a lossless line
small angular variation, z << 1 radian. 2v 2v L = inductance [H/m]
= LC C = capacitance [F/m]
z 2 2t
v = voltage [V]
2v 2i
= LC z = distance along line [m]
z 2 2t t = time [s]

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 1 of 11

 EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR A TWO-PORT SYSTEM
TRANSMISSION LINE IS IR
i R2 L2 i + di
VS 2-PORT VR
Source Load
v G C v + dv
R2 L2
cosh( d ) Z 0 sinh( d )
VS VR
i i + di I = sinh( d ) cosh( d ) I
1
S R
KVL: z0
R L di R L di
v + dz i + dz + (v + dv) + dz i + dz = 0 This matrix equation is equivalent to:
2 2 dt 2 2 dt VS = cosh( d ) VR + Z 0 sinh( d ) I R and
(R dz ) i + (L dz ) di + dv = 0 1
dt I S = sinh( d ) VR + cosh( d ) I R
z0
dv = (R dz ) i + (L dz )
di
dt This can also be expressed:
dv di e d + e d e d e d
= Ri + L VS = VR + z 0 I R
dz dt
2 2
V
Phasor form: = ( R + jL ) I 1 e d e d e d + e d
z I S = VR + Z 0 I R
z0 2 2
KCL:

i + G dz (v + dv ) + C dz (v + dv ) + (i + di ) = 0
d THE PI EQUIVALENT MODEL
dt ySR
di = G dz (v + dv ) + C dz (v + dv )
d
dt
di dv VS yS yR VR
= Gv C
dz dt
I
Phasor form: = (G + jC ) V
z d
tanh
R = resistance [/m] i = current, amps [A] cosh( d ) 1 2
y R = yS = =
L = inductance [H/m] z = distance [m] z 0 sinh( d ) z0
G = conductance [v/m] V = V phasor
1
C = capacitance [F/m] I = I phasor y SR =
= phase angle [rad] z 0 sinh( d )

WAVELENGTH
OPEN-CIRCUIT COAXIAL LINE
= wavelength [m]
2 2 = phase constant [rad./m]
= =
LC = frequency [rad./s] d ~ V sin t
2v p v p f = frequency [Hz]
= = vp = velocity of propagation
f (2.998108 for a conductor in cos d jZ 0 sin d
VS R
V
air) [m/s] I = j sin d cos d I R

S
Z0
9
In this case, = 3.33 10 r r

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 2 of 11

 VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION vp CAPACITANCE PER UNIT LENGTH
The speed at which a wave travels down the line. For Single line in air 0 = Permittivity of free space
a transmission line in air, this is near the speed of (capacitance decreases 8.8510-12 [F/m]
light, c = 2.998 108 m/s with height):
r = relative permittivity
vp = velocity of propagation [m/s] 2 0 [constant]
1 C=
vp = L = inductance [H/m] 2h h = height of transmission line
LC C = capacitance [F/m] ln [m]
r
Two conductors in a r = radius of the conductor [m]
bundle: Daai = distance from conductor a
SURGE IMPEDANCE or to its image [m]
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE 2 0
C= Dabi = distance from conductor a
The cable materials and the arrangement of the Daai Dabi to the image of conductor b
conductors determine the surge impedance. It has ln [m]
nothing to do with resistance. r Dab
Dab = distance from conductor a
Z0 = surge impedance (has Coaxial cable: to conductor b [m]
nothing to do with resistance) r0 = outer radius of a coaxial
2 0 r
[] C= conductor [m]
R + jL R = resistance [/m] r ri = inner radius of a coaxial
Z0 = L = inductance [H/m] ln 0
G + j C ri conductor [m]
G = conductance [v/m]
C = capacitance [F/m]
= frequency [radians/sec.] POS./NEG.-SEQUENCE CAPACITANCE
3-phase positive or negative sequence capacitance:

ALPHA, BETA, GAMMA 2 0

C+ / = where the
when R << L and = attenuation GMD+ /
ln
G << C then: constant
GMR+ /
= phase constant
R C G L [rad./m]
= + geometric mean distance between conductors is:
2 L 2 C = (gamma)
propagation GMD+ / = 3 Dab Dac Dbc
and = LC constant and the geometric mean radius is:
Z0 = surge impedance GMR+ / = 3 ra rb rc
(has nothing to do
= ( R + jL)(G + jC )
with resistance) []
= + j A = volts ZERO-SEQUENCE CAPACITANCE
V = Ae z + Be z B = volts
3-phase zero-sequence capacitance:
VR = voltage at the
Ae z Be z
I= receiving end 20
Z0 IR = current at the C0 = where the

VR = A + B
receiving end 3 ln GMD0
GMR0
1
IR = (A B) geometric mean distance between conductors is:
Z0 GMD0 = 9 Daai Dabi Daci Dbai Dbbi Dbci Dcai Dcbi Dcci
and the geometric mean radius is:
GMR0 = 9 ra rb rc Dab Dac Dba Dbc Dca Dcb

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 3 of 11

 INDUCTANCE PER UNIT LENGTH dc COMPLEX DEPTH
Single line in air 0 = (mu) Permeability constant Complex depth is an adustment to the actual depth of
(inductance increases 410-7 [H/m, Tm/A] the conductor image, used when calculating
with height): r = (mu) relative permeability, a inductance.
0 2h value near 1 for many materials The value of dc added to the a
L= ln h = height of transmission line [m] above-ground height of the
2 r conductors gives the
conductor
r = radius of the conductor [m]
Coaxial cable: r0 = outer radius of a coaxial distance to effective earth. h
0 r r0 conductor [m] In other words, instead of
L= ln ri = inner radius of a coaxial Daai = 2h, we now have
2 ri Daai = 2h + 2dc. real earth
conductor [m]
1 dc
dc = effective earth
POS./NEG.-SEQUENCE INDUCTANCE (1 + j ) f 0
dc
3-phase positive or negative sequence inductance: f = frequency [Hz]
0 = (mu) Permeability
0 GMD+ /
L+ / = ln where the constant 410-7 [H/m,
2 GMR+ / Tm/A] h conductor
= constant, 0.01 for image
geometric mean distance between conductors is:
limestone [(-m)-1]
GMD+ / = 3 Dab Dac Dbc ai
and the geometric mean radius is:
GMR+ / = 3 ra rb rc (see note) POSITIVE SEQUENCE
Note: Apply a multiplier of e 1 / 4 to the physical VC
radius of each conductor. Va = Vag 0
VA Vb = Vag -120
ZERO-SEQUENCE INDUCTANCE Vc = Vag 120
3-phase zero-sequence inductance:
0 VB
L0 = 3 ln GMD0 where the
2 GMR0
STANDING WAVE RATIO
geometric mean distance between conductors is:
the ratio of peak voltage to minimum voltage:
GMD0 = 9 Daai Dabi Daci Dbai Dbbi Dbci Dcai Dcbi Dcci
MAX (V ( z ) rms ) 1 +
and the geometric mean radius is: SWR = =
MIN(V ( z ) rms ) 1
GMR0 = 9 ra rb rc Dab Dac Dba Dbc Dca Dcb (see note)
where is the magnitude of the reflection coefficient
Note: Apply a multiplier of e 1 / 4 to the physical
radius of each conductor.
TRAVELING WAVES

142
(
v(t , z ) = F1 t z LC + F2 t + z LC
4 44 3 14 4244 3
) ( )
+ -
forward wave V reverse wave V

i(t , z ) =
F1
z
( F
)
t z LC 2 t + z LC
z
( )
10 4
4244 3 10 44244 3
forward wave I + reverse wave I -
Forward traveling wave: Reverse traveling wave:
z + z
e e

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 4 of 11

 TRANSIT TIME CAPACITANCE MATRIX
td = 1-way transit time [s] The upper and lower triangles of the capacitance
d
td = d = length of transmission line [m] matrix are equal.
vp vp = velocity of propagation [m/s] q a C aa C ab C ac Vag
q = C
b ab C bb C bc Vbg
VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS INLINE q c C ac C bc C cc Vcg
ELEMENTS
2 0 2 0
Series inductance: v = I ( jL) C aa = C ab =
2h D
ln ln abi
I ra Dab
Series capacitance: v =
jC
ELECTRIC SHOCK
PEAK, RMS, and VOLTAGE TO GROUND Danzeil's Electro- Perception level: 1 mA
cution Formula: Let go level: 10-20 mA
Vab (3 )
Vab peak = Vab rms 2 Vag = 0.165 Death level: 100 mA
3 I= A Body resistance: 1k
t

VOLTAGE BETWEEN TWO POINTS

STEP VOLTAGE
b and c DUE TO A CHARGED LINE a
Step voltage is the potential per flag
q Dab Dcai a unit length across the surface of pole
Vbc = a ln Dab the earth. This can be a shock
2 0 Dac Dbai
Dac b hazard in the case of a lightning
qa = CV = unit charge on the line [c/m] c strike or large fault (short circuit).
0 = Permittivity of free space
8.8510-12 [F/m] For the flag pole:
Dcai Dbai
Dab = distance from line a to point b [m] I r2 r1
V =
2 r1r2
Dcai = distance from point c to the
image of line a [m]
ai V

VOLTAGE TO GROUND AT POINT b For the ground rod: r2

DUE TO TRANSMISSION LINE a I r (l + r1 ) r1
V = ln 2
D a 2 l r1 (l + r2 )
ln bai V
Dab Dab V = step voltage (as shown) [V] ground
Vbg = Va h rod
2h = constant, 0.01 for limestone
ln b V
ra [(-m)-1]
l = length of the ground rod [m]
Dbai = distance from point b to the l
image of line a [m] Dbai
Dab = distance from line a to point b [m]
r = radius of conductor a [m] ai

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 5 of 11

 VOLTAGE ACROSS INSULATORS MARKT MENGELE METHOD
DUE TO CAPACITANCE for computing average maximum peak bundle
sinh n
Vn = V g gradientused in noise calculations
( )
TOWER ARM
sinh z 1. Treat each phase bundle as a 1/ N
single equivalent conductor req = NrA N 1
= c/C with radius:
= capacitance ratio c C 2. Find the CNxN matrix. Kron reduce it to C3x3. Select
c = capacitance between the phase bundle with the maximum diagonal C term
insulator and arm [F] c C (this is usually the inside bundle). Put Vmax on it, (-
C = capacitance across C
Vmax/2) on the other two bundles, and compute the
c peak bundle line charge ql peak.
insulator [F]
Vn = voltage between arm and c C 3. Assuming equal charge division, calculate the average
insulator unit n [V] maximum bundle gradient and the average maximum
Vg = line voltage [V] c C peak bundle gradient.
n = integer value denoting a q l peak
c C E avg max =
particular insulator unit.
n = 1 is the unit attached
2N 0 r
at the tower arm r
E avg peak = E avg max 1 + ( N 1)
CONDUCTOR
z = total no. of insulator units
A
N = number of conductors in the bundle
ELECTRIC FIELD r = conductor radius (not the bundle radius) [m]
Perception level: 10 kV/m rms A = bundle radius, measured from center of bundle to
Annoyance level (sparks): 15-20 kV/m rms center of conductor [m]
Design limit (peak): 2200 kV/m or 22 kV/cm
Critical (air breakdown): 3000 kV/m or 30 kV/cm
Er = radial electric field NOISE AND INTERFERENCE
ql ) [V/m]
Er = ar TRANSMISSION LINE NOISE
2 0 r ql = line charge [C/m]
r = conductor radius [m] Transmission line noise is caused by corona. It has a
Breakdown in dry air: 120 Hz base frequency and is the effect of positive
2/3
r = radial unit vector
17.9 P EBK = breakdown [V/m] and negative ions moving back and forth. The
E BK = 3000 attenuation is 3 dB per doubling distance from the
459 + T P = atmospheric pressure
line. This is a slow attenuation due to the length of
[in. Hg]
the line. In the 1000 kV range, sound is a limiting
T = temperature [F]
factor.
Electric field for a bundle of 2:
sound pressure
ql / 2 ql / 2 sound level (dB) = 20 log 10
E= + 20 nPa reference pressure
2 0 (r x) 2 0 (2 A + r + x ) Noise per phase:
A x = displacement of the AN = 120 log g + K log N + 55 log d 11.4 log D + AN 0
CONDUCTORS center of charge from
x the center of the AN = some kind of noise [dB or dBA?, meaning above
r conductor [m] level of perception]
A = bundle radius, g = peak surface gradient by Markt Mengele method
measured from center [kV/cm]
CENTER OF CHARGE
of bundle to center of d = dunno [m]
conductor [m] D = wire to listener distance [m]
AN0 = some other kind of noise [dB]

RADIO INTERFERENCE
Corona discharge occurs only on very high
voltage lines.
Gap discharge usually indicates a physical
problem, can occur on distribution lines.

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 6 of 11

 GEOMAGNETIC STORM FLUX LINKING 2 conductors
Low frequency flux, almost DC. Occurs in east/west The amount of flux linking two wires is the amount of
lines in polar areas. flux passing between them. This applies to two
conductors of equal radius carrying equal current in
opposite directions.
ELECTRIC FIELD and CAPACITANCE D req 0 I D req I I D req
in a coaxial conductor = dx + 0
dx = 0 ln
x = req 2x x = req 2 x req
ql Er = radial electric field [V/m]
** E r = ql = line charge [C/m] 0 D
2 0 r r Ll = ln req = re 1 / 4 = 0.7788r
r
0 = Permittivity of free space req
V = 8.8510-12 [F/m]
o
E r dr D = distance between two conductors
r = ri
r = relative permittivity [constant] (center to center) [m]
ql magnetic
ro 1
r =ri r dr
r = radial distance [m]
= I = current [A] flux
2 0 r ri = inner conductor radius [m] x = a distance along D [m]
ro = outer conductor radius [m] = amount of magnetic flux passing
ql r
= ln o V = voltage between inner and through a surface [H/m2]
2 0 r ri outer conductor [V]
Ll = inductance per meter between 2
q 2 0 r C = capacitance per meter [F/m]
conductors [H/m]
C= l = Emax = maximum electric field
V r req = equivalent radius [m]
ln o (near center conductor) [m]
ri
ql V FLUX LINKING 1 conductor above earth
E max = =
2 0 r ri r The amount of flux linking a single wire above earth is
ri ln o the total flux passing between the conductor and the
ri ground, summing the contributions by the conductor
**When using this formula to find the height above ground and by its image.
at which breakdown occurs, r is the conductor radius, not
0 I h 1 2 h req 1 0 I 2h req
2 x= req x x=h x = 2 ln req
the height, because breakdown begins at the surface of = dx + dx
the conductor.
magnetic
MAGNETIC FLUX NOTE: Use the flux
equivalent radius,
MAGNETIC FLUX req = re 1 / 4 .
h
L = inductance [H] 0 2h req ground
N = number of turns Ll = ln
N 2 req
L= I = current [A]
I H = magnetic field intensity (direction
1
H = by right-hand rule) [A/m] conductor image
2r B = magnetic flux density [W/m2]
= permiability of free space 410-7
B = H
r = relative permittivity [constant]
S = Bds r = radial distance [m]
s S = amount of magnetic flux passing
2
through a surface [H/m ]

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 7 of 11

 FLUX LINKING TO GROUND P MATRIX
multiple conductors above earth The relationship between three conductors in air is:

The diagram and b

Vag Paa Pab Pac q a
P Pbc q b
conductors 1
Vbg = 2
formula concern the Pbb
flux linking for a c ba
Vcg
magnetic
conductor a due to flux

0
Pca Pcb Pcc q c
conductor b only. where Vag is the voltage from conductor a to ground,
Daai
where Paa = ln
ground
with Daai being the distance
ra
between conductor a and its image, and ra being the
radius of conductor a.
ai ci Dabi
where Pab = ln with Dabi being the distance
conductor
images bi Dab
between conductor a and the image of conductor b,
0 I b Dbg dr 0 I b Dabi dr 0 I b Dabi
ba =
2
r = Dba r
+
2
r = D gbi r
=
2
ln
Dab
and Dab being the distance between conductors a and
b. The remaining P terms follow this pattern.
The expression can also be written:
1
Vabc = Pabc Qabc
2 0
Relationships involving capacitance are:
1*
2 0 Pabc = C abc and C abc Vabc = Qabc
The term Pabc-1* means a matrix in which the inverse
of the individual members has been carried out.
WITH GROUND CONDUCTORS:
Vag Paa Pab Pac Pav Paw q a
V P
bg ba Pbb Pbc Pbv Pbw q b
1
Vcg = Pca Pcb Pcc Pcv Pcw q c
2 0
Vvg Pva Pvb Pvc Pvv Pvw q v
Vwg Pwa Pww q w
Pwb Pwc Pwv
Since the grounds v and w have zero potential, the
matrix dimension 5 can be reduced to 3.

EQUIVALENT BUNDLE RADIUS

req = equivalent bundle radius [m]
N = number of conductors in the
(
req = NrA N 1 )
1/ N bundle
r = conductor radius [m]
A = bundle radius, measured from
center of bundle to center of
conductor [m]

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 8 of 11

 LIGHTNING AND TRANSIENTS I REFLECTION COEFFICIENT OF
CURRENT
LIGHTNING
I+ = forward-traveling current wave
Lightning is essentially a current I
[A]
I
souce. The model at right 50
kA
approximates the waveform of a I = + = V I- = reverse-traveling current wave
t I [A]
1.5 50 strike, meaning 1.5 s 0
rise time, 50 kA peak. Fall time is
1.5
s
16.5
s (Z L Z 0 ) V = reflection coefficient of
assumed 10 the rise time. = voltage
ZL + Z0 ZL = load impedance []
On distribution lines, chances ground
Z0 = characteristic impedance of
are greater that lightning damage the line []
will be from a ground return stroke,
so the ground wire is placed below
the current-carrying conductors. TRANSFORMERS
ground
With transmission lines, the BOOST AND BUCK
ground wire(s) is placed above the
current-carrying conductors, These two transformer types are the basis for the
providing a shadow angle of regulating transformer below.
protection.
Line Line
Boost
Buck
GROUND ROD RESISTANCE
R = ground rod resistance []
1 2h = conductivity of earth VOLTAGE REGULATOR
R= ln 1
2h a [1/( m)] The voltage regulator is used at substations to
h = rod depth [m] maintain a near constant output voltage under varying
a = rod radius [m] load conditions. The transformer can boost or buck
incrementally and employs motor-driven contacts.

V REFLECTION COEFFICIENT OF
VOLTAGE Line
The reflection coefficient is the factor by which the
voltage is multiplied to find the voltage of the Regulated
reflected wave. A voltage is reflected when it reaches Load
a discontinuity in the line, such as a load, tap, or
connection to a line of different characteristic
impedance. The reflection coefficient for an open- A substation will typically have two of these units.
ended line is 1 and for a short it is 1. Substation capacity is limited to 75% load. If one
transformer should fail, the remaining unit can handle
Z Z ZL = load impedance []
150% of its rated load for 2 hoursenough time to
V = L 0
Z0 = characteristic impedance of the
ZL + Z0 line []
switch loads to other substations.

V TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENT OF
VOLTAGE
V = 1 + V V = reflection coefficient of voltage
ZL = load impedance []
2Z L
= Z0 = characteristic impedance of the
ZL + Z0 line []

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 9 of 11

 GENERAL

MISCELLANEOUS DOT PRODUCT

Corona is the ionization of air; it is a source of radio The dot product is a scalar value.
interference, power loss, hissing, crackling noise, and A B = (x Ax + y Ay + z Az ) (x B x + y B y + z B z ) = Ax Bx + Ay B y + Az B z
visible blue light. Not a catastrophic arc. The effect is
intensified when moisture is in the air. A B = A B cos AB B
A flashover is an arc.
x y = 0 , x x = 1 A
B y = (x Bx + y By + z Bz ) y = By
Sparking occurs with poor, dirty connections.
A trickle pulse is thousands of pulses per half-cycle, AB
responsible for interference in the AM band. Projection of B
B B
Reasons for using multiple conductors: Most current flows along :
in the outer of the conductor, especially at higher
frequencies. The use of multiple conductors reduces the (B a )a
electromagnetic field, when arranged in a circular pattern,
but even two conductors side-by-side has a dramatic The dot product is commutative and distributive:
effect.
A B = B A A (B + C) = A B + A C
Surge impedance loading means that z LOAD = z 0 , i.e. the
impedance of the load is the same as the characteristic
CROSS PRODUCT
A B = (x Ax + y Ay + z Az ) (x B x + y B y + z B z )
impedance of the line. Under this condition, no wave
reflection occurs.
Charge on a conductor. The only way a conductor can have = x ( Ay B z Az B y ) + y ( Az B x Ax B z ) + z ( Ax B y Ay B x )
a charge is by direct contact. No charge does not mean
no voltage. A B = n A B sin AB AB
GRAPHING TERMINOLOGY where n is the unit vector normal to
With x being the horizontal axis and y the vertical, we have
n
both A and B (thumb of right-hand rule).
a graph of y versus x or y as a function of x. The x-axis A
represents the independent variable and the y-axis B A = A B
represents the dependent variable, so that when a graph
The cross product is distributive:
is used to illustrate data, the data of regular interval (often B
this is time) is plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding A (B + C ) = A B + A C
data is dependent on those values and is plotted on the y-
axis.
NABLA, DEL OR GRAD OPERATOR
MILLER THEOREM

The circuit at left may be replaced by the circuit at right. x + y + z
One of the resistances in the circuit at right will actually be x y z
an admittance.
R
GEOMETRY
v1 R1 R2 v2 SPHERE ELLIPSE
v1 v2 Area A = AB
Area A = 4r 2

4 3 Circumference
R R Volume V = r
K = v 2 / v1 R1 = R2 = 3 a2 + b2
1 K 1 1/ K L 2
2
For an admittance Y we have:
Y
v1 Y1 Y2 v2
v1 v2

K = v 2 / v1 Y1 = Y (1 K )
Y2 = Y (1 1 / K )

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 10 of 11

 TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES CALCULUS OPERATIONS
= + j Vr = voltage [V]
Vr = E r dr
Er = radial electric field [m]
sinh( d ) = sinh( d ) cos( d ) + j cosh( d ) sin( d )
dv iL = current in an inductor [A]
cosh(d ) = cosh(d ) cos( d ) + j sinh( d ) sin( d ) =E ? iC = current in a capacitor [A]
dz
vL = voltage across an inductor [V]
d sinh( d ) + j sin( d )
tanh = di vC = voltage across a capacitor [V]
2 cosh( d ) + cos( d ) v L (t ) = L
dt
d cosh( d ) 1
tanh = 1 t
L 0
i L (t ) = v d + i 0
2 sinh( d )
1 t
( d ) 3 vC (t ) = i d + v0
sin( d ) = ( d ) +L C 0
3! dv
iC (t ) = C
( d ) 2
dt
cos( d ) = 1 +L
2!
(d ) 3
sinh( d ) = (d ) + +L PROPERTIES OF THE NATURAL LOG
3!
A ln B = ln B A
(d ) 2 ln A + ln B = ln AB
cosh(d ) = 1 + +L ln A = B e B = A
2! A
ln A ln B = ln e A ln B = B A
B ln e A = A
CONSTANTS
Avogadros number
[molecules/mole] N A = 6.02 10 23
Boltzmanns constant k = 1.38 10 23 J/K
= 8.62 10 5 eV/K
Elementary charge q = 1.60 10 19 C
Electron mass m0 = 9.11 10 31 kg
Permittivity of free space 0 = 8.85 10 12 F/m
Permeability constant (mu) 0 = 4 10 7 [H/m]
Plancks constant h = 6.63 10 34 J-s
= 4.14 10 15 eV-s
Rydberg constant R = 109,678 cm-1
kT @ room temperature kT = 0.0259 eV
Speed of light c = 2.998 10 8 m/s
1 (angstrom) 10-8 cm = 10-10 m
1 m (micron) 10-4 cm
-7
1 nm = 10 = 10 cm
1 eV = 1.6 10-19 J
1 V = 1 J/C 1 N/C = 1 V/m 1 J = 1 Nm = 1 CV

Tom Penick tomzap@eden.com www.teicontrols.com/notes 05/10/99 Page 11 of 11