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INITIALS NAMES INITIALS NAMES' *
J.J.R.J. J.
ROLBIECKI IF.!. WILBUR LONG
J.K.F. JAMES K. FEIBLEMAN i. WILLIAM MARIAS MALISOFF
/.M. JOSEPH MAIER W. NORMAN PTTTENGER
J.A.F.JOSE A. FRANQUIZ W.S. IF. WILLIAM S. WEEDON
J.M.S. J. MACPHERSON SOMERVILLE IF.r.C W. T. CHAN
ABBREVIATIONS
The great field that must be compressed within the limits of a small
volume makes omissions inevitable. If any topics, or phases of a subject,
deserve space not here accorded them, it may be possible in future editions
to allow them room; I take this occasion to invite suggest iops and criticism,
to that end.
"Dictionaries are like watches,'* Samuel Johnson said; "the best can-
not be expected to go quite true, but the worst is better than none."
I trust that the present volume will serve as reliably as the chrono-
meter of today, in the time-pattern of the philosophic world.
I owe a debt of
profound appreciation to every one of the many
collaborators that have so generously contributed to the Dictionary. Espe-
THE EDITOR
(DiXoocxploc B(ou Ku6epvf|tT]q
Abailard, Peter: (1079-1142) Was born at Pal- reality or Parama Siva (cf.Indian Philosophy).
let in France > distinguished himself as a bril- Reflection, objectivity. K.F.L.
liant student of the trivium and quadriviumj Abheda: (Skr. "not distinct") Identity, particu-
studied logic with Roscelin and Wm. Cham-
of larly in reference to any philosophy of monism
peaux. He taught philosophy, with much em- which does not recognize the distinctness of
Schelling and Hegel. Its adoption spread in (c) the perfect, non-comparative, complete of its
France through Cousin and in Britain through kind; (d) the primordial or uncaused; (e) the
Hamilton. According to Kant the Ideas of independent or autonomous.
Reason seek both the absolute totality of condi- Logic, (a) Aristotelian logic involves such
tions and their absolutely unconditioned Ground. absolutes as the three laws of thought and
This Ground of the Real Fichte identified with changeless, objectively real classes or species,
the Absolute Ego (q.v.). For Schelling the Abso- (b) In Kantian logic the categories and prin-
lute is a primordial World Ground, a spiritual ciples of judgment are absolutes, i.e. a priori,
while the Ideas of reason seek absolute totality
unity behind all logical and ontological opposi-
the self-differentiating source of both and unity, (c) In the organic or metaphysical
tions,
Mind and Nature. For Hegel, however, the logic of the Hegelian school, the Absolute is
Absolute is the All conceived as a timeless, per- considered the ultimate terminus, referent, or
however, it was commonly appropriated by the unconditionally {e.g. the law of the best pos-
Absolute Idealists to connote with Hegel the sible, the utilitarian greatest happiness principle,
the Kantian categorical imperative).
complete, the whole, the perfect, i.e. the Real
Aesthetics. Aesthetic absolutes are standards,
conceived as an all-embracing unity that com-
plements, fulfills, or transmutes into a higher norms, principles of aesthetic taste considered as
the and "self- objective, i.e. universally valid. W.L.
synthesis partial, fragmentary,
contradictory" experiences, thoughts, purposes, Absolutism : The opposite of Relativism.
values, and achievements of finite existence. The 1. Metaphysics: the theory of the Absolute
specific emphasis given to this all-inclusive per- (q-v.).
fection considerably, i.e. logical whole-
varies 2. Epistemology: the doctrine that objective or
ness or concreteness (Hegel), metaphysical com- absolute, and not merely relative and human,
pleteness (Hamilton), mystical feeling (Brad- truth is possible.
ley), aesthetic completeness (Bosanquet), moral 3. Axiology: the view that standards of value
perfection (Royce). The Absolute is also vari- (moral or aesthetic) are absolute, objective,
ously conceived by this school as an all-inclusive superhuman, eternal.
Person, a Society of persons, and as an imper- 4. Politics. Cult of unrestricted sovereignty lo-
sonal whole of Experience. cated in the ruler. W.L.
More recently the term has been extended to Absolutistic Personalism: The ascription of
mean also (a) the All or totality of the real, personality to the Absolute. R.T.F.
however understood, and (b) the World Ground, Absorption: The name law of absoiption is given
whether conceived idealistically or materialisti- to either of the two dually related theorems of
cally, whether pantheistically, theistically, or the prepositional calculus,
dualistically. It thus stands for a variety of [p v pq\ =S p, p[p v q] p, &
metaphysical conceptions that have appeared or either of the t\\o corresponding dually related
widely and under various names in the history theorems of the algebra of classes,
of philosophy. In China: the Wu Chi (Non- a -> (a *"* b) rr a, a n {a b) sr a,
-*
Being), T'ai Chi (Being), and, on occasion, Any valid inference of the prepositional calculus
Tao. In India: the Vedantic Atman (Self) and which amounts to replacing A v AB
by A, or
Brahman (the Real), the Buddhist B hutatat hata A[A v B"J by A, or any valid inference of the
(indeterminate Thatness), Vignapttmdtra (the algebra of classes which amounts to replacing
One, pure, changeless, eternal consciousness A " (A B) by A, or A (A B) by A,
grounding all appearances), and the Void of is called absorption.
Nagarjuna. In Greece: the cosmic matrix of Whitehead and Russell {Principia Mathema-
the Ionian*, the One of the Eleatics, the Being tica) give the name law of absorption to the
or Good of Plato, the World Reason of Stoicism, theorem of the prepositional calculus,
the One of Neo-Platonism. In patristic and [P 3 9] [P pg]. s s
scholastic Christianity: the creator God, the Ens A. C.
Realissimum, Ens Perfectissimum, Sui Causa, and Abstract: (Lat. ab, from -f- trahere, to draw)
the God of mysticism generally (Erigena, Hugo A designation applied to a partial aspect or qual-
of St. Victor, Cusa, Boehme, Bruno). In mod- ity considered in isolation from a total object,
ern thought: the Substance of Descartes and which is, in contrast, designated concrete. L.W.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Abstracts: Such neutral, purely denotative en- <?(A) to denote what is essentially the function
numbers, relations, logical con-
tities as qualities, in extension (the "Werthverlauf" in his termi-
cepts, appearing neither directly nor literally
in nology) obtained from A
by abstraction relative
time. (Broad) H.H. to e.
tion is that of reason which abstracts not only interpretation for the notations appearing in
A)
matter and itspresence, but also from its ap- X*[A] denotes a propositional function. Then
x9(A) (Peano), or x (A) (Russell), denotes
pendices, that is, its sensible conditions and prop-
the class determined by this propositional func-
erties, considering essence or quiddity alone.
JJ.R. tion. Frege's e*(A) also belongs here, when the
function corresponding to A
(relatively to the
Abstraction: (Lat. ab, from +
trahere, to draw)
variable e) is a propositional function.
The process of ideally separating a partial aspect
Similarly, a relation in extension may be
or quality from a total object. Also the result
or product of mental abstraction. Abstraction,
formed by abstraction from a suitable formula A
relative to two particular variables taken in a
which, concentrates its attention on a single
given order. A.C.
aspect, differs from analysis which considers all Scholz and Schweitzer, Die sogtnannttn Dtfini-
aspects on a par. L.W. tionen dutch Abstrakthn, Leipzig, 1935. W. V.
In logic: Given a relation R which is transi- Quine, A
System of Logistic, Cambridge, Mass.,
1934. A. Church, review of the preceding, Bulletin
tive, symmetric, and reflexive, we may introduce of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 41
or postulate new elements corresponding to the (1935). pp. 498-603. W. V. Quine, Mathematical
members of the field of R, in such a way that Logic, New York, 1940.
the same new element corresponds to two mem- In psychology: the mental operation by which
bers x and y of the field of R if and only if we proceed from individuals to concepts of
xRy (see the Article relation). These new ele- classes, from individual dogs to the notion of
ments are then said to be obtained by abstraction "the dog." We abstract features common to
with respect to R. Peano calls this a method or several individuals, grouping them thus together
kind of definition, and speaks, e.g., of cardinal under one name.
numbers (q.v.) as obtained from classes by ab- In Scholasticism: the operation by which the
straction with respect to the relation of equiva- mind becomes cognizant of the universal (q.v.)
lencetwo classes having the same cardinal as represented by the individuals. Aristotle
number if and only if they are equivalent. and Thomas ascribe this operation to the active
Given a formula A containing a free variable, intellect (q.v.) which "illuminates" the image
say x t the process of forming a corresponding (phantasm) and disengages from it the uni-
monadic function (q.v.) defined by the rule versal nature to be received and made in-
that the value of the function for an argument telligible by the possible intellect. R.A.
b is -that which A
denotes if the variable * Abstractionism: (Lat. ab, from trahere, to +
is taken as denoting b is also called abstrac- draw) The illegitimate use of abstraction, and
tion, or functional abstraction. In this sense, especially the tendency to mistake abstractions
abstraction is an operation -upon a formula A for concrete realities. Cf. W. James, The Mean-
yielding a function, and is relative to a particu- ing of Truth, ch XIII. Equivalent to A. N.
lar system of interpretation for the notations Whitehead's "Fallacy of misplaced concreteness."
appearing in the formula, and to a particular L.W.
variable, as x. The requirement that A shall Abstractum (pi. abstracta): (Lat ab -f- trahere,
contain x as a free variable is not essential: to draw) An abstractum, in contrast to a con-
when A does not contain x as a free variable, cretum or existent is a quality or a relation
the function obtained by abstraction relative to envisaged by an abstract concept (e.g. redness,
x may be taken to be the function whose value, equality, truth etc.). The abstractum may be con-
the same for all arguments, is denoted by A. ceived either as an ideal object or as a real,
In articles herein by the present writer, the subsistent universal. L.W.
notation Xx[A] will be employed for the func- Ab universal! ad particular* valet, a particu-
tion obtained from A by abstraction relative to lar! ad universale non valet consequentia:
(or, as we may also say, with respect to) x. Adage stating the validity of arguments making
Russell, and Whitehead and Russell in Principin the transition from the general to the particular
Mathematica, employ for this purpose the for- and denying the permissibility of the converse
*
mula A with a circumflex placed over each process. JJ.R.
(free) occurrence of * but only for proposi- Academy: (Gr. akademia) A
gymnasium in the
tional functions. Frege (1893) uses a Greek suburbs of Athens, named after the hero Aca-
vowel, say e, as the variable relative to which demus, where Plato first taught j hence, the
abstraction is made, and employs the notation Platonic school of philosophy. Plato and hit
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
immediate successors are called the Old Aca- quality, thing or person which is in the direct
demy; the New Academy begins with Arcesilaus presence of the knowing subject. Acquaintance,
(c. 315 c. 241 B.C.)> and is identified with its in the strict sense, is restricted to the immediate
characteristic doctrine, probabilism (q.v.). data of experience but is commonly extended to
G.R.M. include the things or persons perceived by means
Accident: (Lat. accident} (in Scholasticism) Has of such data. See Description. Knowledge by.
no independent and self-sufficient existence, but L.W.
exists only in another being, a substance or an- Acroamatic: Communicated orally. Applied espe-
other accident. As opposed to substance the ac- cially to Aristotle's more private teachings to
cident called praedicamentale ; as naming fea-
is his select advanced students. Hence, esoteric,
tures of the essence or quiddity of a being ac- abstruse. C.A.B.
cidens praedtcabtle. Accidents may change, dis- Act: (in (1) Operation; as, the
Scholasticism)
appear or be added, while substance remains the intellect's act.In this sense, it is generally re-
same. Accidents are either proper, that is neces- ferred to as second act (see below).
sarily given with a definite essence (thus, the (2) That which determines or perfects a
"faculties of the soul" are proper accidents, be- thing; as rationality perfects animality.
cause to sense, strive, reason etc., is proper to Commanded: An act, originating in the will
the soul) or non-proper, contingent like color or but executed by some other power; as walking.
size. R.A. Elicited: The proper and immediate act of
In Aristotelian logic, whatever term can be the will) as love or hate.
predicated of, without being essential or peculiar First: (1) The prime form of a thing, in the
to the subject (q.v.). Logical or predicable sense of essence or integrity. The second act
its
(q.v.) opposed to property (q.v.) is that qual- is its operation. Thus the physical evil of blind-
ity which adheres to a subject in such a manner ness is the absence of the first act, i.e., a perfec-
that it neither constitutes its essence nor neces- tion due to man's integrity; while the moral
sarily flows from its essence; as, a man is white evil of sin is an absence of the second act, i.e.,
or learned. a perfection demanded by righteous
operation.
Physical or predicamental (q.v.) opposed to (2) First act also designate the faculty or
may
substance (q.v.) that whose nature it is to exist principle of operation, as the will; while second
not in itself but in some subject; as figure, act stands for its operations.
example of a more general accidentalism is in which it exists, to be fire and nothing else.
Charles Peirce's Tychism (q.v.). See Chance, Likewise the accidental form of heat determines
C.A ,B. a body to be warm rather than cold.
Contingency.
Acervus argument: A
Sophistical argument to Informative: Form, or that which is like a
the effect that, given any number of stones which form in some composite, e.g. the soul in man
are not sufficient to constitute a heap, one does or knowledge in the intelligent soul. H.G.
not obtain a heap by adding one more- yet Act-character: (Ger. Aktcharakter) In Husserl:
eventually, if this process is repeated, one has Intentionality. D.C.
a heap.--C.-4. B. Action: (in Scholasticism) Immanent: The ter-
Achilles argument: Zeno of Elea used a reductio minus is received in the agent, as in a subject;
ad absurdum argument against the possibility of as contemplation.
motion. He urged that if we assume itpossible Transient: The terminus is received in a
we are led to the absurdity that Achilles, the subject distinct from the agent; as ball-throwing.
fastest runner in Greece, could not catch a pro- H.G.
verbially slow tortoise. The alleged grounds for Activism: (Lat. activus, from agere, to act) The
this are that during the time, ti t, which it philosophical theory which considers activity,
takes Achilles to traverse the distance between particularly spiritual activity, to be the essence
his position and that of the tortoise at time ti, of reality. The concept of pure act (actus purus)
the latter even at his slow rate of speed would traceable to Aristotle's conception of divinity,
have moved on a finite distance farther. C.A.B. was influential in Scholastic thought, and persists
B. Russell, Scientific Method in Philos-
Cf. in Leibniz, Fichte and modern idealism. L.W.
ophy; Lewis Carroll, "Achilles and the Tor- Negatively, a repudiation of the intellectualistic
toise,* Mind. persuasion that an adequate solution of the truth
Acosmism: (Gr. kosmos, world) Theory of the problem can be found through an abstract in-
non-existence of an external, physical world. tellectual inquiry. Positively, a view of action
See Subjective Idealism. W.L. as the key to truth, similar to Fichte's view. The
Acquaintance, Knowledge by: (Lat. adcogni- true and sound standard of action is an inde-
tare, to make known) The apprehension of a pendent spiritual life, independent in bringing
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the world and life in accord with its values. bitrarily introduced as explanation after the fact.
Spiritual life grows by the active aid of human Adeism :
*
Max Muller coined the term which
cooperation to ever higher dimensions. Spiritual means the rejection of the devas, or gods, of
being is achieved by the vital deeds of indi- ancient India, similar to atheism which denies
viduals.(Eucken) //.#. the one God. J.J.R.
In the Personalistic sense activism applies Adequation: (Ger. Adequation) In Husserl: veri-
not only to the continuous creative willing fication) D.C.
fulfilment.
which underlies all reality but also to knowledge (Lat. adequatio) In Aquinas: relation of truth
which calls for an unceasing divine activity to being.
which is a sort of occasionalism. (Malebranche: Adhyatman: (Skr. adhi, over and atman, s.v.) A
Rechtrch* de la vlriti. Book I, Chap. XIV.) term for the Absolute which gained popularity
Charles Secre'tan: "To.be is to act." fl.r.F. with the reading of the Bhagavad Gita (cf. 8.3)
Act Psychology: (Lat. actum, a thing done) A and which Ralph Waldo Emerson rendered ap-
type of psychology traceable to F. Brentano, propriately "Oversoul" (cf. his essay The Over-
Psychologic vom empirischen Standpunkte ( 1 874) soul). K.F.L.
which considers the mental act (e.g. the act of Adiaphora: (Gr. indifferent) A Stoic term desig-
sensing a red color patch) rather than the con- nating entities which are morally indifferent.
tent (e.g. the red color) the proper subject mat- C.A.B.
ter of psychology. (See Intentionalism.) L.W. Adler, Alfred: (1870-1937) Originally a fol-
Acts: In ethics the main concern is usually lower of Freud (see Psychoanalysis} Freud), he
said to be with acts or actions, particularly vol- founded his own school in Vienna about 1912.
untary ones, in their moral relations, or with In contrast to Freud, he tended to minimize the
the moral qualities of acts and actions. By an role of sexuality and to place greater emphasis
act or action here is meant a bit of behavior or on the ego. He investigated the feelings of in-
conduct, the origination or attempted origina- feriority resulting from organic abnormality and
tion of a change by some agent, the execution deficiency and described the unconscious attempt
of some agent's choice or decision (so that not of the ego to compensate for such defects.
acting may be an act). As such, an act is often (Study of Organic Inferiority and its Psychical
distinguished from its motive, its intention, and Compensations, 1907). He extended the con-
its maxim on the one hand, and from its con- cept of the "inferiority complex" to include
sequences on the other, though it is not always psychical as well as physical deficiencies and
held that its moral qualities are independent of stressed the tendency of "compensation" to lead
these. Rather, it is frequently held that the to ov^r-correction. (The Neurotic Constitution,
Tightness of an act, or its moral goodness, or 1912} Problems of Neurosis, 1930.) L.W.
both, depend at least in part on the character Adoptionism: A christological doctrine prominent
or value of its motive, intention, maxim, or in Spain in the eighth century according to
consequences, or of the life or system of which which Christ, inasmuch as He was man, was
it is a part. Another question concerning acts the Son of God by adoption only, acknowledg-
ing, however, that inasmuch as He was God, as
in ethics is whether they must be free (in the
sense of being partially or wholly undetermined was also the Son of God by nature and genera-
by previous causts), as well as voluntary, in tion. The Church condemned the teaching.
order to be moral, and, if so, whether any acts 7.7.K.
are free in this sense. See Agent. W.K.F. Advaita: (Skr. "non-duality") The Vedintic (q.v.)
Actual: In Husserl: see Actuality. doctrine of monism advocated by ankara (q.v.)
Actual: (Lat. actus, act) 1. real or factual
(op- which holds the Absolute to be personal in rela-
posed to unreal and apparent) 2. quality which tion to the world, especially the philosophically
anything possesses of having realized its poten- untutored, but supra-personal in itself (cf. nir-
tialities or possibilities (opposed to possible and
guna, saguna)\ the world and the individual to
potential). In Aristotle: see Energeia. be only relatively, or phenomenally, realj and
Actuality: In Husserl: 1. (Ger. Wirklichkeit) salvation to consist in insight or jnana (q.v.)
Effective individual existence in space and time, after dispelling the may a (q.v.) of separateness
as contrasted with mere possibility. 2. (Ger. from the divine. K.F.L.
Aktualitat) The character of a conscious process Adventitious Ideas: Those ideas which appear
as lived in by the ego, as contrasted with the to come from without, from objects outside the
"inactuality" of conscious processes more or less mind. Opposite of innate ideas. Descartes' form
far from the ego. To say the ego lives in a of the ontological argument for God was built
particular conscious process is to say the ego upon the notion of adventitious ideas. V.F.
is busied with the object intended in that Aeon: According to the Gnostics a being regarded
process. Attending is a special form of being as a subordinate heavenly power derived from
busied. D.C. the Supreme Being by a process of emanation.
Actuality: The mode of being in which things af- The totality of aeons formed the spiritual world
fect or are affected., The realm of fact* the field which was intermediary between the Deity and
of happenings. Syn. with existence, sometimes the material world of sensible phenomena, which
with Opposite of: possibility or poten-
reality. was held to be evil. J.J.R.
See
tiality. Entrgeia.'J.K.F. Aequilibrium indifferentiae: The state or con-
Actus Purus: See Activism. L.W dition of exact balance between two actions, the
.
Ad hoc: A dubious assumption or argument ar- motives being of equal strength. Thomas Aquinas
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
held that In luch a condition "actus haberi non tion to pleasure and moral goodness, the pur-
potest, nisiremoveatur indifferentia." This is ef- pose of art, the nature of aesthetic value, etc.
fected by a determination ah intrinseco or ab t There has been controversy over whether such
txtrinseco, which disturbs the equipoise and empirical studies deserve to be called "aesthe-
makes it possible for the agent to act. JJ.R. tics", or whether that name should be reserved
Aesthetic Judgment: (German aesthetische for the traditional, dialectic or speculative ap-
Urteilskraft) The power of judgment exercised proach} but usage favors the extension in cases
upon data supplied by the feeling or sense of where the inquiry aims at fairly broad general-
beauty. Kant devotes the first half of the Critique izations.
of Judgment to a "Critique of Aesthetic Judg- Overlapping among all the above-mentioned
ment" (See Kantianism and Feeling.) O.F.K. fieldsis inevitable, as well as great differences
On
the origin of the term, see Aesthetics. in approach among individual writers. Some of
Aesthetics: (Or. aesthetikost perceptive) Tradi- these stress the nature and varieties of form in
tionally, the branch of philosophy dealing with art, with attention to historic types and styles
beauty or the beautiful, especially in art, and such as romanticism, the Baroque, etc., and in
with taste and standards of value in judging art.
studying their evolution adopt the historian's
Also, a theory or consistent attitude on such
viewpoint to some extent. Some stress the psy-
matters. The word aesthetics was first used
chology of creation, appreciation, imagination,
by Baumgarten about 1750, to imply the aesthetic experience, emotion, evaluation, and
science of sensuous knowledge, whose aim is Their work
preference. may be classed as
beauty, as contrasted with logic, whose aim is "aesthetic or
"aesthetics", psychology", "psy-
truth. Kant used the term transcendental aesthe-
chology of art". Within this psychological
tic in another sense, to imply the a priori
prin- group, some can be further distinguished as
ciples of sensible experience. Hegel, in the laboratory or statistical psychologists, attempting
1820's, established the word in its present sense more or less exact calculation and measurement.
by his writings on art under the title of Aesthetik. This approach (sometimes called "experimental
Aesthetics is now achieving a more independ-
aesthetics") follows the lead of Fechner, whose
ent status as the subject (whether it is or can studies of aesthetic preference in 1876 helped
be a "science" is a disputed issue) which studies to inaugurate modern experimental psychology
(a) works of art, (b) the processes of producing as well as the empirical approach to aesthetics.
and experiencing art, and (c) certain aspects of It has dealt less with works of art than with
nature and human production outside the field
preference for various arbitrary, simplified linear
of art especially those which can be considered color-combinations and
shapes, tone-combina-
as beautiful or ugly in regard to form and tions.
sensory qualities. (E.g., sunsets, flowers, human If the term "experimental" is broadly under-
beings, machines.)
stood as implying a general mode of inquiry
While not abandoning its interest in beauty,
based on observation and the tentative applica-
artistic value, and other normative
concepts, re- tion of hypotheses to particular cases, it includes
cent aesthetics has tended to lay increasing em-
many studies in aesthetics which avoid quantita-
phasis on a descriptive, factual approach to the
tive measurement and laboratory procedure. The
phenomena of art and aesthetic experience. It
differs from art history,
full application of scientific method is still com-
archeology, and cultural
monly regarded as impossible or unfruitful in
history in stressing a theoretical organization of
dealing with the more subtle and complex phe-
materials in terms of recurrent types and tend-
nomena But the progress of aesthetics
of art.
encies, rather than a chronological or genetic toward scientific status is being slowly made,
one. It differs from general psychology in
through increasing use of an objective and logi-
focusing upon certain selected phases in psycho- cal approach instead of adogmatic or personal
physical activity, and on their application to cer-
one, and through bringing the results of other
tain type* of objects and
situations, especially sciences to bear on aesthetic problems. Recent
those of art. It investigates the forms and char-
years have seen a vast increase in the amount
acteristics of art, which psychology does not do.
and variety of artistic data available for the
It differs from art criticism in seeking a more
aesthetician, as a result of anthropological and
general, theoretical understanding of the arts
archeological research and excavation, diversified
than usual in that subject, and in
is
attempting museum
a more consistently objective, collections, improved reproductions,
impersonal atti- translations, and phonograph records. TM.
tude. It maintains a philosophic
breadth, in
comparing examples of all the arts, and in as- Aetiology: (Gr. aitiologeo, to inquire into) An
sembling data and hypotheses from many sources, inquiry into causes. See Etiology. V.F.
including philosophy, psychology, cultural his- Aeviternity: (Lat. aevum, never-ending time)
tory, and the social sciences. But it is departing Eternity conceived as a whole, apart from the
from traditional conceptions of flux of tiraej an endless temporal medium in
philosophy in
that writing labelled "aesthetics" now often in- which objects and events are relatively fixed.
cludes much detailed, empirical study of particu- R.B.W.
lar phenomena, instead of Affect: (Lat. ad -f
restricting itself as facere, to do) The inner mo-
formerly to abstract discussion of the meaning tive as distinquished from the intention or end
of beauty, the sublime, and other of action. Cf. Spinoza, Btkics, bk. III.
categories, L.W.
their objective or subjective Affective: (Lat.
nature, their rela- affcctio, from afficcre, to affect)
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
The generic character supposedly shared by pleas- or again, any multiplicity which can be thought
ure) pain and the emotions as distinguished one} or better, any totality
as of definite ele-
from the ideational and volitional aspects of ments bound up into a whole by means of a
consciousness. See Affect. L.W. law. Aggregates have several properties: for
Affinity (chemical) : A potential of chemical en- example, have the "same power" when
they
ergy; driving force; attraction. The term should their respective elements can be brought into
be defined rigorously to mean the rate of change one-to-one correspondences and they are "enu-
of chemical energy with changes in chemical merable" when they have the same power as the
mass. WMM. aggregate of natural numbers. Aggregates may
Affirmation of the consequent: The fallacy of be finite or infinite) and the laws applying to
affirmation of the consequent is the fallacious each type are different and often incompatible,
inference fiom B and 3 B to A. The law
A thus raising difficult philosophical problems.
of affirmation of the consequent is the theorem See One-One} Enumerable.
Cardinal Number;
of the prepositional calculus, q 3 [p 3 <?]. Hence the practice to isolate the mathematical
A. C. notion of the aggregate from its metaphysical
Affirmative proposition: In traditional logic, implications and to consider such collections as
propositions A, I were called affirmative) and E, symbols of a certain kind which are to facilitate
O, negative (see logic , formal, 4). It is doubt- mathematical calculations in much the same way
ful whether this distinction can be satisfactorily as numbers do. In spite of the controversial
extended to propositions (or even to sentences) nature of infinite sets great progress has been
nuism, Shivaism, and Shaktism. Amid myth- various meanings: it is a mass formed into
ology, epic and ritualistic matter they contain clusters (anat.)j a compound or an organized
much that is philosophical. fC.F.L. mass of individuals (zool.)j an agglomerate
Agathobiotik : A good life or the good life. (bot.); an agglomeration of distinct minerals
C.A.B. separable by mechanical means (geol.)j or, in
Agathology: (Gr.) The science of the good. general, a compound mass in which the elements
C.A.B. retain their essential individuality. T.G.
Agent: In ethics an agent always a person
is (in mathematics): The concept of an aggregate
who is acting, or has acted, or is contemplating is now usually identified with that of a class
action. Here it is usually held that to be a (q.v.) although as a historical matter this does
moral agent, i.e. an agent to whom moral quali- not, perhaps, exactly represent Cantor's no-
ties may be ascribed and who may be treated tion. A.C.
accordingly, one must be free and responsible, Agnoiology: (Gr. agnoio -f logos, discourse on
with a certain maturity, rationality, and sensi- ignorance) J. F. Ferrier (1854) coined both this
tivity which normal adult human beings are term and the term epistemology as connoting
taken to have. Ethics is then concerned to distinctive areas of philosophic inquiry in sup-
determine when such an agent is morally good port of ontology. Agnoiology is the doctrine
or virtuous, when morally bad or vicious, or, of ignorance which seeks to determine what we
alternatively, when he is acting rightly and are necessarily ignorant of. It is a critique of
when wrongly, when virtuously and when vici- agnosticism prior to the letter's appearance.
ously. See Act. W.K.F. Ignorance is defined in relation to knowledge
Agglutination: (Lat. ad -f glutinare, to paste) since one cannot be ignorant of anything which
expounded a thoroughgoing dualism in which ed. Borgnet, 38 vol., Paris, 1890-99). V.J.B.
Ormazd (s.v.) is the good, Ahriman the evil Alcuin: (c. 730-804) Was born in Northumbria
principle, corresponding to the Christian God and studied at the School of York under Egbert.
and Devil, locked in combat on all levels of In 781 he was called to head the Palatine
thought and existence. In that they are reciprocal School of Charlemagne. He died at St. Martin
and of a dialectic necessity, this dualism has, of Tours. It is his general influence on the re-
philosophically, the implication of a monism vival of Christian learning that is significant in
which was, indeed, ethically and eschatologically the history of philosophy. His psychology is a
elaborated in the Zoroastrian optimism that pos- form of simplified Augustinianism. His treatise,
tulates the ultimate victory of Ahura Mazdah De animae ratione ad Eulaliam Virginem } is
(s.v.) or Ormazd. K.F.L. extant(PL 101). V.J.B.
Ai: (C.) Love; love for all people as a practical way
between 500 Alexander, Samuel: (1859-1938) English thinker
to social welfare (chien ai) (Mo Tzu, who developed a non-psychic, neo-realistic meta-
and 396 B.C.)} love for all, which is identical
physics and synthesis. He makes the process of
with true manhood (jen) (Han Yu, 767-824
emergence a metaphysical principle. Although his
A.D.).W.T.C.
Akasa: (Skr.) "Ether") inquiry is essentially a priori) his method is em-
space} in Indian philoso-
pirical. Realism at his hands becomes a quasi-
phy the continuum that is to be postulated in
connection with the paramdnus (q.v.). K.F.L. materialism, an alternative to absolute idealism
and ordinary materialism. It aims to combine
Aksara: (Skr.) "Imperishable", a descriptive syno-
the absoluteness of law in physics with the abso-
nym for brahman (q.v.), the Absolute, in the
lute unpredictability of emergent qualities.
Upanishads (q.v.); has also the meaning of Whereas to the ancients and in the modern
"syllable". K.F.L.
classical conception of physical science, the orig-
Albertists: The appellation is conferred on any
inal stuff was matter and motion, after Minkow-
disciple of Albertus Magnus. In particular it
was applied to a of Scholastics at the
ski, Einstein, Lorenz and others, it became in-
group divisible space-time, instead of space and time.
University of Cologne during the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries. It was the age of the Thus nature begins as a four-dimensional matrix
in which it is the moving principle. Materiality,
struggles between the nominalists and the real-
ists, who controlled the University of Cologne, secondary qualities, life, mentality are all emer-
but were themselves split into factions, the gent modifications of proto-space-time. Mind is
Thomists and the Albertists. The latter taught the nervous system blossoming out into the
that the universalia in re and post rent were capacity of awareness. Contemplative knowledge,
identical, and that logic was a speculative rather where the object is set over against the mind,
. than a practical science. The principal Albertists and the actual being, or experiencing, or en-
were Heinrich von Kampen, Gerhard von joying of reality, where there is no inner duplic-
Harderwyk, and Arnold von Lugde. J.J.R. ity of subject and object, constitute the two
forms of knowledge. Alexander conceives the
Albertus, Magnus: St., O.P. (1193-1280)
Count of Bollstadt, Bishop of Ratisbon, Doctor deity as the next highest level to be emerged
was born at out of any given level. Thus for beings on the
Universalis, Lauingen, Bavaria,
studied at Padua and Bologna, entered the level of life mind is but for beings pos-
deity,
Dominican Order in 1223. He taught theology sessing minds there isa nisus or urge toward a
being the former which therefore has to be or process of calculation with symbols (often,
given by God. He also emphasizes the Aris- but not necessarily, numerical symbols) accord-
totelian notion of the "first mover". The con- ing to fixed which yields effectively the
rules
cretization of the universal nature in particular solution of any given problem of some class of
things points to a creative power which has problems. A. C,
endowed being with such a nature. Al Farabi's Al Kindi: Of the tribe of Kindah, lived in Basra
philosophy is dependent in certain parts on Neo- and Bagdad where he died 873. He is the first
Platonism. Creation is emanation. There is an of the great Arabian followers of Aristotle whose
anima mundi the images of which become cor- influence is noticeable in Al Kindi's scientific
poreal beings. Logic is considered as the pream- and psychological doctrines. He wrote on
ble to all science. Physics comprises all factual geometry, astronomy, astrology, arithmetic,
knowledge, including psychology 5 metaphysics music (which he developed on arithmetical
and ethics are the other parts of philosophy. Cl. principles), physics, medicine, psychology, me-
Baeumker, Alfarabi, Ueber den Ur sprung der teorology, politics. He distinguishes the active
WissenscAaften, Beitr. z. Gesch. d. Philos. d. intellect from the passive which is actualized by
MA. 1916. Vol. XIX. M. Horten, Das Buck the former. Discursive reasoning and demonstra-
der Ringsteine Farabis. ibid. 1906. Vol. V. tion he considers as achievements of a third and
R.A. a fourth intellect. In
ontology he seems to
Al Gazali: Born 1059 in Tus, in the country of hypostasize the categories, of which he knows
five: matter, form, motion, place, time, and
Chorasan, taught at Bagdad, lived" for a time in
Syria, died in his home town 1111. He started
which he calls primary substances. Al Kindi
as a sceptic in philosophy and became a mystic inaugurated the encyclopedic form of philosophi-
and orthodox afterwards. Philosophy is mean- cal treatises, worked out more than a century
any and all experience. O.F.K. accepted, or proved, on the basis of one inter-
pretation of the grammatical construction, and
Al-Mukamis, David Ibn Merwan: Early Jew- then used in a way which is correct only on the
ish philosopher (died His philosophic
c. 937). basis of another interpretation of the gram-
work, Book of Twenty Tractates shows influence matical construction. A.C.
of the teachings of the Kalam (q.v.)} reasoning
follows along lines similar to that of Saadia. Ampliative: (Lat. ampliare, to make wider} Ger.
M.W. Erweiterungsurteil) Synthetic} serving to ex-
tity, not because of their relations to a third fies these synthetically constituted structures of
reality which primordial!/ contains this notion, consciousness. See Phenomenology. D.C.
but because of a relation both of similitude and Analysis (mathematical): The theory of real
order which they have to each other. numbers, of complex numbers, and of functions
Analogy of proportionality: Is had when the of real and complex numbers. See numbers con*
principle of unity is found in an equality of tinuity ; limit. A . C.
proportions. This analogy is primarily used be- Analytic: (Gr. an a ly tike) Aristotle's name for
tween material and spiritual realities. Thus the technique of
logical analysis. The Prior
sight is predicated of ocular vision and intel- Analytics contains his analysis of the syllogism,
lectual understanding "eo quod sicut visus est in the Posterior Analytics his analysis of the con-
oculo, ita intellectus est in mente". H,G. ditions of scientific or demonstrable knowledge.
are denoted by concepts by inspection, whose analysisshould or does disclose. Such a judg-
'
verify such theory relations, termed epistemic understanding. Its main purpose is the proof
correlations (7. Un. Sc. IX: 125-128), are re- of the categories within the realm of phenomena.
_W.E.
equality of or proportion, between the
ratio**,
Anamnesis: (Gr. anamnesis) Calling to mind;
lengths of the strings producing the consonant recollection; in Plato, the process whereby the
notes of the musical scale. The discovery of
- mind gains true knowledge, by recalling the
these ratios is credited to Pythagoras, who is vision of the Ideas which the soul experienced
also said to have applied the principle of mathe- in a previous existence apart from the body.
matical proportion to the other arts, and hence G.R.M.
to have discovered, in his analogy, the secret of Ananda: (Skr.) Joy, happiness, bliss, beatitude, as-
beauty in all its forms. G.R.M. sociated in the thinking of many Indian philoso-
Analysis: (Chemical) The identification and esti- phers with moksa (q.v.)} a concomitant of per-
mation of chemical individuals in a mixture; fection and divine consciousness (cf. sat-cit-
the identification and estimation of elements in ananda).K.F.L.
a compound; the identification and estimation Ananya (Skr. "not other") Designating the non-
:
of types of substances in complex mixtures the j otherness of the cosmic principle from the indi-
identification and estimation of isotopes in an vidual. K.F.L.
"element". W.M.M. Anarchism: This doctrine advocates the abolition
Analysis, intentional: (Ger. intentionale Ana- of political control within society: the State, it
lyse) In Husserl: Explication and clarification contends, is man's greatest enemy eliminate it
of the essential structure of actual and potential and the evils of human life will disappear. Posi-
(horizonal) synthesis by virtue of which objects tively, anarchism envisages a homely life de-
are intentionally constituted. As noematic, in- voted to unsophisticated activity and filled with
tentional analysis discovers, explicates, and simple pleasures. Thus it belongs in the "primi-
clarifies, the focally and horizontally intended tive tradition" of Western culture and springs
objective sense (and the latter's quasi-objective from the philosophical concept of the inherent
substrates) in its manners of givenness, posited- and radical goodness of human nature. Modern
ness, etc., and yields clues to the corresponding anarchism probably owes not a little, in an in-
noetic synthesis. As noetic or constitutional, in- direct way, to the influence of the primitivistic
tentional analysis discovers, isolates, and clari- strain in the thought of Jean Jacques Rousseau.
12 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
In a popular sense the word "anarchy" is often sacramental position of Catholic Christianity,
used to denote a state of social chaos, but it is with insistence on the incorporation into that
obvious that the word can be used in this sense general position of the new truth of philosophy,
only by one who denies the validity of anarch- science and other fields of study and experience.
ism. M.B.M. Historically, the Anglo-Catholic divines (as in
Anatta-vada: (Pali) Theory (vada) of the non- Hooker and the Caroline writers) took over the
existence of soul (anatta), one of the funda- general Platonic-Aristotelian philosophy of the
mental teachings of Gautama Buddha (q.v.) who schools; their stress, however, was more on the
regarded all ideas about the soul or self wrong, Platonic than the Aristotelian side: "Platonism",
inadequate or illusory. K.F.L. Dr. Inge has said, "is the loving mother-nurse
Anaxagoras, of Klazomene: (about 430 B.C.) of Anglicanism." Statements of this position,
As a man he settled in modified by a significant agnosticism concerning
middle-aged
Athens; later he was accused impiety and
of areas into which reason (it is said) cannot pene-
forced to leave the city. Anaxagoras taught that trate, may be found collected in Anglicanism
there is an infinity of simple substances, that (edited by More and Cross). A certain em-
is, such as are only divisible
into parts of the piricism has always marked Anglo-Catholic
same nature as the whole. These "seeds" are theological and philosophical speculation; this is
distributed throughout the universe.. Their com- brought out in recent writing by Taylor (Faith
ing together gives rise to individual things, of a Moralist), the writers in Lux Mundi
their separation entails the passing away of (edited by Gore) and its modern successor Essays
individual things. To account for the cause of Catholic and Critical.
motion of these "seeds" or elemental substances In genera, Anglo-Catholic philosophy has been
Anaxagoras conceived of a special kind of mat- an incarnational or sacramental one, finding
ter or "soul-substance" which alone is in motion God in the Biblical revelation culminating in
itself and can communicate this motion to the Christ, but unwilling to limit his self-disclosure
rest. Now, since the universe displays harmony, to that series of events. Incarnationalism pro-
order and purposiveness in its movements, Anax- vides, it is said, the setting for the historic
agoras conceived this special substance as a mind- Incarnation; general revelation is on sacra-
stuff or an eternal, imperishable Reason diffused mental giving meaning to the particular
lines,
throughout the universe. Anaxagoras was thus sacraments. For Anglo-Catholic philosophical
the first to introduce the Ideological principle theology, in its central stream, the key to dogma
into the explanation of the natural world. Cf. is the cumulative experience of Christian people,
Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy} Diels, Frag. d. tested by the Biblical revelation as source and
Vorsokr.M.F. standard of that experience and hence "classical"
Anaximander: (6th Cent. B.C.) With Thales and in its value. Revelation is the ultimate author-
Anaximenes he formed the Milesian School of ity; the Church possesses a trustworthiness about
Greek Philosophy} with these and the other her central beliefs, but statement of these may
thinkers of the cosmological period he sought change from age to age. Sometimes this main
the ground of the manifold processes of nature tendency Anglo-Catholic thought has been
of
in a single world-principle or cosmic stuff which sharply criticized by thinkers, themselves An-
he identified with "the Infinite". He was the glicans (cf. Tennant's Philosophical Theology)}
firstto step out of the realm of experience and but these have, in general, served as useful warn-
ascribed to his "Infinite" the attributes of eter- ings rather than as normal expressions of the
nity, imperishability and inexhaustability. Cf. Anglican mind.
Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy; Diels, Frag. d. In very recent years, a new stress has been laid
Vorsokr.M.F. upon the dogmatic side of Christianity as ex-
Anaximenes: (6th Cent. B.C.) With Thales and pressed in liturgy. This has been coupled with
Anaximander he belongs to the Milesian School a revived interest in Thomism, found both in
of Greek Philosophy; as an Ionian he sought a older philosophers such as A. E. Taylor and in
cosmic material element which would explain younger men like A. G. Hebert (cf. his Grace
the manifold processes of the natural world and and Nature, etc.).W.N.P.
declared this to be air. Air, he felt, had the Angst: (Ger. dread) Concern or care, which are
attribute of infinity which would account for the the essence of dread. (Heidegger.) //.//.
varieties of nature more readily than water, Anima Mundi: See: The World Soul, Bruno.
which his predecessor Thales had postulated. Cf. Animalitarianism : A term used by Lovejoy in
Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy; Diels, Frag. d. Primitivism and Related Ideas in Antiquity for
Vorsokr.M.F. the belief that animals are happier, more admir-
Anergy: The hypothesis interpreting sensations able, more "normal", or "natural", than human
in terms of the infinite phases of negative beings. G.B.
energy, which is motion less than zero. (Mon- Animism : (Lat. anima, soul) The doctrine of the
tague.)//.//. reality of souls.
Anglo-Catholic Philosophy: Anglo-Catholicism 1. Anthropology: (a) the view that souls are
is the name frequently used to describe the attached to all things either as their inner prin-
Church of England and her sister communions, ciple of spontaneity or activity, or as their
including the Episcopal Church in America. As dwellers, (b) the doctrine that Nature is in-
a system, it may be described as the
religious habited by various grades of spirits, (s. Spirit-
maintenance of the traditional credal, ethical and ism).
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 13
extinction of the wicked or impenitent at death. former outside all consciousness. O.F.K.
Edward White in England in the last century Ansichtslosigkeit : (Ger. point-of-viewlessness)
taught the doctrine in opposition to the belief
in Objectivity, or the unmediated approach to bare
the eternal punishment of those not to be saved. fact. (Heidegger.) H.H.
V.F. Antar-atman: (Skr.) "Inner self", a term for the
found in the Upanishads (q.v.). A similar
Anoetic: (Gr. a +
noetikos, from nous,
the self
idea which exists in reality (in re) isgreater Anthropology, Philosophical : (in Max Scheler)
one which
The philosophical science concerned with the
than exists only in conception (in
the greatest it questions about the essence of man. P.A.S.
intellectu); hence, if my idea is
his writings were done at the Abbey of Le Bee experiences. Anticipation, in contrast to expecta-
In tion, is allegedly immediate and non-inferential
in Normandy, where he served as Abbot.
1093 he became Archbishop of Canterbury, which cognition of the future. See Expectation; Fore-
distinction till 'his death. knowledge. L.W.
post he occupied with
In Lucretius, the Scholastics, Fr. Bacon, and
Anselm is most noted for his much discussed
argument to prove the existence Leibniz, it means a hypothesis without confirma-
"ontological"
tion.
of God. His theory of truth and his general
philosophy are thoroughly Augustinian.
Chief Anticipations of experience: In Kant's Crit. of
works: Monologium, ^Proslogium, De Veritale, pure Reason (Antizipationen der Wahrneh-
Cur Deus Homo (in PL 158-9). VJ.B. mung) the second of two synthetic principles
An Sich: (Ger. literally in or by self. Lat. in se) of the understanding (the other being "Axioms
of Intuition") by which the mind is able to de-
Anything taken in itself without relation to
without relation to a termine something a priori in regard to what is
anything else, especially
consciousness. In Hegel's philosophy in itself empirical. While the mind cannot
knowing
L4 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
anticipate the specific qualities which are to be speculative, indeterminate notion. (See Kantian-
experienced, we can, nevertheless, Kant holds, ism.) O.F.K.
predetermine or anticipate any sense experi-
Antisthenes: Of Athens (c. 444-368 B.C.)
ence that "in all appearances the real, which is founder of the Cynic School of Greek Philoso-
an object of sensation, has intensive magnitude phy. See Cynics. M.F.
or degree." O.F.K. Antistrophon argument: (Gr. antistrophos,
Antilogism: If in the syllogism in Barbara the turned an opposite way) In rhetoric, any
in
conclusion is replaced by its contradictory there is argument by an opponent which can be turned
obtained the following set of three (formulas against him. J.K.F.
representing) propositions, Antithesis: (Gr. anti-against, tithenai- to set)
M(*) =.P(*), S(*) =>.M(*)> In a general sense, the opposition or contrast of
ideas or statements.
S(*) A. ~P(*),
from any two of which the negation of the third In philosophy, a proposition opposed to a
may be inferred. Such an inconsistent triad of given thesis expressing a fact or a positive state-
called an antilogism. ment. With Kant, it is the negative member of
propositions is
From the principle of the antilogism, together the antinomies of reason. With Hegel, it is the
with obversion, simple conversion of E and /, second phase of the dialectical process, which
and the fact that in the pairs-, A and O, E and denies the first moment
or thesis, and which
each proposition of the pair is equivalent to contributes to emergence of the synthesis
the
I,
the negation of the other, all of the traditional blending the partial truths of the thesis and the
valid moods of the syllogism may be derived antithesis, and transcending them both.
In rhetoric, the contrast involved by an anti-
except those which require a third (existential)
thesis is technically expressed by the position of
premiss (see logic, formal, 4, 5). With the
further aid of subalternation the remaining valid opposite words in one or more sentences or
moods may be derived. clauses. T.G.
This extension of the traditional reductions Antitypy: The property of concepts or objects of
of the syllogistic moods is due to Christine Ladd thought to resist attribution of qualities or postu-
lates incompatible with their semantic value and
Franklin. She, however, stated the matter with-
in the algebra of classes (see logic, formal, 7), ontological nature. T.G.
taking the three terms of the syllogism as Arm: (Skr.) Atom; point. K.F.L.
classes. From this point of view the three propo- Anumana: (Skr.) Inference. K.F.L.
sitions of an antilogism appear as follows: Aorist: (Gr.) Referring to unspecified past time
m rt
p ==: A, s n m A, e n p ^ A. without implication of continuance or repetition}
C.A.B.
A.C. indefinite; undefined.
A contradiction in terms, concepts, or propo- Apagoge: (Gr. apagoge) In Aristotle's logic (1)
a syllogism whose major premiss is certain but
sitions forming an inconsistent triad (Mrs.
Ladd-Franklin), a set of three propositions such whose minor premiss is only probable abduc- $
that if any two are true the third must be false, tion, (2) a method of indirect demonstration
thus any two will strictly imply the contradic- whereby the validity of a conclusion is estab-
lished by assuming its contradictory and showing
tory of the third. An antilogism may be ob-
tained from any valid Aristotelian syl- that impossible or unacceptable consequences fol-
strictly
logism by contradicting the conclusion, q.v. Anti- low} the reductio ad impossible. G.R.M.
logism. C.A.S. A parte ante: A phrase the literal meaning of
Agnosticism (q.v.). 2. Log-
1. which is, from the part before, referring to dura-
Anti-metaphysics:
ical Positivism (see Scientific Empiricism (1)) tion previous to a given event. J.J.R.
holds that those metaphysical statements which A parte post: A
phrase the literal meaning of
are not confirmable by experiences (see Verifica- which is. from the part
after, referring to dura-
tion 4, 5) have no cognitive meaning and hence tion subsequent to a given event. J.J.R.
aie pseudo-statements (see Meaning, Kinds of, Apathia: (Gr. apathia, no feeling) In Epicurean
1, S), R.C. (q.v.) and Stoic (q.v.) ethics: the inner equi-
librium and peace of mind, freedom from emo-
Antinomies, logical: See paradoxes, logical.
Antinomianism (Gr. anti, against) nomos, law)
: tion, that result from contemplation, for its own
A term introduced by Martin Luther. Johann sake, on the ends of life.
Agricola, contemporary of Luther, held that the Apeiron: (Gr. apeiron) The boundless} the in-
determinate $ the In the philosophy of
infinite.
gospel rather than the law is determinative in
man's repentance. The term is used, more gen- Anaximander the apeiron is the primal indeter-
erally, to designate freedom from law or com-
minate matter out of which all things come to
human be. The apeiron appears frequently elsewhere in
pulsion or external regulation to living.
r.F. early Greek philosophy, notably in the dualism
The mutual of the Pythagoreans, where it is opposed to the
Antinomy: (Ger. Antinomic)
contradiction of two principles or inferences rest- principle of th? Limit (peras), or number.
ing on premises of equal validity. Kant shows,
G.R.M.
in the Antinomies of pure Reason, that contra- Aperc.u: An immediate insight, not in itself
cording to him, lacked a human soul, a human (b) The mental or subjective correlate of a
will, the Logos of God taking full possession. thing-in-itself.
V.F. (c) A sensuous object existent or possible, in
Apollonian: The art impulse in which one sees space and time, related by the categories
things as in a dream, detached from real experi- (Kant). It differs from illusion by its
nation of its subject by its predicate or predi- the residuum of past experiences of an individual
cates} or again, it? makes explicit the internal to form a new whole. The residuum of past
luminosity of its subject by positing against it experience is called the apperceptive mass. Cf.
as predicates its essential or accidental consti- Herbart, Psychologic als Wissenschaft, Part III,
tuents. Sect. I, ch. S.L.W.
The Aristotelian apophansis or logos apophantikos In Kant: (1) Empirical apperception (Ger. em-
denotes the fundamental subject-predicate form, pirische Apperzeption). The consciousness of the
either as an independent prepositional form or concrete actual self with its changing states,
as a syllogistic conclusion, to which all other sometimes, simply, the "inner sense". (2) Trans-
types of propositions may be reduced by analysis cendental apperception (Ger. transzendentale Ap-
and deduction. It cannot be said that the con- perzeption). The pure, original, unchangeable
troversies initiated by modern symbolic logic consciousness which is the necessary condition of
have destroyed the ontological o^ operational experience as such and the ultimate foundation
value of the Aristotelian apophantic form. T.G. of the synthetic unity of experience. (See Kant-
Apophantic: (Ger. apophantisch) In Husserl: Of, ianism). O.F.K.
or pertaining to, predicative judgments or the Appetite: Name given in Scholastic psychology to
theory of predicative judgments. D.C. all strivings. Sensitive appetites tend toward in-
Aporetics: (Gr. aporetikos, one who is inclined dividual goods. They are concupiscible insofar
to doubt, who is at a loss about a matter) as they are directed toward a sensible good or
Obsolete term for sceptics. H.H. strive to avoid a sensible evil} irascible if the
Aporia: (Gr. aporia) A theoretical difficulty or striving encounters obstacles. Their movements
G.R.M. are the cause of emotions. Rational or intel-
puzzle.
A posteriori: (Lat. following after) (a) In psy-
lectual appetite=will, tending towards the good
as such and necessarily therefore towards God as
chology and epistemology: refers to the data of
the mind which owe their origin to the outside the summum bonum. R.A.
world of human experience. Such data are ac- Appetition: (Lat. ad -f- petere, to seek) The in-
quired by the mind and do not belong to the ternal drive which in the Leibnizian psychology
mind's native equipment (a priori). effects the passage from one perception to an-
16 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
other. Leibnix, The Monadology,
15. L.W. twenty years (1254-1273). Among his worki
To Spinoza, appetition is conscious desire. It are: (a) Scriptum in IV Libras Sententiarum
is the essence of man insofar as he is conceived ( 1254-1256), Summa Contra Gentiles (c. 1260),
as determined to act by any of his affections. Summa Theologica (1265-1272)} (b) com-
J.M. mentaries on Boethius. (De Trinitate, c. 1257-
Appetitive: (Lat. ad -f petere, to seek) Adjec- 1258), on Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite (De
tive of appetite. Applied to desire based on ani- Divinis Nominibus, c. 1261), on the anonymous
mal wants e.g. hunger, sex, etc. The appetitive, and important Liber de Causis (1268), and espe-
along with the ideational and the affective, are cially on Aristotle's works (1261-1272), Physics,
the three principal phases of the conscious life. Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On
L.W. the Soul, Posterior Analytics, On Interpretation,
Appreciation: (Royce) The faculty by which an On the Heavens, On Generation and Corrup-
individual feels, likes or hates, or, in general, tion; (c) Quaestiones Disputatae, which includes
evaluates certain experiences, as opposed to the questions on such Targe subjects as De Veritate
faculty by which he describes them, communi- (1256-1259)} De Potentia (1259-1263)} De
cates them, and renders them permanent through Malo (1263-1268)} De Spiritualibus Creaturis,
the use of forms or categories. (Royce: Spirit of De Anima (1269-1270)} (d) small treatises or
Modern Philosophy, pp. 390-4.) A.C.B. Opuscula, among which especially noteworthy are
Apprehension: (ad -f- prehendere:
to seize) 1. the De Ente et tissentia (1256)} De Aeternitate
Act involving the bare awareness of the presence Mundi (1270), De Unitate Intellects (1270),
of an object to consciousness} the general rela- De Substantiis Separatis (1272).
tion of subject to object as inclusive of the more While it is extremely difficult to grasp in its
special forms, such as perceiving or remember- entirety the personality behind this complex theo-
ing, which the relation may take. logical and philosophical activity, some points
2. Act involving the awareness of the bare pres- are quite clear and beyond dispute. During the
ence of an object to consciousness, as opposed to first five years of his activity as a thinker and
any act which involves judgment about such an a teacher, St. Thomas seems to have formulated
Apprehension span: The extent or complexity of form, to have clarified his historical conceptions
material which an individual is able to appre- of Greek and Arabian philosophers, and to have
single, very brief act of atten-
hend through a made more precise and even corrected his doc-
Also called attention span. A.C.B.
tion. trinal positions, (cf., e.g., the change on the
pure a priori is unmixed with anything empirical. textsand his ideas, against the Averroists, who
In Kant's doctrine, all the necessary conditions were then beginning to become prominent in the
of experience (i.e., forms and categories) are faculty of arts at the University of Paris j against
a priori. Whatever is a priori must possess uni- the traditional Augustinianism of a man like St.
versal and necessary validity. Sometimes used Bonaventure} as well as against that more subtle
loosely to designate anything non-empirical, or Augustinianism which could breathe some of the
something which can be known by reason alone. spirit of Augustine, speak the language of Aris-
versity of Paris to stem the tide against Aver- from this that St. Augustine could not be made
roism, 1269-1272} from 1272 he began teaching the patron of the highly elaborated and sophisti-
at the University of Naples. He died March 7, cated Platonism that an Ibn Gebirol expounded
1274 on the way to the Council of Lyons.) in his Fons Vitae or an Avicenna in his com-
St. Thomas was a teacher and a writer for some mentaries on the metaphysics and psychology of
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 17
Aristotle, (b) Having singled out Plato as the creation; just as he shows that the occasionalism
thinker to search out behind St. Augustine, and of Avicenna is ultimately based on the Neo-
having really eliminated St. Augustine from the platonic doctrine of emanation.
Platonic controversies of the thirteenth century, This rebuilding of the notion of creature per-
St. Thomas is then concerned to diagnose the mits St. Thomas also to analyze the problems that
Platonic inspiration of the various commenta- Averroism was making more and more promi-
tors of Aristotle, and to separate what is to him nent. Philosophical truth was discovered by the
the authentic Aristotle from those Platonic aber- Greeks and the Arabians neither completely nor
rations. In this sense, the philosophical activity adequately nor without error. What the Chris-
of St. Thomas
in the thirteenth century can be tian thinker must do in their presence is not to
understood as a systematic critique and elimina- divide his allegiance between them and Chris-
tion of Platonism in metaphysics, psychology and tianity, but to discover the meaning of reason
epistemology. The Platonic World of Ideas is and the conditions of true thinking. That dis-
translated into a theory of substantial principles covery will enable him to learn from the Greeks
in a world of stable and intelligible individuals} without also learning their errors; and it would
the Platonic man, who was scarcely more than thus show him the possibility of the harmony
an incarcerated spirit, became a rational animal, between reason and revelation. He must learn
containing within his being an interior economy to be a philosopher, to discover the
philosopher
which presented in a rational system his mysteri- within the Christian man, in order to meet
ous nature as a reality existing on the confines of philosophers. In exploring the meaning of a
two worlds, spirit and matter} the Platonic creature, St. Thomas was
building a philosophy
theory of knowledge (at least in the version of which permitted his contemporaries (at least, if
the Meno rather than that of the later dialogues they listened to him) to free themselves from
where the doctrine of division is more promi- the old eternalistic and
rigid world of the
nent), which was regularly beset with the diffi- Greeks and to free their thinking, therefore,
culty of accounting for the origin and the truth from the antinomies which this world could raise
of knowledge, was translated into a theory of up for them. In the harmony of faith and reason
abstraction in which sensible experience enters as which St. Thomas defended against Averroism,
a necessary moment into the explanation of the we must see the culminating point of his activ-
origin, the growth and the use of knowledge, ity. For such a harmony meant ultimately not
and which the intelligible structure of sensi-
in
only a judicious and synthetic diagnosis of
ble being becomes the measure of the truth of Greek philosophy, as well as a synthetic incor-
knowledge and of knowing. poration of Greek ideas in Christian thought, it
(c) The result of this elaborate critique of meant also the final vindication of the humanism
Platonism is sometimes called the Aristotelian- and the naturalism of Thomistic philosophy. The
Thomistic synthesis. It is better, however, to call expression and the defense of this Christian
it simply a Thomistic synthesis, not only because humanism constitute one of St. Thomas' most
St. Thomas criticized Aristotle on several occa- enduring contributions to European thought.
sions, but also because the real and historical A.C.P.
meaning of Aristotle as
philosopher a in the A quo: (Schol.) from which indicates the prin-
fourth century B.C. M still very much in dispute. ciple, starting point, from which something
In any case it ought to be pretty much beyond proceeds. To whom (ad quern) or to which
dispute that St. Thomas was quite aware that (ad quod) indicates the terminus, the end point
Aristotle was not the author of all the doctrines to which something tends. For whom
(cut)
which he attributed to him. indicates for whom something is done. Thus
What St. Thomas appears to have insisted on alms giving is done from charity, a quo} it
most in thus using Aristotle as a pillar of his tends to the relief of the poor, as ad quod; and
own thought was the rehabilitation of man and It is a service done for God, as cut. H.G.
the universe as stable and genuine Arabesque:
realities Originally a method of ornament
causes. This insistence has been by some called consisting of fantastic lines. Recently, inner
his naturalism. Against the tendency of thir- design of a form. L.V.
teenth century Augustinians to disparage the Arabic Philosophy: The contact of the Arabs
native ability of the human reason to know with Greek civilization and philosophy took
truth, St. Thomas insisted on the capacity of the place partly in Syria, where Christian Arabic
reason to act as a genuine and sufficient cause
philosophy developed, partly in other countries,
of true knowledge within the' natural order. Asia Minor, Persia, Egypt and Spain. The
Against the occasionalistic tendencies of Avicen- effect of this contact was not a simple reception
nian thought, which reduced both man and the of Greek philosophy, but the gradual growth of
world of change around him to the role of pas- an original mode of thought, determined chiefly
sive spectators of the sole activity of God (i.e., by the religious and philosophical tendencies
the intellectus agens), St. Thomas asserted the alive in the Arab world. Eastern influences had
subordinate but autonomous causality of man in produced a mystical trend, not unlike Neo-
the production of knowledge and the genuine Platonism? the already existing "metaphysics of
causality of sensible realities in the production light", noticeable in the religious conception of
of change. Ultimately, St. Thomas rests his de- the Qoran, also helped to assimilate Plotinian
fense of man and other beings as efficacious ideas. On the other hand, Aristotelian philoso-
causes in their own order on the doctrine of ohv became imoortant. although more, at least
18 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
in beginning, as logic and methodology.
the philosophorum t translated by Dominicus Gundis-
The interest in science and medicine contributed salinus. Gazali's criticisms were answered by
to the spread of Aristotelian philosophy. The Averroes in his Destructio destructions.
history of philosophy in the Arab world is de- The importance of Arab philosophy has to be
termined by the increasing opposition of Ortho- evaluated both in regard to the Oriental and
doxy against a more liberal theology and phi- the Western world. The latter was influenced,
losophy. Arab thought became influential in the naturally, not by the originals but by the trans-
Western world partly through European scholars lations which do not always render exactly the
who went to Spain and elsewhere for study, most- spirit of the authors. In the East, theology re-
ly however through the Latin translations which mained victorious, but incorporated in its own
became more and more numerous at the end of teachings much of the philosophies it condemned.
the 12th and during the 13th centuries. Among M. Horten, in Ueberweg-Heinze, Geschichte der
the Christian Arabs Costa ben Luca (864-923) has Philosophie, 3d ed., Berlin, 1928, pp. 287-342.
to be mentioned whose DC Differentia spiritus et Geschichte der Arabischen Litteratur, Vol. I, II,
animae was translated by Johannes Hispanua Weimar, 1898-1902, Vol. Ill- VI, Leiden, 1936-
(12th century). The first period of Islamic phi- 1941. The Encyclopedia 0} Islam, Leiden, 1913-
losophy is occupied mainly with translation of 1918. R.A.
Greek texts, some of which were translated later Arambha-vada: (Skr.) The theory of evolution
into Latin. The Liber de causis (mentioned first expounded by the Nyaya and Vaisesika (q.v.),
by Alanus ab Insulis) is such a translation of according to which atoms having been created
an Arab textj it was believed to be by Aristotle, combine to form the complex world, a sort of
but is in truth, as Aquinas recognized, a version emergent evolution. K.F.L.
of the Stoicheiosis theologike by Proclus. The Aranyaka: (Skr.) One of early Indian treatises
so-calledTheologia Aristotelis is an excerpt of composed in the forest (aranya) by Brahmans
Plotinus Enn. IV-VI, written 840 by a Syrian. retired from life and devoting their time to an
The fundamental trends of Arab philosophy are interpretation of the meaning of Vedic (q.v.)
indeed Neo-Platonic, and the Aristotelian texts ritual and usage. AT.FX.
were mostly interpreted in this spirit. Further- Arbitrium, liberum :
Livy used the expression,
more, there is also a tendency to reconcile the libera arbitria, signifying free decisions. Ter-
Greek philosophers with theological notions, tullian used either liberum arbttrium or libertas
at least so long as the orthodox theologians arbitrii, meaning freedom of choice. Augustine
could find no reason opposition: In spite
for spoke of the liberum voluntatis arbitrium, free
of this, some of the philosophers did not escape choice of the will. He held that voluntas and
persecution. The Peripatetic element is more liberum are the same. Since liberum arbitrium
pronounced in the writings of later times when implies the power to do evil, it is distinct from
the technique of paraphrasis and commentary libertas, which is the good use of the liberum
on Aristotelian texts had developed. Beside arbitrium, God is free, but He can do no wrong.
the philosophy dependent more or less on Greek, Anselm preferred the term, libertas arbitrii.
and partially even Christian influences, there is Thomas Aquinas taught that voluntas and
a mystical theology and philosophy whose sources liberum arbitrium are one potency. The expres-
are the Qoran, Indian and, most of all, Persian sion has come to mean free will or choice.
systems. The knowledge of the "Hermetic" J.J.R.
writings too was of some importance. Arbor Porphyrii: (Tree of Porphyry) A repre-
Al Kindi, Al Farabi, and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) sentation of the series leading from the indi-
were the first great philosophers who made large vidual by means of the numerical and specific
use of Aristotelian books. Their writings are of differences (corporeal, animate, sentient, rational)
truly encyclopedic character and comprise the to the genus subaltemum et supremum. R.A.
whole edifice of knowledge in their time. Their Arcadic: Artificial with the pretence of ex-
art
Aristotelianism is, however, mainly Neo-Platon- pressing pastoral simplicity. L.V.
ism with addition of certain peripatetic notions. Arcanum: An old term almost identical with
Avicenna is more of an Aristotelian than his occultism, its recent equivalent. Arcana were
predecessors. Al Farabi, e.g., held that cognition originally used to cover the sacred objects, such
is ultimately due to an illumination, whereas as the Playthings of Dionysus in the Eleusinian
Avicenna adopted a more Aristotelian theory. rites,and a cognate is ark, as in the Ark of
While these thinkers had an original philosophy, the Covenant.
Averroes (Ibn Roshd) endeavored to clarify the Arcesilaus: (315-241 B.C.) Greek philosopher
meaning of the Aristotelian texts by extensive from Pitane in Aeolis. He succeeded Crates in
and minute commentaries. Translations from the chair of the Platonic Academy and became
these writings first made known to medieval phi- the founder of the second or so-called middle
losophy the non-logical works of the "Philoso- academy. In opposition to both Stoicism and
pher , although there existed, at the same time, Epicureanism, he advocated a scepticism that
some translations made directly from Greek was not so extreme as that of Pyrrho although
texts. he despaired of man's attaining truth. Suspended
The mystical trend is represented mostly by judgment was to him the best approach. L.E.D.
Al Gazali who also wrote a report on the phi- Archaic: A style which is primitive and incom-
losophies of Farabi and Aviceana followed by plete in comparison with a posterior style which
a devastating criticism, known as Destructio is considered perfect and complete. L.V,
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 19
Archaism: A
revival of archaic style as a result people's support by appealing to their senti-
of dissatisfaction with a manner previously con- mental weaknesses; it may avail itself of
sidered perfect. L.V. patriotism, group and loyalties, and
interests
Arche: (Or. arche) The first in a series; that customary preferences, rather than of facts and
from which a thing either is or comes to be 5 reasons. "R.B.W.
origin ; principle; first cause (Aristotle).
Argumentum ad rent : An argument to the point
G.R.M. distinguished from such evasions as argtt*
Archelaus: A disciple of Anaxagoras; be- mentum ad hominem (q. v.), etc. A.C.
longed to the
Sophistic period) proclaimed Argumentum ad verecundiam: An argument
the conventionality of all ethical judg- availing itself of human respect for great men,
ments. He distinguished between man's natural ancient customs, recognized institutions, and
impulses and dispositions and the dictates of
authority in general, in order to strengthen
human moral laws. The former he held to be
one's point or to produce an illusion of proof.
superior guides to conduct. M.F. R.B.W.
Archelogy: The science of first principles.
C.A.B.
Argumentum ex concesso: An inference found*
ed on a proposition which an opponent hat
Archetype: (Gr. arche, first; and typos, form) already admitted. JJ.R.
The original pattern of forms of which actual
Arianism: named after Ariut (256-336),
things are copies. (Platonic). 7.AT.F. Ajriew
energetic presbyter of Alexandria, condemned at
Archeus: See Paracelsus. R.B.W.
a heretic by the ancient Catholic Church. Ariut
Architectonic: (Kant) (Gr. architcktonikosj Ger.
held that Jesus and God were not of the tame
Architektonik) The formal scheme, structural de- substance (the orthodox position). He main-
sign, or method of elucidation of a system. The tained that although the Son was subordinate to
architectonic of Kant's system rests throughout the Father he was of a similar nature. The
on the basic distinctions of the traditional logic.
controversy on the relation of Jesus to God in-
O.F.AT. volved the question of the divine status of Jesus.
Ardigo, Roberto: (1828-1920) Was the leader If he were not divine how could the church
in the Italian positivistic movement in philoso-
justify him as an object of worship, of trust,
phy. He was born in Padua and educated as a and adoration? If he is divine, how could tuch
Catholic priest, but he became interested in the a belief square with the doctrine of one God
views of Comte, abandoned the ministry and be- Arianism tended toward the
(monotheism) ?
came a professor^ at the Univ. of Padua. His doctrine of the subordination of Jesus to God,
emphasis on psychology differentiates his thought involving the .extreme Arians who held Jetut to
from Comtism. Chief works: La psicologia come be unlike God and the moderate Arians who
science positive (1870), La morale del posi- held that Jesus was of similar essence with God
tivtsti F./.tf.
(1885).- although not of the same substance. Some
Arete: See Virtue. eighteen councils were convened to consider this
Aretology: That branch of ethics concerned with burning question, parties in power condemning
the nature of virtue. C.A.B. and placing each other under the ban. The Coun-
Argument: See Function. cil of Nicea in 325 repudiated Arian tendencies
Argumentum a fortiori: An argument from but the issue was fought with uncertain outcome
analogy which shows that the proposition ad- until the Council of Constantinople in 381 re-
vanced is more admissible than one previously affirmed the orthodox, view. V.F*
conceded by an opponent. JJ.R. 435-366 B.C.) Orig-
Aristippus of Gyrene: (c.
Argumentum ad baculum: An argument deriv- inally a Sophist,then Socrates' disciple, and
ing its strength from appeal to human timidity finally the founder of the Cyrenaic School. He
or fears? it may contain, implicitly or
explicitly, taught that pleasure, understood as the sensation
R.B.W.
a threat. of gentle character, is the true end of life. All
Argumentum ad hominem: An irrelevant or pleasures are equal in value, but differ in degree
malicious appeal to personal circumstances} it and duration; they should be controlled and
consists diverting an argument from sound
in moderated by reason. R.B.W.
facts and reasons
to the personality of one's Aristippus the younger: A grandson of Aris-
opponent, competitor or critic. R.B.W. tippus of Cyrene, the founder of the Cy-
Argumentum ad ignorantiam: An argument renaic School; author of a physiological
purporting to demonstrate a point or to per- psychology which sought to trace the origin of
suade people, which avails itself of facts and human feelings. See Cyrenaics. Af.F.
reasons the falsity or inadequacy of which is Aristobulus: A philosopher of the second century
not readily discerned; a misleading arp-umrnt B.C. who combined Greek philosophy with Jew-
used in reliance on people's ignorance, R.B.W. ish theology. M.F.
Argumentum ad judicium : A reasoning ground- Aristocracy: 1. In its original and etymological
ed on the common mankind and the
sense of meaning (Greek: aw/oj-best, Ar/ox-power), the
judgment of the people. JJ.R. government by the best; and by extension, the
Argumentum ad misericordiam : An argument class of the chief persons in a country. At the
attempting to prove a point or to win a dpoaion standards by which the best can be determined
by appeal to pity and related emotions. R.B.W. and selected may vary, it it difficult to give a
Argumentum ad populum: An argument at- general definition of this term (Cf. C. Lewis,
tempting to sway popular feeling or to win Political Trms, X. 73). But in particular, the
20 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
implication! of aristocracy may be rational, his- denotes those who
hold active power in a totali-
torical, political, pragmatic or analogical. Their selection is by reference to
tarian State.
2. In its rational aspect, as developed espe- some narrow and pragmatic principles of effec-
cially by Plato and Aristotle, aristocracy is the tive service to the State, of hierarchized leader-
rule of the best few, in a true, purposeful, law- ship, or of training in accordance with the doc-
abiding and constitutional sense. As a political trines of 'the State.
ideal, it is a form of government by morally 6.In its analogical aspect, the term aristocracy
and
intellectually superior men for the common if applied to the leading persons in a profession
good or in the general interests of the governed, (intellectual or manual), who assume an attitude
but without participation of the latter. Owing to of exclusiveness or superiority on the strength
the difficulty of distinguishing the best men for of simply professional, religious or social motives.
directing the life of the community, and of T.G.
setting in motion the process of training and Aristotelianism : The philosophy of Aristotle
selecting such models of human perfection, aris- (384-322 B.C.). Aristotle was born in the
tocracy becomes practically the rule of those Greek colony of Stagira, in Macedon, the son
who are thought to be the best. [Plato himself of Nicomachus, the physician of King Amyntas
proposed his ideal State as "a model fixed in the of Macedon. In his eighteenth year Aristotle be-
heavens" for human imitation but not attain- came a pupil of Plato at Athens and remained
ment} and in the Laws he offered a combination for nearly twenty years a member of the Acad-
of monarchy and democracy as the best working emy. After the death of Plato he resided for
form of government.] Though aristocracy is a some time at Atarneus, in the Troad, and at
racy, it exhausts the classification of the main In 335 he returned to Athens, where he spent
forms of rational government. the following twelve years as head of a school
which he set up in the Lyceum. The school also
3. In its historical aspect, aristocracy is a
definite class or order known as hereditary no-
came to be known as the Peripatetic, and its
which possesses prescriptive rank and members Peripatetics, probably because of the
bility,
or covered walk, in which Aristotle
peripatos,
This group developed from primitive
privileges.
lectured. As
a result of the outburst of anti-
monarchy, by the gradual limitation of the regal
Macedonian feeling at Athens in 323 after the
authority by those who formed the council of
death of Alexander, Aristotle retired to Chalcis,
the king. The* defense of their prerogatives led
in Euboea, where he died a year later.
them naturally to consider themselves as a sepa-
rate class fitted by birthright to monopolize gov-
The extant works of Aristotle cover almost all
ernment. But at the same time, they assumed
the sciences known in his time. They are char-
acterized by subtlety of analysis, sober and dis-
a number of corresponding obligations (hence
passionate judgment, wide mastery of
and a
the aphorism noblesse oblige) particularly for
empirical facts; collectively they constitute one
maintaining justice, peace and security. [The
of the most amazing achievements ever credited
characteristics of hereditary aristocracy are:
(1)
to a single mind. They may conveniently be
descent and birthright, (2) breeding and educa-
arranged in seven groups: (1) the Organon, or
tion, (3) power to command, (4) administrative
logical treatises, viz.Categories, De Interpreta-
and military capacities, (5) readiness to fulfill
tione, Prior Analytics, Posterior Analytics, Top-
personal and national obligations, (6) interest and
mem- ics, Sophistici Elenchi; (2) the writings on
in field sports, (7) social equality of its
physical science, viz. Physics, De Coelo, De
bers, (8) aloofness and exclusiveness, (9) moral
Generatione et Corruptione, and Meteorological
security in the possession of real values regard-
(3) the biological works, viz. Historia Ani-
less of criticism, competition or advancement.]
malium, De Partibus Animalium, De Motu and
In certain societies as in Great Britain, birth-
De Incessu Animalium, and De Generatione
right is not an exclusive factor: exceptional men the on psychology,
Animalium; (4) treatises
are admitted by recognition into the aristocratic
De Anima and a
viz. works
collection of shorter
circle (circulation of the elite)) after a tincture known as the Parva Naturalia; (5) the Meta-
of breeding satisfying its external standards. The
physics; (6) the treatises on ethics and politics,
decline of hereditary nobility was due to eco-
viz. Nicomachean Ethics, Eudemian Ethics, Poli-
nomic rather than to social or political changes.
tics, Constitution of Athens; and (7) two works
Now' aristocracy can claim only a social influ-
dealing with the literary arts, Rhetoric and
ence.
Poetics. A large number of other works in these
4. In its political aspect, aristocracy is a form several fields are usually included in the Aris-
of government in which the sovereign power totelian corpus, though they are now generally
resides actually in a council composed of select believed not to have been Written by Aristotle.
persons (usually patricians), without a monarch, It is probable also that portions of the works
and exclusive of the common people (e.g. the above listed are the work, not of Aristotle, but
Italian republics). It rules by decisions of the of his contemporaries or successors in the
group arrived at by discussion; and tends to be Lyceum.
absolute and oppressive. Besides these treatises there are extant a large
5. In its
pragmatic aspect, aristocracy is syn- number of fragments of works now lost, some
onymous with the elite or the ruling class, and of them popular in character, others memoranda
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 21
or collection* of materials made in preparation rial cause (that of which a thing is made), the
for the systematic treatises. The most noteworthy efficient cause (that by which it comes into
member of the second class is the work dealing being), the formal cause (its essence or nature,
with the constitutions of one hundred fifty-eight i.e. whatit is), and the final cause (its end, or
Greek states, of which one part alone, the Con- that for which it exists). In natural objects, as
stitution of Athens, has been preserved. distinct from the products of art, the last three
The standard edition of the Greek text is that causes coincide; for the end of a natural object
of Bekker (5 vols. Berlin, 1831-1870). com- A is the realization of its essence, and likewise
plete English translation of the works included it is this identical essence embodied in another
in the Berlin edition has recently been pub- individual that is the efficient cause in its pro-
lished (Oxford, 1908-1931) under the editor- duction. Thus for Aristotle every object in the
ship of W. D. Ross. sense world is a union of two ultimate prin-
Aristotle divides the sciences into the theoreti- ciples: the material constituents, or matter
cal, the practical and theproductive, the aim (hyle), and the form, structure, or essence
of the first being disinterested knowledge, of which makes of these constituents the deter-
the second the guidance of conduct, and of the minate kind of being it is. Nor is this union
third the guidance of the arts. The science an external or arbitrary one; for the matter is
now called logic, by him known as "analytic", in every case to be regarded as possessing the
is a discipline preliminary to all the others, capacity for the form, as being potentially the
since its purpose is to set forth the conditions formed matter. Likewise the form has being
that must be observed by all thinking which has only in the succession of its material embodi-
truth as its aim. Science, in the strict sense of ments. Thus Aristotle opposes what he considers
the word, is demonstrated knowledge of the to be the Platonic doctrine that real being be-
causes of things. Such demonstrated knowledge longs only to the forms or universals, whose
is obtained by syllogistic deduction from prem- existence is independent of the objects that im-
ises in themselves certain. Thus the procedure perfectly manifest them. On the other hand,
of science differs from dialectic, which employs against the earlier nature-philosophies that found
probable premises, and from eristic, which aims their explanatory principles in matter, to the
not at truth but at victory in disputation. The neglect of form, Aristotle affirms that matter
center, therefore, of Aristotle's logic is the syl- must be conceived as a locus of determinate
logism, or. that form of reasoning whereby, potentialities that become actualized only through
given two propositions, a third follows neces- the activity of forms.
sarily from them. The basis of syllogistic in- With these principles of matter and form, and
ference is the presence of a term common to the parallel distinction between potential and
both premises (the middle term) so related as actual existence, Aristotle claims to have solved
subject or predicate to each of the other two the difficulties that earlier thinkers had found
terms that a conclusion may be drawn regarding in the fact of change. The changes in nature
the relation of these two terms to one another. are to be interpreted not as the passage from
Aristotle was the first to formulate the theory non-being to being, which would* make them
of the syllogism, and his minute analysis of its unintelligible, but as the process by which what
various forms was definitive, so far as the sub- is merely potential being passes over, through
ject-predicate relation is concerned} so that to form, into actual being, or entelechy. The phil-
this part of deductive logic but little has been osophy of nature which results from these basic
added since his day. Alongside of deductive concepts views nature as a dynamic realm in
reasoning Aristotle recognizes the necessity of which change is real, spontaneous, continuous,
induction, or the process whereby premises, par- and in the main directed. Matter, though indeed
ticularly first premises, are established. This in- capable of form, possesses a residual inertia
volves passing from the particulars of sense ex- which on occasion produces accidental effects; so
perience (the things more knowable to us) to that alongside the ideological causation of the
the universal and necessary principles involved forms Aristotle recognizes what he calls "neces-
in sense experience (the things more knowable sity" in nature; but the products of the latter,
in themselves). Aristotle attaches most impor- since they are aberrations from form, cannot be
tance, in this search for premises, to the con- made the object of scientific knowledge. Fur-
sideration of prevailing beliefs (endoxa) and the thermore, the system of nature as developed by
examination of the difficulties (aporiai) that Aristotle is a graded series of existences, in
have been encountered in the solution of the which the simpler beings, though in themselves
problem in hand. At some stage in the survey formed matter, function also as matter for higher
of the field and the theories previously advanced forms. At the base of the series is prime matter,
the universal connection sought for is appre- which as wholly unformed is mere potentiality,
hended} and apprehended, Aristotle eventually not actual being. The simplest formed matter is
says, by the intuitive reason, or nous. Thus the so-called primary bodies earth, water, air
knowledge ultimately rests upon an indubitable and fire. From these as matter arise by the inter-
intellectual apprehension j yet for the proper vention of successively more complex forms the
employment of the intuitive reason a wide em- composite inorganic bodies, organic tissues, and
pirical acquaintance with the subject-matter is the world of organisms, characterized by varying
indispensable. degrees of complexity in structure and function.
The causes which it is the aim of scientific In this realization of form in matter Aristotle
inquiry to discover are of four sorts: the mate- distinguishes three sorts of change: qualitative
22 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
change, or alteration } quantitative change, or an unmoved first mover. Furthermore, since
growth and diminution* and change of place, motion is eternal (for time is eternal, and time
or locomotion, the last being primary, since it is but the measure of motion), the first mover
it presupposed in all the others. But Aristotle is must be eternal. This eternal unmoved first
far from suggesting a mechanical explanation of mover, whose existence is demanded by physical
change, for not even locomotion can be ex- theory, is described in the Metaphysics as the
plained by impact alone. The motion of the philosophical equivalent of the god or gods of
primary bodies is due to the fact that each has popular religion. Being one, he is the source
its natural place to which it moves when not of the unity of the world process. In himself
opposed} earth to the center, then water, air, he is.pure actuality, the only form without mat-
and fire to successive spheres about the center. ter, the only being without extension. His activ-
The ceaseless motion of these primary bodies ity consists in pure thought, that is, thought
results from transformation into
their ceaseless which has thought for its object* and he influ-
one another through the interaction of the forms ences the world not by mechanical impulse, but
of hot and cold, wet and dry. Thus qualitative by virtue of the perfection of his being, which
differences of form underlie even the most ele- makes him not only the supreme object of all
mental changes in the world of nature. knowledge, but also the ultimate object of all
It is in his biology that the distinctive con- desire.
cepts of Aristotle show to best advantage. The In the Ethics these basic principles are applied
conception of process as the actualization of to the solution of the question of human good.
determinate potentiality is well adapted to the The good for man is an actualization, or active
comprehension of biological phenomena, where exercise, of those faculties distinctive of man,
the immanent teleology of structure and func- that the faculties of the rational, as distinct
is
tion is almost a part of the observed facts. It from the vegetative and sensitive souls. But
is here also that the persistence of the form, or human excellence thus defined shows itself in
species, through a succession of individuals is two forms, in the habitual subordination of
most strikingly evident. His psychology is scarce- sensitive and appetitive tendencies to rational
ly separable from his biology, since for Aristotle rule and and in the exercise of reason
principle,
(as for Greek thought generally) the soul is the in the and contemplation of truth.
search for
principle of life} it is "the primary actual- The former type of excellence is expressed in
ization of a natural organic body." But souls the moral virtues, the latter in the dianoetic or
differ from one another in the variety and com- intellectual virtues. A memorable feature of
plexity of the functions they exercise, and this Aristotle's treatment of the moral virtues is his
difference in turn corresponds to differences in theory that each of them may be regarded as a
the organic structures involved. Fundamental to mean between excess and defect; courage, for
all other physical activities are the functions of example, is a mean between cowardice and rash-
nutrition, growth and reproduction, which are ness, liberality a mean between stinginess and
possessed by all living beings, plants as well as prodigality. In the Politics Aristotle sets forth
animals. Next come sensation, desire, and loco- the importance of the political community as
motion, exhibited in animals in varying degrees. the source and sustainer of the typically human
Above all are deliberative choice and theoretical life. But for Aristotle the highest good for man
inquiry, the exercise of which makes the rational is found not in the political life, nor in any
soul, peculiar to man among the animals. Aris- other form of practical activity, but in theoreti-
totle devotes special attention to the various cal inquiry and contemplation of truth. This
activities of the rational soul. Sense perception alone brings complete and continuous happiness,
is the faculty of receiving the sensible form of because it is the activity of the highest part of
outward objects without their matter. Besides man's complex nature, and of that part which
the five senses Aristotle posits a "common sense," is least dependent upon externals, viz. the in-
which enables the rational soul to unite the tuitive reason, or nous. In the contemplation
data of the separate senses into a single object, of the principles of knowledge and being
first
and which also accounts for the soul's aware- man participates in that activity of pure thought
ness of these very activities of perception and which constitutes the eternal perfection of the
of its other states. Reason is the faculty of divine nature.
apprehending the universal and first principles The philosophy of Aristotle was continued
involved in all knowledge, and while helpless after his death by other members of the Peri-
without sense perception it is not limited to the patetic school, the most important
of whom were
concrete and sensuous, but can grasp the uni- Theophrastus, Eudemus of Rhodes, and Strato
versal and the ideal. The reason thus described of Lampsacus. In the Alexandrian Age, particu-
as apprehending the intelligible world is in one larly after the editing of Aristotle's works by
difficult passage characterized as passive reason, Andronicus of Rhodes (about 50 B.C.), Aris-
requiring for its actualization a higher inform- totelianism was the subject of numerous exposi-
ing reason at the tource of all intelligibility in tions and commentaries, such as those of Alex-
things and of realized intelligence in man. ander of Aphrodisias, Themistius, John Philo-
ponus, and Simplicius. With the closing of
The necessity of assuming such a tupreme the
sixth century the
form appears also from the side of physics. Since philosophical schools in the
every movement or change implies a mover, and knowledge of Aristotle, except for fragments of
since the chain of causes cannot be infinite if the logical doctrine, almost disappeared in the
the world it to be intelligible, there must be west. It was preserved, however, by Arabian
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 23
and Syrian scholars, from whom, with the re- 460b 20) Metaphysics lOlla 33 Problems 95 8b }
vival of learning in the twelfth and thirteenth 14, 9S9a, IS, 96Sa 36. G.RM.
centuries, it passed again to western Europe and Aristotle's Illusion I See Aristotle's Experiment.
became in Thomas Aquinas the philosophical
Arithmetic, foundations of: Arithmetic (i.e.,
basis of Christian theology. For the next few the mathematical theory of the non-negative in-
centuries the prestige of Aristotle was immense be based on the five
}
tegers,0, 1, 2, . . .) may
he was "the philosopher," "the master of those which are due to Peano
following postulates,
who know." With the rise of modern science whom Peano's ideas were
(and Dedekind, from
his authority has greatly declined. Yet Aris-
partly derived):
totelianism is still a force in modern thought:
.
Aristotle's Experiment: An experiment fre- tional calculus of second order without additions.
quently referred to by Aristotle in which an In this formulation, numerical functions can be
object held between two crossed fingers of the introduced only by contextual definition as in-
same hand is felt as two 'objects. De Somniis complete symbols.
24 DICTIONARY
In the Frege-Russell derivation of arithmetic literature. The problem of the distinction and
from logic (see the article Mathematics) neces- classification of the arts originated with Lessing
sity for the postulates of Peano is avoided. If in reaction to the interference of poetical values
based on the theory of
types, however, this in and vice versa. He distinguished
painting
derivation requires some form of the axiom of poetry dealing with consecutive actions from
infnity which may be regarded as a residuum painting concerned with figures coexisting in
of the Peano postulates. space. Later, aestheticians divided the arts into
See further the articles Recursion, definition many classifications. Zimmermann, a pupil of
by, and Recursion, proof by. A.C. Herbart, distinguished three groups:
B. Russell, Introduction to Mathematical Philoso- (1) arts of material representation (architec-
phy, London, 1919.
ture, sculpture, etc.).
Arithmetic mean: The simple average. Thus the (2) arts of perceptive representation (paint-
arithmetic mean of nquantities is the sum of
ing, music).
'
these quantities divided by n. Contrast with arts of the
(3) representation of thought
geometric mean. C.A.B.
(poetry).
Ars Combinatorial art or technique
(Leibniz) An This partition suggested to Fiedler the aesthe-
of deriving or inventing complex concepts by a tics of pure visibility, to Hanslick the aesthetics
combination of a relatively few simple ones of pure musicality. And from Fiedler's idea was
taken as primitive. This technique was proposed derived the so-called Science of Art independent
as a valuable subject for study by Leibniz in of aesthetics. L.V.
Df Arte Combinatoria (1666) but was never Art impulse: A term to account for the origin
greatly developed by him. Leibniz's program for of all matter falling under the consideration of
logic consisted of two main projects: (1) the aesthetics by describing it as due to non-intel-
development of a universal characteristic (char- lectualistic,psychical urges, thoroughly dynamic
acteristics universalis), and (2) the
development in nature, such as desire to imitate, proneness to
of a universal mathematics (mathesis ttniversalis
please, exhibitionism, play, utilization of surplus
q.v.). The universal characteristic was to be a vital energy, emotional expression, or compen-
universal language for scientists and philoso- sation. K.F.L.
phers. With a
relatively few basic symbols for Asana: (Skr.) "Sitting"} posture, an accessory to
the ultimately simple ideas, and a suitable tech- the proper discipline of mind and thinking
nique for constructing compound ideas out of deemed important by the Yoga and other sys-
the simple ones, Leibniz thought that a
language tems of Indian philosophy, according to psycho-
could be constructed which would be much more K.F.L.
physical presuppositions.
efficientfor reasoning and for communication Asat: (Skr.) "Non-being", a school concept dating
than the vague, complicated, and more or less back to Vedic (q.v.) times. It offers a theory
parochial languages then available. This lan- of origination according to which being (sat;
guage would be completely universal in the q.v.) was produced from non-being in the be-
sense that and philosophical con-
all scientific
ginning; it was rejected by those who believe
cepts could be expressed in it, and also in that in being as the logical starting point in meta-
it would enable scholars in all countries to
com- physics. K.F.L.
municate over the barriers of their vernacular Asceticism: (Gr. askesis, exercise) The view-
tongues. Leibniz's proposals in this matter, and now and then appearing in conjunction with
what work he did on it, are the grand predeces- and Buddhistic
religion, particularly the Christian
sors of a vast amount of research which has
one, or the striving for personal perfection or
been done in the last hundred years on the salvation for self and others that the body is
techniques of language construction, and specifi- an evil and a detriment to a moral, spiritual,
cally on the invention of formal rules and pro- and god-pleasing life. Hence the negative ad-
cedures for introducing new terms into a lan-
justments to natural functions, desires, and even
guage on the basis of terms already present, the needs, manifesting themselves in abnegation of
general project of constructing a unified lan- pleasures, denial of enjoyments, non-gratifica-
guage for science and philosophy. L. Couturat, tion of the senses, stifling of physical cravings,
La Logique de Leibniz, Paris, 1901} as well as self-torture which is meant to allay
C.I.Lewis,
A Survey of Symbolic Logic, Berkeley, 1918. or kill off physical and worldly longings b>
F.L.W. destroying their root, in preparation for a hap-
Ars magna Raymundi: A device by which Ray-
pier, perhaps desireless future, in a post mortem
mundus Lullus, Ramon Lul, thought to arrive existence. K.F.L.
at all
possible conclusions from certain given Aseitas: (LaO
Being by and of itself, asserted
principles or notions. A
very imperfect precursor only of God. All other beings are dependent in
of Leibniz's mathesis universalis. See Lullic art. their existence on God as creator, they are at
R.A. alio.R.A.
Art: (Gr. techne) (See Aesthetics) In Aristotle Asmita: (Skr. "I am-ness") A
kind of egoism
the science or knowledge of the principle* in- repudiated by the Yogasutras (q.v.) in whict
volved in the production of beautiful or useful lower states of mind are presumed to be the sell
objects. As 'a branch of knowledge art is dis- or purusa. K.F.L.
tinguished both from theoretical science and Asomatic: (Gr. a -f soma, body, Disembodied)
from practical wisdom) as a process of produc- The condition of a mind after separation from
tion it is contrasted with nature. C.K.M. its body. L.W.
In its narrower meaning, the fine arts and Assent: The act of the intellect adhering to a
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 25
truth because of the evidence of the terms} a often conjoined into the unity of a perception,
proof of the reason (medium rationale) \ or the e.g. the bell which I saw a moment ago and
command of the will. H.G. the sound which I now hear, while, on the other
Assertion: Frege introduced the assertion sign, hand, an idea may in certain cases be contempo-
in 1879, as a means of indicating the difference raneous with the sensation or idea by which it
between asserting a proposition as true and is revived. The dual application of the term
merely naming a proposition (e.g., in order to association to both natural and acquired asso-
make an assertion about it, that it has such ciation was made by J. Locke: "Some of our
and such consequences, or the like). Thus, with ideas," says Locke "have a natural correspond-
an appropriate expression A, the notation HA ence or connection with one another Besides
would be used to make the assertion, "The un- this there is another connection of ideas wholly
like magnetic poles attract one another," while owing to chance or custom." Essay Concerning
the notation A would correspond rather to Human Understanding (1690) Bk. II, ch. 33.
the noun clause, "that the unlike magnetic poles The usage of later authors, however, tends to re-
attract one another."
Later Frege adopted the strict the term association to acquired connec-
usage that prepositional expressions (as noun tion ((b) above) and to adopt some other ex-
clauses) are proper names of truth values and pression such as cohesion, correlation (see
modified his use of the assertion sign accord- Correlation, Sensory) or combination (see Com-
ingly, employing say (or A
A) to denote the bination) to designate natural connections ((a)
truth value thereof that the unlike magnetic above).
poles attract one another and A to express I A further distinction is drawn between two
the assertion that this truth value is truth. subvarieties of acquired association viz. spontane-
The assertion sign was adopted by Russell, ous or free association, in which the revival of
and by Whitehead and Russell in Puncipia associated ideas proceeds by chance and voluntary
Mathematicat in approximately Frege's sense of or controlled association in which it is guided by
1879, and it is from this source that it has a dominant purpose. The distinction between
come into general use. Some recent writers chance and voluntary association was also recog-
omit the assertion sign, either as understood, or nized by Locke: "The strong combination of
on the ground that the Frege-Russell distinc- ideas not allied by nature makes itself either
tion between asserted and unasserted proposi- voluntarily or by chance." (Ibid.)
tions is illusory. Others use the assertion sign The phenomenon of acquired association has
in asyntactical sense, to express that a for- long been recognized by philosophers. Plato
mula a theorem of a logistic system (q. v.)$
is cites examples of association by contiguity and
this usage differs from that of Frege and Russell similarity (Phaedo, 73-6) and Aristotle in his
in that the latter requires the assertion sign to treatment of memory enumerated similarity, con-
be followed by a formula denoting a proposi- trast and contiguity as relations which mediate
tion, or a truth value, while the former requires recollection. (De Mem. II 6-11 (451 b)).
it to be followed by the syntactical name of Hobbes was aware of the psychological im-
also
such a fo mula. portance of the phenomenon of association tnd
In the prepositional calculus, the name laic anticipated Locke's distinction between chance
of assertion is given to the theorem: and controlled association (Leviathan (1651),
/>=[[# = ?]
=>
*] ch. 3} Human Nature (1650), ch. 4). But it
(The associated form of inference from A and was Locke who introduced the phrase "associa-
A => B to B is, however, known rather as tion of ideas" and gave impetus to modern
modus ponens.) A. C. association psychology.
The
of declaring a proposition
act Following Locke, the phenomenon of associa-
or prepositional form to be true (or to be neces- tion was investigated by G. Berkeley and D.
sarily true, or to be a part of a system). Hume both of whom were especially concerned
Assertoric: See Modality. with the relations mediating association. Berke-
Assertoric knowledge: Knowledge of what is ley enumerates similarity, causality and co-
actual or occurring, as opposed to knowledge of existence or contiguity (Theory of Vision Vin-
what might occur or is capable of occurring, or dicated (1733), 39)} Hume resemblance, con-
of what must occur opposed to" problematic
5 tiguity in time or place and cause or effect
ous association and the second type successive (Essai sur I'origines de connaissances humaines)
association, but this terminology it misleading (1746)} Traite de sensations (1754), J. F. Her-
since successively apprehended sensations are bart Lehrbuch der Psychologie (1816). L.W.
26 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Association, Laws The psychological laws in
of: proposition. The motive for an assumption may
accordance with which association takes place. be (but need not necessarily be) a belief in the
The classical enumeration of the laws of asso- truth, or possible truth, of the proposition
ciation is contained in Aristotle's De Memoria assumed} or the motive may be an attempt to
proposition by reductio ad absurdum
et Reminisce ntia, II, 4S1, b 18-20 which lists refute the
similarity, contrast and contiguity as the meth- The word assumption has also sometimes
(q. v.).
ods of reviving memories. Hume (A Treatise been used as a synonym of axiom- or postulate
on Human Nature, Part I, 4 and An Enquiry (see the article Mathematics). A.C.
Concerning Human Understanding, 3) slightly Astika: (Skr.) "Orthodox" one acknowledging
i
revised the Aristotelian list by enumerating as the the authority of the Veda (q.v.). K.F.L.
sole principles of association, resemblance, con- Astikaya: (Skr.) Bodily or extended substance.
tiguity in time or place and causality contrast j In Jaina philosophy only time is not (anasti, the
was considered by Hume, "a mixture of causa- negation of asti) like a body (kaya), hence non-
tion and resemblance." L.W. extended. K.F.L.
Associationism : A theory of the structure and Ataraxia: The Epicurean doctrine that the com-
organization of mind which assrrts that, (a) plete peace of mind was a pleasurable state of
every mental state is resolvable into simple, dis- equilibrium. See Epicureanism. E.H.
crete components (See Mind-Stuff Theory, Psy- Atheism: (Gr. a, no} theos, god) Two uses of
chological Atomism) and (b) the whole of the the term: (a) The belief that there is no God.
mental life is explicable by the combination and (b) Some philosophers have been called "atheis-
recombination of these elemental states in con- tic" because they have not held to a belief in a
formity with the laws of association of ideas. personal God. Atheism in this sense means "not
(See Association > Laws of). Hume (Treatise on theistic."
Human Nature, 1739) and Hartley (Observa- The former meaning of the term is a literal
tions on Man, 1749) may be considered the rendering. The latter meaning is a less rigor-
founders of associationism of which James Mill, ous use of the term although widely current in
J. S. Mill and A. Bain are later exponents. L.W. the history of thought. V.F.
Associationist Psychology: See Associationism. Atman: (Skr.) Self, soul, ego, or I. Variously
L.W. conceived in Indian philosophy, atomistically (cf.
Associative law: Any law of the form, anu), monadically, etherially, as the hypothetical
x o (y o a) rz (x o y) o z, carrier of karma (q.v.), identical with the divine
where o is a dyadic operation (function) and (cf. ay am dtmd brahma; tat tvatn ast) or differ-
* o y is the result of applying the operation to ent from yet dependent on it, or as a metaphysi-
* and y (the value of the function for the argu- cal entity to be dissolved at death and reunited
ments x and y). Instead of the sign of equality, with the world ground. As the latter it is de-
there may also appear the sign of the bicondi- fined as "smaller than the small" (anor aniydn)
tional (in the prepositional calculus), or of or "greater than the great" (mahato mahiydn),
other relations having properties similar to i.e., magnitudeless as well as infinitely great.
[p = [q 3 r]]
= [[P S 7] ~ r]. relations are external and that some true propo-
Also four corresponding laws in the algebra of sitions are without simpler constituents in a
classes. given system, such propositions are "basic" with
As regards exclusive disjunction in the prepo- respect to that system. In political philosophy,
sitional calculus, the- caution should be noted atomism is syn. of particularism.
that, although p -f- q is the exclusive disjunc- (c) As contrasted with the view that certain
tion of p and q, and although -f- obeys an as- entities are analyzable, the doctrine that some
sociative law, nevertheless [p -f- q] -f- r is not entities are ultimately simple. E.g., Russell's doc-
the exclusive disjunction of the three proposi- trine that there are certain simple, unanalysable
tions p) q, r
but is rather, "Either all three or atomic propositions of which other propositions
one and one only of p, q, r." A. C. are constituted by compounding or generaliza-
Assumption: A proposition which is taken or tion. C.A.B.
posed in order to draw inferences from it 5 or A consistent atomistic theory of nature or
the act of 00 taking, posing, or assuming a even of bodily substances is hardly found in
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
medieval texts with the exception of William of or that which expresses the nature of a thing}
Conchea' Philotophia mundi and the Mutakal- or that without which a thing is unthinkable. Ai
lexnins, a Moslem school of atomists.
R.A. such, it implies necessarily a relation to some
Atomism, psychological: See Psychological substance of which it is an aspect or conception.
Atomism. But it
it does not exiit
cannot be a substance, as
Atonement Religious act of expressing- conscious-
:
by itself. transcendental attribute* are those
The
it a being:
ness of one's sins, penitence, reconciliation, giv- which belong to a being because it
a the true and
ing satisfaction. Specifically, theological there are three of them, the one,
doctrine meaning' the reconciliation between God the good, each adding something positive
to the
and man who had sinned against God, hence hat been and
idea of being. The word attribute
given offense to Him. This was effected through still is used more readily,
with various implica-
the Incarnation of Christ, the Son of God, His In the 17th cen-
tions, by substantial systems.
sufferings and death on the cross, who conse- it denoted the actual mani-
tury, for example,
the Saviour and Redeemer of the re-
quently is
festations of substance. [Thus, Deacartei
human race. This voluntary death and vicarious as the two ulti-
garded extension and thought
sacrifice constituted a full for the attribute* of reality,
reparation mate, simple and original
sins of humanity and satisfied the debt to divine else being modifications of
them. With
all
justice, thusmaking it again possible for men to Spinoza, extension
and thought became the only
attain eternal happiness in heaven. JJ.R. in a
known attributes of Deity, each expressing
Attention: (Lat. ad +
tendere, to stretch) The definite manner, though not exclusively,
the in-
substance. The
concentration of the mind upon selected portions finite essence of God as the only
after Hume
of the field of consciousness thereby conferring change in the meaning of substance
upon the selected items, a peculiar vividness and and Kant is best illustrated by this quotation
from Whitehead: "We diverge from
The field of attention may be divided Descartes
clarity.
into two parts: by holding that what
he has described as pri-
the
(a) the focus of attention, where attributes of physical bodies, are really
the degree
mary
of concentration of attention is maximal and forms of internal relationships
between actual
(b) the fringe of attention, where the degree occasions and within actual occasions" (Process
of
of attention gradually diminishes to zero at the and Reality, p. 471).] The use of the notion
still favoured by contem-
periphery. attribute, however, is
Attention considered with respect to its gene- Boodm speaks of
porary thinkers, Thus, John
sis, isof two types: the five attributes of reality, namely: Energy
involuntary, passive or spontaneous atten-
Time
(a) (source of activity), Space (extension),
which governed by external rtimulus or awareness), and
tion, is
(change), Consciousness (active
internal association of ideas and Form (organization, structure).
(b) voluntary, controlled or directed atten- 3. In theodicy, the term
attribute is used for
tion which is guided by the subject's purpose or the essential characteristics of God.
The divtne
intention. L.W. attributes are the various aspects
under which
a separate
Attention, Span of: The number of simultaneous God is viewed, each being treated as
dent, though there are differences among all predicate which may consist of a verb often
these terms. For example, a quality is an in- wordi.
having some object or qualifying
6. In natural history, what is permanent
and
herent property (the qualities of matter), while
essential in a species, an individual
or In its
an attribute refers to the actual properties of a
thing only indirectly known (the attributes of parts.
it denotes the way (tuch
ai
God). Another difference between attribute and 7. In psychology,
quality isthat the former refers to the character- intensity, duration or quality) in which tenia-
from one
istics of an infinite being, while the latter is tions, feelings or imaget can differ
critically referred to these other agencies. Ac- illuminism. An ontological illumination is re-
cording to Kant's famous definition "Enlighten- quired to explain the metaphysical structure of
ment is the liberation of man from his self- things. The truth of judgment demands a noetic
caused state of minority, which is the incapacity illumination. A
moral illumination is necessary
of using one's understanding without the direc- in the order of willing; and so, too, an illumi-
tion of another. This state of minority is caused nation of art in the aesthetic order. Other il-
when its source lies not in the lack o under- luminations which transcend the natural order '
standing, but in the lack of determination and do not come within the scope of philosophy;
courage to use it without the assistance of an- they provide the wisdoms of theology and mys-
other" (Was ist Aufklarung? 1784). ticism. Every being is illuminated ontologically
2. In itshistorical perspective, the Aufklarung by number, form, unity and its derivatives, and
refers to the cultural atmosphere and contribu- order. A
thing is what it is, in so far as it is
tions of the 18th century, especially in Germany, more or less flooded by the light of these onto-
France and England [which affected also Ameri- logical constituents.
can thought with B. Franklin, T. Paine and the Sensation is necessary in order to know mate-
leaders of the Revolution]. It crystallized ten- rial substances.There is certainly an action of
dencies emphasized by the Renaissance, and the external object on the body and a cor-
quickened by modern scepticism and empiricism, responding passion of the body, but, as the soul
and by the great scientific discoveries of the is superior to the body and can suffer nothing
17th century. This movement, which was repre- from its inferior, sensation must be an action,
sented by men of varying tendencies, gave an not a passion, of the soul. Sensation takes place
impetus to general learning, a more popular only when the observing soul, dynamically on
philosophy, empirical, science, scriptural criticism, guard throughout the body, is vitally attentive
social and political thought. to the changes suffered by the body. However,
3. More especially, the word Aufklarung is an adequate basis for the knowledge of intel-
applied to the German contributions to 18th lectual truth is not found in sensation alone. In
century culture. In philosophy, its principal rep- order to know, for example, that a body is
resentatives are G. E. Lessing (1729-81) who multiple, the idea of unity must be present al-
believed in free speech and in a methodical ready, otherwise its multiplicity could not
be
criticism of religion, without being a free- recognized. If numbers are not drawn in by
thinker) H. S. Reimarus (1694-1768) who ex- the bodily senses which perceive only the con-
pounded a naturalistic philosophy and denied the tingent and passing, is the mind the source of
supernatural origin of Christianity; Moses Men- the unchanging and necessary truth of numbers?
delssohn (1729-86) who endeavoured to mitigate The mind of man is also contingent and muta-
prejudices and developed a popular common- ble,and cannot give what it does not possess.
sense philosophyj Chr. Wolff (1679-1754), As ideas are not innate, nor remembered from
J. A. (1739-1809) who followed
Eberhard a previous existence of the soul, they can be
the Leibnizian and criticized un-
rationalism accounted for only by an immutable source
successfully Kant and Fichtej and J. G. higher than the soul. In so far as man is en-
Herder (1744-1803) who was best at an dowed with an intellect, he is a being naturally
interpreter of others, but whose intuitional sug- illuminated by God, 'Who may be compared to
gestions have borne fruit in the organic correla- an intelligible sun. The human intellect does
tion of the sciences, and in questions of language not create the laws of thought} it finds them
in relation to human nature and to national and submits to them. The immediate intuition
character. The works of Kant and Goethe mark of these normative rules does not carry any con-
the culmination of the German Enlightenment. tent, thus any trace of ontologism is avoided.
Cf. J. G. Hibben, Philosophy of the Enlighten- Things have forms because they have numbers,
r.c.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 29
and they have being in so far as they possess cartes, considered the lower animals to be pure
form. The sufficient explanation of all formable, automata (Letter to Henry More, 1649) and
and hence changeable, things is an immutable man a machine controlled by a rational soul
and eternal form which is unrestricted in time {Treatise on Man). Pure automatism for man
and space. The forms or ideas of all things as well as animals is advocated by La Mettrie
actually existing in the world are in the things (Man, a Machine, 1748). During the Nine-
themselves (as rations; seminales) and in the teenth century, automatism, combined with epi-
Divine Mind (as rationes aeternae). Nothing phenomenalism, was advanced by Hodgson, Hux-
could exist without unity, for to be is no other ley and Clifford. (Cf, W. James, The Principles
than to be one. There is a unity proper to each of Psychology, Vol. I, ch. V.) Behaviorism, of
level of being, a unity of the material indi- the extreme sort, is the most recent version of
vidual and species, of the soul, and of that union automatism (See Behaviorism).
of souls in the love of the same good, which (b) In psychology. Psychological automatism
union constitutes the city. Order, also, is onto- is the performance of apparently purposeful ac-
logically imbibed by all beings. To tend to tions, like automatic writing without the super-
being is to tend to order) order secures being, intendence of the conscious mind. L. C. Rosen-
disorder leads to non-being. Order is the dis- field, From Beast Machine to Man Machine,
tribution which and unequal
allots things equal N. Y., 1941. L.W.
each to its own and integrates an ensemble
place Automatism, Conscious: The automatism of
of parts in accordance with an end. Hence, Hodgson, Huxley, and Clifford which considers
peace is defined as the tranquillity of order. man a machine to which mind or consciousness
Just as things have their being from their forms, is superadded ; the mind of man is, however,
the order of parts, and their numerical relations, causally ineffectual. See Automatism} Epiphe-
so too their beauty is not something superadded, nomenalism. L. W.
but the shining out of all their intelligible co- Autonomy: (Gr. autonomia, independence) Free-
ingredients.
dom consisting in self-determination and inde-
S. Aurelii
Augustini, Opera Omnia, Migne, pendence of all external constraint. See Freedom.
PL 32-47} (a critical edition of some works will Kant defines autonomy of the will as subjection
be found in the Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasti- of the will to its own law, the categorical im-
corum Latinorum, Vienna). Gilson, E., Introd. perative, in contrast to heteronomy, its subjection
a V etude de to a law or end outside the rational will.
Augustin, (Paris, 1931) contains
s.
very good bibliography up to 1927, pp. 309-331. (Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of
Pope, H., St. Augustine of Hippo, (London, Morals, 2.) L.W.
1937). Chapman, E., St. Augustine's Philos. of Autonomy of ethics: A doctrine, usually
Beauty, (N. Y., 1939). Figgis, J. N., The Po- propounded by intuitionists, that ethics is not a
litical Aspects of St. Augustine's "City of God", part of, and cannot be derived from, either meta-
(London, 1921). E.G. physics or any of the natural or social sciences.
Authenticity: In a general sense, genuineness, See Intuitioniim, Metaphysical ethics, Naturalistic
truth according to its title. It involves some- ethics.- W.K.F.
times a direct and personal characteristic (White- Autonomy (in Kant's ethics) The
of the will:
head speaks of "authentic feelings"). freedom of the rational will to legislate to it-
This word also refers to problems of funda- self, which constitutes the basis for the autonomy
mental criticism involving title, tradition, author- of the moral law. P.A.S.
ship and evidence. These problems are vital in Autonymy: In the terminology introduced by
theology, and basic in scholarship with regard Carnap, a word (phrase, symbol, expression) is
to the interpretation of texts and doctrines. autonomous if it is used as a name for itself
Authoritarianism: That theory of knowledge exemplifies, or for the word as a historical and
which maintains that the truth of any proposi- grammatical unit. Autonymy is thus the same as
tion is determined by the fact of its having been the Scholastic suppositio materialis (q. v.), al-
ganism may be considered a mere machine. See playing is unaware, thus approaching a heterotelic
Automatism. (q.v.) conception. K.F.L.
Automatism: (Gr. automates, self-moving) (a) Avenarius, Richard: (1843-1896) German phi-
In metaphysics: Theory that animal and human losopher who expressed his thought in an elaborate
organisms are automata, that it to say, are ma- and novel terminology in the hope of construct-
chines governed by the laws of physics and ing a symbolic language for philosophy, like that
mechanics. Automatism, as propounded by Des- of mathematics the consequence of his Spinoza
30 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
studies. As the most influential apostle of pure Averroes: (Mohammed ibn Roshd) Known to
experience, the positivistic motive reaches in him the Scholastics as The Commentator, and men-
an extreme position. Insisting on the biologic and tioned as the author of il gran comments by
economic function of thought, he thought the Dante (Inf. IV. 68) he was born 1 126 at Cordova
true method of science is to cure speculative ex- (Spain), studied theology, law, medicine, mathe-
cesses by a return to pure experience devoid of matics, and philosophy, became after having been
all assumptions. Philosophy is the scientific effort judge in Sevilla and Cordova, physician to the
to exclude from knowledge all ideas not included khalifah Jaqub Jusuf, and charged with writing
in the given. Its task is to expel all extraneous a commentary on the works of Aristotle. Al-
elements in the given. His uncritical use of the mansur, Jusuf's successor, deprived him of his
category of the given and the nominalistic view place because of accusations of unorthodoxy. He
that logical relations are created rather than died 1198 in Morocco. Averroes is not so much
discovered by thought, leads him to banish not an original philosopher as the author of a
only animism but also the categories, sub-
all of minute commentary on the whole works of
stance, causality, etc., as inventions of the mind. Aristotle. His procedure was imitated later by
Explaining the evolution and devolution of the Aquinas. In his interpretation of Aristotelian
problematization and deproblematization of metaphysics Averroes teaches the coeternity of a
numerous and aiming to give the natural
ideas, universe created ex nlhilo. This doctrine formed
history of problems, Avenarius sought to show together with the notion of a numerical unity
physiologically, psychologically and historically of the active intellect became one of the con-
under what conditions they emerge, are chal- troversial points in the discussions between the
lenged and are solved. He hypothesized a Sys- followers of Albert-Thomas and the Latin Aver-
tem C t a bodily and central nervous system upon roists. Averroes assumed that man possesses
which consciousness depends. R-values are the only a disposition for receiving the intellect
stimuli received from the world of objects. E- coming from without; he identifies this dis-
values are the statements of
experience. The position with the possible intellect which thus
brain changes that continually oscillate about an is not truly intellectual by nature. The notion
ideal point of balance are termed Vitalerhaltungs- of one intellect common to all men does
away
maximum. The E-valucs are differentiated into with the doctrine of personal immortality. An-
elements, to which the sense-perceptions or the other doctrine which probably was
emphasized
content of experience belong, and characters, to more by the Latin Averroists (and by the ad-
v^hich belongs everything which psychology de- versaries among Averroes'
contemporaries) is
scribes as feelings and attitudes. Avenarius de- the famous statement about "two-fold truth",
scribes in symbolic form a series of states from viz. that a
propositionmay be theologically true
balance to balance, termed vital series, all de- and philosophically false and vice versa. Aver-
scribing a series of changes in System C. In- roes taught that religion
expresses the (higher)
equalities in the vital balance give rise to vital philosophical truth by means of religious
differences. According to his theory there are two imagery j the "two-truth notion" came appar-
vital series. It assumes a series of brain changes ently into the Latin text through a misinterpreta-
because parallel series of conscious states can be tion on the part of the translators. The works of
observed. The independent vital series are physi- Averroes were one of the main sources of medi-
cal, and the dependent vital series are psychologi- eval Aristotelianism, before and even after the
cal. The two together are practically covariants. original texts had been translated. The inter-
In the case of a process as a dependent vital pretation the Latin Averroists found in their
series three stages can be noted: first, the texts of the "Commentator"
appear- spread in spite of
ance of the problem, expressed as opposition and condemnation. See Averroism,
strain, rest-
lessness, desire, fear, doubt, pain, repentance, Latin. Averroee, Opera, Venetiis, 1553. M.
delusion; the second, the continued effort and Horten, Die Metaphysik des Averroes, 1912. P.
struggle to solve the problem and finally, the
>, Mandonnet, Siger de Brabant et I'Averroistne
appearance of the solution, characterized by abat- Latin, 2d ed., Louvaln, 1911. R.A.
ing anxiety, a feeling of triumph and enjoyment. Averroism, Latin : The commentaries on Aristotle
Corresponding to these three stages of the written by Averroes (Ibn Roshd) in the 12th
dependent series are three stages of the inde- century became known
to the Western scholars
pendent series: the appearance of the vital differ- in translations by Michael Scottus, Hermannus
ence and a departure from balance in the System Alemannus, and others at the beginning of the
C, the continuance with an approximate vital 13th century. Many works of Aristotle were also
difference, and lastly, the reduction of the vital known firstuch translations from Arabian
by
difference to zero, the return to stability. By texts, though there existed translations from the
making room for dependent and independent ex- Greek originals at the same time (Grabmann).
periences, he showed that physics regards experi- The Averroistic interpretation of Aristotle was
ence as independent of the experiencing indi- held to be the true one by many} but already
vidual, and psychology views experience as de- Albert the Great pointed out several notions
pendent uoon the individual. He greatly in- which he felt to be incompatible with the prin-
fluenced Mach and James (q.v.). See Avenarius, ciples of Christian philosophy, although he relied
Empirio-criticisrh, Experience, pure. Main works: for the rest on the "Commentator" and
appar-
Kritik det reinen Erfahrung; Der menschliche ently hardly used any other text. Aquinas, basing
his studies mostly on a translation from the
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 31
Greek texts, procured for him by William of Joh. Wittman, Die Stellung des hi. Thomas von
criticized the Averroistic interpreta- Aquino xu Avencebrol, ibid. 1900. Vol. III.
Moerbecke,
tion inmany points. But the teachings of the R.A.
Commentator became the foundation for a whole Avicenna: (Abu AH al Hosain ibn Abdallah ibn
school of philosophers, represented first by the Sina) Born 980 in the country of Bocchara,
Faculty of Arts at Paris. The most prominent of began to write in young years, left more than
these scholars was Siger of Brabant. The philoso- 100 works, taught in Ispahan, was physician to
phy of these men was condemned on March 7th, several Persian princes, and died at Hamadan in
1277 by Stephen Tempier, Bishop of Paris, after 1037. His fame
as physician survived his influ-
a first condemnation of Aristotelianism in 1210 ence as philosopher in the Occident. His medi-
had gradually come to be neglected. The 219 cal works were printed still in the 17th century.
theses condemned in 1277, however, contain also His philosophy is contained in 18 vols. of a
some of Aquinas which later were generally rec- comprehensive encyclopedia, following the tradi-
tion of Al Kindi and Al Farabi. Logic, Physics,
ognized as orthodox. The Averroistic proposi-
tions which aroused the criticism of the ecclesiastic Mathematics and Metaphysics form the parts of
authorities and which had been opposed with this work. His philosophy is Aristotelian with
noticeable Neo-Platonic influences. His doctrine
great energy by Albert and Thomas refer mostly
to the following points: The co-eternity of the of the universal existing ante res in God, in
created word, the numerical identity of the rebus as the universal nature of the particulars,
in all the so-called two- and post res in the human mind by way of
intellect men,
fold-truth that a abstraction became a fundamental thesis of medi-
theory stating proposition
be true theo- eval Aristotelianism. He sharply distinguished be-
may philosophically although
false. the first tween the logical and the ontological universal,
logically Regarding point
Thomas argued that there is no philosophical denying to the latter the true nature of form
proof, either for the co-eternity or against it}
in the composite. The
principle of individuation
creation is an article of faith. The unity of in- is'
matter, eternally existent. Latin translations
tellect was rejected as incompatible with the true attributed to Avicenna the notion that existence
notion of person and with personal immortality. is an accident to essence (see e.g. Guilelmus
It is doubtful whether Averroes himself held the Pansiensis, De Universo). The process adopted
two-truths theory it was, however, taught by the
>
by Avicenna was one of paraphrasis of the
Latin Averroists who, notwithstanding the oppo- Aristotelian texts with many original thoughts
sition of the Chuich and the Thomistic philoso- interspersed. His works were translated into
and soon domi- Latin by Dominicus Gundissalinus (Gondisalvi)
phers, gained a great influence
nated many in with the assistance of Avendeath ibn Daud. This
universities, especially Italy.
Thomas and weie convinced that
his followers translationstarted, when it became more gen-
they interpreted Aristotle correctly and that the erally known, the "revival of Aristotle" at the
Averroists were wrong} one has, however, to end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th
admit that certain in Aristotle century. Albert the Great and Aquinas -pro-
passages
allow for the Averroistic interpretation, especially fessed,notwithstanding their critical attitude, a
in regard to the theory of intellect. great admiration for Avicenna whom the Arabs
Lit.: P. Mandtfnnet, Siger de Brabant et used to call the "third Aristotle". But in the
VAverroisme Latin au Xllle Siecle, 2d. ed. Lou- Orient, Avicenna's influence declined soon,
overcome the
vain, 1911} M. Grabmann, Forschungen tiber by opposition, of the orthodox
die lateinischen Aristotelesitbersetzungen des theologians. Avicenna, Opera, Venetiis, 1495}
XIII. Jahrhunderts, Munster 1916 (Beitr. z. 1508j 1546. M. Horten, Das Buck der Gene-
Gesch. Phil. d. MA. Vol. 17, H. 5-6). R.A. sung der Seele, eine philosophische Enzyklopaedie
Avesta: See Zendavesta. Avicenna* S-, XIII. Teil: Die Metaphysik. Halle
a. S. 1907-1909. R. de Vaux, Notes et textes
Avicebron: (or Avencebrol, Salomon ibn Ga-
sur I'Avicennisme
birol) The first Jewish philosopher in Spain, Latin, Bibl. Thomiste XX
born in Malaga 1020, died about 1070, poet, Paris, 1934. R.A.
philosopher, and moralist. His main work, Fons Avidya: (Skr.) Nescience 5 ignorance} the state of
became influential and was much quoted mind unaware of true reality} an equivalent of
vitae,
by the Scholastics. It has been preserved only in tnayd (q.v.)> also a condition of pure awareness
the Latin translation by Gundissalinus. His doc- prior to the universal process of evolution
trine of a spiritual substance individualizing also through gradual differentiation into the elements
and factors of K.F.L.
the pure spirits or separate forms was opposed knowledge.
by Aquinas already in his first treatise De ente, Avyakta: (Skr.) "Unmanifest", descriptive of or
but found favor with the medieval Augustinians standing for brahman (q.v.) in one of its or
also later in the 13th century. He also teaches "his" aspects, symbolizing the superabundance of
the creative principle, or
the necessity of a mediator between God and designating the condi-
the created world} such a mediator he finds in tion of the universe not yet become phenomenal
the Divine Will proceeding from God and cre- (<*/, unborn). K.F.L.
ating, conserving, and moving the world. His Awareness: Consciousness considered in its aspect
cosmogony shows a definitely Neo-Platonic of act} an act of attentive awareness such as the
shade and assumes a series of emanations. Cl. sensing of a color patch or the feeling of pain
Baeumker, Avencebrolis Fons vitae. Beitr. z. is distinguished from the content attended to,
Gesch. d. Philo. d. MA. 1892-1895, Vol. I. the sensed color patch, the felt pain. The psy-
32 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
chological theory of intentional act was advanced Werttheorie, 1 894-1 S99), and Simmel (Philoso-
by F. Brentano (Psychologie vom empirischen phic des Geldes t 1900). W. M. Urban wrote the
Standpunkte) and received its epistemological de- first systematic treatment of axiology in English
was apparently first applied by Paul Lapie (Logi- some truth is disvaluable, some neutral; but love
que de la volonte, 1902) and E. von Hartmann of truth, regardless of consequences, seems to
(Grundriss der Axiologie, 1908). Stimulated by establish the value of truth. There is disagreement
Ehrenfels (System dtr Wertthtorie, 1897), Mei- about whether the holy (religious value) is a
tude toward other values (Kant, Hdffding), or Rickert), of human experience of value to reality
a combination of the two (Hocking). There is independent of man (Hegel, Pringle-Pattison,
also disagreement about whether the variety of Spaulding)? There are three main answers: (i)
values is irreducible (pluralism) or whether all subjectivism (value is entirely dependent on and
values are rationally related in a hierarchy or relative to human experience of it: so most
system (Plato, Hegel, Sorley), in which values hedonists, naturalists, logical
positivists)} (ii)
interpenetrate or coalesce into a total experi- objectivism (values are logical essences or sub-
ence. (3) The criterion of value. The standard sistences, independent of their being known, yet
for testing values is influenced by both psy- with no existential status or action in reality))
chological and logical theory. Hedonists find (iii) metaphysical objectivism (values or norms
the standard in the quantity of pleasure derived or ideals are integral, objective, and active con-
by the individual (Aristippus) or society (Bent- stituents of the metaphysically real: so theists,
ham). Intuitionists appeal to an ultimate in- absolutists, and certain realists and naturalists
sight into (Martineau, Brentano).
preference like S. Alexander and Wieman). .$..
Some idealists recognize an objective system of Axiom: See Mathematics.
rational norms or ideals as criterion (Plato, Axiomatic method : That method of constructing
Windelband), while others lay more stress on a deductive system consisting of deducing by
rational wholeness and coherence (Hegel, Bosan- specified rules all statements of the system save
quet, Paton) or inclusiveness (T. H. Green). a given few from those given few, which are
Naturalists find biological survival or adjustment regarded as axioms or postulates of the system.
(Dewey) to be the standard. Despite differences, See Mathematics. C.A.B.
there is much in common in the results of the Ayam atma brahma: (Skr.) "This self is brah-
application of these criteria. (4) The meta- man", famous
quotation from BrhadSranyaka
physical status of value. What is the relation Upanishad 2.5.19, one of many alluding to the
of values to the facts investigated by natural central theme of the Upanishads, i.e., the identity
science (Koehler), of Sein to Sollen (Lotze, of the human and divine or cosmic. K.F.L.
B
Babism: An initially persecuted and later schis- Bacon's theory of poetry also deserves con-
matizing religious creed founded in Persia prior sideration. Whereas reason adapts the mind to
to the middle of the last century. International the nature of things, and science conquers nature
in its appeal the number of its followers in- by obeying her, poetry submits the shows of
creased largely in America. As a development things to the desires of the mind and overcomes
against orthodox Mohammedanism, the Babis nature by allowing us in our imagination to
deny the finality of any revelation. The sect's escape from her. Out of present experience and
former extreme pantheistic tendency and meta- the record of history, poetry builds its narrative
This process is facilitated by the choice of conduct. First part demonstrates pure concep-
of the possibility of undiscovered negative in- with the soul, but also with other subjects and
stances. evinces a strong neo-Platonic strain. See Jewish
dhist theory (vada), otherwise known as Sautr5n- philosophers as completely verifiable, while others
tika, based upon a realist epistemology. It as- believe that all factual sentences can be con-
sumes the reality and independence of mind and firmed only to some degree. See Scientific
object, which latter is inferred (anumeya) as Empiricist?. R.C.
being outside (bdhya) consciousness and appre- Bathmism: A name given by the Lamarckian
hended only when the sensory apparatus func- E. D. Cope to a special force, or growth-force,
tions and certain physical conditions are fulfilled. which he regarded as existing and as exhibiting
K.F.L. itself in the growth of organic beings. W.F.K.
Bahyapratyaksa-vada : (Skr.) A Hinayana Bud- Baumgarten, Alexander Gottlieb: (1714-1762)
dhist theory (vdda) of realism, otherwise known A German thinker of the pre-Kantian period
as Vaibhasika. It holds that objects exist outside and disciple of Christian Wolff whose encyclo-
(bdhya) the mind and consciousness, but that paedic work he tried to continue. Among his
they must be directly (pratyaksa) and not in- works the best known is Aesthetic* in which he
ferentially (cf. Bahydnumeya-vada) known. analyzes the problem of beauty regarded by him
K.F.L. as recognition of perfection by means of the
Banausic: (Gr. banausos) Vulgar} illiberal} ap- senses. The name of aesthetics, as the philosophy
plied particularly to arts, sciences, or occupations of beauty and art, was introduced by him for the
that deform the body or the mind. G.R.M. first time. R.B.W.
Baptism: A rite of dedication and induction of Becoming: (Medieval) Any kind of change is
privilege. The rite is usually of a ceremonious following Aristotle, a "movement", because mov-
nature with pledges given (by proxy in the case ing is a striking instance of becoming, and be-
of infants), prayers and accompanied by some cause the thing "moves" from the lower level
visible sign (such as water, symbol of purifica- of potentiality to the higher of actuality. Actual-
tion, or wine, honey, oil or blood) sealing the ization is achieved only by a factor which it act
bond of fellowship. In its earliest form the rite itoelf. The act is in this sense prior to the
probably symbolized not only an initiation but potency not only in nature but also in time.
the magical removal of some tabu or demon See Being, Dialectic, Hegel. R.A.
possession (exorcism see Demonology), the Begging the Question: The logical fallacy of
legitimacy of birth, the inheritance of privilege, assuming in the premisses of an argument the
the assumption of a name and the expectancy very conclusion which is to be proved. See
of responsibility. In Christian circles the rite Petitio principii. G.R.M.
has assumed the status of a sacrament, the supei- Begriffsgef iihl : (Ger. Literally, conceptual feel-
natural rebirth into the Divine Kingdom. Vari- ing) The faculty of eliciting feelings, images
ous forms include sprinkling with water, immer- or recollections associated with concepts or cap-
sion, or the laying on of hands. In some able of being substituted for them. Sometimes,
Christian circles it is considered less a mystical the affective tone peculiar to a given concept.
rite and more a sign of a covenant of salvation O.F.AT.
and consecration to the higher life. V.F. Behaviorism : The contemporary American School
Baroque: A style o* art, produced especially in of psychology which abandons the concepts of
the XVIIth centufV> considered by classicists a mind and consciousness, and
both animal restricts
type of false art; by romantictists a product of and human psychology to the study of behavior.
magic imagination. L.V. The impetus to behaviorism was given by the
Earth, Karl: (1886-) Swiss theologian, widely Russian physiologist, Pavlov, who through his
influential among current social pessimists. investigation of the salivary reflex in dogs, de-
God, he holds, is wholly other than man, not veloped the concept of the conditioned reflex.
See Conditioned Reflex. The founder of Ameri-
apprehensible by man's reason nor attainable by
human endeavor. Christianity is a revealed and can behaviorism is J. B. Watson, who formu-
supernatural religion. Man must trust God's lated a program for psychology excluding all
reference to consciousness and confining itself to
plan of salvation or be doomed to utter ruin.
God is the sole judge and his judgments are behavioral responses. (Behavior: An Introduc-
beyond man's attainments. The Bafthian position tion to Comparative Psychology, 1914.) Think-
is called "crisis theology" (crisis, the Greek word ing and emotion are interpreted at implicit be-
for judgment) and "dialectical theology" (be- havior: the former is implicit or subvocal speech)
cause of the emphasis upon the contradiction the latter implicit visceral reaction!. distinc- A
between God and this world). For a summary tion has been drawn between methodological and
of Earth's position see The Knowledge of God dogmatic behaviorism: the former ignores "con-
and the Service of God (1939). V.F. sciousness" and advocates, in psychology, the ob-
Basic Sentences, Protocol Sentences: Sentences jective study of behaviour} the latter denies
formulating the result of observations or percep- consciousness entirely, and is, therefore, a form
tions or other experiences, furnishing the basis of metaphysical materialism. See Automatism.
for empirical verification or confirmation (see L.W.
Verification). Some philosophers take sentences Being, hierarchy of: (Scholastic) The Neo-
concerning observable properties of physical Platonic conception of a hierarchy of "emana-
things as basic sentences, others take sentences tions" from the "One" persisted throughout the
concerning sense-data or perceptions. The sen- Middle-Ages, though it was given another mean-
tences of the latter kind are regarded by some ing. Emanationlsm properly speaking is incom-
36 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
patible with the notion of creation. But the process which, at its foundation, arises out of
medieval writers agree that there is a hierarchy, Being containing Non-Being within itself and
comprising within the visible world inanimate leading, factually and logically, to their syn-
beings, plants, animals, and rational beings, thetic union in Becoming. R.B.W.
men; above them rank the immaterial sub- In scholasticism: The English term trans-
stances (subsistent forms, angels) and finally lates three Latin terms which, in Scholasticism,
God Who, however, is so far distant from any have different significations. Ens as a noun is the
created being that he cannot be placed in line. most general and most simple predicate; as a
Whatever is asserted of God is so only "analogi- participle it is an essential predicate only in re-
cally" (see Analogy). There is analogy also be- gard to God in Whom existence and essence are
tween the grades of created beings; their various one, or Whose essence implies existence. Esse,
levels are not ofone kind, no transition exists though used sometimes in a wider sense, usually
between inanimate and animate bodies, or be- means existence which is defined as the actus
tween material and spiritual substances. Though essendi, or the reality of some essence. Esse
the original meaning has been abandoned, the quid or essentia designates the specific nature of
term "emanation" is still used, even by Aquinas. some being or thing, the "being thus" or the
R.A. quiddity. Ens is divided into real and mental
Being: In early Greek philosophy is opposed being (ens rationis). Though the latter also has
either to Becoming, or to Non-
change, or properties, it is said to have essence only in an
Being. According to Parmenides and his dis- improper way. Another division is into actual
ciples of the
Eleatic School, everything real and potential being. Ens is called the first of
belongs the category of Being, as the only
to all concepts, in respect to ontology and to psy-
possible object of thought. Essentially the same chology; the latter statement of Aristotle ap-
reasoning applies also to material reality in pears to be confirmedby developmental psy-
which there is nothing but Being, one and chology. Thing (res) and ens are synonymous;
continuous, all-inclusive and eternal. Con- a res may be a res extra mentem or only rationis.
sequently, he concluded, the coming into being Every ens is: something, i.e. has quiddity, one,
and passing away constituting change are il- true, corresponds to its proper nature, and
i.e.
lusory, for that which is-not cannot be, and good. These terms, naming aspects which are
that which ft cannot cease to be. In rejecting only virtually distinct from ens, are said to be
Eleatic monism, the materialists (Leukippus, convertible with ens and with each other. Ens
Democritus) asserted that the existence is an analogical term, i.e. it is not predicated in
very
of things, their corporeal nature, insofar as it the same manner of every kind of being, accord-
is subject to change and motion, necessarily ing to Aquinas. In Scotism ens, however, is
presupposes the other than Being, that is, considered as univocal and as applying to God
in the same sense as to created beings, though
Non-Being, or Void. Thus, instead of regard-
ing space as a continuum, they saw in it the they be distinguished as entia ab olio from God,
the ens a se. See Act, Analogy, Potency, Trans-
very source of discontinuity and the foundation
of the atomic structure of substance. Plato cendental*. R.A .
accepted the first part of Parmenides' argument, In Spinoza's sense, that which "is", pre-
namely, that thought as distinct
referring to gminently and without qualification the
from matter, and maintained that, though Be- source and ultimate subject of all distinc-
coming is indeed an apparent characteristic of tions. Being is thus divided into that which is
everything sensory, the true and ultimate reality, "in itself" and "in another" (Ethica, I, Ax. 4j
that of Ideas, is changeless and of the nature see also "substance" and 'mode", Defs. 3 and
of Being. Aristotle achieved a compromise 5). Being is likewise distinguished with respect
among all these notions and contended that, to "finite" and "infinite", under the qualifica-
though Being, as the essence of things, is tions of absolute and relative; thus God is de-
eternal in itself, nevertheless it manifests itself fined (Ibid, I, Def. 6) as "Being absolutely
only in change, insofar as "ideas" or "forms"
infinite". Spinoza seems to suggest that the
have no existence independent of, or tran- term, Being, has, in the strict sense, no proper
scendent to, the reality of things and minds. definition (Cog. Met., I, 1). The main char-
The medieval thinkers never revived the con- acteristics of Spinoza's treatment of this notion
are (i) his clear-headed separation of the prob-
troversy as a whole, though at times they
lems of existence and Being, and (ii) his care-
emphasized Being, as in Neo-Platonism, at
times Becoming, as in Aristotelianism. With fully worked out distinction between ens reale
the rise of new interest in nature, beginning and ens rationis by means of which Spinoza
with F. Bacon, Hobbes and Locke, the problem endeavors to justify the ontological argument
grew once more in importance, especially to (q.v.) in the face of criticism by the later
the of empiricism.
Scholastics. W.S.W.
opponents
rationalists,
Spinoza regarded change at a characteristic of Belief: Acquiescence in the existence of objects
modal existence and assumed in this connection (e.g. external things, other minds, God, etc.) or
a position distantly similar to that of Plato. assent to the truth of propositions (e.g. scientific,
Hegel formed a new answer to the problem moral, aesthetic, or metaphysical statements).
in declaring that nature, striving to exclude The belief in objects is frequently immediate
contradictions, has to "negate" them: Being and and non-inferential) the belief in proposition!
Non-Being are "moments" of the same cosmic usually rests on reflection and inference.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 37
who regarded the greatest happiness of the great- has passed from one generation of living beings
est number as the supreme ethical goal of human to another by way of developed individual or-
society and individual men. The morality of ganisms, these being the connecting links be-
men's actions is determined experimentally by tween the generations. Bergson regards as
their utility, which means the power of an action pseudo-evolutionary the effort to arrange all liv-
to produce happiness. The moral quality of any ing beings into a grand uni-linear series. True
action is estimated in accordance with its pleas- or creative evolution is pluri-dimensional, i.e.,
ant or painful consequences ; for the sovereign the life force is conserved in every line of evolu-
masters of man are pleasure, the only good, and tion of living beings, causing all of the numer-
pain, the only evil. Ethics becomes a matter of ous varieties of living forms, creating all new
calculation of coiftequences. J.J.R. species, and dividing itself more and more as
English Utilitarian School of Philosophy. In towards any fixed, predetermined and final end,
law, he is remembered for his criticism of Black- an immanent teleology is within the life force
stone's views of the English constitution, for his itself.
examination of the legal fiction and for his It is an error to see Bergson's philosophy as
treatment of the subject of evidence. In politics, being exclusively an intuitive critique of knowl-
he is most famous for his analysis of the prin- edge. Such a mode of exposition constructs of
ciples of legislation and, in ethics, for his great- his thought a mere "ism", a species of intui-
est happiness principle. See Hedonic Calculus; tionalism. Bergson was the first to try to give
Utilitarianism. J. Bentham,'/V/>/#x of Morals the term intuition a scientific basis. He
and Legislation, 1789) Outline of a New Sys- transformed and regrounded the static pat-
tem of Logic, 1827j Deontology. L.E.D. tern of the older forms of intuitionism by giv-
a biogenetic and psychologically dynamic
Berdyayev, Nikolai Alexandrovitch: (1874-) ing it
Is a contemporary Russian teacher and writer on justification. Intuitive knowledge is not limited
the philosophy of religion. He was born in to the favored few, is not a private, purely so-
but a general property of all
Kiev, exiled to Vologda' when twenty-five j lipsistic affair) is
threatened with expulsion from the Russian thinking minds. Bergson's conception of intui-
Orthodox Church in 1917, he became professor tion represents a fusion of scientific objectivity
of philosophy at the Univ. of Moscow. In 1922, and artistic directness.
he was expelled from the Soviet Union and he Moreover, it is a serious wide-spread error of
went to Berlin, where he established his Academy interpretation to consider Bergson as an anti-
of Religious Philosophy. He moved his school intellectualist. His alleged anti-intellectualism
to Paris and established a Russian review called should be considered as a protest against taking
Putj (The Way). His thought resembles that the static materialism and spatialtzation of New-
of the Christian Gnostics (see Gnosticism), and ton's conception of nature as being anything but
it owes a good deal to German idealism and a high abstraction, as a rejection of the ex-
38 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
treme claims of mechanistic and materialistic things (formae nativae) are distinct from the
science, as an effort of reason to transcend itself exemplary Ideas in the Divine Mind. A treatise,
in harmony with the greatest idealistic think- De expositione Porphyrii has been attributed to
ers, as an effort of thinkers to stress the dynamic him. He is not to be confused with Bernard
nature of reality, and as a persistent criticism Silvestris of Chartres, nor with Bernard of
of reason, a continuation of the Kantian tradi- Tours. .
Gilson, "Le platonisme de Bernard
tion. His much misread conception of intuition de C.", Revue Neoscolastique, XXV (1923)
may be viewed as akin to Spinoza's intuitio, 5-19. F./.5.
to wit: a completion rather than a rejection of Best: The principle of the best of all possible
reason. H.H. worlds: according to Leibniz, the world which
Berkeleianism : The idealistic system of philosophy exists is the best possible because God's wisdom
of George Berkeley (168M753). He thought makes him know, his goodness makes him
that admission of an extramental world
the choose, and his power always makes him produce
would lead to materialism and atheism. Hence the best possible. See Optimism. JM.
he denied the existence of an independent world Bewusstsein Ueberhaupt: German expression
of bodies by teaching that their existence con- meaning "consciousness in general" that is, con-
sists in perceptibility, esse is percipi. The cause sciousness conceived as a real entity over and
of the ideas in our mind is not a material sub- above individual conscious centers. See Conscious-
stance, but spiritual being, God, who
a com- ness. L.W.
municates them to us in a certain order which Bhagavad Glta: (Skr. the song, glta, of the
we call thelaws of nature. Things cannot exist Blessed A
famed philosophic epic poem,
One)
unless perceived by some mind. Berkeley ac- widely respected in India and elsewhere, repre-
knowledged the existence of other or
spirits, senting Krishna embodied as a charioteer impart-
minds, besides that of God. J.J.R.
ing to the King Arjuna, who is unwilling to
Berkeley, George: (1685-1753) Pluralistic ideal- fight his kinsmen in battle, comprehension of the
ist, reflecting upon the spatial attributes of dis- mysteries of existence, clearly indicating the rela-
tance, size, and situation, possessed, according tionship between morality and absolute ethical
to Locke, by external objects in themselves apart values in a Hindu philosophy of action. K.F.L.
from our perception of them, concluded that Bhakti: (Skr. division, share) Fervent, loving de-
the discrepancy between the visual and the tac- votion to the object of \ contemplation or the
tual aspects of these attributes robbed them of divine being itself, the almost universally recog-
all objective validity and reduced them to the nized feeling approach to the highest reality, in
status of secondary qualities existing only in contrast to vidyd (s.v.) or jndna (s.v.), sanc-
and for consciousness. Moreover, the very term tioned by Indian philosophy and productive of a
"matter," like all other "universals," is found voluminous literature in which the names of
upon analysis to mean and stand for nothing Ramananda, Vallabha, Nanak, Caitanya, and
but complexes of experienced qualities. Indeed, Tutsi Das are outstanding. It is distinguished as
"existence" except as presence to consciousness, apard (lower) and pard (higher) bhakti, the
is meaningless. Hence, nothing can be said to former theistic piety, the latter phHosophic medi-
exist except minds (spirits) and mental content tation on the unmanifest brahman (cf. avyakta).
(ideas). Esse =
percipi or percipere. K.F.L.
At the same time, Berkeley, trusting the ex- Bhasya: (Skr. speaking) Commentary.
ternal reference of individual experience, argues Bheda: (Skr. different, distinct) Non-identity, par-
from it the existence of a universal mind ticularly in reference to any philosophy of dual-
(God) of which the content is the so-called ism which recognizes the existence of two op-
objective world. Finite spirits are created by posed principles or admits of a difference
God, and their several experiences represent his between the essentially human and the Abso-
communication to them, so far as they are able lute. K.F.L.
to receive of his divine experience. Reality,
it, Bhedabheda: (Skr. "different [yet] not different")
then, is composed of spirits and ideas. The A philosophy admitting the point of view oi
physical aspects of the world are reducible to bheda (s.v.) as well as that of abheda (s.v.)
mental phenomena. Matter is non-existent. depending on the mental and spiritual attain-
G. Berkeley, Treatise on the Principles of ment of the person. K.F.L.
Human Knowledge, 1710) Three Dialogues Be- Bhuta: (Skr. become) The "has-become", or th<
tween Hylas and Philonous, 1713) De Motu ultimate element or concrete thing as it hai
(critique of Newtonian mechanics), 1720} Al- evolved from the abstract, metaphysical unitj
ciphron, or the Minute Philosophert 1733) Siris, through a process of infinite particularization
1744.B.A.S.F. and limitation. K.F.L.
Bernard of Chart res: (died c. 1130) Has been Bhutatathata: (Skr.) "So-ness", the highest stat<
called the "most perfect Platonist of his century" conceivable by the Vijnina-vida (s.v.) in whicf
by John of Salisbury (Metalogicus, IV, 35, PL there is a complete coincidentia oppositorum 01
199, 938) but he is known only at second-hand beings and elements of knowledge; directlj
now. He taught in the school of Chartres from identified with the Adi-Buddha, or eternal Bud
1114-1119 and was Chancellor of Chartres from dha, in Vajray3na Buddhism. K.F.L.
1119-1124. According to John of Salisbury, Biconditional: The sentential connective t "i s
Bernard was an extreme realist in his theory of and only if." See Logic, formal, 1. A.C.
universals, but he taught that the forms of Binomio forces: Extra-biological forces, whicl
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 39
influence the direction and development of life. it No known theory can
definitely precludes
I.e. all physical, chemical and other environ-
meet allobjections and prove entirely satisfac-
mental forces which affect living organisms in the problem still persist*. See Descartes,
tory $
any way. The second law of thermo-dynamics Spinoza, Mind. /./.JR.
seems to vitalists to be an exception to their
Bochme, Jacob: (1575-1624) Of Gdrlitz, was
view that the creative life-force evolves up-
the son of poor parents, received little formal
wards. Nonetheless natural selection is influ-
schooling, studied the Bible and the works of
enced by binomic forces. C.K.D. Pastor Valentine Weigel assiduously. He be-
Biometry: The scientific application of mathe- came noted as a mystic, theosophist, and in his
matical analysis to
biological problems (also own day was called the German Philosopher.
spoken of as "mathematical biophysics" and He wrote in German but his early followers
"mathematical biochemistry"). The journal Bio- translated his works into Latin, hence it is
metrika was founded by Karl Pearson. .Af . WM difficult to distinguish his personal thought from
Blondel, Maurice: (1861-1939) A philosopher in that of his school. He thought that all reality,
the French "spiritualistic" tradition of Maine de even God, contains a duality of good and evil,
Biran and Boutroux, who in his essays L'Action the universe and man's soul are nothing with-
(1893), and Le Prods de ^Intelligence (1922), out God. He has had much influence on later
defended an activistic psychology and meta- German and Russian mysticism. Chief works:
physics. "The Philosophy of Action" is a volun- Aurora, Vierig Fragen von der Seele, Mys-
taristic and philosophy which, as re-
idealistic terium Magnum, Von der Gnadentaahl. Deus-
gards the of thought to action, seeks
relation sen, /. Boehme, iiber sein Leben u. seine Philos.
to compromise between the extremes of intellec- (Kiel, 1897).--F./.*.
tualism and pragmatism. In his more recent Boethius: (470-525) An influential commentator
book La Pensee (1934), Blondel retains his on Aristotle and Cicero, who, in his own think-
earlier philosophy combined with a
activistic ing, reflected a strong influence of Neo-Platon-
stronger theological emphasis. L.W. is'm andAugustinianism. De Consolation*
Qodhisattva: (Skr.) "Existence (sattva) in a state Philosophiae (Migne PL, 63-4, 69-70). R. B.W.
of wisdom (bodhi)", such as was attained by Bernard:
Bolzano, (1781-1848) Austrian phi-
Gautama Buddha (s.v.)} a Buddhist wise and
losopher and mathematician. Professor of the
holy man. K.F.L. philosophy of religion at Prague, 1805-1820, he
Body: Here taken in the sense of the material was compelled to resign in the latter year be-
organized substance of man contrasted with the cause of his rationalistic tendencies in theol-
mind, soul or spirit, thus leading to the problem ogy, and afterwards held no academic position.
of the relation between body and mind, one of His Wissenschajtslehre of 1837, while it is to
the most persistent problems of philosophy. Of be classed as a work on traditional logic, con-
course, any theory which identifies body and tains significant anticipations of many ideas
mind, or does not adequately distinguish the psy- which have since become important in symbolic
chical from the physical, regarding both as as- logic and mathematics. In his posthumously
pects of the same reality, eludes some of the published Paradoxien des Unendlichen (1851)
difficulties presented by the problem. Both mate- he appears as a forerunner in some respects of
rialism and idealism may be considered as forms Cantor's theory of transfinite numbers. A. C.
of psycho-physical monism. Materialism by deny- W. Dubislav, Bolzano als Vorlaufer der mathe-
matischen Loeik, Philosophisches Jahrbuch der
ing the real existence of spiritual beings and
Gorres-Gesellschaft, vol. 44 (1931), pp. 448-456.
reducing mind to a function of matter, and H. Scholz, Die Wtssenschaftslehre Bolzanos, Ab-
spiritualism, or that species called idealism, which handlungen der Fries'schen Schule, n. s. vol. 6
regards bodies simply as contents of conscious- (1937), pp. 399-472.
ness, really evade the main issue. All those, Bonaventure, St.: (1221-1274) Was born at
however, who frankly acknowledge the empiri- Bagnorea, near Viterbo, and his name originally
cally given duality of mind and organism, are
was John of Fidanza. He joined the Fran-
ciscans in 1238, studied at the Univ. of Paris
obliged to struggle with the problem of the rela-
tion between them. The two most noted rival under Alexander of Hales, and took his licen-
theories attempting an answer are interactionism tiate in 1248. He taught theology in Paris for
and parallelism. The first considers both body seven years and received his doctorate in 1257.
and mind as substantial beings, influencing each In this year he was made Superior-General of
his Order and he taught no more. His chief
other, hence causally related. The second holds that
physical processes and mental processes accompany works are: Commentaria in IV L. Sententiarurn,
each other without any interaction or interference Itinerariutn mentis in Deunt, Quaestiones Dis-
whatsoever, consequently they cannot be causally putatae (Opera Omnia, ed. crit., 10 vol. Quar-
related. The Scholastics advance the doctrine of acchi, 1882-1902). His philosophy is Augus-
the human composite consisting of body and soul tinian, with some Aristotelian modifications in
united into one substance and nature, constitut- his theory of intellection and matter and form.
ing the human person or self, to whom all ac- But his Divine Exemplarism, Illumination the-
tions of which man is capable must be ascribed. ory, and tendency to stress the psychological
There can be no interaction, since there is but importance of the human will, derive from St.
one agent, formed of two component elements. Augustine. E. Gilson, La philosophie de S.
This theory, like interactionism, makes provision Bonaventure (Paris, 1924). VJ.B.
for survival, even immortality, while parallelism Boodin, John Elof: American philosopher born
40 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
in Sweden in 1869 who emigrated in 1886 to world-process is tragic, witness the sin and
the United States. Studied at the Universities suffering and imperfection with which it is
of Colorado, Minnesota, Brown and especially fraught. But in the infinite tragedy, as well as
Harvard under Royce with whom he kept a in the tragedies composed by men, evil is con-
life-long friendship though he was opposed to tributory to the perfection of the whole, and,
his idealism. His works (Time and Reality) when seen and accepted as such by the finite
1904 Truth and Reality, 1912 A Realistic individual, not only loses its sting but produces
Universe, 1916 Cosmic Evolution, 1925 a "catharsis" of his attitude towards it, in which
Three Interpretations of the Universe, 1934 he cheerfully accepts it, battles with it, and
God, 1935 The Social Mind, 1940) form finds his triumph over in nobly
it enduring it.
practically a complete system. His philosophy This "catharsis," identifying him as it does with
takes the form of a cosmic idealism, though the meaning of the life of the Absolute, is his
he was interested for a time in certain aspects peace and his salvation. Main works: Logic,
of pragmatism. It grew gradually from his 1888; The Philosophical Theory of the State,
early studies when he developed a new concept 1899; Value and Destiny of the Individual,
of a real and non-serial time. The structure of 1913.B.A.G.F.
the cosmos is that of a hierarchy of fields, as Bourgeoisie: (Fr.) In its strict sense in the
exemplified in physics, in organisms, in con- theory of historical materialism (q.v.) the class
sciousness and in society. The interpenetration of urban, commercial, banking, manufacturing
of the mental fields makes possible human and shipping entrepreneurs which, at the close
knowledge and social intercourse. Reality as of the middle ages was strong enough, by virtue
such possesses five attributes: being (the dynamic of its command of developing technics, to chal-
stuff of all complexes, the active energy), time lenge the economic power of the predominantly
(the ground of change and transformation), rural and agricultural (manorial) feudal nobil-
space (which accounts for extension), conscious- ity, and to supplant the latter in point of eco-
ness (active awareness which lights up reality nomic and social leadership. J.M.S.
in spots; it becomes the self when conative Boutroux, E.: (1845-1921) Teacher of Bergson
tendencies cooperate as one active group), and and M. Blondel, is best known for his defense
form (the ground of organization and structure of radical contingency and indeterminacy in
which conditions selective direction). God is metaphysics. Influenced by French "spiritualism"
the spirit of the whole. T.G. stemming from Maine de Biran, Boutroux was
Boole, George: (1815-1864) English mathema- critical of the current psychological and socio-
tician. Professor of mathematics at Queen's logical treatment of religious experience. Main
College, Cork, 1849-1864. While he made works: Contingency of the Laws of Nature (tr.
contributions to other branches of mathematics, 1920); Philosophy and War (tr. 1916); Science
he is now remembered primarily as the founder et religion, 1908. L.W.
of the Nineteenth Century algebra of logic and Bowne, Borden Parker: (1847-1910) His influ-
through it of modern symbolic logic. His ence was not merely confined to the theological
Mathematical Analysis of Logic appeared in world of his religious communion as a teacher
1847 and the fuller Laws of Thought in 1854. of philosophy at Boston University. His phi-
A. C. losophy was conspicuous for the combination of
R. Harley, George Boole, P. R. S., The British theism with an idealistic view which he termed
Quarterly Review, vol. 44 (1866), pp. 141-181.
Anon., George Boole, Proceedings of the Royal
"Personalism" (q.v.). He mainly discussed is-
Society of London, vol. 1) (1867), Obituary no- sues of philosophy which had a bearing on re-
tices of fellows deceased, pp. vi-xi. P. E. B.
ligion, ethics, and epistemology. Main works:
Tourdain, George Boole, The Quarterly Journal of
Pure and Applied Mathematics, vol. 41 (1910), Metaphysics, 1882; Philosophy of Theism,
pp. 332-332. 1887; Theory of Thought and Knowledge,
Boolean algebra : See Logic, Formal, 7. 1897; Personalism, 1908; Kant and Spencer,
Bosanquet, Bernard: (1848-1923) Neo-Hegelian 1912. tfJ?.
idealist, regards Reality as a single individual Bradley, Francis Herbert: (1846-1924) Dia-
all-embracing, completely rational experience, lectician extraordinary of British philosophy,
combining universality and concreteness. It Bradley sought to purge contemporary thought
alone exists. All other particulars minds or of the extremely sensationalistic and utilitarian
things are only partially concrete, individual elements embodied in the tradition of empiri-
and real. The incidental, incomplete, dependent cism. Though owing much to Hegel, he early
and only partially existent character of finite repudiated the Hegelian system as such, and his
consciousness is shown by the reaching, seeking own variety of Absolute Idealism bases itself
character of all its activities, sense-perceptions, upon no scheme of categories. His brilliant attack
thought, moral action, and even aesthetic con- upon the inadequate assumptions of hedonistic
templation all of which indicate that self- ethics (Ethical Studies, 1877) was followed in
realization means self-abandonment to something 1883 by The Principles of Logic in which his
larger than the self. dialectic analysis was applied to the problems
This something larger is the cosmic drama, of inference and judgment. It was, how-
written, staged, and acted by the Absolute, who ever, his Appearance and Reality (1893) with
is artist and actor' as well as a rational intelli- its famous theory of "the degrees of truth"
gence, intent no less upon dramatic than upon which first disturbed the somnambulism of mod-
intelligible unity and self-expression. The ern metaphysics, and led Caird to remark upon
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 41
"the greatest thing since Kant". In later years, intended. Judgments may be self-evident and
Bradley's growing realization of ultimate diffi- thereby characterized as true and in an anal-
culties in his version of the coherence theory
ogous way love and hate may be characterized
led him to modify his doctrines in the direction as "right". It is on these characterizations that
'of a Platonic mysticism. See Essays on Truth a dogmatic theory of truth and value may be
and Reality, the second edition of the Logic based. In any mental experience the content is
Collected Essays, etc. W.S.W. merely a "physical phenomenon" (real or imagi-
Brahma: (Skr.) The creator or creative principle nary) intended to be referred toj what is
of the universe, main figure of the Hindu trinity psychic is merely the "act" of representing,
(see Trimurti). K.F.L. judging (viz. affirming or denying) and valuing
Brahma eva idam visvam: (i.e. loving or hating). Since such "acts" are
(Skr.) "Braliman,
indeed, is this famous passage of
world-all", evidently immaterial, the soul by which they are
Murjcjaka Upanishad 2.2.11, fore-shadowing the performed may be proved to be a purely spiritual
and imperishable substance and from these and
complete monism of Ankara's Vedinta (q.v.).
other considerations the existence, spirituality, as
K.F.L.
also the infinite wisdom, goodness and
Brahman, Brahma: (Skr.) The impersonal, pan- of God mayalso be demonstrated. It is most of
justice
theistic world-soul, the Absolute, union with all by his classification of psychic phenomena,
which is the highest goal of the Upanishads
his psychology of "acts" and "intentions" and
(q.v.)and Vedic (q.v.) thinking in general. It
by his doctrine concerning self-evident truths
isoccasionally identified with atman (q.v.) or and values that Brentano, who considered him-
made the exclusive reality (cf. brahtna eva idam
self an Aristotelian, exercised a profound influ-
visvam; sarvam khalv idam brahma), thus lay-
ence on subsequent German philosophers: not
ing the foundation for a deep mystic as well as
only on those who accepted his entire system
rational insight into the connaturalness of the
(such as A. Marty and C. Stumpf) but also
human and divine and an uncompromising
those who were somewhat more
monism which gave its impress to much of independent and
original and whom he influenced either directly
Hindu thinking. K.F.L.
(as A. Meinong and E. Husserl) or indirectly
Brahmana: (Skr.) One of several Vedic (s.v.)
(as M. Scheler and Nik. Hartmann). Main
dictums or treatises of a ritualistic and sacrificial
works: Psychologic des Aristoteles, 1867j Vom
character which prepared the way, sometimes Dasein Gottes, 1868} Psychologie vom em-
over an Aranyaka for the Upanishads
(q.v.), pirischen Standpunkt, 1874$ Vom Ur sprung
(q.v.) by incipient philosophic reflections. sittlichesErkenntnis, 1884; Ueber die Zukunft
K.F.L. der Philosophic, 1893; Die vier Pkasen der
Brahmanism: The predominant form of philo-
Philos., 1895. H.Go.
sophical, theological, and ethical speculation of
Broad, C. D.: (1887-) As a realistic critical
India, sponsored by the Brahman caste which thinker Broad takes over from the sciences the
traces doctrines back to the Vedas (q.v.) and
its
methods that are fruitful there, classifies the
Upanishads (q.v.) without ever having attained various propositions used in all the
sciences,
uniformity in regard to the main doctrines. and defines
f -K.F.L. _ beyond
basic scientific
he seeks to
concepts. In going
reach a total view
science,
Brahmasutras: (Skr.) An
aphoristic compilation of the world by bringing in the facts and
prin-
of Badarayana's, systematizing the philosophy of
ciples of aesthetic, religious, ethical and political
the Upanishads (q.v.). K.F.L. In
experience. trying to work out a much
Brain: According to Aristotle, it is a cooling more general method which attacks the problem
organ of the body. Early in the history of of the connection between mathematical con-
philosophy, it was regarded as closely connected cepts and sense-data better than the method of
with consciousness and with activities of the analysis in situ, he gives a simple exposition of
soul. Descartes contended that mind-body rela- the method of extensive
abstraction, which ap-
tions are centered in the pineal gland located plies the mutual relations of objects, first recog-
between the two hemispheres of the brain. nized in pure mathematics, to physics. More-
Cabanis, a sensualistic materialist, believed that over, a great deal can be learned from Broad
the brain produces consciousness in a manner on the relation of the principle of relativity to
similar to that in which the liver produces the measurement.
bile. Many have sought to identify it with the As an emergent materialist, he holds that
seat of the soul. Today consciousness is recog- everything happens by the blind combination of
nized to be a much more complex phenomenon the elements of matter or
energy, without any
controlled by the entire nervous system, rather guidance, excluding the assumption of a non-
than by any part of the brain, and influenced material component. While he
regards primary
by the bodily metabolism in general. R.B.W. qualities as physical emergents, he yet considers
BrentanO) Franz: (1838-1907) Who had orig- secondary qualities, such as color, taste, and
inally been a Roman Catholic priest may be smell, as transphysical emergents. He favors the
described as an un-orthodox neo-scholastic. Ac- emergence of laws, qualities and classes.Psyche,
cording to him the only three forms of psychic physical in nature, combines with other material
activity, representation, judgment and "phenom- facton to make the life of the mind. Broad
ena of love and hate", are just three modes of holds to a generative view of consciousness.
"intentionality", *.*., of referring to an object Psyche persists after death for some time, floats
42 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
about in cosmic space indefinitely, ready to com- in sciences. Main works: Let ftapes de la
bine with a material body under suitable con- philosophie mathematique, 1913} V'experience
ditions. He calls this theory the "compound humaine et la causalite physique, 1921) De la
theory of materialistic emergency." Sensa, he connaissance de sot, 1931 .
holds, are real, particular, short-lived existents. Buddhism: The multifarious forms, philosophic,
They are exclusively neither physical nor mental. ethical and sociological, which the
religious,
He replaces the neo-realistic contrast between
teachings of Gautama Buddha (q.v.) have pro-
existents and subsistents, by a contrast between
duced. They centre around the main doctrine of
existents and substracta. Main works: Scientific the catvari arya-satydni (q.v.), the four noble
Thought, 1923; The Mind and Its Place in
truths, the last of which enables one in eight
Nature, 1925j Five Types of Ethtcal Theory,
stages to reach nirvana (q.v.) : Right views, right
1930. H.H.
resolve, right speech, right conduct, right liveli-
Brouwer, Luitzen Egbertus Jan: (1881-) hood, righteffort, right mindfulness, right con-
Dutch mathematician. Professor of mathematics centration.In the absence of contemporary rec-
at the University of Amsterdam, 191 2-. Be- ords of Buddha and Buddhistic teachings, much
sides his work in topology, he is known for value was formerly attached to the palm leaf
important contributions to the philosophy and manuscripts in Pali, a Sanskrit dialect} but re-
foundations of mathematics. See Mathematics cently a good deal of weight has been given
and Intuitionism (mathematical)). A.C. also the Buddhist tradition in Sanskrit, Tibetan,
Bruno, Giordano: (1548-1600) A Dominican and Chinese. Buddhism split into Mahayanism
monk, eventually burned at the stake because of and Hinayanism (q.v.), each of which,
his opinions, he was converted from Christianity but particularly the former, blossomed into a
to a naturalistic and mystical pantheism by the variety of teachings and practices. The main
Renaissance and particularly by the new Coper- philosophic schools are the Madhyamaka or
nican astronomy. For him God and the universe Sunyavada, YogScara, Sautrantika, and Vai-
were two names for one and the same Reality bhasika (q.v.). The basic assumptions in
considered now as the creative essence of all philosophy are: a causal nexus in nature
things,now as the manifold of realized possibili- and man, of which the law of karma (q.v.) is
which that essence manifests itself. As God,
ties in but a specific application} the impermanence of
natura naturans, the Real is the whole, the one, things} and the illusory notion of substance and
transcendent and ineffable. As natura naturata soul. Man is viewed realistically as a conglom-
the Real is the infinity of worlds and objects eration of bodily forms (rupa), sensations
and events into which the whole divides itself (vedand), ideas (sanjna), latent karma (san-
and in which the one displays the infinite po- skaras), and consciousness (vijndna). The basic
tentialities latent within it. The world-process assumptions in ethics are the universality of suf-
is an ever-lasting going forth from itself and fering and the belief in a remedy. There is no
return into itself of the divine nature. The god} each one may become a Buddha, an en-
culmination of the outgoing creative activity is lightened one. Also in art and esthetics Bud-
reached in the human mind, whose rational, dhism has contributed much throughout the Far
philosophic search for the one in the many, East. K.F.L.
simplicity in variety, and the changeless and 1
"Bundle' , Theory of Self: The conception of the
eternal in the changing and temporal, marks self as a mere aggregate of mental states. The
also the reverse movement of the divine nature
designation is an allusion to Hume's famous
re-entering itself and regaining its primordial
description of the self as: "a bundle or collection
unity, homogeneity, and changelessness. The of different perceptions which succeed each other
human soul, being as it were a kind of boom- with an inconceivable rapidity, and are in a
erang partaking of the ingrowing as well as perpetual flux and movement." (A Treatise on
the outgrowing process, may hope at death, not
Human Nature, Part LV, 6.) L.W.
to be dissolved with the body, which is borne
wholly upon the outgoing stream, but to return Buridan's Ass: The story of the ass, which died
to God whence it came and to be reabsorbed of hunger and thirst because incapable of decid-
in him. Cf. Rand, Modern Classical Philoso- ing between water and food placed at equal
phers, selection from Bruno's On Cause, The distances from him, is employed to support the
Principle and the One. G. Bruno: DC Vinfinito, free-will doctrine. A man, it is argued, if con-
universe e mundo, 1584} Spaccio dellA bestia fronted by a similar situation, would by the
trionfante, 1584; La cena della ceneri, 1584; exercise of his free-will, be able to resolve the
Deglieroici furori, 1585} De Monade, 1591. Cf. equilibrium of opposing motives. The story of
R. Honigswald, Giordano Bruno; G. Gentile, the ass is attributed to John Buridan, a 14th
Bruno nella storia della tultura, 1907. century nominalist who discussed the freedom of
B.A.G.F. the will Quaestiones in decem libros
in his
Brunschvicg, Leon: (1869-) Professor of Phi- ethicorum Aristotelis, 1489, Bk. Ill, quest. I, but
losophy at the Ecole Normale in Paris. Dis- is not, in fact, to be found in his writings. (Cf.
missed by the Nazis (1941). His philosophy is A. G. Langley, translation of Leibniz's New
an idealistic synthesis of Spinoza, Kant and Essays Concerning Human Understanding, p.
Schelling with special stress on the creative 116 n.) Dante relates the story in Paradise, IV.
rdle of thought in cultural history as well as
Caitanya: (Skr.) Consciousness, "superconscious- by the teachings of Professor G. . Moore
ness", a quality near the in-it-self aspect of the (mainly in unpublished lectures delivered at the
Absolute Spirit, and hence sometimes a synonym Cambridge University, 1911-1939). In earlier
for it. K.F.L. years Moore stressed the need to accept the
Calculus: The name calculus may be applied to judgments of "common sense" on such matters
any organized method of solving problems or as the existence of other persons, of an "external
drawing inferences by manipulation of symbols world", etc. The business of the -analytical
according to formal rules. Or an exact definition philosopher was not to criticise such judgments
of a calculus maty be provided by identifying it but to display the structure of the facts to which
with a logistic system (q. v.) satisfying the they referred. (Cf. "A defense of common-
requirement of effectiveness. sense in philosophy," Contemporary British Phi-
In mathematics, the word calculus has many losophy, 2 (1925) Moore's only discussion of
specific applications, all conforming more or the method.) Such analysis would be directional,
less closely to the above statement. Sometimes, terminating in basic or atomic facts, all of
however, the simple phrase "the calculus" is whose constituents might be known by acquaint-
used in referring to those branches of mathemati- ance. The examples discussed were taken largely
cal analysis (q. v.) which are known more ex- from the field of epistemology, turning often
plicitly as the differential calculus and the in- about the problem of the relation of material
tegral calculus. A. C. objects to sense-data, and of indirect to direct
Calkins, Mary Whiton: (1863-1930) Professor knowledge. In problems were
this earlier period
of Philosophy at We lies Icy College with often suggestedby Russell's discussion of de-
which institution she was associated from scriptions and logical constructions. The incon-
1891. She advanced an objective idealism of clusiveness of such specific discussions and an
the Roycean styling her views as
character, increasingly critical awareness of the functions
absolutistic personalism. She endeavored to find of language in philosophical analysis has in
psychological justification for her views in the later years tended to favor more flexible inter-
gestalt theory. Her works were in both fields pretationsof the nature of analysis. (Cf. M.
of her interest: An Introduction to Psychology, Black, "Relations Between Logical Positivism
The Persistent Problems of Philosophy, The and the Cambridge School of Analysis", Journal
Good Man and the Good, among others. of Unified Science (Erkenntnis), 8, 24-35 for
L.E.D. a bibliography and list of philosophers who have
Calvinism: A
term covering the current of theo- been most influenced by emphasis on directional
logical dating back to John Calvin
thought analysis.) M.B.
(1509-1564) whose famous Institutes embodies Campanella, Tommaso: (1568-1639) A Domi-
its historic principles. Generally speaking, Cal- nican monk in revolt against Aristotelianism,
vinistic thought is a system in which God is and influenced by the naturalism of Telesio, he
made the center of all that is and happens, God's arrived at philosophic conclusions in some ways
will pervading human and cosmic events, and prophetic of Descartes. Distrusting both the
upon whom man is utterly and cheerfully de- reports of the senses and the results of reason-
pendent. F.F. ing as indications of the nature of Reality, he
Cambridge Platonists: A small group of 17th found nothing trustworthy except the fact of
century Cambridge thinkers whose views repre- his own and the inferences drawn
existence,
sented a kind of revival of Platonism. Etp. from that As certain as his awareness of
fact.
Ralph Cudworth and Henry More. Remem- his own existence was the awareness of an ex-
bered chiefly, perhaps, for holding that ethics ternal world to which experience referred and
rests on certain absolute and self-evident truths. by which it was caused. Again, since the nature
W.K.F. of the part is representative of the nature of
Newton wasinfluenced by Henry More, e.g. the whole to which it belongs, the Universe of
in viewing space as the seniorium of God. See which the self is part must, like the part, be
Cudworth, Deism. Cf. M. H. Nicolson, Contvay possessed of knowledge, will, and power. Hence
Papers. I may infer from my own existence the exist-
Cambridge School: A term loosely applied to ence of a God. Again, I must infer other of
English philosophers who have been influenced the divine nature more or less perfect manifest**
44 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
tions than myself descending from the hierarchy owns means of production and hires people at
of angels above man to the form or structure wages to work them, thereby realizing profits.
of the world, the ultimate corporeal elements, J.M3.
and the sensible phenomena produced by these Cardinal number: Two classes are equivalent
elements of the physical universe, below him in if there exists a one-to-one correspondence be-
the scale of perfection. tween them (see One-one). Cardinal numbers
All nature is suffused with a love of God are obtained by abstraction (q. v.) with respect
and a desire to return to him, witnessed by the to equivalence, so that two classes have the
laws of motion
governing inanimate
bodies, same cardinal number if and only if they are
the law of self-preservation in organic life, and equivalent. This may be formulated more ex-
by man's conscious search for the divine. actly, following Frege, by defining the cardinal
Campanella was a political philosopher. In number of a class to be the class of classes
his City of the Sun he conceived a Utopia built equivalent to it.
on Platonic lines. He was also an ardent cham- If two classes a and b have no members in
pion of the temporal power of the Papacy and common, the cardinal number of the logical
of its political as well as its religious sover- sum of a and b is uniquely determined by the
eignty through the world. B.A.G.F. cardinal numbers of a and b, and is called the
Canon: (Gr. kanon, rule) A
term reminiscent sum of the cardinal number of a and the cardi-
of the arts and crafts, sometimes applied, since nal number of b,
Epicurus who replaced the ancient dialectics by is number of the null class.
the cardinal
a canonics (kanonike), to any norm or rule 1 is number of a unit class (all
the cardinal
which the logical process obeys. Thus John Stu- unit classes have the same cardinal number).
art Mill speaks of five experimental methods A cardinal number is inductive if it is a
as being regulated by certain canons. Kant de- member of every class / of cardinal numbers
fined canon as the sum total of all principles which has the two properties, (1) Oe/, and (2)
a priori of the correct use of our powers of for all xt if xet and y is the sum of x and 1,
knowledge. See Baconian method, Mill's then yet. In other (less exact) words, the in-
methods. K.F.L. ductive cardinal numbers are those which can
Cantor, Georg (Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp), be reached from by successive additions of 1.
1845-1918, (Russian born) German mathema- A class b is infinite if there is a class a f differ-
tician. Professor of mathematics at Halle, 1872- ent from b, such that a = b and a is equivalent
1913. He is known for contributions to the to b. In the contrary case b is finite. The car-
foundations of (mathematical) analysis, and as dinal number of an infinite class is said to be
the founder of the theory of transfinite cardinal infinite, and of a finite class, finite. It can be
numbers (q.v.) and ordinal numbers (q.v.). proved that every inductive cardinal number is
See Infinite. A.C. finite, and, with the aid of the axiom of choice,
Gesammelte Abbandlungen Mathemathchen und that every finite cardinal number is inductive.
Philosophischen Inhalts, edited by E Zermelo, and
with a life by A. Fraenkel, Berlin, 1932. The most important number
infinite cardinal
lesser extent by "private" individuals or groups. Cardinal Point and Value: Psychological terms
Since the control an individual can exercise having to do with relation of stimulus to in-
over means of production is never absolute and tensity of sensation. The point at which the
as a matter of fact fluctuates widely with the proportionate increase of both is in a direct
^arnap, Rudolf: (1891-) successively Privat- self-evident truths, he deduced other truths
dozent at the University of Vienna, Professor which logically follow from them. Three kinds
of Philosophy at the German University of of ideas were distinguished: (1) innate, by
Prague, Professor of Philosophy at the Uni- which he seems to mean little more than the
versity of Chicago (since 1936)? one of the mental power to think things or thoughts; (2)
leading representatives of the positivism of the adventitious, which come to him from without;
Vienna Circle and subsequently of Scientific (3) factitious, produced within his own mind.
Empiricism (q. v.)j co-editor of The Journal He found most difficulty with the second type
of Unified Science (previously: Erkenntnis). of ideas. The first reality discovered through
Carnap's work has been devoted especially to his method is the thinking self. Though he
formal logic and its applications to problems of might doubt nearly all else, Descartes could not
epistemology and the philosophy of science. reasonably doubt that he, who was thinking,
His writings in formal logic include a text- existed as a res cogitans. This is the intuition
book of mathematical logic and a comprehensive enunciated in the famous aphorism: I think,
monograph devoted to logical syntax, a new therefore I am, Cogito ergo sum. This is not
branch of logical research to whose development offered by Descartes as a compressed syllogism,
Carnap has greatly contributed. but as an immediate intuition of his own think-
In his logical work, he has been specially ing mind. Another reality, whose existence was
interested in the nature of mathematics and its obvious to Descartes, was God, the Supreme
relation to logic. He has treated these topics Being. Though he
offered several proofs of the
in a number of special articles and in a mono- Divine Existence, he was convinced that he
graph. The latter also includes an introduction knew this also by an innate idea, and so, clearly
to the youngest field of modern logic, semantics. and distinctly. But he did not find any clear
Carnap's contributions to the study of epi- ideas of an extra-mental, bodily world. He
stemological and philosophical problems may be suspected existence, but logical demonstration
its
characterized as applications of the methods of was needed to establish this truth. His adventiti-
logical analysis to the languages of everyday ous ideas carry the vague suggestion that they
life and of science! His books contain applica- are caused by bodies in an external world. By
tions to the fundamental problems of epis- arguing that God would be a deceiver, in allow-
temology, expound the principles of physical- ing him to think that bodies exist if they do
ism (q.v.) which was developed by Carnap and not, he eventually convinced himself of the
Neurath and which offers, amongst others, a reality of bodies, his own and others. There
basis for a more cautious version of the ideas are, then, three kinds of substance according to
of older behaviorism and for the construction of Descartes. (1) Created spirits, i.e. the finite
one common unified language for all branches soul-substance of each man: these are immaterial
of empirical science (see Unity of Science). agencies capable of performing spiritual opera-
Main works: Logische Aujblou der Weltf Abriss tions, loosely united with bodies, but not ex-
der Logistik; Logische Syntax der Sprache tended since thought is their very essence. (2)
"Testability and Meaning," Phil, of Set. Uncreated Spirit, i.e. God, confined neither to
(1936). C.G.H. space nor time, All-Good and All-Powerful)
^arneadcs: (c. 215-125 B.C.) The most promi- though his Existence can be known clearly, his
nent head of the Middle Academy and opponent Nature cannot be known adequately by men on
of the Stoics. His most noteworthy contribution earth} He is the God of Christianity, Creator,
to philosophy consisted in the doctrine of logical Providence and Final Cause of the universe.
probabilism as a basis of scepticism. R.B.W. (3) Bodies, i.e. created, physical substances
^artesianism : The philosophy French
of the existing independently of human thought and
thinker, Rene Descartes (Cartes! us) 1596-1650. having as their chief attribute, extension. Car-
After completing his formal education at the tesian physics regards bodies as the result of
Jesuit College at La'Fleche, he spent the years the introduction of "vortices", i.e. whorls of
1612-1621 in travel and military service. The motion, into extension. Divisibility, figurability
remainder of his life was devoted to study and and mobility are the notes of extension, which
writing. He died in Sweden, where he had appears to be little more than what Descartes'
gone in 1649 to tutor Queen Christina. His Scholastic teachers called geometrical space. God
principal works are: Discours de la method* ',
is the First Cause of all motion in the physical
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
universe, which is conceived as a mechanical German Phenomenology, French Spiritualism
system operated by its Maker. Even the bodies and Positivism, Bergs on ism, and certain forms
of animals are automata. Sensation is the criti- of Catholic thought represented by J. Geyser in
cal problem in Cartesian psychology) it is Germany and M. Blondel in France, are off-
viewed by Descartes as a function of the soul, shoots of Cartesianism.
but he was never able to find a satisfactory Oeuvres completes, ed. C. Adam et P. Tan-
explanation of the apparent fact that the soul nery, 13 vols. (Paris, 1896-1911). The PMlos.
is moved by the body when sensation occurs. Works of Descartes, transl. by Haldane and
The theory of animal spirits provided Descartes Ross, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1911-12). Fischer,
with a sort of bridge between mind and matter, K., Descartes and his School (London, 1887).
since these spirits are supposed to be very subtle Gilson, .,
Le role de la pensee medievale dans
matter, halfway, as it were, between thought
la formation du systeme cartesien (Paris, 1930).
and extension in their nature. However, this Maritain, J., Le songe de Descartes (Paris,
gorischer Imperativ) The supreme, absolute were, efficient cause of his own existence (Des-
moral law of rational, self-determining beings. cartes). Since existence necessarily follows from
Distinguished from hypothetical or conditional the very essence of that which is cause of itself,
imperatives which admit of exceptions. Kant causa sui is defined as chat whose nature cannot
formulated the categorical imperative as follows. be conceived as not existing (Spinoza).
"Act on maxims which can at the same time A.G.A.B.
have for their object themselves as universal Causality: (Lat. causa) The relationship between
laws of nature." See Kantianism. O.F.K. a cause and its effect. This relationship has been
af- defined as (1) a relation between events, proc-
Categorical (Judgment): (Gr. kategorikos,
Aristotle: Affirmative}
firmative, predicative) esses, or entities in the same time series, such
explicit; direct. Commentators on Aristotle em- that (a) when one occurs, the other necessarily
phasized the opposition between categorical and follows (sufficient condition), (b) when the lat-
conditional propositions, although Aristotle did ter occurs, the former must have preceded (neces-
not stress this connotation of the term. G.R.M. sary condition), (c) both conditions a and b
(In Kant) A
judgment comprising two con- prevail (necessary and sufficient condition), (d)
cepts related by a copula, typically an attribute when one occurs under certain conditions, the
(predicate) asserted of a substance or thing other necessarily follows (contributory, but not
(subject). Kant denied that hypothetical and sufficient, condition) ("multiple causality" would
disjunctive propositions can be reduced to cate- be a case involving several causes which are
gorical ones and insisted that each of the forms severally contributory and jointly sufficient); the
of judgment denotes a distinct function of the necessity in these cases is neither that of logical
understanding. See Logik, 24. O.F.K. implication nor that of coercion; (2) a relation
Category: (Gr. kategoria) In Aristotle's logic (1) between events, processes, or entities in the
the predicate of a proposition) (2) one of the same time series such that when one occurs the
ultimate modes of being that may be asserted in '
other invariably follows (invariable ante-
predication, viz.: substance, quantity, quality, re- cedence); (3) a relation between events, proc-
lation, place, time, position, state, action, passion. esses, or entities such that one has the efficacy
G.R.M. to produce or alter the other; (4) a relation
(in Kant) Any of twelve forms or between events, processes, or entities such that
relating the understanding, con-
principles of without one the other could not occur, as in
stituting necessary conditions of experience. the relation between (a) the material out. of
Kant sought to derive an exhaustive list of which a product is made and the finished prod-
pure forms of the understanding from the uct (material cause), (b) structure or form and
forms of judgment in the traditional logic. the individual embodying it (formal cause), (c)
His list of categories comprises three each of a goal or purpose (whether supposed to exist in
quantity, quality, relation, and modality. See the future as a special kind of entity, outside a
Kantianism. O.F.K. time series, or merely as an idea of the pur-
Category of Unity: Kant: The first of three poser) and the work fulfilling it (final cause),
a priori, quantitative (so-called "mathematical") (d) a moving force and the process or result of
categories (the fothers being "plurality" and its action (efficient cause); (5) a relation be-
"totality") from which is derived the synthetic tween experienced events, processes, or entities
principle, "All intuitions (appearances) are ex- and extra-experiential but either temporal or non-
tensive magnitudes." By means of this principle temporal events, processes, or entities upon
Kant seeks to define the object of experience whose existence the former depend; (6) a rela-
a priori with reference to its spatial features. tion between a thing and itself when it is de-
See Crit. of pure Reason, B106, B202ff. O.F.K. pendent upon nothing else for its existence (self-
Catharsis: (Gr. katharsis) Purification; purga- causality); (7) a relation between an event,
tion; specifically the purging of the emotions of process, or entity and the reason or explanation
pity and fear effected by tragedy (Aristotle). for its being; (8) a relation between an idea
G.R.M. and an experience whose expectation the idea
In aesthetics: Purification of and liberation from arouses because of customary association of the
passions in art
(Aristotle). First idea of the two (9) a principle or category
in this sequence;
distinction between form and sentiment. L.V. introducing into experience one of the aforesaid
Gatvari arya-satyani: (Skr.) "The four noble types of order; this principle may be inherent
truths" of Gautama Buddha's (q.v.) teaching: in the mind, invented by the mind, or derived
Suffering exists; it has a cause; it may cease; from experience; it may be an explanatory hypo-
there is a path leading to its cessation. K.F.L. thesis, postulate, a convenient fiction, or a
a
Causa sui: Cause of itself; necessary existence. necessary form of thought. Causality has been
Causa sui conveys both a negative and a positive conceived to prevail between processes, parts of
meaning. Negatively, it signifies that which is a continuous process, changing parts of an un-
from itself (a se), that which does not owe its changing whole, objects, events, ideas, or some-
being to something else; i.e., absolute inde- thing of one of these types and something of
pendence of being, causelessness (God as un- another. When an entity, event, or process is
caused). Positively, causa sui means that whose said to follow from another, it may be meant
very nature or essence involves existence; i.e., that it must succeed but can be neither contempo-
God is the ground of his own being, and re- raneous with nor prior to the other, that it must
48 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
either succeed or be contemporaneous with and opposite; whereas for evidence, it is required
dependent upon but cannot precede the other, or that the intellect fully grasp that which it
that one is dependent upon the other but they knows. H.G.
either are not in the same time series or one is Chance: 1. Property of being
(Lat. cadere, to fall)
in no time series at all. At.T.K. undetermined. Property of being predictable
2.
Hharacteristica Universalis: The name given vidual. Therefore the enormous influence of
by Leibniz to his projected (but only partially social factors. R.A.
realized) "universal language" for the formula- Characters: Statements or E-values like pleasant,
tion of knowledge. This language was to be true, known) all possible ego attitudes and feel-
ideographic, with simple characters standing for ings are so termed. (See Avenarius). H.H.
simple concepts, and combinations of them for Ch'eng: (a) Honesty) sincerity; absence of fault}
compound ideas, so that all knowledge could actuality.
be expressed in terms which all could easily (b) Reverence; seriousness.
learn to use and understand. It represents an (c) Being one's true self) absolute true self)
adumbration of the more recent and more suc- truth, in the sense of "fulfillment of the self,"
cessful logistic treatment of mathematics and which "is the beginning and end of material
science. It is to be distinguished, however, from existence," and "without which there is no mate-
the "universal calculus," also projected by rial existence." "Being true to oneself (or sin-
Leibniz, which was to be the instrument for cerity) is the law of Heaven. To try to be true
the development and manipulation of systems in to oneself is the law of man." "Only those who
the universal language. W.K.F. are their absolute true selves in the world can
L. Couturat, La Logique de Leibniz (1901). fulfill their own nature," "the nature of others,"
with his brother, he developed new aspects of specification.*' See chu and /'.
(Neo-Mohism.)
Confucianism and became the greatest Confucian W.T.C.
since Mencius and a leader of Neo-Confucianism Chia : The mefhod of hypothesis in argumentation.
(li hsueh). His works and those of his brother, See pien W.T.C,
called Erh Ch'eng Ch*uan-shu (complete works Chiao: (j) Teaching, a body of doctiines; a sys-
of the Ch'eng brothers), number 107 chuans, in tem of morality.
14 Chinese volumes. W.T.C. (b) Religion, especially used in tsung chiao.
Chen jen: "The true man", the supreme man, the K'ung Chiao (Confucianism) and Tao Chiao
pure man, the man of supreme inward power, (Taoism) may either mean (a) the ethical,
not in the moral sense but in the sense of "pure political, and philosophical teachings of Con-
fucius and Lao Tzu respectively and their fol-
gold", has limitless inward resources. One who
has transcended the self and the non-self, and lowers, or (b) the state cult of the worship of
life and death, and has reached a state of mysti- Heaven and ancestors and the folk religion of
cal union with the universe. (Chuang Tzu be- nature and spirit worship respectively. W.T.C*,
tween 399 and 295 B.C.) //.tf. Ch'i chia* Ordering one*? home life by the prac-
Chen ts'a : Lord who directs the opera-
The true
tice of such virtues as respect for one's
filial piety,
tion of the universe, towhose existence there is eldrr brothers, and parental kindness or love, as
no clue. (Chuang Tzu, between 309 and 295 a necessary condition for the ordering of na-
(yang) and the passive principle (yin) and the ficiality."-- W.T.C.
Five Agents or Elements (wu hsing). To Chou Chih: (a) Wisdom, one of the three Universallj
Lien-hsi (1017-1073), this material principle is Recognized Moral qualities of man (ta te), tru
identical with yin yang and the Five Elements. Three Moral Qualities of the superior man (san
To Chang Heng-ch'u (1020-1077) it is the te), the Four Fundamentals of the moral life
reality of the Ultimate Vacuity, having the two (ssu tuan), and the Five Constant Virtues (wi
aspects of yin and yang. It is to the Ultimate ch'ang). (Confucianism.)
Vacuity (Tai Hsu) as ice is to water. Ch'eng (b) Knowledge; intelligence.
I-ch'uan (1033-1107) Ch'eng and Ming-tao (c) Discriminate knowledge; small knowl-
(1032-1086) considered all that has physi- edge, which incapable of understanding Tao
is
cal form to be identical with the vital force. It (d) Intuitive knowledge (liang chih). (Wang
is the principle of differentiation and individua- Yang-ming, 1473-1 529.) W.T.C.
tion. When a thing disintegrates, the vital force Chih: Marks, designation, pointing at (with t
is at an end, not to appear again in the creative finger, chih), an obscure term in the logic oi
process. A
new entity is constituted of new vital Kung-sun Lung (c 400-c 300 B.C.) which car
force. Thus it is also the, principle of novelty in be interpreted as:
creation. It is produced by Reason (li). But to (a) Marks or qualities of a thing. All thingi
the Neo-Confucians, especially Chi Hsi (1130- are marks or predicates.
1200), Reason has no control over it. The two (b) That which is designated by a name.
can never be separated j without it, Reason would (c) An idea or concept which Kunp-sun Lunj
kaving nothing to be embodied in. used to designate the universal. W.T.C.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 51
Chih: Basic stuff; essence; solid quality j solid ity (p'u), "emptiness," tranquillity and enlight-
worth. (Confucianism). W.T.C. enment, all dedicated to the search for "long
Chih chih: Extension of knowledge or achieving life and lasting vision" (in the caw of Lao
true knowledge through the investigation of TzQ, 57Q B.C.?), for "preserving life and
things (ko wu) and understanding their Reason keeping the essence of our being intact" (in the
(li) to the utmost, not necessarily by investigat- case of Yang Chu, c. 440-360 B.C.), and for
ing all things in the world, but by thoroughly "companionship with nature" (in the case of
investigating one thing and then more if neces- Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.). The
sary, so that the Reason in that thing, and notes of the "equality of things and opinions"
thereby Reason in general, understood. In
is (ch'i wu) and the "spontaneous and unceasing
Wang Yang-ming (1473-1529), it means "exten- transformation of things" (tzQ hua) were par-
sion to the utmost of the mind's intuitive knowl- ticularly stressed in Chuang Tzu.
edge of good the knowledge of good which Confucianism on the other hand,
(ju chia),
Mencius calls the good-evil mind and which all advocated true manhood (jen) as the highest
people have." (Neo-Confucianism). W.T.C. good, the superior man (chun tzu) as the ideal
Chih jcn: "The perfect man", one who has reached being, and cultivation of life (hsiu shen) as the
a state of mystical union with the universe, or supreme duty of man. It was toward this moral-
"one who has not separated from the true." ism and humanism that Confucius (551-479
(Chuang Tzu between 399 and 295 B.C.) B.C.) taught the doctrines of "chung," or being
H.H. true to the principles of one's nature, and "shu,"
Chih kuo: The ordering of the national life, which or the application of those principles in rela-
is the intermediate step between the ordering of tion to others, as well as the doctrine of the
one's family life (ch'i chia) and the peace of Golden Mean (chung yung), i.e., "to find the
the world. (Confucianism). W.T.C. central clue of our moral being and to be
Chih shan: Highest excellence, perfection j the harmonious with the universe." Humanism was
ultimate good, the goal of Confucian ethics and further strengthened by Mencius (371-289 B.C.)
education. W.T.C. who insisted that man must develop his nature
Ch'i hsueh: The intellectual movement in the fully because benevolence (jSn) and righteous-
state of Ch'i. See Chi Hsta. ness (i) are natural to his nature which is
Chiliasm :
Teaching and belief of some Jews and originally good, and again reinforced by HsQn
Christians that the Messiah will appear at the Tzu (c. 335-286 B.C.) who, contending that
end of time to found a glorious kingdom on human nature is evil, advocated the control of
earth which is to last one thousand years; also nature. Amid antagonism between natural-
this
called Millenarianism. J.J.R. ism and humanism, however, both schools con-
Chin: Metal, one of the Five Agents or Elements, ceived reality as unceasing change (i) and in-
and fourth centuries B.C. where scholars (in- cessant transformation, perpetually in progress
cluding Shen Tao, Tsou Yen) gathered under due to the interaction of the active (yang) and
official patronage to write on and to freely dis- passive (yin) cosmic principles.
cuss philosophy and politics. Seat of learning Taoism, however, became too mystical, and
and freedom of thought at the time, which was Confucianism too formalistic. "Hundred
called Ch'i Hsuefc. W.T.C. schools" grew and flourished, many in direct
Chin: Metal, one of the Five Agents or Elements. opposition to Taoism and Confucianism. There
See tau hsing. W.T.C. was Mohism (Mo, founded by Mo Tzfi, be-
Ch'in: (a) Person.il experience, or knowledge ob- tween 500 and 396 B.C.) which rejected for-
tained through the contact of one's knowing malism in favor of "benefit" and "utility" which
faculty and the object to be known. (Neo- are to be promoted through universal love
Mohists.) (chien ai), practical observation and applica-
(b) Parents. tion, and obedience to the will of Heaven. There
(c) Kinship, as distinguished from the more was Neo-Mohism (Mo che, 300 B.C.) which,
remote relatives and strangers, such distinction in trying to prove the thesis of Mohism, de-
being upheld by Confucians as essential to the veloped an intricate system of logic. There
social structure but severely attacked by the Mo- was Sophism (ming chia, 400 B.C.) which dis-
hists and Legalists as untenable in the face of played much sophistry about terms and con-
the equality of men. cepts, particularly about the relationship between
(d) Affection, love, which it is important for substance and quality (chien pai). There was
a ruler to have toward his people and for chil- Legalism (fa chia, 500-200 B.C.) which advo-
dren toward parents. (Confucianism.) W.T.C. cated law, statecraft, and authority as effective
Chinese Philosophy: Confucianism and Taoism instruments of government. And finally, there
have been the dual basis of Chinese thought, was the Yin Yang school (400-200 B.C.) which
with Buddhism presenting a strong challenge in emphasized yin and yang as the two funda-
medieval times. The former two, the priority mental principles, always contrasting but com-
of either of which is still controversial, rivaled plementary, and underlying all conceivable ob-
each other from the very beginning to the pres- jects, qualities, situations, and relationships. It
ent day. Taoism (tao chia) opposed nature to was this school that provided a common ground
man, glorifying Tao or the Way, spontaneity for the fusion of ancient divergent philosophical
(tzu jan), "inaction" (wu wei) in the sense tendencies in medieval China.
of non-artificiality or following nature, simplic- Medieval Chinese philosophy was essentially
52 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
a story of the synthesis of indigenous philoso- in all," the T'ien-t'ai school (c. 550) which
phies and the development of Buddhism. In believes in the identity of the Void, Transitori-
the second century B.C., the Yin Yang move- ness, and the Mean, and in the "immanence
ment identified itself with the common and of 3,00t) worlds in one moment of thought,"
powerful movement under the names of the and the Chin-t'u school (Pure Land, c. 500)
Yellow Emperor and Lao Tzfi (Huang Lao). which bases is doctrine of salvation by faith
This, in turn, became interfused with Con- and salvation for all on the philosophy of the
fucianism and produced the mixture which was universality of Buddha-nature. These schools
the Eclectic Sinisticism lasting till the tenth have persisted because they accepted both nou-
century A.D. In both Huai-nan Tzu
(d. 122 menon and phenomenon, both ens and non-ens,
B.C.), the semi-Taoist, and Tung Chung-shu and this "both-and" spirit is predominantly
(177-104 B.C.), the Confucian, Taoist meta- characteristic of Chinese philosophy.
physics and Confucian ethics mingled with each The most strange development was Ch'an
other, with yin and yang as the connecting (Meditation, Zen, c. 500). It is basically a
links. As the cosmic order results from the method of "direct intuition into the heart to
harmony of yin and yang in nature, namely, find Buddha-nature," a method based, on the
Heaven and Earth, so the moral order results one hand, on the eightfold negation of produc-
from the harmony of yang and yin in man, tion and extinction, annihilation and perma-
such as husband and wife, human nature and
nence, unity and diversity, and coming and de-
passions, and love and hate. The Five Agents parting, and, on the other hand, on the
(wu hsing), through which the yin yang prin- affirmation of the reality of the Buddha-nature
ciples operate, have direct correspondence not in all things. Its sole reliance on meditation
only with the five directions, the five metals, was most un-Chinese, but it imposed on the
etc., in nature, but also with the five Constant Chinese mind a severe mental and spiritual
Virtues, the five senses, etc., in man, thus bind- discipline which was invigorating as well as
ing nature and man in a neat macrocosm- fascinating. For this reason ,it exerted tremend-
microcosm relationship. Ultimately this led to ous influence not only on Taoism which had
superstition, which Wang Ch'ung (27-c. 100 much in common with it and imitated it in
A.D.) vigorously attacked. He reinstated natu- every way, but also on Neo-Confucianism,
ralism on a rational ground by accepting only which stood in diametrical opposition to it.
reason and experience, and thus promoted the Neo-Confucianism developed in three phases,
critical spirit to such an extent that it
gave namely the Reason school in the Sung period
rise to a strong movement of textual criticism (960-1279), the Mind school in the Ming
and an equally strong movement of free politi- period (1388-1644) and the Moral-Law school
cal thought in the few centuries after him. in the Ch-ing period (1644-1911). The central
In the meantime, Taoism degenerated and idea of the movement is focused on the Great
identified itself with the lowest forms of religi- Ultimate (T'ai Chi) and Reason (li). The
ous worship. Its was
naturalistic philosophy Great Ultimate moves and generates the active
carried to the point of fatalisticmechanism in principle, yang, when its activity reaches its
Lieh TKU (c. 300 A.D.) and was made the limit, and engenders the passive principle, yin,
theoretical basis for alchemy and the search for when it becomes tranquil. The eternal oscilla-
longevity in Ko Hung (c. 268-c. 334 A.D.). tion of yin and yang gives rise to the material
In Kuo Hsiang (c. 312 A.D.), however, the universe through their Five Agents of Water,
true spirit of Taoism revived. He restored and Fire, Wood, Metal and Earth. Thus, reality is
developed the Taoist doctrines of naturalism a progressively evolved and a well-coordinated
and spontaneous transformation to a position system.
of dignity. This dynamic and orderly character of the
Parallel with these developments was the universe is due to Reason and the vital force.
growth of Buddhism China ,a story too long
in As the Ch'eng brothers (I-ch'uan, 1033-1077,
to relate here. Buddhist doctrines, latent
Many and Min-tao, 1032-1086) said, "All things have
in India, were developed in China. The nihi- the same Reason in them." Thus, Reason com-
lism of MSdhyamika (Sun-Ian, c. 450-c. 1000) bines the Many into One, while the vital force
to the effect that reality is Void in the sense differentiates the One into the Many, each with
of being "devoid" of any specific character, its own "determinate nature." The two prin-
was brought to fullness, while the idealism of ciples,however, are not to be sharply contrasted,
VijnaptimStravada (YogScara, Fahsiang, 563-c. for neither is independent of the other. Reason
1000), which claimed that reality in its imagi- operates through ,and is embodied in, the vital
nary, dependent and absolute aspects is "repre- force. It is this cooperative functioning of theirs
sentation-only," was pushed to the extreme. But that makes the universe a cosmos, a harmonious
these philosophies failed because their extreme system of order and sequence. "Centrality is the
positions were not consonant with the Chinese order of the universe and harmony is its un-
ideal of the golden mean. In the meantime, alterable law." As such the cosmos is a moral
China developed her own Buddhist philosophy order. This is the main reason why the greatest
consistent with her general philosophical out- of the Neo-Confucians, Chu Hsi (1130-1200)
look. We need only mention the Hua-yen said that "the Great Ultimate is nothing but
school (Avatamisaka, 508) which offered a the Reason of ultimate goodness."
totalistic philosophy of "all in one" and "one Furthermore, the universe is a social order,
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
and nothing can stand by itself. At the same & Co., Hamburg, 1938) Fung Yu-lan, A His-
time, everything has its opposite. "No two of tory, of Chinese Philosophy (ancient period), tr.
the productions of creation are alike," and the by D. Bodde, Henri Vetch, Peiping, 1937} Hu
Taoist doctrine of the equality of things must Shih, The Development of the Logical Method
be rejected. In the eternal sequence of appear- in Ancient China, The Oriental Book Co.,
ance and disappearance every creation is new, Shanghai, 1922.
and the Buddhist doctrine of transmigration Ching: (a) The classics, whether Confucian or
must be rejected. Taoist. Formerly spelled king.
In order to appreciate fully the meaning of (b) Cardinal standards or directions in Con-
the universe ,man must comprehend Reason. fucian ethics and government. W.T.C.
This can be done by "investigating things to Ching: (a) Reverence. (Ancient Confucianism.)
the utmost" (ko wu), that is, by "investigating (b) Seriousness, the inner state of respect or
the Reason of things to the utmost (ch'iung politeness (kung). With respect to daily affairs,
li)." When sufficient effort is made ,and under- it is expressed in tare,
vigilance, attention, etc.,
standing naturally comes, one's nature will be and with respect to the laws of the universe, it
realized and his destiny will be fulfilled, since is expressed in sincerity (ch'eng), especially to-
"the exhaustive investigation of Reason, the ward the Reason (li) of things. "Seriousness is
full realization of one's nature, and the fulfill- the basis of moral cultivation, the essence of
ment of destiny are simultaneous." When one human affairs, just as sincerity is the way of
understands he will find that "All
Reason, Heaven." It is "to straighten one's internal life
people are brothers and sisters, and all things and righteousness (i) is to square one's external
are my companions," because all men have the life." It means "unity of mind and absolute
same Reason in them. Consequently one should equanimity and absolute steadfastness." (Neo-
not entertain any distinction between things Confucianism.) W.T.C.
and the ego. This is the foundation of the Ching: (a) Essence. "Essence and vital force (ch'i)
Neo-Confucian ethics of jen, true manhood, constitute things."
benevolence or love. Both the understanding of (b) Purityj the pure nature.
Reason and the practice of jen require sincerity (c) Spirit) intelligence.
(ch'Sng) and seriousness (ching) which to the (d) Concentration) unity of thought. W.T.C.
Neo-Confucians almost assumed religious sig- Ching: (a) Tranquillity) rest) passivity) inactivity)
nificance. As a matter of fact these have a cer- "the constant feature of the passive principle."
tain correspondence with the Buddhist dhyana See tung. (Confucianism.)
and prajna or meditation and insight. Grad- (b) Quietude) quiescence) interpreted by the
ually the Neo-Confucian movement became an Taoist as absence of desire and unity of thought,
inward movement, the mind assuming more and by Confucians in general as the original state of
more importance. human nature, and by HsQn Tzfi (c 335-c 288
When it came to the Ming period especially in B.C.) as the mind not being disturbed by such
Wang Yang-ming (1473-1529), Reason became things as dreams. W.T.C.
identified with Mind. Mencius' doctrine of in- Ch'ing: Passions) feelings) emotions) interpreted
tuitive knowledge (liang chih) was revived and as*
made the basis of his theory of the identity of (a) Human nature (which is originally tran-
knowledge and conduct and the sacred duty of quil) when moved and awakened and expressed
man to "fully exercise his mind" and to "mani- in the seven feelings (joy, anger, sorrow, fear,
fest his illustrious virtues." love, hatred, and desire), like and dislike, and
considered desire as an the sense of advantage and disadvantage.
Wang Yang-ming
obstacle to the mind. The Neo-Confucians of (b) The impure side of man, born of the
the Ch'ing period, especially Tai Tung-yuan passive (yin) vital force (ch'i) as contrasted
(1723-1777), however, argued that since desire with the pure, the nature (hsing) born of the
is part of our nature ,it has its rightful place, active (yang) vital force and expressed in the
and punishment with six forms of evil. W.T.C. due to Zermelo. A.C.
E. Zermelo, Beweis, dass jede Menge wohl%eord-
Ch'iung H: Investigation of Reason of things to net werden kann, Mathematische Annalen, vol. 59
the utmost. A thing is considered by the Neo- (1904), pp. 514-516. B. Russell, On some difficul-
Confucianists to be an event. A perfect under- ties in the theory of transfinitf numbers and order
types, Proceedings of the London Mathematical
standing of an event can be obtained by investi- Society, ser. 2, vol 4 (1906), pp. 29-53. E.
gating to the utmost the Reason underlying it. Zermelo, Neucr Beweis fur die Moelichkeit einer
This does not require the investigation of the Woklordnung, Mathematische Annalen, vol. 65
Reason of all things. When the Reason in one (1908), pp. 107-128. K Godel, The Consistency
of the Axiom of Choice and of the Generalized
thing is extensively investigated, the Reason in Continuum Hypothesis with the Axioms of Set
other things can be understood. (Neo-Con- Theory, Princeton, N. J 1940. ,
identity of contraries. "Viewed from the stand- a renowned judge. He was the pioneer of Neo-
point of Tao, a beam and a pillar are identical. Confucianism (lihsueh), anticipating the Ch'eng
So are ugliness and beauty, greatness, wicked- brothers. He wrote the T'ung-shu (explanation
ness, perverseness, and strangeness. Separation of the of Changes) and the Taichi Tu-
Book
is the same as construction; construction is the shu (explanation of the diagram of the Great
same as destruction." Therefore the sages har- Ultimate), fundamental texts of Neo-Confucian
monize the systems of right and wrong, and rest philosophy. W.T.C.
in the equilibrium of nature (t'ien chiin). "This Chremati sties : (Gr. chrematistike, the art of the
is called following two courses at the same use of money) A term insisted upon by Ingram
time." (Chuang Tu, between 399 and 295 (1823-1900) and others in a restricted sense
W.T.C. to that portion of the science of political eco-
B.C.)
Choice: (a) In ethics the term choice refers to nomy which relates to the management and
an agent's act of volition in deciding between regulation of wealth and property, one of the
two or more alternatives. Sometimes it is said efforts to indicate more clearly the content of
(a) Are our choices free in the sense of not it must inquire into the mystery of the Incarna-
being determined by previous events? and (b) tion, of the Word made flesh, and examine all
Are our choices simply the determinations of the circumstances of the birth, passion, and
our strongest desires? W.K.F. resurrection Since He acknowledged
of Christ.
See Cause, Determinism, Will. that He was God, the Son of God, one with the
Choice, axiom of, or Zermelo's axiom, is the Father, it becomes necessary to examine His
name given to an assumption of logical or credentials, His own prophecies, miracles, and
logico-mathematical character which may be saintly life, which were to serve as evidence that
stated as follows: Given a class K whose mem- He was sent by God and really possessed all
bers are non-empty classes , there exists a (one- power in heaven and on earth. Christology must
deal with the human and Divine nature, their
valued) monadic junction f whose range is AT,
such that /(*) e x for all members x of K. relation to each other, and the hypostatic union
This had often been employed unconsciously or of both in one Divine Person, as well as the
relation of that Person to the Father and the
tacitly by mathematicians- and is apparently
necessary for the proofs of certain important Holy Ghost. Moreover, the authentic decisions
mathematical theorems but was first made ex- of the Councils of the Church form an exceed-
Chrysippus: (280-209 B.C.) One of the leaders Moral Law (tao)j the "ultimate principle" of
of the Stoic School, whose voluminous writings the universe; "the great basis of existence"; "the
have been completely lost. In many respects he beginning and the end of the universe."
deviated from the Stoic speculative course; for (d) The principle of centrality, which is ob-
instance, he combined the principle of natural servable in everything, that everything should
necessity, or determinism, with the doctrine of have the proper balance of activity and tran-
Providence. R.B.W. quillity. (Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.;
Chu: Direct appellation, a method of designation. Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-1086.)
"To call out 'Puppy I' is direct appellation." See (e) Impartiality} the principle of neutrality
chia and '.
(Neo-Mohism.) W.T.C. which is present in every human heart.
Ch'uan: (a) A weight} a standard} a balance. (f) The inner life; the inner principle. (Lao
(b) Power} authority} force. Tzu.) W.T.C.
Expediency, a Confucian ethical concept
(c) Chung: (a) Being true to the principle of the
which justifies deviation from cardinal standards self, being true to the originally good nature
or directions (ching) in ethics and government of the self; being one's true self, the Confucian
under certain abnormal circumstances. W.T.C. "central thread or principle" (i kuan) with re-
Chuang Tzu: (Chuang Chou, Chuang Chi-yuan, spect to the self, as reciprocity (shu) is that
between 399 and 295 B.C.) The second greatest principle with respect to others. See i
kuan.
Taoist, was onre a petty officer in his native (b) Exerting one's pure heart to the utmost,
state, Meng (in present Honan), in the revolu- to the extent of "not a single thought not having
tionary and romantic south. A little-travelled been exhausted"; honesty} sincerity; devotion of
scholar, he declined a premiership in favor of soul, conscientiousness. (Confucianism.)
freedom and peace. His love of nature, his "Honesty (chung) is complete realization of
vivid imagination and subtle logic make his one's nature" whereas truthfulness (hsin) is
works masterpieces of an exquisite style. Only "complete realization of the nature of things."
the first seven and a few other chapters of "Honesty (chung) is the subjective side of truth-
Chuang Tzu (English transl. by H. Giles and fulness (hsin) whereas truthfulness is the objec-
by Feng Yu-lan) are authentic. W.T.C. tive side of honesty." (Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-
Ch'uan hsing: Preservation of one's original na- 1086.)
ture. (Taoism.) W.T.C, "Honesty is exerting one's heart to the utmost
Ch'uan sheng: (a) Preservation of life, by the whereas truthfulness is the observance of the
and poverty, accepted a number of government our existence escape"; the central clue to man's
appointments with a great deal of reluctance moral being which unites him to the universal
His lectures at the White Deer Grotto attracted order (or to attain central harmony). (Early
all prominent scholars of the time. The works Confucianism.)
of this leader of Neo-Confucianism (li hsueh) (c) The Universal and the Changeless which
include the Chu Tzu Ch'uan-shu ("Complete is the true principle of things and the eternal
Works," really Selected Works, partial English law of the universe. (Neo-Confucianism.)
transl. by J. P. Bruce The Philosophy of Human W.T.C.
Nature by Chu Hsi) of 66 Chinese chuans in Chun tu: (a) The superior man, the perfect man,
25 volumes and the Yu Let (Sayings Arranged the moral man, the noble man. "There may
by Topics) of 140 chuans in 40* volumes. have been a superior man who is not a true
W.T.C. man (jen), but there has never been an inferior
Chu i wu shih :
Unity of mind, with absolute man (hsiao jSn) who is a true man." The
steadfastness or
impartiality, a state of rever- superior man "makes upward progress," "under-
ential seriousness (ching). (Ch'eng I-ch'uan, stands profit," and "despises the ordinances of
1033-1107, and Ch'eng Ming-tao, 1032-1086.) Heaven, great men, and the words of the sages."
W.T.C. (Confucius.)
Chung: (a) The Mean. See Chung yung. (Con- "The superior man's moral order is on the
fucius.) increase, while the inferior man's moral order is
(b) The moral being, in which
central self or on the decrease." "The superior man abides by
"the passions anger, grief, and
such- as joy, what is internal, whereas the inferior man abides
pleasure have not awakened," and which exists by what is external." (Ancient Confucianism.)
"in a state of absolute tranquillity without being "The superior man makes advance in the
moved." See ho. (Early Confucianism} Neo- moral law, whereas the inferior man makes
Confucianism.) advance in profit." "The superior man enjoys
(c) The central or the proper principle; the in the fulfillment of the moral law, whereas
56 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the inferior man enjoys in the fulfillment of his Whitehead and Russell, by introducing classes
desires." (Medieval Confucianism.) The su- into their system only as
incomplete symbols,
perior man "sees what is great and far" and is "avoid the assumption that there are such things
interested in "helping things to perfection," as classes." Their method (roughly) is to re-
whereas the inferior man "sees what is small interpret a proposition about a class determined
and near" and is interested in destroying things." by a prepositional function A as being instead
ploy the notation of application of function to various ways, either directly or indirectly, and,
argument in the case of classes (see the article in respect to the people involved, consciously
Propositional function). Instead, if a class a or unconsciously, willingly or unwillingly. In
is determined by a prepositional function A, we any case the specific content of any such field or
say that * is a member of a (in symbols, xe*) institution at a given time is held to have a
if and only if A(x).
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 57
certain effect upon a given class in its conflicts (Ibid) I, Def. 6), and is thus beyond the grasp
with other classes, weakening or aiding it. of the human mind which can know only
Marxists believe that certain kinds of literature thought and extension (extensio, q.v.). W.S.W.
or art may inspire people with a lively sense Cogito: In Husserl: A collective name for spon-
of the need and possibility of a radical change taneous acts, acts in which the ego lives. D.C.
in social relations, or, on the contrary, with a "Cogito" Argument, The: (Lat. cogito, I think)
sense of lethargy or complacency, and that vari- An argumen.. of the type employed by Descartes
ous moral, religious or philosophical doctrines (Meditation II) to establish the existence of the
may operate to persuade a given class that it self. Descartes* Cogito, ergo sum ("I think,
should accept its lot without complaint or its therefore I exist") is an attempt to establish the
privileges without qualms, or may operate to existence of the self in any act of thinking, in-
persuade it of the contrary. The Marxist view cluding even the act of doubting. The cogito
is that every field or institution has a history, ergo sum is, as Descartes himself insisted, not
an evolution, and that this evolution is the so much inference as a direct appeal to intuition,
result of the play of conflicting forces entering but it has commonly been construed as an argu-
into the field, which forces are connected, in ment because of Descartes' formulation. L.W.
one way or another, with class conflicts. While Cognition: (Lat. cognoscere, to know) Knowl-
it is thus held that the class struggle involves edge in its widest sense including: (a) non-
all cultural fields, it is not held that any cul- propositional apprehension (perception, memory,
tural production or phenomenon, selected or introspection, etc.) as well as (b) propositions
delimited at random, can be correlated in a one- or judgments expressive of such apprehension.
to-one fashion with an equally delimited class Cognition, conation and affection,
along with
interest. J.M.S. are the three basic aspects or functions of con-
Classic: A. Art of the first class (Aulus Gellius)* sciousness. See Consiousness, Epistemology.
B. Greek and Roman art in which perfect bal- L.W.
ance between body and spirit is achieved (Hegel). In Scholasticism: Whatever is known is,
Contrasted with Modern and Romantic. L.V. as known, an accident of the knowing soul and
Classicism : Taste based on the imitation of classic therefore caused by an
informing agent. All
art. L.V. knowledge ultimately is due to an affection of
Classification: 1. Process of grouping objects into the senses which are informed by the agency of
classes on the basis of the discovery of common the objects through a medium. The immutation
properties, or the results of such grouping. 2. of the sense organ and the corresponding acci-
Process of grouping species into genera, genera dental change of the soul are called species
into still larger genera, and so on to the sum- sensibilis impressa. The conscious percept is the
mum genus A.C.B.
(q.v.). species expressa. Intellectual knowledge stems
Cleanthes: 310-230 B.C.) Zeno's disciple and
(c. from the phantasm out of which the active in-
one of the most prominent thinkers of the Stoic tellect disengages the universal nature which as
School. Of his writings only a hymn to Zeus species intelligibilis impressa informs the passive
is extant. R.B.W. intellect and there becomes, as conscious concept,
Clearness: (Ger. Klarheit) In Husserl: Intui- the species expressa or verbum mentis. Sensory
tional fullness, whether perceptual, fictively per- cognition is a material process; but it is not the
ceptual, memorial, or anticipational. See Clari- matter of the particular thing which enters into
fication, Distinctness, and Intuition. D.C. the sensory faculties; rather they supply the
Clement of Alexandria: (150-217) An early material foundation for the sensible form to be-
Christian thinker and theologian who attempted come existent within the mind. Cognition is,
to raise the attitude of faith to the level of therefore, "assimilation" of the mind to its ob-
knowledge, he was influenced by TNto, Aris- ject. The
cognitive mental state as well as the
totle, the Stoics, and Philo Judaeus. R.B.W. species by which it originates are "images" of
Co-conscious, The: (Lat. co- -f conscire, to the object, in a metaphorical or analogical sense,
know) Consciousness which is dissociated from not to be taken as anything like a copy or a
the central core of a personality and of which reduplication of the thing. The senses, depend-
that personality is unaware. The co-conscious ing directly on the physical influence exercised
and the unconscious consisting of neural struc- by the object, cannot err; error is of the judg-
tures and p-ocesses are, in the terminology of ing reason which may be misled by imagination
Morton Prince, the two species of the subcon- and neglects to use the necessary critique. R.A.
scious. (The Unconscious, pp. 247 ff.) L.W. Abstractive: That meaning of cognition
Coenaesthesis : (Gr. Koinos, common -|- aisthesis, which lacks one of the two requisites for in-
feeling) Organic sensation (circulatory, diges- tuitive knowledge* for in abstractive cognition
tive etc.) as distinguished from external sensa- either we know things through other things,
tion (visual, auditory, tactual etc.). See Somatic and not through their proper images or we
Datum. L.W. know things that are not present: e.g., the
Cogitatio: One of the two attributes (q.v.) of knowledge we now have of God, through crea-
God which, according to Spinoza, are accessible tures or the knowledge we have of Adam, a
to the human intellect (Ethica, II, passim). being not present to us.
Though God is an infinite thinking thing, it is Comprehensive: Strictly speaking, that which
not possible so to define him; God is "sub- is adequate to or fully commensurate with the
stance consisting of infinite attributes, etc." object, a knowledge in which the whole object
58 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
is known completely and way in which
in every Kant. Following up a suggestion first made by
it can be known
even to all the effects and Lotze they contended that the Ideas ought to
consequences with which it has an intrinsic con- be understood as laws or methods of thought
nection. This knowledge must be clear, certain, and that the current view ascribing any kind
evident, and quidditative, because it is the most of existence to them was based on a misunder-
perfect type of knowledge corresponding to the standing of Aristotle's. H.G.
God's complete knowledge of
object. E.g.) Cohen, Morris Raphael: (1880-) Emeritus Pro-
Himself. fessor of Philosophy of the College of the City
Intuitive: Requires two things: (1) that it re-
of New York. His contributions have been many
sult from the proper species, or the proper image in the of social, political and legal phi-
fields
of the object itself, impressed upon the mind by He describes his view in general as
losophy.
the object or by God} and (2) that bear realistic rationalism, a view that emphasizes the
it
upon an object that is really present with the importance of intellect or reason applied to as
greatest clearness and certitude. Our knowledge than in vacua. has found He
what is, rather
of the sun is intuitive while
are looking at we the principle of polarity a fruitful means of
the sun, and that knowledge which the blessed
resolving antinomies. His best known
works are
have of God is intuitive.
Reason and Nature and Law and the Social
Quidditative: In the strict sense, is that which Order. L.E.D.
arises from the proper image of an object, like knowl-
Coherence Theory of Truth: Theory of
intuitive knowledge, and besides, penetrates dis- edge which maintains that truth is a property
tinctly, with a clear, proper, and positive con- of
primarily applicable to any extensive body
cept, the essential predicates of a thing even to
consistent propositions, and derivatively applica-
the last difference. The knowledge which God
ble to any one proposition in such a system by
has of Himself is of this kind. But quiddilative A.C.B.
virtue of its part in the system.
knowledge in the wide sense is any knowledge
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor: (1772-1834) Lead-
of the quiddity or essence of an object, or any with
ing English poet of his generation along
definition explaining H.G. what a thing is.
friend and William Wordsworth.
his associate,
Cognitive Meaning, Cognitive Sentence: See He was for a time a Unitarian preacher and his
Meaning Kinds of, 1.
,
writings throughout display a keen interest in
Cognoscendum :
(pi. cognoscenda) (Lat. cog- spiritual affairs. He was among the first to
perhaps closer to him in this field than in See Logic, III, ii, 4. L.W.
epistemology. The sole goal of conduct is ful- Combination: combinare, to join) The
(Lat.
fillment of duty, i.e., the
achievement of a process of forming a new whole by the union
society organized according to moral principles of parts j also the product of such union. Two
and satisfying the postulates of personal dignity. types of combination are distinguishable: (a)
The Marburg school was probably the most in- Composition is a union of parts such that the
fluential philosophic trend in Germany in the component parts are discernible in the com-
last 25 years before the First World War. The pound. Thus the visual and factual data which
most outstanding present-day champion of their combine to form a total percept are recognizable
tradition is Ernst Cassirer (born 1874). Cohen in the resultant percept, (b) Fusion is a union
and Natorp tried to re-interpret Plato as well as of parts into a whole in which the identity of
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 59
the parts is obliterated. Thus the amalgamation which attempted to set up a theory of knowl-
of two sense images to form a new quality edge which would support the realistic belief of
would, if this phenomenon were
psychologically the man on the street. (See Naive Realism.)
possible, be an instance of psychic fusion. See The school began a movement of protest against
Psychic Fusion. L.W. Locke's theory which led to an eventual sub-
Combination of Ideas: According to Locke and jective idealism and skepticism. V.F.
his followers, process by which the mind
the Common Sensible*: (Lat. sensibilia communia)
forms complex ideas out of the simple ideas fur- In the psychology of Aristotle the qualities of a
nished to it by experience, and one of the three sense object that may be apprehended by several
ways in which the mind by its own activity senses; e.g. motion (or rest), number, shape,
can get new ideas not furnished to it from size^ in distinction from the proper sensibles, or
without (Locke, Essay concerning Human Un- qualities that can be apprehended by only one
derstanding, Bk. II, ch. 12, 22). Conceived sense, such as color, taste, smell. G.R.M.
sometimes as a mechanical, sometimes as a A
Communication: term used to refer to a cer-
quasi-chemical process. W.K.F. tain feature of sign-situations, viz. the identity,
Combinatory Logic: A branch of mathematical similarity or correspondence of what is under-
logic, which has been extensively investigated by stood by the interpreter with what is, or is
Curry, and which is concerned with analysis of intended to be, expressed by the speaker.
processes of substitution, of the use of variables By a familiar ambiguity the term is used in-
generally, and of the notion of a function. discriminately to refer either to the process by
The program calls, in particular, for a system which such accordance is brought about, or that
of logic in which variables are altogether elimi- with regard to which accord between the speaker
nated, their place being taken by the presence and interpreter is achieved.
in the system of certain kinds of function sym- The definition is intended to cover the com-
bols. For a more detailed and exact account, . munication of attitudes, evaluations, desires, etc.,
reference must be made to the papers cited as well as ofjudgments or assertions. See Func-
below. A. C. tions of Language, Speech Situation. M.B.
M. Schonfinkcl, fiber die Bausteine der mat he- Communication: communicate, to share)
matischen Logik, Mathematische Annalen, vol. 92 (Lat.
(1924), pp. 305-316. H. B. Curry, Grundlagen Intercourse minds or selves whereby
between
der kombinatorischen Logik, American Journal of sensations, imagery or conceptional meanings are
Mathematics, vol. 52 (1930), pp. 509-536, 789-834. transferred from one to another. Communica-
H. B. Curry, The universal quantifier in com-
tion includes: (i) ordinary sense-mediated com-
btnatory logic, Annals of Mathematics, ser. 2, vol.
32 (1931), pp. 154-180. H. B. Curry, Apparent munication by means of speech, writing, gesture,
variables from the standpoint of combinatory hgtc, facial expression and bodily attitude and (ii)
Annals of Mathematics, ser. 2, vol. 34 (1933),
pp. 381-404. HB. Curry, Functionality in com- allegedly direct contact between minds by mental
btnatory logic, Proceedings of the National Acad- telepathy and other occult means. See Teleg-
emy of Sciences, vol. 20 0934), pp. 584-590. J. B. L.W.
nosis; Telepathy.
Rosser, A mathematical logic without variables,
Annals of Mathematics, ser. 2, vol. 36 (1935), pp. Communism: (Marxian)In its fullest sense,
127-150, and Duke Mathematical Journal, vol. 1 that stage of social development, which, follow-
(1935), pp. 328 t355. H. B. Curry, A revision of
the fundamental rules of combinatory logic, The ing socialism (q.v.) is conceived to be character-
Journal of Symbolic Lo^ic, vol. 6 (1941), pp. 41- ized by an economy of abundance on a world
53. H. B. Curry, Consistency and completeness of wide scale in which the state as a repressive force
the theory of combinators, ibid., pp. 54-61.
(army, jails, police and the like) is considered
Comedy: In Aristotle (Poetics), a play in which
unnecessary because irreconcilable class antagon-
chief characters behave worse than men do in
isms will have disappeared, and it will be pos-
daily life, as contrasted with tragedy, where the sible to apply the principle, "from each accord-
main characters act more nobly. In Plato's
ing to ability, to each according to need" (Marx:
Symposium, Socrates argues at the end that a "Gotha Program"). It is held that the release
writer of good comedies is able to write good
of productive potentialities resulting from social-
tragedies. See Cor.iic. Metaphysically, comedy
ized ownership of the means of production will
in Hegel consists of regarding reality as ex-
create a general sufficiency of economic goods
hausted in a single category. Cf. Bergson, Le
which in turn will afford the possibility of edu-
rire (Laughter).
cational and cultural development for all, and
Commentator, The: Name usually used for that under such conditions people will learn to
AverroSs by the medieval authors of the 13th live in accordance with valued standards with-
century and later. In the writings of the gram- out the compulsion of physical force represented
marians (modistae, dealing with modis signifi- by a special apparatus of state power. It is
candi) often used for Petrus Heliae. R.4- considered that by intelligent planning, both
Common Sense: In Aristotle's psychology the economic and cultural, it will then be possible
faculty by which the common sensible* are per- to eradicate the antagonism between town and
ceived. It probable also that Aristotle attrib-
is country and the opposition between physical
utes to this faculty the functions of perceiving and mental labor. It is now considered in the
what we perceive and of uniting the data of U. S. S. R. that the principal features of com-
different senses into a single object. G.RM. munist society, with the exception of the "wither-
Common Sense Realism : A school of Scottish ing away" of the state, may be attained in one
thinkers founded by Thomas Reid (1710-96) country of an otherwise capitalist world.
60 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Trotsky considered this a false version of position it is assumed that what characterizes
Marxism. J.M.S. individualsqua individuals will likewise char-
Commutative law is any law of the form x o y acterize groups of these same individuals
=r o *, or with the biconditional, etc., re-
y qua groups. In that of division what is
placing equality- compare Associative law. Com- taken as validly applying to the group as a
mutative laws of addition and multiplication whole is then assumed to apply with equal
hold in arithmetic, also in the theory of real validity to the individuals constituting said
numbers, etc. In the prepositional calculus there group. Called semi-formal because they involve
are commutative laws of conjunction, both kinds passing from the distributive to the collective
of disjunction, the biconditional, alternative de- use of terms and vice versa. C.K.D.
nial and its dual; also corresponding laws in Compossibility: Those things are compossible in
the algebra of classes. A. C. Leibniz's philosophy which are literally "co-
Comparison: (Lat. com- -f par, equal) The act possible," i.e., which may exist together, which
of discerning or describing the common proper- belong to the same possible world. Since meta-
tiespossessed by two or more objects, or the physical possibility means for Leibniz simply
result of such discernment or description. the absence of contradiction, two or more things
A.C.B. are compossible if, and only if, their joint
Compathy: (Ger. Miteinanderfuhlen) Men feel ascription to a single world involves no con-
with each other the same sorrow, the same pain. tradiction. All possible worlds are held by
It is a with-each-other feeling. Only psychical Leibniz to have general laws analogous to those
suffering can thus be felt, not physical pain. of our own actual world. Compossibility for
There is no symagony. See Sympathy. H.H. any of things, consequently, involves their
set
Completeness: A logistic system (q. v.) may be capacity to be brought under one and the same
called if there is no formula of the
complete general system of laws. That this last provision
is important follows from the fact that Leibniz
system which is not a theorem and which can
be added to the list of primitive formulas (no affirmed all simple predicates to be compatible.
other change being made) without rendering the F.L.W.
system inconsistent, in one of the senses of Compound: (Lat. con -f- ponere, to place) A
consistency (q. v.). The pure prepositional cal- complex whole formed by the union of a num-
culus as explained under logic, formal, 1 is ber of parts in contrast to an element which is
equivalent to the other, 'and may be the weaker mind as a compound of psychological elements
one formulas containing free variables occur.
if analogous to a chemical compound. See Psy-
See Logic, formal, 3, 6.A.C. chological Atomism. L.W.
Complex: (Lat. complecti, to entwine around, Comprehension: (Lat. com -}- prehendere, to
comprise) 1. Anything that possesses distinguish- grasp) The act or faculty of understanding,
able parts; or the. property of possessing dis- intellectualgrasp, or insight. Comprehension
tinguishable parts. 2. Anything that possesses may be achieved variously by: (1) unifying and
distinguishable parts which are related in such relating manifold facts or ideas; (2) deducing
a way to give unity to the whole, or the
as something from premises; (3) accommodating
property of having parts so related. A.C.B. new facts or ideas to established knowledge;
Complication: (Lat. com
-j- plicatio, folded to- (4) seeing a thing or idea in its proper or
gether) The union or act of combining more or significant context; (5) relating a fact or idea
less disparate elements into a single whole im- to something known, universal and subject to
pression or idea. The term usually has reference law. Comprehension carries sometimes the -spe-
to the synthesis of sense data in perceptions, or cial connotation of thorough
understanding.
of perceptions in a unifying idea. O.F.K. Logic: The sum which connote
of characteristics
a notion
(Scholastic) The as class symbolized by a general term.
Composite: existing being
composed (q.v.) and form
of prime matter Also, the features common to a number of in-
stances or objects. Thus, the connotation (q.v.)
(q.v.). The human composite: matter informed
or intension (q.v.) of a concept.
by the spiritual and rational soul. R.A. See Intension.
Composite idea: Any idea that consists of a O.F.K.
fusion of sentient elements, which together are Compresence: (Lat. com praesentia from praesse,
presumed to pass the threshold of consciousness.
to be present) The togetherness of two or more
In logic, a compound of undefined ideas by way items, for example, the coexistence of several
of definition. C.K.D. elements in the unity of consciousness. In the
Composition is the form of valid inference of terminology of S. Alexander (Space, Time and
the prepositional calculus from A 3 B and Deity), an unique kind of togetherness which
A 3 C to A 3 BC. The law of composition underlies cognition. L.W.
is the theorem of the prepositional calculus: Comte, Auguste: (1798-1857) Was born and
IP
= =>
'] =>[*=> f]. A-C. lived during a period when political and social
*][?
conditions in France were highly unstable. In
Composition and Division, fallacies of: Semi-
formal logical fallacies. In the fallacy of com- reflecting the spirit of his age, he rose against
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 61
interest toward the earthly and human affairs, a concept is a universal essence pervading the
but no from
namely: mathematics, astronomy, physics, chem- particulars, having reality apart
istry,biology, and sociology. These doctrines them, (c) concepts refer to abstracta, that is to
were discussed in Comte's main work, Cours de say, to ideal objects envisaged by the mind but
kind of amour propre (natuurlyke Liefde) which disappearance of certain characters which, under
characterizes a specific thing. See Short Tr., circumstances, admit but do not necessarily
postulate causal interrelatedness. K.F.L.
App. II W.S.W.^ Precise conjunction or accompaniment, spatial
Conceivability : The quality or condition of tak-
or temporal. C.A.B.
ing into and holding an idea in mind. It has
come to mean any affection of the mind or any Concrete: Anything that is specific or individ-
ual. The term is opposed to "general" or to
apprehension, imagining or opinion of the mind.
It is a necessary though not sufficient criterion "abstract", terms which stress common char-
for the truth of said idea or affection, etc. acteristics or qualities considered apart from
C.K.D their specific setting. V.F.
junction (q. v.) generally or with monadic gory is concrete when it possesses the basic
concept', and the latter word may serve to and with one exception, it in turn becomes an
avoid ambiguities which have arisen from loose abstract member of a pair of logical opposites
or variant usages of the word junction (q. v.) }
united or "sublated" in a higher category. The
or it may reflect a difference in point of view. lowest of such dynamic or concrete universals is
A.C. Becoming, which is a dialectical synthesis of
In scholasticism: the "word of the mind" Being and Not-Being. The only absolutely con-
(verbum by which the possible in-
mentis)
creteuniversal, however, is Reality itself, the
tellect expresses (therefore also in later writers
World Whole, conceived as an all-inclusive,
species expressa) the universal nature disengaged organic system of self-thinking Thought.
2. Nco-idealism (q.v.) in Italy introduces a
by the active intellect from the phantasm and
transmitted as species intelligibilis to the possible second type of concrete universal whose elements
intellect. R.A. lack the character of dialectical opposition and
lation to the finite causes in the the presence of which it is impossible for a
development
of the world and the free will of man. The cause to produce an effect, conditions for which
term suggests that divine activity runs parallel there are no substitutes. JJ.R.
with the activity of things and creatures. The Conduct: (Lat. conducere, to bring together) (a)
concursus dei differently conceived depending
is Voluntary behavior of any sort, actual or in-
on whether the stress is laid on the divine tended. Action for which a person may be held
action or on the action of secondary causes. responsible. Subject-matter of ethics which seeks
to determine right and wrong action or proper
H.H.
and improper conduct. Deportment.
Condignity: A which im-
characteristic of merit
(b) In psychology: Behavior of a living or-
plies equality and proportionality between service
rendered and its recompense, to which there is ganism reacting to environmental stimuli. See
Behaviorism. AJ.B.
a claim on the ground of justice. Merit of this
Configuration: (Lat. configurate from con, to-
description is called condign merit, or merilum
de condigno. JJ.R. gether and figurare, to form) A structural pat-
tern at the physical, physiological or psychologi-
Condillac, Etienne: (1715-1780) French sensa- The term has been
cal level. suggested to
tionalist. Successor of Locke. In his Traite
translate German
the Gestalt. See Gestalt
des he works out the details of a
sensations,
Psychology. L.W.
system based on Lockean foundations in which A
Configurationism : suggested English equivalent
all the human faculties are reduced in essence
for Gestalt Psychology. See Gestalt Psychology.
to a sensory basis.
Understanding, in all its
is deemed nothing more than the com- Confirmation, Confirmable: See Verification 3, 4.
phases,
or multiplication of sensations. He Conflict: The psychological phenomenon of
parison is
In 496 B.C., he began 14 years of travelling Connexity: A dyadic relation R is called con-
from state to state, offering his service. He was nected if, for every two different members *, y
of
politely consulted by princes and dukes, but no at one of xRy, yRx holds.
its field, least
one would put his moral doctrines into practice. Connotation: 1. The sum of the constitutive
He was even sent away from Ch'i, threatened notes of of a concept as it is in
the essence
in Sung, driven out of Sung and Wei, and sur- itself and not as it is for us. This logical prop-
rounded between Ch'en arid Ts'ai. When in erty is thus measured by the sum of the notes
difficulty, he exclaimed, "Heaven has endowed of the concept, of the higher genera it implies,
me with a moral destiny. What can Huan of the various essential attributes of its nature
Tuei (who threatened him) do to me?" Eventu- as such. This term
is synonymous with inten-
ally he retired to Lu to study, teach and write. sion and comprehension; yet, the distinctions
He lived in the time when the moral and between them have been the object of contro-
cultural traditions of Chou were in rapid de- versies. 2. J. S. Mill identifies connotation with
cline. Attempting to uphold the Chou culture, significationand meaning, and includes in it
he taught poetry, history, ceremonies and music much less than under comprehension or inten-
to 3,000 pupils, becoming the first Chinese edu- sion. The connotation of a general term (singu-
cator to offer education to any who cared to lar terms except descriptions are non-connota-
come with or without tuition. He taught litera- ti've) is the aggregate of all the other general
ture, human conduct, being one's true self and terms necessarily implied by it as an abstract
honesty in social relationships. He wrote the possibility and apart from exemplification in the
chronicles called Spring and Autumn. His tacit actual world. It cannot be determined by de-
judgments on social and political events were notation because necessity does not always refer
such that "unruly ministers and villainous sons to singular facts. Logicians who adopt this view
were afraid" to repeat their evil deeds. distinguish connotation from comprehension by
He severely disciplined himself and practiced including in the latter contingent characters
what he taught. He loved poetry, ceremonies which do not enter in the former. Comprehen-
and music. He was serious, honest, polite, filial- sion is thus the intensional reference of the
ly pious towards his mother, stern toward his concept, or the reference to universals of both
son, and friendly to his pupils. His most re- general and singular terms. The determination
liable teachings are found in the Lun Yu of the comprehension of a concept is helped by
(Analects), aphorisms recorded by his followers. its denotation, considering that reference is made
any logical misapprehension which results in a ciple that a concept may he reduced to what we
semi-formal or material fallacy. C.K.D. are actually and explicitely thinking about the
notes we use to define it. Thus the
Congruity: A characteristic of mer|t which im- several
connotation of a concept is much poorer than its
plies an intrinsic disproportionality between ser-
vice rendered and its recompense, to which there actual content. Though the value of the concept
is no claim on the ground of justice, but on that seems to be saved by the recognition of its com-
of equity alone. Merit of this description is prehension, it may be argued that the artificial
called congruous merit, or meritum de congruo. introduction into the comprehension of both
JJ.R. necessary and contingent notes, that is of actual
Conjugation: (Lat. con + jungere, yoke together) and potential characteristics, confuses and per-
verts the notion of connotation as a logical prop-
(a) Grammar: The inflections of a verb.
(b) Biology. The union of male and female erty of our ideas. See Intension. T.G.
plant or animal. Conscience: knowledge) Any
(Lat. conscientia,
(c) Logic: Joining' the extreme terms of a emotionally-toned experience in which a tend-
syllogism by the middle term* joining dissimilar ency to act is inhibited by a recognition, socially
things by their common characteristics or by conditioned, that suffering evil consequences is
analogy. likely to result from acting on the impulse to
(d) Ethics: Conjugations or pairings of the
passions: love and hate, desire and avoidance, Conscientalism : The doctrine that contends that
64 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the entities we apprehend must be necessarily and conation.
mental, idealistic; that the real objects are reali- Locke, Reid and others restricted conscious-
ties of consciousness. H.H. ness to the reflective apprehension of the mind
Conscientialism : (Lat. conscientia -{" al, per- of its own processes but this usage has been
taining to conscience) Originally denoting sim- abandoned in favor of the wider definition indi-
ple consciousness without ethical bearing, the
cated above and the term introspection is used
term conscience came in modern times to mean to designate this special kind of consciousness.
in contrast to consciousness, viewed either as a See Behaviorism. L.W.
purely intellectual function or as a generic term
1
(Ger. Betvusstsein) In Husseil
for mind, a function of distinguishing between 1. Noematic intentionality in general. The in-
right and wrong. With the rise of Christianity tentional constituting of the temporal stream-
the term came to be described as an independent of-consciousness itself is an instance of "con-
source of moral insight, and with the rise of sciousness" in this broad sense, though it is
modern philosophy it became an inner faculty, intrinsically prior to the constituted stream.
an innate, primeval thing. H.H. 2. The stream of subjective process, or any part
Conscious: (Ger. betvusst) In Husserl 1. of it, as having the characteristic of noematic
Broadest sense: noematically intentional, con- intentionality. 3. The stream of "actual" sub-
scious of something. A process may be "con- jective process, or any part of it, the "ego
scious" in this sense even if it is not "conscious" cogito". D.C.
in the following sense. 2. Narrower sense Consciousness, Field of: The sum-total of items
"Actual", belonging to the cogito. As living embraced within an individual's consciousness at
in a process that is "conscious" in this second any given moment. The total field consists of
sense, the ego is also said to be "conscious", (a) the focus, where the concentration of atten-
"awake", and "conscious of" (awake the tion is maximal and (b) a 'margin, penphery or
to)
intentional object of the process. As objects of fringe of a diminishing degree of attention
processes that are conscious (in either of the which gradually fades to zero. L.W.
first two senses), objects are occasionally ic- Consciousness-in-general: (Kant's Betvusstsein
ferrcd to as "conscious". D.C. Ueberhaupt} Consciousness conceived as purely
Conscious Illusion Theory: The theory that logical, objective, universal, necessarily valid, in
conscious self-illusion, semblance and deliberate contrast to the eccentricity, particularity, subjec-
make-believe are constant factors in art and art tivity, irrationality, and privacy of the psycho-
appreciation which free the individual momen- logical consciousness. See Kant. W.L.
tarily from the practical and hum-drum and thus Consectarium consectarius) Peculiar to
:
(Lat.
enhance and refresh his life. See Konrad Lange, the philosophical vocabulary of Cicero, it means
Die betvusste Selbstfduschung als Kern des an inference, a conclusion. It is the substantive
aesthetischen Gennsses, 1895 O.F.K. for the phrase "that follows logically". H.H.
Consciousness: (Lat. conscire, to know, to be Consensus gentium: (Lat. agreement of people)
cognizant of) A designation applied to conscious A ciiterion of truth: that which is universal
mind as opposed to a supposedly unconscious or among men carries the weight of truth. V.F.
subconscious mind (See Subconscious Mind; Un- Consent Agreement or sympathy
: in feeling or
conscious Mtnd), and to the whole domain of thought. V.F.
the physical and non-mental. Consciousness is Consentience: (Lat, con -{- sentire, to feel) Con-
generally considered an indefinable term or scious unity existing at the level of sensation
rather a term definable only by direct intro- after the subtraction of all conceptual and in-
spective appeal to conscious experiences. The terpretative unity. Consentience includes both:
indefinability of consciousness is by
expressed (a) the intra-sensory unity of a single sensory
Sir William Hamilton. "Consciousness cannot continuum (e.g. the visual, tactual or auditory)
be defined' we may be ourselves fu !y awaie and (b) the inter-sensory unit embracing the di-
what consciousness is, but we cannot without verse sensory continua. Consentience plays an
confusion convey to others a definition of what important role in the psychological doctrine of
we ourselves clearly apprehend. The reason is the presentation-continuum of J. Ward and G. F.
plain consciousness lies at the root of all knowl- Stout. An allied concept is the sensory organiza-
edge." (Lectures on Metaphysics, I, 191.) tion of Gestalt Psychology. See Gestalt Psy-
Ladd's frequently quoted definition of conscious- chology. L.W.
ness succeeds only in indicating the circum- Consequence: (Ger. Konsequenz) In Husserl:
stances under which it is directly observable The relation of formal-analytic inclusion which
"Whatever we are when we aie awake, as obtains between certain noematic senses.
contrasted what we are
with when we sink Consequence: See Valid.
into a profound and dreamless sleep, that is to Consequence-logic: (Ger. Konsequenzlogik)
be conscious." Consistency-logic (Logik der Widerspruchdostg-
The
analysis of consciousness proceeds in two keit), pure apophantic analytics (in a strict
principal directions, (i) a distinction may be sense) , a level of pure formal logic in which
drawn between the act of consciousness and the the only thematic concepts of validity are con-
content of consciousness and the two may even sequence, inconsequence, and compatibility. Con-
be considered as separable ingredients of con- sequence-logic includes the essential content of
sciousness, and (ii) consciousness is analy/ed into traditional syllogistics and the disciplines mak-
its three principal functions: cognition, affection
ing up formal-mathematical analysis. D.C.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 65
Consilience: Whewell calls "consilience of induc- The synthetic structure of the constitutive proc-
tions" what occurs when a hypothesis gives us ess, regarded either as a
static or as a tem-
the "rule and reason" not only of the class of porally genetic affair, is called the constitution
facts contemplated in its construction, but also, of the intentional object. 2. Narrower tense:
unexpectedly, of some class of facts altogether The structure of intentionality in its character
different.CJ.D. as rational, i.e., as productive of valid objects
Consistency: (1) A logistic system (q. v.) is and correct, justified, habits (convictions, etc.).
consistent if there is no theorem whose negation See Evidence and Reason. D.C.
is a theorem. See Logic, formal, 1, 3, 6} Constitutive: Of the essential nature} internal}
also Proof theory. component} inherent. Internal relations are
Since this definition of consistency is relative constitutive because they are integral parts or
to the choice of a particular notation as repre- elements of the natures which they relate}
senting negation, the following definition is whereas external, non-constitutive relations may
sometimes used instead: (2) A logistic system be altered without change in the essential natures
is consistent if not every formula (not every of the related entities,
sentence) is a theorem. In the case of many In Kant: Whatever enters into the structure of
familiar systems, under the usual choice as to actual experience. Thus, the categories are con-
which notation represents negation, the equiva- stitutive of
knowledge of nature because they
lence of this sense of consistency to the previous are necessary conditions of any
experience or
one is immediate. knowledge whatever. In contrast, the trans-
Closely related to (2), and applicable to lo- cendent Ideas (God, the total
Cosmos, and the
gistic systems containing the pure prepositional immortal Soul) are not constitutive of
anything,
calculus (see Logic, formal, 1 ) or an
appropri- since they do not serve to define or compose
ate part of it, is the notion of consistency in real objects, and must be restricted to a
regula-
the sense of E. L. Post, according to which a tive and speculative use. See Crit. Pure of
system is consistent if a formula composed of a Reason, Transc. Dialectic, Bk. II, ch. II, Sec. 8.
single prepositional variable (say the formula p) O.F.K.
is not a theorem. A. C. Construct, Imaginative: (Lat. to
construere,
*
Consistency proof s : See Proof theory, and build) See Construction, Psychological.
Logic formal, 1, 3, 6. Construction: (Lat. constructio, from construere,
Constant: A constant is symbol employed as an
a to build) The mental process of
devising imagi-
unambiguous name distinguished from a vari- native constructs or the products of such con-
able (q. v.). structional activities. A
construction, in contrast
Thus in ordinary numerical algebra and in to an ordinary hypothesis which professes to
real number theory, the symbols x, y, z are represent an actual state of affairs, is largely
Contiguity, Association by: A type of associa- son, Logic I, p. 199). The continuant is in
tion, whereby one of
recognized by Aristotle, Johnson's metaphysics a revised and somewhat
two mind, which have been coexistent
states of more precise form of the traditional conception
or successive, tends to recall the other. This of substance;it includes, according to him, that
type of association has sometimes been con- residuum from the traditional conception of sub-
sidered the basic type to which all others are re- stance which is both philosophically justifiable
ducible. See Association, Laws of. L.W. and indispensable.
Continence: In Aristotle's ethics the moral con- A "substantive", or "existent"
is defined by
Contingency: (Lat. contingere, to touch on all While continuants are collections or sets of
sides) In its broadest philosophical usage a state occurrents, every collection of occurrents does
of affairs is said to be contingent if it may and not constitute a continuant, but only those pos-
also may not be. A certain event, for example, sessing a certain type of unity. This unity is
is contingent if, and only if,
it may come to not an "unknown somewhat" supporting the
contingency with respect to the laws of logic, that xRy and yRx. (Compact order thus be may
the second contingency with respect to the laws described by saying that between any two distinct
of nature. A given state of affairs, e.g., the members of the class there is always a third, or
existence of a snowflake with a given shape, is by saying that no member has a next following
logically contingent in that the laws of logic do
member in the order.)
not suffice to establish that such a thing does or If a class b is ordered by a relation R, and
does not exist. This same state of affairs would a <= ly we say that x is an upper bound of a
not ordinarily be held to be physically con- if, for all X, xea implies xRz; and that at is a
least upper bound of a if e is an
tingent, however, for, although the laws of upper bound of
nature alone do not suffice to determine that a and there is no upper bound y of a, different
there is such a snowflake, still it would be held from x, such that yRx.
on the general hypothesis of determinism that, A class b ordered by a relation R is said to
given the specific conditions under which the have continuous order (Dedekindian continuity)
water was frozen, it was determined by physical if it is compactly ordered
by R and every non-
laws that a snowflake would exist and that it empty class a, for which a = b, and which has
would have this shape and no other. an upper bound, has a least upper bound.
Anarrower, less philosophical employment of An important mathematical example of con-
"contingent" emphasizes the aspect of depend- tinuous order is afforded by the real numbers,
ence of one state of affairs upon another state ordered by the relation not greater than. Ac-
of affairs in accordance with the laws of nature. cording to usual geometric postulates, the points
In this usage an event A is said to be contingent on a straight line also have continuous order,
upon B when the occurrence of A depends upon and, indeed, have the same order type as the
the occurrence of B; and it is usually implied real numbers.
that the occurrence of B is itself uncertain. The term continuity is also employed in
F.L.W. mathematics in connection with functions of
In metaphysics: The opposite of determinism, various kinds. We
shall state the definition for
which holds that free activity may enter causally the case of a monadic function / for which the
into natural processes. See Boutroux. R.T.F. range of the independent variable and the range
Leibnic distinguished contingent truths (vi- of the dependent variable both consist of real
, rites de fait) from necessary truths of reason numbers (see the article Function).
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 67
Let us use R for the relation not greater than ib. 6a-17. Thus
of contraries belong to
pairs
among real numbers. A
neighborhood of a real the same genus, or contrary sub-genera, or are
number c is determined by two real numbers m themselves sub-genera, ib. 14a-18.
and n both different from c and such that Strictly speaking, there are no contraries in
mRc and cRn and is the class of real numbers the category of substance, since substances are
x, other than m and it, such that mRx and the subject of contraries, nor in the category
xRn. The function / is said to be continuous at of quantity, since these are relative. Two con-
number c
the real if the three following con- trary states cannot obtain in one and the same
ditions are satisfied: (I) c belongs to the range individual at the same time and in the same
of the independent variable; (2) in every respect) cf. contradiction. Some contraries, e.g.
neighborhood of c there are numbers other than good-bad, black-white, have intermediaries j
c belonging to the range of the independent while others do not, e.g. odd-even. (Xi)
Propo-
variable; (3) corresponding to every neighbor- sitions: Two
universal propositions, having op-
hood b of /(c) there is a neighborhood a of c posite quality (i.e. one affirmative and one
such that, for every real number * belonging to negative) are contrary j De Interpretation , 17b-
the range of the independent variable, xea im- 4, See Logic, formal 4, 8.
plies /(x) b. A function may be called con- (b) Physics: In Greek philosophy, the ulti-
tinuous if it is continuous at every real number, mate principles of nature and change were con-
or at every real number in a certain set deter- traries: e.g. love-strife}
motion-rest) potential-
mined by the context. A. C. ity-actuality.All motion is between contraries.
E. V. Huntingtori, The Continuum, Cambridge, See Heraclitus, Empedocles, Aristotle. L.M.H.
Mass.. 1917.
Contrast: In aesthetics: the term may refer
Continuum, Sensory: (Lat. continuere, to hold either to the presence in the
object contemplated
together) The unity of a single sensory field, of contrasting elements (colors, sounds, char-
(visual, auditory, etc.) or of the total
tactual,
acters,etc.), or to the principle that the pres-
sensory experience of an individual. (Cf. G. F. ence of such contrasting elements is a common
Stout, Mind and Matter, Bk. IV, Ch. III.) See feature of beautiful objects
L. W. which, within limits,
Consentfence. enhance^ their beauty. W.K.F.
Contraction of a genus or species: (in
Contrast: (contrastare, to stand opposed to)
Scholasticism) Is the determination or applica-
tion of a genus to some species, or of a species Relation, complementary to resemblance, obtain-
to some individual. H.G. ing between qualities. In a continuous qualita-
tive series, the contrast increases as the re-
Contradict 10 in adjecto:
v
A
logical inconsistency
semblance diminishes. L.W.
between a noun and itsmodifying adjective. A
favorite the phrase "round square."
Contrast, Association by: (Lat. contrastare, to
example is
stand opposed to) Association in accordance
A.C.
with the principle proposed by Aristotle but re-
Contradiction, law of, is given by traditional
jected by Hartley, J. S. Mill and other associa-
logicians as "A is B and A is not B cannot
tionists that contrasting qualities tend to rein-
both be true." It is usually taken to be the state one another in consciousness. See Associa-
theorem of the prepositional calculus, ~[p
tion,Laws of. L.W.
~p]. In use, however, the name often seems Convention:
to refer to the syntactical
(Lat. convenient, suitable) Any
principle or precept
proposition whose truth is determined not by
which may be formulated as follows: A logical fact but by social agreement or usage. In
discipline containing (an applied) prepositional
Democritus, "Sweet is sweet, bitter is bitter,
calculus, or a set of hypotheses or postulates to
color is color by convention (nomoi)." (Diels,
be added to such a discipline, shall not lead to
Frag. d. V orsokratiker B. 125) The Sophists
two theorems or consequences of the forms A
(q.v.) regarded all laws and ethical principles
and ~A. The law is explicitly stated in a
as conventions. A.C.B.
syntactical form, e.g. by Ledger Wood in his
The Analysis of Knowledge (1940). A.C. Conventionalism: Any doctrine according to
which a priori truth, or the truth of propositions
Contrapletes: The two opposites or
*
poles of a
of logic, or the truth of propositions (or of
relationship which while they stand over
sentences) demonstrable by purely logical means,
against each other at the same time fulfil one is a matter of linguistic or
another. Polarity, Dyadism, Harmony of postulational conven-
op- tion (and thus not absolute in character). H.
posites. R.T.F. 1
ent senses, especially visual and tactual, by of them assume the idea of design as underlying
which the apprehension of perceptual objects is the creation. They hold that the world had a
effected. Intersensory correlations depend upon beginning in time. The process of creation
the co-appearance rather than the comparison from less perfect to more perfect, from an
minate relation R between members a of a class dition of the earth, the evolution of a spiritual
A and membersb of a class B. Consider a sub- or luminous principle reacting on the primeval
class B' of B, consisting of all the b's (in B) water and the emphasis upon the godlike origin
which are related by R to each member of some of man or his immediate relation to the deity,
one sub-class A* of A. Then the members of are all permeating threads of cosmogonic myths.
be said to correspond to the members In dualistic religions the world originates as a
B' may
of A*. If a class D corresponds to C as so de- result of a hostile conflict of two
opposing prin-
fined (by means of and the class
the relation R ciples, or as a result of the parallel develop-
C also corresponds to D (by means of the ment of two opposing forces. The conception
common relation R), the two classes may be of creation ex nihilo was almost universally
said to correspond to each other. unknown H.H.
in antiquity.
If the relation R
is such that when C and D Cosmological argument: Attempted to prove
so correspond, C must always have exactly k that God's existence follows from the fact that
members and D exactly 1 member, the cor- things exist. It aims to prove that there is a
respondence is termed a k-\ correspondence. By God by showing that causes presuppose causes,
an obvious extension it is customary to speak also no matter how far back we go. The series of
of many-one, one-many, and many-many cor- causes of causes can only come to an end in a
respondences. cause which does not depend upon something
Thus the heads and tails of coins are said to Being the most basic proof
else for its existence.
be in one-one correspondence} the square roots of God's existence as it starts with the existence
of positive integers in two-one correspondence of anything, it is the favorite of most philoso-
with the positive integers. See One-one. M.B. phers and theologians. H.H.
Correspondence Theory of Truth: The theory Cosmology: A branch of philosophy which treats
that the truth of propositions is determined by of the origin and structure of the universe.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 69
The main of cosmology, according to always followed by the Roman Stoics. See
topics
Cynics, Cyrenaics, Stoicism. E.H.
Hegel (Encyclopedia, section 35), are the con-
tingency, necessity, eternity, limitations and for- Cosmos: (Gr. kosmos in order, duly) hence,
mal laws of the world, the freedom of man and good behavior, government) mode or fashion,
the origin of evil. Most philosophers would ornament, dress (cf. cosmetic); a ruler; the
add to the foregoing the question of the nature world or universe as perfectly arranged and
and interrelationship of space and time, and ordered; cf. providence.)
would perhaps exclude the question of the The early Greek notion of the universe as
nature of freedom and the origin of evil as ordered by destiny or fate was gradually re-
outside the province of cosmology. The method fined until the time of Plato and Aristotle who
of investigation has usually been to accept the conceived the world as ordered by an intelligent
principles of science or the results of meta- principle (nous} of divine justice or harmony;
physics and develop the consequences. The test Plato, Phileous, 30: ". . there is in the uni-
.
of a cosmology most often used is perhaps that verse a cause of no mean power, which orders
of exhibiting the degree of accordance it has 'and arranges . . ."; and Aristotle, Physics,
with respect to both empirical fact and meta- 252a-12: "nature is everywhere the 'cause of
physical truth. The value of a cosmology seems
order". This cosmic view was an essential ele-
to consist primarily in its capacity to provide an ment of the Stoic metaphysics, and was later
ultimate frame for occurrences in nature, incorporated into medieval philosophy and theo-
and to offer a demonstration of where the logy as the divine governance or ordering of
limits of spatio-temporal world
the are, and creation,i.e. providence.
ity* His philosophical writings, long neglected, See Selective Theory of Perception. The theories
disagreement both with the positivism of
reflect of perception of Descartes, Locke, Leibniz and
his own day and
with the earlier French ration- Berkeley are historical examples of creative
His place between the two is manifest in
alism. theories) Russell (Problems of Philosophy, Ch.
his doctrine that order and contingency, con- II and III) and the majority of the American
tinuity and discontinuity, are equally real. This critical realists defend creative theories. L.W.
metaphysical position led him to conclude that Credo quia absurdum est: Literally, I believe
man, though he cannot attain certain truth of because it is absurd. Although these particular
nature, can by increasing the probable truth of words are often wrongly attributed to Tertullian
his statements approach this truth. Cournot's (born middle of the 2nd century) they never-
mathematical investigations into probability and theless convey the thought of this Latin church
his mathematical treatment of economics thus father who maintained the rule of faith on the
harmonize with his metaphysics and epistem- basis of one's trust in the commands and au-
ology. Main works: Exposition de la thtorie thority of Christ rather than upon the compul-
des chances et des
probabilitis, 1843$ Essai sur sion of reason or truth. To believe in the
Its de la connaissance, 2 vols.
jondements absurd, in other words, is to reveal a greater
1851Consid. sur Its marches des idees, 1872j
f faith than to believe in the reasonable. V.F.
Matirialitm*, Vitalising, 1875} Credo I believe in
Rationalism, lit intelligam: Literally,
Traiti dt I'Enckainement d*s idees jondamen- order that I may understand. A
principle which
tab* Jans Us science* tt dans 1881. affirms that after an act of faith a philosophy
I'histoire,
C.K.D. begins, held by such thinkers as Augustine,
Cousin, Victor: (1792-1867) Was among those Anselm, Duns Scotus and many others.
V.F.
Pro-
principally responsible for producing the shift Creighton, James Edwin: (1861-1924)
in French philosophy away frorh sensationalism fessor of Logic and Metaphysics at Cornell
in the direction of "spiritualism"} in his own
University. He was one of the founders and
a
thinking, Cousin was first influenced by Locke
president of the American Philosophical
Asso-
and Condillac, and later turned to idealism ciation, American editor of Kant~Studien
and
under the influence of Maine de Biran and editor of The Philosophical Review. He was
Schelling. His most characteristic philosophical greatly influenced by Bosanquet. His Intro-
are contained in Fragments Philos-
insights ductory Logic had long been a standard text.
ophiques (1826), in which he advocated as the His basic ideas as expressed in articles published
basis of metaphysics a careful observation and at various times were posthumously published
analysis of the facts of the conscious life. He in a volume entitled Studies in Speculative
lectured at the Sorbonne from 1815 until 1820
Philosophy, ft term expressive of his intel-
when he was suspended for political reasons, lectualistic form of objective idealism. L.E.D.
but he was reinstated in 1827 and continued to Don Hasdai: (1340-1410) Jewish
Crescas,
lecture there until 1832. He exercised a great
philosopher and theologian. He was the first
influenceon his philosophical contemporaries
European thinker to criticize Aristotelian cos-
and founded the spiritualistic or eclectic school
mology and establish the probability of the
in French Philosophy. The members of his existence of an infinite magnitude and of in-
school devoted themselves largely to historical finite space, thus paving the way for the modern
studies forwhich Cousin had provided the ex-
conception of the universe. He also took ex-
ample in his Introduction d I'Histoire General ception to the entire trend of the philosophy of
de la Philosophic, 7th ed. W2.L.W. Maimonides, namely its extreme rationalism,
Cratylus of 'Athens: A Heraclitean and first and endeavored to inject the emotional element
teacher of Plato. Carried the doctrine of irre- into religious contemplation, and make love an
concilability of opposites so far that he re- attribute of God and the source of His creative
nounced the use of spoken language. Plato's activity. He also expressed original views on
dialogue of same name criticized the Heraclitean the problems of freedom and creation. He un-
theory of language. E.H. doubtedly exerted influence on Spinoza who
Creation: (in Scholasticism) Is the production of quotes him by name in the formulation of some
a thing from nothing either of itself or of a of his theories. See Jewish Philosophy. Cf.
subject which could sustain the finished product. H. A. Wolfson, Crescas* Critique of Aristotle,
In other words, both the material as well as for- 1929. M.W.
mal causes are produced ex nihilo, or, as in the Criterion: Broadly speaking, any ground, basis,
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 71
or means of judging anything as to its quality. are immanent in the One although in a sense
Since validity, truth, goodness, justice, virtue, beyond it.
and beauty are some of the most fundamental (b) In epistemology: A variety of "critical
.
qualities for philosophic enquiry, criteria for realism." The view which holds that in the
these are embodied in almost all philosophies knowledge-relation the subject or percipient is
and are eitherassumed or derived. In logic, at one (monism) with the object or the thing
consistency is a generally recognized criterion >
objectively existent and perceived) and that
in epistemology, evidence of the senses, compari- the subject contributes qualities not inherent in
son, or reason may be regarded as criteria) in the object (hence, critical) and the object con-
metaphysical speculation have been suggested, tains qualities not perceived. V.F.
as criteria for truth, among others, correspond- Critical Realism: A
theory of knowledge which
ence, representation, practicability, and coher- affirms an objective world independent of one's
ence) in religion, evidences of faith, revelation perception or conception of it (hence realistic)
or miracle) in ethics, pleasure, desirability, util- but critical in the sense of acknowledging the
ity, self-determination of the will, duty, con- difficulties in affirming that all in the knowing
science, happiness, are among common criteria, relation objective. The theory must be dis-
is
while in aesthetics there have been cited inter- tinguished further as follows:
est, satisfaction, enjoyment, utility, harmony, (a) In general, critical realism is distin-
guished from naive or uncritical realism.
Criterion, ethical: In ethics the main problem
K.F.L. (b) It may refer to any number of realists,
such as those of the Scottish critical
Criterion ethical: In ethics the main problem School,
is often said to be the finding of a criterion of monism, (See under proper headings.)
etc.
may generally be construed as a quest for such cording to the "Critical Realists" the objective
a criterion (e.g., Kant's first form of the cate- world, existing independently of the subject, is
gorical imperative may be interpreted as a separated in the knowledge-relation by media
criterion of Tightness). Hence to find a criterion or vehicles or essences. These intermediaries
are not objects but conveyances of knowledge.
of, say, goodness is to find a characteristic whose
The mind knows the objective world not di-
presence, absence, or degree may be taken as a
mark of the presence, absence, or degree of rectly (epistemological monism) but by meant
of a vehicle through which we perceive and
goodness. Thus hedonists hold pleasantness to
be such a characteristic. think (epistemological dualism). For some, this
Often, finding a cri-
terion of a characteristic is taken as equivalent vehicle is an immediate mental essence referring
ence in which a conclusion follows necessarily perspicuity, or for facility in formal work.
from one or more given premisses. Definitions Such methods of introducing new concepts,
given have usually required that the conclusion functions, etc. as definition by abstraction (q. v.),
be of lesser generality than one of the premisses, definition by recursion (q. v.), definition by
and have sometimes explicitly excluded immedi- composition (see Recursiveness) may be dealt
ate inference} but neither restriction fits very with by reducing them to nominal definitions;
well with the ordinary actual use of the word, i.e., by finding a nominal definition such that
(b) In psychology: from analytical reasoning the definiens (and therefore also the definien-
general to particular or less general. The mental dum) turns out, under an intended interpreta-
drawing of conclusions from given postulates. tion of the logistic system, to mean the con-
Deduction of the Categories: (In Kant: De- cept, function, etc. which is to be introduced.
duktion der Kategorien) Transcendental deduc- In addition to syntactical or nominal defini-
tion: An exposition of the nature and possibility tion we may distinguish another kind of defini-
of a priori forms and the explanation and tion, which is applicable only in connection with
justification of their use as necessary conditions interpreted logistic systems, and which we shall
of experience. Empirical deduction: Factual ex- call semantical definition. This consists in intro-
planation of how concepts arise in experience ducing a new symbol or notation by assigning
and reflection. See Kantianism. O.F.K. a meaning to it. In an interpreted logistic sys-
Deduction theorem: In a logistic system (q. v.) tem, a nominal definition carries with it im-
containing prepositional calculus (pure or ap- plicitlya semantical definition, in that it is
plied) or a suitable part of the prepositional intended to give to the definiendum the mean-
calculus, it is often desirable to have the prop- ing expressed by the definiens} but two different
erty that if the inference from to B is a A nominal definitions may correspond to the same
valid inference then s B is a theorem, or, A semantical definition. Consider, for example,
more generally, that if the inference from Ai, the two following schemata of nominal defini-
As, . .
., An to B is valid then the inference from tion in the prepositional calculus (Logic, formal,
Ai, Aa, . .
., An_i to An = B is valid. The syn- 0:
tacticaltheorem, asserting of a given logistic [A] =
[B]
- ~A v B.
-
system that it has this property, is called the [A] =>
[B] -[A ~B].
deduction theorem for that system. (Certain cau- As nominal definitions these are inconsistent,
tions are necessary in defining the notion of since they represent => as standing for
[A] [B]
valid inference where free variables are present) different formulas: either one, but not both,
cf.
Logic, formal, 1, 3.) A.C. could be used in a development of the preposi-
Definition: In the development of a logistic sys- tional calculus. But the corresponding semanti-
tem (q. v.) it is usually desirable to introduce cal definitions would be identical if as would
new notations, beyond what is afforded by the be possible our interpretation of the preposi-
primitive symbols alone, by means of syntactical tional calculus were such that the two definientia
definitions or nominal definitions, i.e., conven- had the same meaning for any particular A
tions which provide that certain symbols or ex- and B.
pressions shall stand (as substitutes or abbrevia- In the formal development of a logistic sys-
tions) for particular formulas of the system. tem, since no reference may be made to an in-
This may be done either by particular defini- tended interpretation, semantical definitions are
tions, each introducing a symbol or expression precluded, and must be replaced by correspond-
to stand for some one formula, or by schemata ing nominal definitions.
of definition, providing that any expression of Of quite a different kind are so-called real
a certain form shall stand for a certain cor- definitions, which are not conventions for intro-
responding formula (so condensing many often ducing new symbols or notations as syntactical
infinitely many particular definitions into a and semantical definitions are but are proposi-
single schema). Such definitions, whether particu- tions of equivalence (material, formal, etc.) be-
lar definitions or schemata, are indicated, in tween two abstract entities (propositions, con-
by the present writer, by an ar-
articles herein cepts, etc.) of which one is called the definien-
row new notation introduced (the
-fr, the dum and the other the definiens. Not all such
definiendum) being placed at the left, or base, propositions of equivalence, however, are real
of the arrow, and the formula for which it definitions, but only those in which the definiens
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 75
embodies the "essential nature 1 ' (essentia, illustration. Deism, it is clear, is a form of
ovffla) of the definiendum. The notion of a theism.
real definition thus has all the vagueness of the (b) Deism is a term referring collectively
quoted phrase, but the following may be given and somewhat loosely to a group of religious
as an example. If all the notations appearing, thinkers of the 17th (and 18th) century in
including =,
have their usual meanings (re- England and France who in attempting to jus-
garded as given in advance), the proposition tify religion, particularly Christianity* began by
expressed by establishing the harmony of reason and revela-
Assyrians, Persians, post-exilic Hebrews, Jews, and similar theorems in higher functional cal-
Greeks and many scattered peoples including culi. These make possible the definition of the
the hoary ancients. Elaborate demonic ideas existential quantifier in terms of the universal
appear in the Mohammedan religion. V.F. quantifier (or inversely). A. C.
Demonstration: Denial of the antecedent: The fallacy of denial
(Lat. de -f- monstrare,to show)
Proof of a proposition by disclosure of the of the antecedent is the fallacious inference from
deductive processes by which it can be inferred. ~A and A 3 B to -^B. The law of denial of
A.C.B. the antecedent is the theorem of the preposi-
tional calculus, ~p =>
[p = A. C.
De Morgan, Augustus: English
(1806-1871) q].
Denomination: (Lat. denominatio) Literally: a
mathematician and logician. Professor of mathe-
matics at University College, London, 1828- naming of something from some other thing.
In Scholastic logic, it is the operation of apply-
1831, 1836-1866. His Formal Logic of 1847
contains some points of an algebra of ing a term to a subject, when the term is de-
logic
rived from something to which the subject is
essentially similar to that of Boole (q. v.), but
related. Thus a substance may be denominated
the notation is adequate than Boole's and
less
the calculus is less fully worked out and applied.
by deriving a name from its accidents. Extrinsic
denomination is dependent upon wholly external
De Morgan, however, had the notion of logical
relationship. See Denotation. V.J.B.
sum for arbitrary classes whereas Boole con-
Denotation: The subjects those entities
templated addition only of classes having no
(i.e.,
which possess attributes) of which a term may
members in common. De Morgan's laws (q. v.)
as they are now known were also enunciated
be predicated) e.g., the term "man" denotes
Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, etc. (J. S. Mill)
in this work. The treatment of the syllogism
"Denotation" in this sense should be distin-
is original, but has since been superseded, and
does not constitute the author's real claim to guished from "extension" in the sense in which
that signifies the subclasses of the class deter-
remembrance as a logician.(The famous con-
mined by the term. The former indicates the
troversy with Sir William Hamilton over the
various individual instances in which a common
latter'scharge of plagiarism in connection with nature is manifested) the latter signifies the
this treatment of the syllogism may therefore
be dismissed as not of present interest.) variety of kinds over which the predication of a
term may extend. (H. W. B. Joseph.) C.A.B.
Through his paper On the syllogism, no. IV
In common usage, "denotation" has a less
in Transactions of the Cambridge Philo-
the
specialmeaning, denote being approximately
sophical Society, vol. 10 (read April 23, 1860),
synonymous with designate (q.v.). A proper
De Morgan is to be regarded as the founder of name may be said to denote that of which it is a
the logic of relations. A. C.
name. Or, e.g., in the equation 2+2=4, the
Sophia Elizabeth De Morgan, Memoir of Augustus
sign be said to denote addition and the
may
De Morgan, London, 1882. -f~
De Morgan's laws: Are the two dually related ign = denote equality (even without neces-
to
sume for him a character of strangeness or un- struing descriptions incomplete symbols, by as
reality 5 in
its extreme form, the subject is distinguishing two kinds of meaning, the sense
obsessed with the fear of complete dissolution (Sinn) and the denotation (Bedeutung) of an
of personality. The English term is an appro- expression (formula, phrase, sentence, etc.).
priation of the French depersonnalization. L.W. Scott and the author of Waverley have the same
Deproblematization : (Ger. Deproblematisierung) denotation, namely the man Scott, but not the
The gradual cessation of the former problemati- same sense. The King of France has a sense
cal tone of any object or idea. (Avenarius.) but no denotation; so likewise the sentence, The
H.H. King of France is bald. Two expressions hav-
De Sanctis, Francesco: Born at Morra Irpina ing the same sense must have the same denota-
(Avellino), March 28, 1817. Died at Naples, tion if they have a denotation. When a con-
December 19, 1883. Imprisoned and exiled be- stituentpart of an expression is replaced by
cause liberal, 1848. Professor in Zurich and another part having the same sense, the sense
later in Naples. Minister of Public Education. of the whole is not altered. When a constituent
His History of Italian Literature (1870) is still part of an expression is replaced by another
considered fundamental. having the same denotation, the denotation of
Applied Hegel's idealism to literary criticism. the whole (if any) is not altered, but the sense
Gave a new interpretation to poets' sentiments may be. The denotation of an (unasserted)
and ideals, and linked them to the civil history declarative sentence (if any) is a truth-value,
of Italy. New Italian idealism of about 1900 whereas the sense is the thought or content of
was based on his thought. L.V. the sentence. But where a sentence is used in
Descartes, Rene: See Cartesianism. indirect discourse (as in saying that so-and-so
Description, Knowledge by: (Lat. de- -f scri- says that . .
., believes that . . ., is glad that
bere, to write) Knowledge about things in con- . .
., etc.) the meaning is different: in such a
trast to direct acquaintance with things. See context the denotation of the sentence is that
Acquaintance, Knowledge by. Description is wnich would be its sense in direct discourse.
opposed to exact definition in the Port Royal (In quoting some one in indirect discourse, one
Logic (Part II, ch. XVI). Among the first to reproduces neither the literal wording nor the
contrast description and acquaintance was G. truth-value, but the sense, of what he said.)
Grote (Exploratio Philosophica, p. 60. See also Frege held it to be desirable in a formalized
W. James, Principles of Psychology, Vol. T, pp. logisticsystem that every formula should have
221 ff. and B. Russell, Problems of Philosophy, not only a sense but also a denotation as can
ch. V.) L.W. be arranged by arbitrary semantical conven-
Descriptions: Where A containing a
a formula tions where necessary. When this is done,
free variable say,example, * means a
for Frege's sense of a sentence nearly coincides
true proposition (is true) for one and only one with proposition (in sense (b) of the article
value of x, the notation ( r)A is used to mean of that title herein). Alonzo Church
that value of x. The approximately equivalent G. Frege, Vber Sinn und Bedeutung, Zeitschrift
fiir Philosophic und philosophische Kritik, n. s..
English phraseology is "the x such that A" or vol. 100 B. Russell, On de-
(1892), pp. 25-50.
simply 'the F," where F denotes the concept noting, Mind, 14 (1905), pp. 479-493.
n. s., vol.
scription as the King of France cannot be a osophy the original, single principle must be
proper name, since there is no King of France considered as narrowed down to various genera
whom it may denote) nevertheless, a sentence and species, and eventually to individual exist-
such as "The King of France is bald" should ence such be admitted, in order to introduce
if
be construed to have a meaning, since it may that differentiation of reality which is required
be falsely asserted or believed by one who falsely in a multiple world. In Platonism, the Forms
asserts or believes that there is a King of or Ideas are one for each type of thing but are
France. "determined" to multiple existence by the addi-
Frege meets the same difficulties, without con- tion of matter (Timaeus). Neo-Platonism is
78 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
even more interested in real determination, since concept of freedom. The following are among
the One is the logical antecedent of the Many. Deustua's most important works: Las Ideas de
Here determination is effected by the introduc- Orden Libertad en la Historia del Pensamiento
tion of negations, or privations, into successive Humano; Historia de las Ideas Esteticas} Es-
emanations of the One. With Boethius, medi- tetica General} Estetica Aplicada. J.A.F.
aeval philosophy became concerned with the Dewey, John: (1859-) Leading American phi-
determination of being-in-general to an actual losopher. The spirit of democracy and an abid-
manifold of things. In Boethianism there is a ing faith in the efficacy of human intelligence
fusion of the question of real determination run through the many pages he has presented in
with that of logical limitation of concepts. In the diverse fields of metaphysics, epistemology,
modern thought, the problem is acute in Spinoz- logic, psychology, aesthetics, religion, ethics,
ism: universal substance (substantia, natura, politics and education, in all of which he has
Deus) must be reduced to an apparent manifold spoken with authority. Progressive education
through attributes, modes to the individual. owes its impetus to his guidance and its tenets
Determination is said to be by way of nega- largely to his formulation. He is the chief ex-
tion, according to Spinoza (Epist. 50), and this ponent of that branch of pragmatism known as
means that universal substance is in its perfect instrumentalism. Among his main works are:
form indeterminate, but is thought to become Psychology, 1886} Outline of Ethics, 1891}
determinate by a sort of logical loss of absolute Studies in Logical Theory, 1903} Ethics (Dewey
dom, the Static and the Dynamic. The former from opinions generally accepted, and demon-
accounts for the cosmic order and harmony strative reasoning, which begins with primary
of phenomena. Dynamic liberty, however, is, and true premises} but he holds that dialectical
above all, creativity and novelty. The world, reasoning, in contrast with eristic, is "a process
not as it is ontologically, but as we experience of criticism wherein lies the path to the prin-
it, that is, as it comes within the area of con- ciples of all inquiries." In modern philosophy,
sciousness, results from a Hegelian contraposition dialectic has two special meanings. Kant uses
of the two types of freedom^ In this contraposi- it as the name of that part of his Kritik der
tion, the synthesis is alwaysmore of the nature reintn Vemunft which deals critically with the
of dynamic than it is static. With
freedom (antinomies, paralogisms and
special difficulties
these presuppositions, Deustua finally works up Ideas) arising out of the futile attempt (trans-
a kind of practical philosophy leading up to an cendental illusion) to apply the categories of
-axiology which he himself finds implied in his the Understanding beyond the only realm to
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 79
which they can apply, namely, the realm of ob- These laws, connecting ontology with logic,
jects in space and time (Phenomena). For are contrasted to the formalistic laws of identity,
Hegel, dialectic is primarily the distinguishing difference and excluded middle of which they
characteristic of speculative thought thought, are considered qualitatively enriched reconstruc-
that is, which exhibits the structure of its sub- tions. Against the ontology of the separateness
ject-matter (the universal, system) through the and self-identity of each thing, the dialectical
construction of synthetic categories (synthesis) laws emphasize the interconnectedness of all
which resolve (sublate) the opposition between things and self-development of each thing. An
other conflicting categories (theses and anti- A all parts of which are always becoming non-A
theses) of the same subject-matter. G.W.C. may thus be called non-A as well as A. The
Dialectical materialism: The school of philoso- formula, A is A and cannot be non-A, becomes,
phy founded by Marx and Engels and developed A is A and also non-A, that is, at or during
by manysubsequent thinkers. the same instant: there is no instant, it is held,
Ontologically, its materialism means that mat- during which nothing happens. The view taken
ter, nature, the observable world is taken "with- is that these considerations apply as much to
out reservations," as real in its own right, neither thought and concepts, as to things, that thought
deriving its reality from any supernatural or is a process, that ideas gain their logical con-
transcendental source, nor dependent for its tent through interconnectedness with other ideas,
existence on the mind of man. It is considered out of and into which they develop.
scientifically evident that matter is prior to Consequently, the dialectical method means
mind both temporally and logically in the sense basically that all things must be investigated in
that mind never appears except as an outgrowth terms of their histories) the important consid-
of matter, and must be explained accordingly. eration not the state in which the object ap-
is
Space and time are viewed as forms of the exist- pears at themoment, but the rate, direction and
ence of matter. probable outcome of the changes which are tak-
1
The term dialectical expresses the dynamic ing place as a result of the conflict of forces,
Intel-connectedness of things, the universality of internal and external. The necessity of observa-
change and its radical character: everything
tion and prediction in every field is thus on-
possessing any sort of reality is in process of tologically grounded, according to dialectical
self-transformation, owing to the fact that its materialism, which not only rejects a priorism,
content is made up of opposing factors or forces holding that "nature is the test of dialectics"
the internal movement of which interconnects (Engels: Anti-Duhring} y but claims to express
with much more fidelity than formal logic, with
everything, changes each thing into something
else. Mechanism in the sense of non-dialectical its emphasis on unmoving form rather than
materialism as well as metaphysics in the sense changing content, the basis of the method mod-
of idealistic ontology are thus rejected. ern science actually uses. There is an equal re-
The position taken is that investigation re- jection of theory without practice and practice
veals recurrent of ex- without theory.
basic, patterns change,
pressible as laws of materialist dialectics,
which One may assert that the human brain,
are seen as relevant to every level of existence, capable of forming ideas, does so not prior
because validattJd by past evidence, as in- to or independently of the rest of the natural
and,
dispensable hypotheses in guiding further investi- world, but in relation to it, moved and
stimulated by its manifold content. Ideas reflect
gation. These are: (1) Law of interpenetration,
but the reflection, like everything else,
unity and strife of opposites. (All existences, things,
is dialectical, not inert, but active. Ideas grow
being complexes of opposing elements and forces,
have the character of a changing unity. The out of and lead back to things, sometimes very
as groups having antagonistic economic relation- extent that it is a faithful and aesthetic reflec-
many basic transformations peacefully, that less society. This realism is optimistic, involv-
fundamental changes in the economic system or ing a "revolutionary romanticism".
the social superstructure, such as that from medi- The central ethical conception, called prole-
eval serf-lord to modern
worker-capitalist econ- tarian humanism, sees the source and signifi-
omy, have usually involved violence wherein the cance of all mankind and, accepting
values in
class struggle passes into the acute stage of revo- general ends like justice, brotherhood, the prin-
lution because the existing law articulates and ciple of all for each and each for all, sees the
the state power protects the obsolete forms and main problem as that of reconstructing social
abundance of which its technics are capable is is productive employment and security for all,
frustrated by economic relationships such as those will permit all to lead the good life. See
Marx,
involved in individual ownership of productive Engels, Lenin, Soviet philosophy, also, separate
entries for detailed definitions of specific terms.
means, hiring and firing of workers in the light
of private profits and socially unplanned produc- Bibliography: Marx-Engels Gesamtausgabe
tion for a money market. It is held that only (complete works of Marx and Engels currently
technics collectively owned and production so- adding to its volumes). Marx, Karl: Capital
cially planned can provide employment and Contribution to the Critique of Political Econ-
abundance of goods for everyone. The view taken omy. Value, Price and Profit. Class Struggles
is that peaceful attainment of them is possible, in France. Paris Commune (for extensive bibli-
but will probably be violently resisted by privi- ography of Marx,
Marx). Engels,see Karl
leged minorities, provoking a contest of force in Friedrich: Anti-Duhring. Dialectics of Nature.
which the working class majority will eventually Ludtvig Feuerbach and the Outcome of Classical
triumph the world over. German Philosophy. Origin of the Family,
The working Private Property and the State. Marx and En-
class, in coming to power, is seen
to establish itsown state form, based upon the gels: German Ideology. Communist Manifesto.
dictatorship of the proletariat, which is maintained Lenin, V. I.: Collected Works. Selected Works.
so long as a state is necessary, and which is con- Materialism and Empirio -Criticism. State and
sidered to extend democracy to the majority by Revolution. Filosofskie Tetrady (Philosophical
establishing collective ownership of the means Notebooks). Many of Lenin's briefer philosophi-
of production. This first stage is defined as social- cal writings may be found in Selected Works,
"from each vol. XI. J.M.S.
ism, the economic principle of which is,
according to ability, to each according to work Diallelon: A vicious circle (q. v.) in definition.
known directly without the intermediary of per- to the other. (Wundt, Physiol. Psychol., 4th
cepts, images or ideas. A.C.B. ed., I, 286.) The disparity of the fields the
Discourse: Orderly communication of thought, several senses divides them into so many water-
or the power to think logically. C.A.B. tight compartments and thus raise the epistem-
Discovery: (Lat. discooperire, to discover) 1. ological problem of correlation between the dis-
The act of becoming aware of something pre- parate data of different senses. See Correlation.
viously existing but unknown. 2. The act of in- (b) In logic: Disparate terms have been vari-
Discretion: (Lat. discretum, pp. of discernere, to posed his thesis and explained or proved it in
discern) The mental capacity for critical dis- syllogistic form. The opponenfes argued against
crimination especially in matters of ethics and the thesis and its demonstration by repeating
conduct. L.W. first the proposition and the syllogism proving
Discrimination: (Lat. discriminare, to separate) it, then either by denying the validity of one
or the other premises (nego maiorem, minorem)
(a) subjectively: the rational power to dis-
between objects, real or logical, and or by making distinctions restricting the proposi-
tinguish
betwen moral right and wrong. In Aristotelian- tion (distinguo maiorem, minorem}. In the
ism there is also a function of internal sense disputations of students under the direction of a
(Or. kritikon, sensory discrimination) Lat. vis magister the latter used to summarize the dis-
aestimativa or cogitativa) by which men and putation and to "determine the question".
the higher animals distinguish the good from R.A.
the bad in their sense experience. Disputation: (a) A dispute, or the act of dis-
(b) objectively: see Distinction. VJ.B. puting, (b) A formal exercise in which some
Discursive Cognition: (Lat. discurrere, to run is debated. C.A.B.
set^ topic
about) Discursive, as opposed to intuitive cogni- Dissimilarity: Difference, unlikeness, heteroge-
tion, is attained by a series of inferences rather neity. C.A.B.
than by direct insight. See Intuitive Cognition. Dissociation: (Lat. dis -f- socius, a companion)
L.W. The operation of mind by which the elementr
Contrasted Intuitive, and applied to
with of a complex are discriminated. Dissociative
knowledge of, e.g., the nature of time, is dis- are commonly conjoined are found in new .com-
cursive or conceptual if we are able to state what binations. James calls this the law of "dissocia-
time is) only intuitive. Transi-
otherwise it is tion by varying concomitants." (Principles of
tions of thought mediated by verbal or concep- Psychology, I, 506.) L.W.
tual steps would be called discursive and said Dissociation of Personality: A disorder of per-
to be "reasoning". Immediate transitions, or sonality consisting in the loss of the normally
transitions mediated in subconscious ways, would stable and constant integration of the self. Two
be called intuitive, ~CJ.D. types of disintegration of personality are distin-
Disjunction: See Logic, formal, 1. guishable: (a) The ideas and states dissociated
Disjunctive: A sentence of either of the forms from the central core of the self may float about
A v B, A B
(or a proposition expressed by
-f at detached and depersonalized states. See De-
such a sentence) *e Logic, for***, 1 raty pefsonali*ation. (b) The disuneiatrd ideas and
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 83
states may cohere into a secondary or split-off tional calculus there are four distributive laws
consciousness. L.W. (two dually related pairs) :
gatorily since the word cannot rid itself of doubting, disbelieving, affirming, 'denying, and
certain linguistic and other associations. The assuming. Doxa in Husserl's sense includes
Skeptics among Greek philosophers, doubting episteme. It is present not only in syntactical-
called dogmatism every assertion of a posi-
all, categorial judging, but in simple pre-categorial
tive nature. More discriminately, dogmatism perceiving. Moreover, it is present in passive as
may be applied to presumptuous statements or well as in active synthesis. Non-doxic posi-
such that lack a sufficiently rational ground, tionality is present in valuing and willing.
while in the popular mind the word still has
the affiliation with the rigor of church dogma Drama: a. State of mind characterized by human
which, having a certain finality about it, appeals conflict, b. Literary genre in which conflicts
to faith rather than reason. Since Kant, dog- are portrayed on the stage. L.V.
matism has a specific connotation in that it Dravya: (Skr.) Substance, as a substratum of
refers to metaphysical statements made without qualities (see guna), accidents, or modes. Vari-
previous analysis of their justification on the ous classes are established by Indian philosophers.
basis'of the nature and aptitudes of reason, K.F.L.
exactly what Kant thought to remedy through Drawing: Essential element of painting, sculpture
his criticism. By this animadversion are scored and architecture. The Florentine Renaissance
especially all 17th and 18th century metaphysi- and all classical epochs in general considered
cal systems as well as later ones which cling drawing the basis of the aforesaid arts which
to a priori principles not rationally founded. were called the arts of drawing. L.V.
Now also applied to principles of a generalized
Driesch, Hans Adolf Eduard: (1867-1940) An
character maintained without regard to empirical
experimental biologist turned philosopher, he as
conditions. K.F.L. a rationalist became the most prominent de-
Donatists: Followers of Bishop Donatus, leader fender of a renovated vitalism. He excludes the
of a Christian sect which originated in North
, physical-chemical level of reality from his vital-
Africa in the beginning of the fourth century. ism. He asserts that every organism has its
They taught the invalidity of sacraments ad- own entelechy. For what he terms phylogenetic
ministered by an unworthy minister and that development, a more inclusive vitalism of the
known sinners should be denied membership in whole evolutionary process, he postulates a
the Church. Their most powerful opponent was super-personal phylogenetic entelechy. He offers
Saint Augustine. J.J.R. an a priori justification of his vitalietic theory,
Donum superadditum : theological term de-A and treats incisively the logic of the psycho-
noting a gratuitous gift of God superadded to logical. Main works: Philosophy of the Organ-
the natural gifts which accompany human na- ism; Ordnungslehre, 1912; Wirkhchkeitslchre,
ture; hence a supernatural gift, like divine 1917; Alltagsratsel des
Seelenlebens, 1938,
grace. JJ.R. "Kausalitat und Vitalismus" in Jahrbuch der
Double-Aspect Theory: Theory that the mind Schopenhauer Gesellschafi, XVI, 1939. H.H.
and the body of an individual are two distin- Dualism: two) (a) In metaphysics:
(Lat. duo,
guishable but inseparable aspects of a single Theory which admits in any given domain, two
underlying substance or process. Spinoza, as a independent and mutually irreducible substances
consequence of his metaphysical doctrine that e.g. the Platonic dualism of the sensible
and
"thinking substance and extended substance are intelligible worlds, the Cartesian dualism of
one and the same thing" (Ethics, Part II, prop.
thinking and extended substances, the Leibnizian
7) was committed to the Two-Aspect Theory of dualism of the actual and possible worlds, the
the body-mind relation. Cf. C. Lloyd Morgan Kantian dualism of the noumenal and the
(Life, Mind and Spirit, p. 46)} S. Alexander phenomenal. The term dualism first appeared
(Space, Time and Deity) and C. H. Strong are in Thomas Hyde, Historia religionis veterunt
recent advocates of a two-aspect Theory. L.W. Persarum (1700) IX, p. 164, where it ap-
ch.
Double negation, law of: The theorem of the plied to dualism of good and evil
religious
propositional calculus, *^"**p p. A. C. = and is similarly employed by Bayle in his Dic-
Doubt: (Fr. doute, from Lat. dubito, to be un- tionary article "Zoroaster" and by Leibniz in
certain) Partial disbelief. The denial of a Theodicee. C. Wolff is responsible for its use
proposition offered or formerly held as true. in the psycho-physical sense, (cf. A. Lalande,
The withdrawal of belief. In psychology: sus- Vocabulaire de la Philosophie, Vol. I, p. 180,
pended judgment the state of hesitation be-
5 note by R. Eucken.)
tween contradictory propositions. Philosophical (b) In epistemology: Epistemological dualism
doubt has been distinguished as definitive or is the theory that in perception, memory and
provisional. Definitive doubt is scepticism other of non-inferential cognition, there
types
(which see). Provisional doubt is the rule pro- is a numerical duality of the content or datum
>
posed by the Cartesian method (q.v.) of volun- immediately present to the knowing mind
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 85
(sense datum, memory image, etc.) and the division du travail sociale, 1893) Les regies d
real object known (the thing perceived or re- la methode sociologique; Les formes elemen-
membered) (cf. Lovejoy, The Revolt
A. O. tairesde la vie religieuse, 1912; Le Socialisms;
Against Dualism, pp. 15-6). Epistemological L'Education morale. H.H.
monism, on the contrary identifies the immediate Duty: (Ang-Fr. duete, what is due} Ger. Pflicht)
datum and the cognitive object either by as- Whatever is necessary or required} or whatever
similating the content to the object (epistemo- one is morally obliged to do. as opposed to what
logical realism) or the object to the content one may be pleased or inclined to do. Also, the
(epistemological idealism). L.W. moral obligation itself and the law or principle
Duality: See Logic, 1, 3, 7, 8.
formal^
in which it is expressed. In ethics, duty is com-
Ductio per contradictoriam propositionem monly associated with conscience, reason, right-
sive per impossible: (Lat.) A logical argu- ness, moral law, and virtue.
ment in which the truth of a
proposition is Though had
Plato and Aristotle
Socrates,
established by showing that its contradictory is were con-
propounded doctrines of virtues, they
untrue or
impossible; an application of the cerned essentially with Good rather than with
principle of excluded middle. VJ.B. Tightness of action as such. The Stoics were
Duhring, Eugen Karl: (1833-1901) Duhring, a the first to develop and popularize the notion
German economist and philosopher, started on a that man has a duty to live virtuously, reason-
legal career which lasted until 1859. He be- ably and fittingly, regardless of considerations
came docent at the University of Berlin and of human happiness. Certain elements in Rab-
taught there until he lost his license in 1874. binical legal ism and the Christian Gospel
He was editor of Der moderne Vblkergeist and strained in the same direction, notably the con-
of Personalist und Emancipator. Philosophically cept of the supreme and absolute law of God.
he belonged to the positivistic school. Duhring But it was Kant who pressed the logic of duty
advocated not the elimination of capitalism, but to its final conclusion. The supreme law of
of its through the medium of a strong
abuses duty, the categorical imperative (q.v.), is re-
labor movement. His literary work is strongly vealed intuitively by the pure rational will and
tinged with anti-semitism, and he is probably strives to determine the moral agent to obey only
betterknown for the attackwhich Marx and that law which can be willed universally without
Engels made upon him than for his own work. contradiction, regardless of consequences.
E. Duhring: Naturliche Dialektik, 1863} Der Naturalistic interpretations of duty tend to
Wert des Lebens, 1865j Kritische Geschtchte discredit such an intuitionistic basis and seek
der Philosophic, 1869, Logik und Wissen- instead to account for duty and conscience as
schaftstheorie, 1878. M.B.M. outgrowths of training, tradition and social
Duns Scotus, John: (1266/74-1308) Doctor custom. O.F.K.
Subtilis, was born somewhere in the British Dyad: (Gr. duas, two) A
pair of units considered
Isles, studied at the Franciscan monastery at as one. In Pythagoreanism the dyad is the
Dumfries and at Oxford before 1290. He studied number two, thought of as a substantial essence,
at Paris for four years, then taught theology at or physically, as a i.e. two points which
line,
Oxford from 1300-1302, at Paris from 1302- do not coincide. VJ.B.
1303, when he was Vanished for his opposition Dyadic: (Gr. duas, two) Term meaning duality.
to King Philip IV. He received his doctorate Human experience is said to be dyadic, i.e.
at Paris 1305 and went to Cologne in 1307,
in man's nature is dual in conflicts between
good
where he died. He is the most distinguished intentions and bad accomplishments, in opposi-
medieval defender of the view that universal tional strains and stresses. The personality of
which have "haeccity" (q.v.) as well as quiddity. God is held to be dyadic in the confronting of
His realism was adopted by Charles Peirce (q.v.) difficulties or frustrations to his good will.
works. De Primo Principle, Quaesttones in Reality is spoken of as dyadic when it is said
Metaphysicam, Opus Oxoniense, Reportata Pa- to be characteristically dual, e.g. both One and
risiensta (Opera Omnia, Paris, 1891-5). VJ.B. Many, and dynamic, free and determined,
static
Duration: A
limited extent of existence in time, abstract and concrete, universal and particular.
more or less long, from a fraction of second V.F.
to countless ages. H. Bergson
gives it a special Dyadic Relation: A two-termed relation (q.v.).
interpretation in regarding it as "time perceived Dynamic Vitalism: See Vitalism.
as indivisible", a living
present} as such, dura- Dynamis: (Gr. dynamis) In Aristotle's philoso-
tion becomes the very essence of creative
change, phy (1) a source of change or power to effect
of creative evolution and must be to opposed change} faculty} (2) more generally the capac-
time as measurable. R.B.W. ity a thing has of passing to a different state ;
Durkheim, Emile: (1858-1917) A French socio- potentiality. See Aristotelianism ; Energeia.
logical positivist. He stressed the group mind, which G.R.M.
for him is the point of reference for all human Dynamism: (Gr. dynamis, power) A term ap-
knowledge. The group 'mind has an impersonal, plied to a philosophical system which, in con-
non-subjective character that is superior to the trast to philosophy of mechanism (q.v.), adopts
individual mind, and acts as a directive force force than mass or motion as its basic
rather
for the individual agents that comprise society. explanatory concept. In this sense the Leibnizian
He studied both religion and ethics from his philosophy is dynamism in contrast to the mech-
positivistic- point of view. . Durkheim: De la anism of Descartes' physics. L.W.
86 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Dyophy sites: A term applied to the Catholics, ing aspects of life( such as unfavorable environ*
who held that there are two natures in Christ, mental factors, organic maladaptations, the
the Divine and the human, by the Monophytites, struggle for existence, disease, death, etc.) which
or the followers of Eutyches, who advanced the make difficult, if not impossible, the theory that
formula, "one nature after the union." 7.7.1?. there are good purposes predominantly at work
Dysteleology: (Gr. dus, bad; telos, end or pur- in the world. V.F.
pose) The term for the forbidding and frustrat-
E: (C.) Evil, interpreted by the Confucians as production, distribution and consumption of ma*
"too much or too little," that is, deviation from terial wealth and skills. J.K.F.
the Mean (chung yung).~W.T.C. Economy: An aspect of the scientific methodology
Eckhart, Meister: (1260-1327) Wai born in of Ernst Mach (Die Analyse der Empfindungen,
Hochheim (Gotha), may have studied with St. 5th ed., Jena, 1906)} science and philosophy
Albert in Cologne, received his doctorate at utilize ideas and laws which are not reproductive
Paris in 1302. He taught theology at various of sense data as such, but are simplified expres-
times, devoted much time to preaching in the sions of the functional relations discovered in
vernacular, and filled various administrative the manifold of sense perceptions. VJ.B.
posts in the Dominican Order. Mystical, diffi- Economy, principle of: Is the modern name for
cult in terminology, his thought appears to con- the logical rule known also as Occam's Razor.
tain elements of Aristotelianism, Augustinism, Its original formula was: Entia non tunt multi-
Neoplatonism and Accused of
Avicennism. licanda praeter necessitatem, i.e. of two or more
Pantheism and other theological errors, he was explanations, which are of equal value other-
the subject of a famous trial in 1326) he ab- wise, the one which uses the fewest principles,
jured publicly any possible religious errors which or suppositions, is true, or at least scientifically
he may have made. Chief works: Opus Tri- preferable. VJ.B.
partitum, Quaestiones Parisienses, Deutsche in
Ecpyrosit: (Gr. ekpyrosit) Conflagration)
Predigten. (Pfeiffer, F., Deutsche Mystiker des Stoic doctrine the periodic resolution of all
14 Jahrh.> Bd. II, Leipzig, 1857* tr. Evans, G.R.M.
things into fire.
London, 1924.) B. J. Muller-Thym, University (Gr. ekstasis, displacement, a trance)
Ecstasy:
of Being in M. Eckhart (N. Y., 1939). VJ.B.
The enraptured condition of the mystical spirit
Eclecticism: The principle, tendency, or practice
which has reached the climax of its intuitive
of combining, or drawing upon, various philo-
and affective experience. Of brief duration, it
sophical or .theological doctrines. In its passive is physiologically negative (resembling trance)
form, it is found in many thinkers of no great
but, according to some mystics, psychologically
originality. In its* more active form, as a
very rich. Usually said to be concomitant with
deliberate attempt to create unity among dis-
a spiritual union of the soul with higher reality.
cordant schools of philosophy, eclecticism was
See Mysticism, Plotinism. VJ.B.
practised by the Alexandrien School (q.v.),
Ecstasy: (aesthetics) The contemplation of abso-
where the Oriental and Occidental thought
lute beauty purified of any sensory experience.
mingled, and, more recently, by V. Cousin
(Plotinus.) L.V.
(q.v.). R.B.W.
Economic determinism: The Eduction: In
logic, a term proposed by E. E.
1.
theory that the
economic base of society determines other social Constance Jones as a synonym or substitute for
the more usual immediate inference (see Logic,
institutions. Dialectical materialists criticise
doctrines often as economic deter- formal, 4). 4.C.
designated
minism on the ground that they are' too narrow In cosmology, the production of the sub-
2.
and assert only a one-way causal influence (from stantial form out of the potentiality of matter,
economic base to other institutions), whereas according to the hylomorphic system. T.G.
causal influence, they hold, proceeds both ways. Edwards, Jonathan: (1703-1758) American
They refer to their own theory at historical theologian. He is looked upon by many as
materialism or the materialist conception of one of the first theologians that the New
history. See Marxism.J.M.S. World has produced. Despite the formalistic
Economics: (Lat. oeconomicus, domestic economy, nature of his system, there is a noteworthy aes-
from oikos, house, -f nomos, law) That branch thetic foundation in his emphasis on "divine
of social science which is concerned with the and supernatural light" as the basis for illumina-
exchange of goods. Employed by Xenophon, tion and the searchlight to an exposition of
Aristotle and Cicero on the
to describe treatises such topics as freedom and original sin. Despite
proper conduct of the household. In more re- the aura of tradition about his pastorates at
cent times, combined with politics as political Northampton and Stockbridge, his missionary
economy, the study of the laws and system of among the Indians and
services his short lived
society. Now, more specially, the study of the presidency of Princeton University, then the
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
College of New Jersey, he remains significant an individual's own welfare is the only thing
in the fields of theology, metaphysics, epistemol- that is ultimately valuable (for him). C.A.B.
ogy, aesthetics and ethics. See Life and Works Egoism, Psychological: The doctrine that the
of Jonathan Edwards, 10 vol. (1830) ed. S. E. determining, though perhaps concealed, motive
Dwight. L.E.D. of every voluntary action is a desire for one's
Effect: (in Scholasticism) Formal: is the effect of own welfare. Often combined with Psychologi-
a formal cause: a primary and intrinsic formal cal Hedonism. C.A.B.
effect a concrete composite, or a designation
is Egological: (Ger. egologisch) In Husserl: Of
resulting from form united to an apt subject, or pertaining to the ego or to egology. Ego-
(i.e. to a subject capable of receiving that form)' logical reduction: phenomenological reduction as
e.g. the formal primary and intrinsic effect of involving epoche with respect to one's own
heat by which water is made warm is the warm explicit and implicit positing of concrete egos
water itself} so also a holy man is the formal other than one's own and therefore with respect
effect of grace united to man. But that which is to one's positing of one's own ego as one
called secondary and extrinsic is any effect among others. See Phenomenology. D.C.
whether positive or negative, which so results Ehrenfels, Maria Christian Julius Leopold
from the union of form with its subject that it Karl, Freiherr von: (1859-1932) As one of
may be adequately distinguished from or remain the leaders of the "Brentano School", he affirmed
extrinsicto the form, e.g. the driving out of that the fundamental factor in valuation was
cold from the water. H.G. desire. His principal interest was to trace the
Effectiveness: See Logistic system, and Logic, way in which desires and motives generate
formal, 1. values. He described for the most part the de-
Effluvium: See Effluxes, Theory of. velopment, the conflict, the hierarchy, and the
Effluxes, Theory of: (Lat. efflux, from effluere, obsolescence of values. Having a major influ-
to flow out) Theory of early Greek thinkers ence upon the analytic approach to value theory,
that perception is mediated by effluvia or simu- his outlook was relativistic and evolutionary.
lacra projected by physical objects and imping- Main works: Uber Gestaltqualitdten (1890);
ing upon the organs of sense. Thus Empedocles System der Werttheorie (1897)} Sexualethtk
developed the theory of effluxes in conjunction (1907). //.H.
with the principle that "like perceives only like" Eidetic: (Ger. eidetisch) In Husserl: Of or per-
(similia similibus percipiuntur) an element in, taining to an eidos or to eide. Eidetic existent
the external world can only be perceived by the anything falling as an example within the ideal
same element in the body. (See Aristotle, De extension of a valid eidos ; e.g., an ideally or
Gen. et Corr. I, 8, 324 b 26; Theophrastus, De purely possible individual.
(Purely) eidetic
Sens. 7.) Democritus' theory of images is a judgments: judgments that do not posit indivi-
form of the theory of effluxes. L.W. dual existence, even though they are about
Ego-centric Predicament: (Lat. ego, self* Gr. something individual. Eidetic necessity an ac-
kentrikon, center) The epistemological predica- tual state of affairs, so far as it is a singulariza-
ment of a knowing mind which, confined to the tion of an eidetic universality. E.g., This color
circle of its own ideas, finds it difficult, if not has (this) brightness, so far as that is a singu-
impossible, to escape to a knowledge of an ex- larization of All eidetically possible examples
ternal world (cf. R. B. Perry, Present Philo- of color have brightness. Eidetic possibility.
sophical Tendencies, pp. 129-30). Descartes is see eidos. Eidetic reduction: see Phenomenology.
Ego, Pure: The self conceived as a non-empirical nized by the subject to be "subjective." L.W.
principle, ordinarily inaccessible to direct intro- Eidola: (Gr. eidola) Images; insubstantial forms;
spection, but inferred from introspective evi- phantoms. Democritus and Epicurus use the
dence. See Ego, empirical. The principal theo- term to denote the films, or groups of very
riesof the pure ego are: (a) the soul theory fine particles, ^lieved to be thrown off by
which regards the pure ego as a permanent, bodies and to convey impressions to the eye.
spiritual substance underlying the fleeting suc- G.R.M.
cession of experience, and (b) the
conscious Einfiihlung: (and Emsfuhlung, in Max Scheler)
transcendental theory of Kant which considers The emotional and dynamic understanding of
the self an inscrutable, subject presupposed by nature as the operational field of living forces.
the unity of empirical self-consciousness. L.W. See Empathy. P.A.S.
Ego, Transcendental: See Ego, Pure.- L.W. Eirenicon, epistemological: (Gr. eirenikos,
Egoism, Ethical: The view that each individual peaceful) The purging of the negative claims
should seek at an end only his own welfare. and the synthesis of subjectivism, objectivism,
This principle sometimes advanced as a sep-
is dualism and relativism in epistemology. (Mon-
arate intuition, sometimes on the ground that tague.)- H.H.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 89
Eject: (Lat. pp. of ejicere, to throw out) Term Emotion: (Lat. emovere, to stir up, agitate) In
introduced by W. K. Clifford to designate "an- the widest sense emotion applies to all affective
other conscious subject conceived as an outward phenomena including the familiar "passions" of
projection of the knowing subject. L.W. love, anger, fear, etc. as well as the feelings of
Elan vital: Term used by Bergson to denote the pleasure and pain. See Affect. L.W.
source of efficient causation and evolution in Emotive Meaning: Emotive, as distinguished
nature. See Bergson. R.T.F. from the cognitive, meaning cf a statement is its
Election: (Lat. eligo, to choose) A choice be- ability to communicate an attitude or emotion,
tween alternatives. In psychology: free choice to inspire an act of will without conveying
by the will between means proposed by the truth. Exclamations, commands and perhaps
understanding. An act of volition. J.K.F. ethical and aesthetic judgments are emotive but
Elements: Are simple constituents, in psychology, not cognitive. L.W.
of sense perceptions such as sweet and green. Empathic: Adjective of empathy. See Empathy.
Elementary complexes are things of experience. L.W.
(Avenarius.) In logic: individual members of Empathy: (Gr. en pathein, to suffer) The
-f
a class. Also refers to Euclid's 13 books. H.H. projection by the mind into an object of the
Elenchus: (Gr. elenchos) A syllogism establish- subjective feeling of bodily posture and attitude
ing the contradictory of a proposition attacked; which result from the tendency of the body to
a refutation. (Aristotle.) G.R.M. conform to the spatial organization of the ob-
Elijah, Aaron ben: Karaite exegete and phil- ject (e.g. the tendency to imitate the outstretched
osopher (1300-1369). The Ez Hayyim, i.e. hands of a statue). The phenomenon is of
Tree of Size, his philosophical work, deals with particular significance for aesthetics. See H. S.
all problems of philosophy and displays the in-
Langfeld, The Aesthetic Attitude. The term was
fluence of both Maimonides and of the teach- introduced to translate the German Einjiihlung.
ings of the Mutazilites. M.W. See Lipps, Raumaesthetik und geometrisch-opti-
Emanation: Literally, an outpouring or flowing sche Tduschungen. See Eject. L.W.
forth, specifically, applied to the process of Empedocles: Of Agrigentum, about 490-430
derivation or mode of origination, immediate B.C.} attempted to reconcile the teaching of the
or mediate, of the multiplicity of beings whether permanence of Being of the Eleatics with the
spiritual or material from the eternal source of experience of change and motion as emphasized
all being, God, of Whose being consequently by Heraclitus. He taught the doctrine of the
they are a part and in Whose nature they some- four "elements", earth, water, air and fire, out
how share. It is opposed to creation from no- of the mixture of which all individual things
thing. Some writers have not adequately dis- came to be; love and hate being the cause of
tinguished one from the other. J.J.R. motion and therefore of the mixings of these
Emergent Evolution: Generalization of emer- elements. He was thus led to introduce a
gent mentalism (q.v.) due to S. Alexander theory of value into the explanation of Nature
(q.v.), Space } Time and Detty. See Bergson's since love and hate accounted also for the good
variation in devolution creatrice. See Holism. and evil in the world. M.F.
Emergent Mentalism: (Lat. emergere, to rise Empirical: (Gr. empeirikos, experienced) Relat-
out) The theory oF en ergent evolutionism con- ing to experience. Having reference to actual
sidered as an explanation of the genesis of facts, (a) In epistemology: pertaining to knowl-
mind or consciousness in the world. Mind is a edge gained a posteriori, (b) In scientific
novel quality emerging from the non-mental method: that part of the method of science in
when the latter attains a certain complexity of which the reference to actuality allows an hypo-
organization. Cf. C. Lloyd Morgan, Emergent thesis to be erected into a law or general prin-
Evolution, Lect. I, II} Ltfe, Mind, Spirit, Ch. ciple. Opposite of: normative. J.K.F.
V.L.W. Empiricism: (1) A
proposition about the sources
Emerson, Ralph Waldo: (1803-1882) American of knowledge: that the sole source of knowledge
poet and essayist. His spirit of independence is experience) or that either no knowledge at
early led him to leave the pulpit far the lecture all or no knowledge with existential reference
platform where he earned high rank as the is possible independently of experience. Experi-
leading transcendentalist and the foremost figure ence (q.v.) may be understood as either all con-
in the famous Concord group. His profound scious content, data of the senses only, or other
vision, his ringing spirit of individualism and designated content. Such empiricism may take
his love of democracy place him among the New the form of denial that any knowledge or at
World's philosophic pantheon. His "The Ameri- least knowledge about existents can be obtained
can Scholar," "The Over-Soul," "Self-Reliance," a priori (q.v.) 5 that is, denial that there are
"Compensation" and the Divinity School Ad- universal and necessary truths 5 denial that there
dress are perhaps the most famous of his lectures is knowledge which holds regardless of past,
and essays. He edited The Dial, the official present, or future experience} denial that there
organ of the transcendental movement. His is instinctive, innate, or inborn knowledge} de-
several trips to Europe brought him into contact nial that the test of truth is clarity to natural
with Coleridge and Wordsworth, but particularly reason or self-evidence; denial that one can gain
with Carlyle. certain knowledge by finding something the op-
R. W. Emerson: Complete Works, 12 vols. posite of which is inconceivable} denial that
(Boston, 1903-4). L.E.D. there are any necessary presuppositions of all
90 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
knowledge or of anything known certainly ; separable) ; or an attitude favorable to applica-
denial that any truths can be established by the tion of scientific attitude or method to inquiry;
fact that to deny them implies their reaffirma- or a temperament close to common sense and
tionj or denial that conventional or arbitrary practicality; or a "tough-minded" temperament
definitions or assumptions yield knowledge. or attitude involving considerable disillusion-
(2) Aproposition about origins of ideas, con- ment and holding facts (q.v.) worthy of utmost
cepts, or universals: that they or at least those intellectual respect; or a tendency to rely on
of them having existential reference are derived things' being as they appear.
solely or primarily from experience or some The term "empiricism" has been used with
significant part of experience. extreme looseness and confused with numerous
(3) A proposition about the nature of mean- related propositions, practices, and attitudes.
ing, ideas, concepts, or universals: that they Many definitions here listed are themselves am-
(and thus, some contend, knowledge) "consist biguous, but to remove their ambiguity would
of" or "are reducible to" references to directly require misrepresentation of usage of the term.
presented data or content of experience; or that See also Scepticism, Sensationalism, Pluralism,
signs standing for meanings, ideas, concepts, or Phenomenalism, Pragmatism, Positivism, In~
universals refer to experienced content only or tuitionalism, Nativism, Rationalism, A
Priorism,
primarily^ or that the meaning of a term con- Intellectualism, Idealism, Transcendentalism,
sistssimply of the sum of its possible conse- Scientific M.T.K.
Empiricism.
quences in experience^ or that if all possible Empiricism, Radical: The theory of knowledge
experiential consequences of two propositions are which holds that ideas are reducible to sensa-
identical, their meanings are identical. tions, as in Hume (1711-1776). The doctrine
(4) A
proposition about the limitations of that experience is the final criterion of reality
knowledge: that every possible referent either in knowledge. Syn. with em- sensationalistic
is something with which one has "direct ac- piricism or sensationalism (q.v.). See Avenarius.
quaintance" or consists exclusively of entities William James, who first adopted this philo-
with which he is acquainted} or that one can sophical position",and so named it, described it
have knowledge of only immediate content of in The Meaning of Truth (Preface, xii-xiii) as
experience) or that although one can have consisting "first of a postulate, next of a state-
knowledge of existents outside one's own or ment of fact, and finally of a generalized con-
everyone's experience, that knowledge must al- clusion.
ways be uncertain, since it is reached through 1. "The postulate is that the only things
experience. which shall be debatable among
philosophers
(5) A proposition about the nature or tests shall be things definable in terms drawn from
of truth in which proposition some relation or experience. . . .
other between experience and truth is taken to 2. "The statement of fact is that relations
be definitive of either the nature of truth or the between things, conjunctive as well as disjunc-
means of its identification. tive, are as much matters of direct particular
(6) A proposition about the existent or the experience ... [as] ... the things themselves.
real or both: that experience(s) is (are) the sole 3. "The generalized conclusion is that there-
existent (s) or reality or both; or the negation fore the parts of experience hold together from
of the proposition that nature is a deductive next to next by relations that are themselves
process or is rational through and through; or a parts of experience. The directly apprehended
proposition that the variable, particular, chang- universe needs, in short, no extraneous trans-
ing, and contingent are "nearer to the heart of empirical connective support, but possesses in its
things" than the universal, immutable, and nec- own right a concatenated or continuous structure."
essary. James believed that radical empiricism dif-
(7) A combination of two or more of the fered from ordinary or traditional empiricism
above propositions, of approximations to them, primarily through the above "statement of
fact"
of their respective immediate implications, or of (No. 2). By this statement he wished explicitly
their mediate implications when taken together and thoroughly to reject a common assumption
or in conjunction with other premises. about experience which he found both in the
(8) Practice, method, or methodology: rely- British empiricism and in Kantian and Hegelian
ing upon direct observation or immediate experi- idealism, namely, that experience as given is
ence; or precluding or excluding analysis or either a collection of disparate impressions or,
reflection; or employing experimentation or sys- as Kant would have preferred to say, a mani-
tematized induction as opposed to purely dis- fold of completely unsynthesized representations,
cursive, deductive, speculative, transcendental, or and that hence, in order to constitute a world,
dialectical procedures; or relying upon all the the material of experience must first be worked
ways of mind involved in inquiry. over and connective relations established within
(9) An assertion, hypothesis, assump-
belief, it either through the principles of the associa-
tion, postulation, or attitude favoring any of the tion of ideas (British empiricism) or through a
above propositions, practices, methods, or meth- set of trans-empirical categoriesimposed by the
odologies j or an attitude of dependence upon unity of consciousness (Kantian and Hegelian
sense rather than intellect; or an insistence idealism).--F.L.W.
upon fact as against fiction, fancy, or interpreta- Empiricism, Scientific: See Scientific Empiric-
tion of fact (supposing fact and interpretation ism.R.C.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 91
Empiricists: (Early English) By the beginning bers, but is not a null-class. D.C,
of the 17th century, the wave of search for new End, (in Scholasticism): That object for the at-
foundations of knowledge reached England. The tainment of which the agent moves and acts.
country was fast growing in power and terri- End which (finis qui): That good the agent
tory. Old seemed inadequate, and vast
beliefs intends to attain, e.g. health, which a sick man
new information brought from elsewhere by intends. End for whom (finis cut): Refers to
merchants and scholars had to be assimilated. the person or subject for whom the end which
The feeling was in the air that a new, more (finis qui) is procured, e.g. the sick man himself
practicable and more tangible approach to reality for whom health is procured.
was needed. This new approach was attempted Formal: Or end by which (finis quo) is the
by many thinkers, among whom two, Bacon and actual attainment of the good itself, e.g. beati-
Hobbes, were the most outstanding. Francis tude itself in the blessed.
Bacon (1561-1626), despite his busy political Of the work or of knowledge {finis operis
career, found enough enthusiasm and time to seu scientiae): That to which an act or habit
outline requirements for the study of natural (habitus) is ordered through itself and in its
phenomena. Like Descartes, his younger con- proper nature as the end of logic is the correct-
temporary in France, he felt the importance of ness of the actions of the mind. The end of the
making a clean sweep of countless unverified one working or knowing (finis operantis seu
assumptions obstructing then the progress of scientis) is that which the one acting proposes
knowledge. As the first pre-requisite for the in- to his will, in the exercise of the action or in
vestigation of nature, he advocated, therefore, the acquisition of knowledge, e.g. one who
an overthrow of the idols of the mind, that is, learns a science on account of its usefulness.
of all preconceptions and prejudices pre-
the Simply ultimate: That to which all things are
valent in theories, ideas and even language. actually or virtually referred} and which itself
Only when one's mind is thus prepared for the is ordered to nothing further, as God. A rela-
study of phenomena, can one commence gather- tively ultimate end (finis secundum quid 'ulti-
ing and tabulating facts. Bacon's works, particu- mus): That which terminates some series of
larly Novum Organum, is full of sagacious acts, in which it is intended ultimately and in
thoughts and observations, but he seldom goes itself, but nevertheless can be referred to another
beyond general advice. As we realize it today, end) as health is the end of the art of medicine,
it was a gross exaggeration to call him "the but nevertheless it can be ordered to another end,
founder of inductive logic". Thomas Hobbes e.g. to working. H.G.
(1588-1679) was an empiricist of an entirely Ends: (in Kant's ethics) (1) Humanity and
different kind. He did not attempt to work out every rational creature is an end in itself (never
an inductive method of investigation, but decided merely a means). (2) "The natural end which
to apply deductive logic to new facts. Like all men have is their own happiness." (Kant.)
Bacon, he keenly understood the inadequacy of Kingdom of ends: Kant's notion of the sys-
medieval doctrines, particularly of those of tematic union of different rational beings by
"form" and "final cause". He felt the need for common laws. Cf. also the Practical Imperative.
taking the study of, nature anew, particularly of P.A.S.
its three most important aspects, Matter, Man
Energeia: (Gr. energeia, actuality) In Aristotle's
and the State. According to Hobbes, all nature philosophy: (1) the mode of existence of that
is corporeal and all events have but one cause, which possesses to the full its specific essence)
motion. Man, in his natural state, is dominated actuality) entelechy) opposed to dynamis, or
by passion which leads him to a "war of all potentiality) (2) the activity that transforms
against all". But, contrary to animals, he is potentiality into actuality. G.RM.
capable of using reason which, in the course of Energism: (Lat. energia, active) Ethical theory
time, made him, for self-protection, to choose a that right action consists in exercising one's
social form of existence. The resulting State is, normal Not happiness or
capacities efficiently.
therefore, built on an implicit social contract. pleasure, but self-realization is the aim of ethi-
. R.B.W. cal action. A.J.B.
Empiric-criticism : Avenarius' system of pure Energy: (Gr. energos, at work) The power by
experience in which all metaphysical additions which things act to change other things. Poten-
are eliminated. Opposed to every form of tiality in the physical. Employed by Aristotle
apriortsm, it admits of no basic difference be- as a synonym for actuality or reality, (a) In
tween the psychical and the physical, subject physics: the capacity for performing work. In
and object, consciousness and being. Knowledge modern physics, the equivalent of mass, (b) In
consists in statements about contents which are axiology: value at the physical level. J.K.F.
dependent upon System C in man in the form Engels, Frederick: Co-founder of the doctrines
of experience. Ideal of knowledge is the win- of Marxism (see Dialectical materialism) Engels
ning of a purely empirical world conception, was the life-long friend and collaborator of
removal of every dualism and metaphysical Karl Marx (q.v.). 'He was born at Barmen,
category. H.H* Germany, in 1820, the son of a manufacturer.
Empty: (Ger. leer) In Husserl: Without intui- Like Marx, he became interested in communism
tional fullness) materially indeterminate) ob- early in life, developing and applying its doc-
scure. Emptiness is compatible with distinctness. trines until his death, August 5, 1895. Btside
In logic: a class that happens to have no mem- his collaboration with Marx on Die Heilige
92 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Familie, Die Deutsche Ideologic, Manifesto oj Franklin, Th. Jefferson, J. Adams, A. Hamilton,
the Communist Party , Anti-Diihring and articles and Th. Paine their foremost literary propa-
for the "New York Tribune" (a selection from gandist.
which constitutes "Germany: revolution and In Germany, the movement was initiated by
counter-revolution"), and his editing of Vol- G. W. Leibniz whose writings reveal another
umes II and III of Capital, published after motive for the cult of pure reason, i.e. the deep
Marx's death, Engels wrote extensively on disappointment with the Reformation and the
various subjects, from "Condition of the Work- bloody religious wars among Christians who
ing Class in England (1844-)" to military prob- were accused of having forfeited the confidence
lems, in which field he had received technical of man in revealed religion. Hence the out-
training. On the philosophical side of Marxism, standing part played by the philosophers of
Engels speculated on fundamental questions of "natural law", Grotius, S. Pufendorf, and Chr.
scientificmethodology and dialectical logic in Thomasius, their theme being advanced by the
such books as Dialectics of Nature and Anti- contributions to a "natural religion" and toler-
Diihring. Works like Ludtoig Feuerbach and ance by Chr. Wolff, G. E. Lessing, G. Herder,
the Outcome of Classical German Philosophy and the Prussian king Frederik II. Fr. v. Schil-
and Origin of the Family, Private Property
ler's lyric and dramas served as a powerful
and the State are likewise regarded as basic commendation of ideal freedom, liberty, justice,
texts. The most extensive collection of Engels' and humanity. A group of educators (philan-
works will be found in Marx-Engels "Gesam- thropists) designed new methods and curricula
for the advancement of public education, many
tausgabe", to which there is still much unpub-
lished material be added. J.M.S. of them, e.g. Pestalozzi, Basedow, Cooper, A. H.
tj>
Enjoyment: See Contemplation. L.W. Francke, and Fr. A. Wolf, the father of classic
Enlightenment: When Kant, carried by humanism, having achieved international recog-
nition. Although in general agreement with the
the cultural enthusiasm of his time, explained
"enlightenment" as man's coming of age from philosophical axioms of foreign enlighteners, the
the state of infancy which rendered him in- German philosophy decidedly opposed the Eng-
lish sensism (Hume) and French scepticism, and
capable of using his reason without the aid of
reached its height in Kant's Critiques. The
others, he gave only the subjective meaning of
the term. Objectively, enlightenment is a cul- radical rationalism, however, combined with its
tural period distinguished by the fervent efforts animosity against religion, brought about a
of leading personalities to make reason the abso- strong philosophical, theological, and literary
lute ruler of human life, and to shed the light opposition (Hamann, Jacobi, Lavater) which
of knowledge upon the mind and conscience of eventually led to its defeat. The ideals of the
any individual. Such attempts are not confined enlightenment period, the impassioned zeal for
to a or as
the materialization of the ideal man in an ideal
particular time, nation, history
teaches i but the term is to society show clearly that it was basically re-
generally applied
the European enlightenment stretching from the
lated to the Renaissance and its continuation.
See Aufklarung. Cf. J. G. Hibben, The Philos-
early 17th to the beginning of the 19th century,
especially fostered by English, Dutch, French, ophy of the Enlightenment, 1910. S.v.F.
and German philosophers. It took its start in Ens: Being in the most general sense of the
England from the empiricism of F. Bacon, Th. term, with the least possible determination,
without qualifications. J.J.R.
Hobbes, J. Locke', it found a religious version
in the naturalism of Edw. H. Cherbury, J. Ens Parmenideum : (Lat. ens, being) The
Toland, M. Tindal, H. Bolingbroke, and the changeless being (existence) ascribed by Par-
host of "freethinkers", while the Earl of Shaftes- men ides to all things and events. Change was
bury imparted to it a moral on the "light of regarded by him as an illogical illusion.
reason". Not so constructive but radical in R.B.W.
their sarcastic criticism of the past were the
Ens Rationis: (in Scholasticism) A
purely objec-
French enlighteners, showing tive ens rationis is a chimera, of an impossible
that their philos-
ophy got its momentum from/ the moral corrup- thing, although in a certain way it is an object
tion at the royal court and abuse of kingly of human knowledge, as a triangular circle. A
in France. Descartes' doctrine of the logical ens rationis is that which is fashioned
power
"clear and perspicuous ideas," Spinoza's critical by the intellect with some foundation in reality,
attitude towards religion, and Leibniz-Wolff's e.g. human nature conceived as one reality be-
"reasonable thinking" prepared the philosophy
cause of the likeness of singular natures. H.G.
of P. Bayle, Ch. Montesquieu, F. M. Voltaire, Entelechy: (Gr. entelecheia) In Aristotle's phi-
the mode of being of a thing
and J. J. Rousseau. The French positive con- losophy: (1)
tribution to the subject was the whose essence is completely realized} actuality j
"Encyclopedic
ou Dictionaire raisonne" des sciences, arts et energeiaj opposed to dynamis, or potentiality)
me'tiers", 1751-72, in 28 volumes, edited by (2) the form or essence. G.R.M.
Diderot, D'Alembert, Helvetius, Holbach, J. L. Enthymeme: (Gr. en thymem a) In Aristotle's
Lagrane, etc. What, in England and France, logic a rhetorical syllogism, usually consisting
remained on the stage of mere ideas and utopic of probable premisses, and used for persuasion
dreams became reality in the new commonwealth as distinct from instruction. In later logic a
of the U.S.A. The "fathers of the constitution" syllogism of which one premiss or the condu-
were enlightened, outstanding among them B. . sion is not explicitly stated. G.R.M.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 93
Entities, neutral: Quality less elements) simples life. contrary to later misconceptions, he
But,
that are in themselves neither mental nor physi- did not advocate the pursuit of all or any
pleas-
cal. H.H. ures, but only of those which are consistent with
Entity: A real being j element
also the common intelligence and moderation. Joys of the mind
in all individuals genus or
belonging to a are superior to pleasures of the
body. In his
species, which may be considered apart from the interpretation of nature, he accepted Democritus'
individual characteristics. Sometimes used in atomism, but contended that the element of
the sense of a vague and ill-defined reality. chance enters into atoms' motions and makes
J.J.R. them deviate from their course. R.B.W.
Entropy: Thermodynamic state
approaching a Epiphenomenalism : Theory of the body-mind
maximum level of zero difference of energy relation advanced by
Clifford, Huxley, Hodg-
potentials. son, etc. which holds that consciousness is, in
Enumerable: A class is enumerable if its cardi- relation to the neural processes which underlie
nal number (q. v.) aleph 0. A. C.
is it, a mere epiphenomenon. See W. Prin- James,
Enumerative Induction: type of inference A ciples of Psychology, Vol. I, ch. V. See Epi-
from a number of given instances, when these phenomenon. L.W.
are treated by noting the number of observed Epiphenomenon: (Gr. epi -j- phainomenon,
coincident happenings of their conditions and from phainein, to appear) A by-product of a
their effects, and without basic processwhich exerts no appreciable influ-
attempting to analyze
their respective contents or to determine a causal ence on the subsequent development of the
connection between them by means of one or process. L.W.
more of the methods of research and verification. Epistemic: (Gr. episteme, knowledge) Relating
The generalization "Every A is B" thus ob- to See Epistemological object.
knowledge.
tained, should be understood with the qualifica- L.W.
tion "Every observed is B". A
This process is Epistemological Dualism: See Dualism, Epi-
used especially in statistical methods. T.G. stemological.
Epagoge: (Gr. epagoge) In Aristotle's logic the Epistemological Idealism: The form of epi-
process of establishing a general proposition by stemological monism which identifies the con-
induction (seeing the universal in the par- tent and the object of knowledge by assimilating
ticular). G.R.M. the object to the content. Berkeleyan idealism
Epicheirema (Gr. epicheirema) In
: Aristotle's by itsrejection of a physical object independent
logic a dialectical as distinct from an apodictic of ideas directly present to the mind is an
or an eristic syllogism. example of epistemological monism. See Epi-
In later logic an argument one of whose stemological Monism. L.W.
premisses is established- by a prosyllogism ex- Epistemological Monism: Theory that non-
pressed in the form of an enthymeme. G.R.M. inferential knowledge, (perception, memory,
Epictetus: (c. 60-110 A.D.) A
Stoic philosopher etc.) the object of knowledge, (the thing per-
and freed slave, who established his School in ceived or remembered) is numerically identical
Nicopolis, Epirusj his Discourses were published with the data of knowledge (sense data, memory
by Arrian, his Warned disciple } they contain images, etc.). Epistemological monism may be
sharp observations of human behavior and pithy either (a) epistemologically realistic, when it
sayings on ethical matters. R.B.W. asserts that the data exist independently of the
Epicurean Founded by Epicurus in
School: knowing mind, or (b) epistemologically ideal-
Athens in the year 306 B.C. Epicureanism gave istic when it asserts the data to be mind con-
expression to
desire for a the refined type of stituted and to exist only when apprehended by
happiness which is the reward of the cultured the mind. See Epistemological Dualism, Epi-
man who can take pleasure in the joys of the stemological Idealism and Epistemological Real-
mind over which he can have greater control ism. L.W.
than over those of a material or sensuous nature. Epistemological Object: The object envisaged
The friendship of gifted and noble men, the by an act of knowledge whether the knowledge
peace and contentment that comes from fair con- be veridical, illusory or even hallucinatory in
duct, good morals and aesthetic enjoyments are contrast to ontological object, which is a real
the ideals of the Epicurean who refuses to be thing corresponding to the epistemological ob-
perturbed by any metaphysical or religious doc- ject when knowledge is veridical. See C. D.
trines which impose duties and thus hinder the Broad, The Mind and Us Place in Nature, pp.
freedom of pure enjoyment. Epicurus adopted 141 ff. L.W.
the atomism of Democritus (q.v.) but modified
Epistemological Realism: Theory that the ob-
its determinism by permitting chance to cause ject of knowledge enjoys an existence inde-
a swerve (clinamen) in the fall of the atoms. pendent of and external to the knowing mind.
See C. W. Epicurus. However, physics
Bailey, The theory, though applied most commonly to
was not to main concern of the philos-
be the perception where it is designated perceptual
opher. See Apathia, Ataraxia, Hedonism. M.F. realism, may be extended to other types of
Epicurus: (341-270 B.C.) A native of Samos, knowledge (for example memory and knowl-
founded his School in Athens about 306 B.C., edge of other minds). Epistemological realism
where he instructed his disciples and admirers in may be combined either with Epistemological
the art of rational
taught that
living. He Monism or Epistemological Dualism. See Epi-
pleasure and happiness are the natural end of stemological Monism, Epistemological Dualism.
L.W.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Epistemology: (Gr. episteme, knowledge + reasoning, investigated by empirical psychology
which are the very processes which, in quite a different
logos, theory) The branch of philosophy
investigates die origin, structure, methods and context, are the special subject matter of epistem-
and
validity of knowledge. The term "epistemology" ology. Nevertheless the psychological
treatments of the
appears to have been used for the first time by epistemological cognitive
J. F. Ferrier, Institutes of Metaphysics
(1854), processes of mind are radically different: scien-
who distinguished two branches of philosophy tific psychology is concerned solely with the
epistemology and ontology. The German equiv- description and explanation of conscious proc-
alent of epiitemology, Erkenntnistheorie f was esses, e.g. particular acts of perception, in the
used by the Kantian, K. L. Reinhold, Versuch context of other conscious events j epistemology
is interested in the cognitive
einer Neuen Theorie dts menschlichen Vorstel- pretentious, of the
lungsvermogens (1789); Das Fundament des perceptions, i.e. their apparent reference to ex-
ternal objects. In short, whereas psychology is
philosophischen Wissens (1791), but the term
did not gain currency until after its adoption the investigation of all states of mind including
the cognitive in the context of the mental life,
by . Zeller, Uebtr Aufgabe und Bedeutung dtr
Erkenntnisstheorie (1862). The term theory of epistemology investigates only cognitive states
knowledge is a common
English equivalent of and these solely with respect to their cognitive
epistemology and translation of Erkenntnis- import. Psychology and epistemology are by
theorie; the term Gnosiology has also been sug- virtue of the partial identity of their subject
gested but has gained few adherents. matter interdependent sciences. The psychology
The scope of epistemology may be indicated of perception, memory, imagination, conception,
its relations to the allied dis- etc. affords indispensable data for epistemological
by considering
(b) and (c) interpretation and on the other hand epistemo-
ciplines: (a) metaphysics, logic,
psychology, (a) Speculative philosophy is com- logical analysis of the cognitive processes may
monly considered to embrace metaphysics (see sometimes prove psychologically suggestive. The
Metaphysics) and epistemology as its two co- epistemologist must, however, guard against a
ordinate branches or if the term metaphysics be particularly insidious form of the genetic fallacy:
extended to embrace the whole of speculative viz. the supposition that the psychological origin
of an item of knowledge prejudices either favor-
philosophy, then epistemology and ontology be-
come the two main subdivisions of metaphysics ably or unfavorably
its cognitive validity a
in the wide sense. Whichever usage is fallacy which psychologism at its worst.
is
adopted,
epistemology as the philosophical theory of An examination of the generally recognized
knowledge is one of the two main branches of problems of epistemology and of the representa-
philosophy. The question of the relative priority tive solutions of these problems will serve to
of epistemology and metaphysics (or ontology) further clarify the nature and scope of epistemo-
has occasioned considerable controversy: the logical inquiry. The emphasis in epistemology
dominant view fostered by Descartes, Locke and has varied from one historical era to another
Kant is that epistemology is the prior philosophi- and yet there is a residium of epistemological
cal science, the investigation of the possibility problems which has persisted to the present.
and limits of knowledge being a necessary and (a) The initial and inescapable problem with
indispensible preliminary to any metaphysical which the epistemologist is confronted is that of
peculations regarding the nature of ultimate the very possibility of knowledge: Is genuine
reality. On the other hand, strongly metaphysi- knowledge at all attainable? The natural dog-
cal thinkers like Spinoza and Hegel, and more matism of the human mind is confronted with
recently S. Alexander and A. N. Whitehead, the sceptic's challenge: a challenge grounded on
have first attacked the metaphysical problems the relativity of the senses (sensory scepticism)
and adopted the view of knowledge consonant and the contradictions into which the reason is
with their metaphysics. Between these two ex- often betrayed (rational scepticism). An alterna-
tremes is the view that epistemology and meta- tive to both dogmatism and extreme scepticism is
logical question, the inquiry into the nature of assert that genuine knowledge is, within certain
validity it epistemological. (c) The relation prescribed limits, possible yet beyond those limits
between psychology and epistemology is particu- impossible. There are, of course, innumerable
larly intimate since the cognitive processes of ways of delimiting the knowable from the un-
'perception, memory, Imagination, conception and knowable a typical instance of the scfcptical de-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 95
limitation of knowledge is the Kantian distinc- clarity and distinctness of ideas. The intrinsic
tion between the phenomenal and noumenal theory received its definitive modern expression
world. See Phenomenon} Noumenon. A simi- in the theory of "innate ideas" (q.v.) of
lar epistemological position is involved in the Herbert of Cherbury, Descartes, and 17th cen-
doctrine of certain recent positivists and radical tury rationalism, (ii) The presuppositional
empiricists that the knowable coincides with the theory of the a priori which validates a priori
meaningful and the verifiable, the unknowable truths by demonstrating that they are presup-
with the meaningless and unverifiable. See Posi- posed either by their attempted denial (Leibniz)
tivism, Logical} Empiricism, Radical. or by the very possibility of experience (Kant).
(c) The traditional problem of the origin of (Hi) The postulational theory of the A PRIORI,
knowledge, viz.: By what faculty or faculties of elaborated under the influence of recent postula-
mind is knowledge attainable? It gave rise to the tional techniques in mathematics, interprets a
principalcleavage in modern epistemology be- priori principles as rules or postulates arbitrarily
tween rationalism and empiricism (q.v.) though posited in the construction of formal deductive
both occur in any thinker. The rationalists systems. See Postulate} Posit.
(Descartes,Spinoza, Leibniz) rely primarily (f) The problem of differentiating the prin-
though not exclusively on reason as the source cipal hinds of knowledge is an essential task
senses, contrasts with that type of sensationalism ing subject has no direct
apprehension. See
(q.v.) which is empiricism restricted to the Knowledge by Acquaintance in
Description.
outer senses. Various attempts, the most notable turn assumes two principal forms: perception or
of which is the critical philosophy of Kant, have acquaintance with external objects (see Percep-
been made to reconcile rationalism and empiric- tion), and introspection or the subject's acquaint-
ism by assigning to reason and experience their ance with the "self" and its cognitive, volitional
respective roles in the constitution of knowledge. and affective states. See Introspection} Reflec-
Few historical or contemporary epistemologists tion. Inferential knowledge includes knowledge
would subscribe either to a rationalism or an of other selves (this is not to deny that knowl-
empiricism of an exclusive and extreme sort. edge of other minds may at times be immediate
(d) The methodological problem bulks large and non-inferential), historical knowledge, in-
in epistemology and the solutions of it follow cluding not only history in the narrower sense
in general the lines of cleavage determined by but also astronomical, biological, anthropological
the previous problem. Rationalists of necessity and archaeological and even cosmological recon-
have emphasized deductive and demonstrative structions of the past and finally scientific knowl-
procedures in the acquisition and elaboration of edge in so far as it involves inference and con-
knowledge while empiricists have relied largely struction from observational data.
on induction and hypothesis but few philosophers (g) The problem of the structure of the
have espoused the one method to the complete knowledge-situation is to determine with respect
exclusion of the other. A few attempts have to each of the major kinds of knowledge just
been made to elaborate distinctively philosophi- enumerated but particularly with respect to
cal methods reducible neither to the inductive perception the constituents of the knowledge-
procedure of the natural sciences nor the demon- situation in their relation to one another. The
strative method of mathematics such are the structural problem stated in general but rather
Transcendental Method of Kant and the Dia- vague terms is: What is the relation between
lectical Method of Hegel though the validity the subjective and objective components of the
and irreducibility of both of thesemethods are knowledge-situation? In contemporary epistem-
highly questionable. Pragmatism, operationalism, ology, the structural problem has assumed a
and phenomenology may perhaps in certain of position of such preeminence as frequently to
their aspects be construed as recent attempts to eclipse other issues of epistemology. The prob-
evaluate new epistemological methods. lem has even been incorporated by some into
(e) The problem of the A PRIORI, though the the definition of philosophy. (See A. Lalande,
especial concern of the rationalist, confronts the Vocabulair* de la Philosophic, art. Thiori* dt U
empiricist also since few epistemologists are pre- Connaissanee. I. and G. D. Hicks, Encycl. Brit.
pared to exclude the a priori entirely from their 5th ed. art. Theory of Knowledge.) The prin-
accounts of knowledge. The problem is that of cipal cleavage in epistemology, according to
isolating the a priori or non-empirical elements this formulation of its problem, is between a
in knowledge and accounting for them in terms subjectivism which telescopes the object of
of the human reason. Three principal theories knowledge into the knowing subject (see Sub-
of the a priori have been advanced: (i) the jectivism t Idealism, Epistemological) and pan-
theory of the intrinsic A PRIORI which asserts objectivism which ascribes to the object all quali-
that the basic principles of logic, mathematics, ties perceived or otherwise cognized. See Pan-
natural sciences and philosophy are self-evident objectivism. A compromise between the ex-
truths recognizable by such intrinsic traits as tremes of subjectivism and objectivism is
96 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
achieved by the theory of representative percep- "As If", Eng. trans., 1924. A. N. Whitehead,
tion, which, distinguishing between primary and Principles of Natural Knowledge. A. N. White-
secondary qualities, considers the former objec- head, Concept of Nature. H. H. Price,Percep-
tive, the latter subjective. See Representative tion, 1933. W. T. Stace, The Theory of
Perce^tion^ Theory of; Primary Qualities} Sec- Knowledge and Existence, 1932. L. Wood, The
ondary Qualities. Analysis of Knowledge.
The structural problem stated in terms of the Episyllogism : Where the conclusion of one (cate-
antithesis between subjective and objective is gorical) syllogism is used as one of the premisses
rather too vague for the purposes of epistemology of another, the first syllogism is called a pro syl-
and a more precise analysis of the knowledge- logism and the second one an episyllogism.
situation and statement of the issues involved is A.C.
required. The perceptual situation and this Equality: See Logic, formal, 3, 6, 9.
analysis may presumablybe extended with ap- Equipollence: A relation of equivalence between
propriate modifications to memory, imagination two propositions or prepositional forms or sym-
and other modes of cognition consists of a bols for these.
subject (the self, or pure act of perceiving), the (a) Some writers, following the example of
content (sense data) and the object (the Galen, use it in the sense of material equival-
physi-
cal thing perceived). In terms of this
analysis, ence, i.e., having the same truth value.
two issues may be formulated: (a) Are content following Apuleius, use it in a
(b) Others,
and object identical
(epistemological monism), much more restricted sense such as that of strict
or are they numerically distinct (epistemological equivalence or even reciprocal entailment. In
dualism)? and (b) Does the object exist inde- the latter sense the relation holds when and
pendently of the knowing subject (epistemologi- only when the two sentences express the
cal idealism) or is it
dependent upon the sub- same fact. C.A.B.
ject (epistemological realism)? Carnap proposes a purely syntactical definition
(h) The problem of truth is perhaps the
of equipollence by defining two sentences (or
culmination of epistemological enquiry two classes of sentences) to be equipollent if they
in any
case it is the problem which brings the enquiry have the same class of non-valid consequences.
See the article Valid. A.C.
to the threshold of metaphysics. The traditional
theories of the nature of truth are: (i) the cor- Equivalence: (Lat. aequivaleo, have equal power)
respondence theory which conceives truth as a
Identical value. Having the same relation or
relation between an "idea" or a proposition and force. In logic, syn. of equipollence (q.v.)
J.K.F.
its object the relation has commonly been re-
garded as one of resemblance but it need not be Equivocation any fallacy arising from am-
is
of a proposition with a wider system of proposi- places with different meanings and an inference
tions (see Coherence theory of truth), and (iii)
drawn which is formally correct if the word or
the intrinsic theory which views truth as an phrase is treated as being the same word or
phrase throughout. A. C.
intrinsic property of the true proposition. See
Intrinsic theory of truth. L.W. Erh: (a) The active or male principle (yang)
and the passive or female principle (yin), which
Bibliography: L. T. Hobhouse, The Theory of are the products of Tao and which produce the
Knowledge, 1896. H. Bergson, Introduction to
myriad of things. (Taoism.)
Metaphysics, Eng. trans., 1912. W. P. Mon- The or male principle
(b) active (yang or
tague, Ways of Knowing, 1925. J. Dewey,
ch'ien) and the passive or female principle.
The Quest for Certainty, 1929. W. James, The W.T.C.
Meaning of Truth, 1909. C. I. Lewis, Mind Eristic: (Gr. eristike) In Aristotle's logic the
and the World Order, 1929. D. Drake and art of specious reasoning, or of reasoning from
others, Essays in Critical Realism, 1920. E. B.
specious premises, for the purpose of victory in
Holt, The Concept of
Consciousness, 1914.
argument; opposed to apodictic and to dia-
W. James, Essays in Radical Empiricism, 1912. lectical reasoning. See Apodictic ; Dialectic.
J. Laird, A Study in Realism, 1920. A. O. A kind of polemic, characterized by the use
Lovejoy, The Revolt against Dualism, 1930. of logical subtleties and oratorical casuistry, for
G. E. Moore, Philosophical Studies, 1922. B. which the Megarian School was particularly
Russell, The Problems of Philosophy, 1912. famous. See Megarians. R.B.W.
B. Russell, Scientific Method in Philosophy,
Eriugena, Joannes Scottus: (800/815 c. 800)
1914. E. G. Spaulding, The New Rationalism, Was of Irish birth and early education. He
1918, Alexander, Space, Time, and Deity,
S. came td the Court of Charles the Bald, son of
2nd 1928.
ed., C. D. Broad, Perception,
.
Charlemagne, as a teacher c. 845. good A
Physics, and Reality, 1914. C. D. Broad, he translated works of Maximus, Greg-
linguist,
Scientific Thought, 1923. C. D. Broad, Mind ory of Nyssa and the Pseudo-Dionysius from
and its Place in Nature, 1925. B. Russell, Greek to Latin. His thought is partly Augus-
The Analysis of Mind, 1921. N. K. Smith, tinian, partly a personal development inspired
Prolegomena to an Idealist Theory of Knowl- by the Greek Fathers. He has been accused of
edg* t 1924. H. Vaihinger, The Philosophy of Pantheism. Chief works: De Praedestinatione,
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 97
De divisions Naturae
(PL 122). Cappuyns, M. Opposite of existence. Syn. with being, possi-
Jean Erigene, sa vie, son oeuvre, sa pfnsee
5. bility. See Santayana's use of the term in
(Louvain-Paris, 1933). V.J.B. Realm of Essence, as a hybrid of intuited datum
Erlebnis: (Ger. erleben, to experience or live and scholastic essence (q.v.). See Eternal object.
through) The mind's identification with its own J.K.F.
emotions and feelings when it consciously "lives Essence, (Scholastic): The essence of a thing is
through"} contrasts with cognition, with its its nature considered independently of its exist-
characteristic duality between subject and object. ence. Also non-existent things and those which
See Enjoyment and Contemplation. L.W. cannot exist at have a proper essence. The
all
monly erotic. 2. In Platonic thought, the driv- essence. It is doubtful whether we can give of
ing force of life aspiring to the absolute Good; any thing a truly essential definition with the
hence the motive underlying education, fine art, one exception of man: man is a rational animal.
and philosophy. The connotation of aesthetic Most of the definitions have to be content with
fascination, impersonality, and intense desire is naming accidental features, because we do not
retained in Plato's use of the term. Hence Eros attain a direct
knowledge of substances. Synony-
is to be distinguished from the Indian Bhakti mously the term "quiddity" is used. The essence
(selfless devotion), the Buddhist Metta (dis- implies, in the case of corporeal beings, matter,
interested benevolence), the Confucian Jen but not as actually contained, since the essence
(humanity, charity), and At (personal love), is individualized
by prime matter. But it is of
and the Christian Agapdo (sacrificial, protective the essence of material things to be material.
brotherly love), and Phileo (personal affection Thus, Essence is not "form"
properly speaking.
or fondness). W.L. See Distinction, Form, Individual on, Matter.
Erotema: (Gr. erotema) A question} in Aris- R.A.
totle's logic a premise stated in interrogative Essential Coordination: Term employed by R.
form for acceptance or rejection by the re- Avenarius (Kritik der reinen Erfahrung, 1888)
spondent; hence, any premise used in dialectical to designate the essential solidarity existing
reasoning. G.R.M. between knowing subject and the object
the
Error: (Lat. error, from errare, to wander) Dis- of knowledge. The theory of "essential co-
torted or non-veridical apprehension, for ex- ordination" is contrasted by Avenarius with the
ample illusory perception and memory. See allegedly false theory of introjection (q.v.).
Veridical. The term, although sometimes used L.W.
as a synonym of properly applied to
falsity, is Esthesis: (Gr. aisthesis, sensation or feeling,
acts of apprehension like perception and memory from aisthanesthai, to perceive) A state of pure
and not to propositions and judgments. L.W. feeling sensuous, hedonic or affective char-
Bschatology: (Gr. ta eschata, death) That part acterized by the absence of conceptual and in-
of systematic or dogmatic theology dealing with terpretational elements. Aesthesis at the sensory
the last things, namely, death, judgment, heaven level consists of pure sense data. See Sense
and hell, and also with the end of the world. datum. Though the existence of pure esthesis
Also applied by philosophers to the complexus is challenged by most psychologists and epi-
of theories relating to the ultimate end of man- stemologists (see C. '
capable of coping with the exigencies of the their truth and falsity, their objectivity and sub-
facts of human experience and with the needs jectivity, and the possibility of systematizing
of moral obligation. By this method of creative them under one or more first principles. In
construction the reflective (inductive) reason is neither case is ethics concerned with our con-
able to create, as each new need for a next re- duct or our ethical judgments simply as a mat-
step arises, a new object of ter of historical or anthropological record.
chosen It
flectively
"pure" that is to say, empirically undeter- is, however, often said that the first kind of
mined "practical reason." This makes possible enquiry is not ethics but psychology. In both
the transition from a present no longer adequate cases it may be said that the aim of ethics, as
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 99
a part of
philosophy, theory not practice,
is terms have only an emotive meaning, (b) In-
cognition not action, even though it be added tuitionists and non-naturalists often hold that
at once that its theory is for the sake of practice goodness is an indefinable intrinsic (and there-
and its cognition a cognition of how to live. fore objective or absolute) property, e.g., Plato,
But some moralists who take the second ap- G. E. Moore, W. D. Ross, J. Laird, Meinong,
proach do deny that,
ethics is a cognitive dis- N. Hartman. (c) Metaphysical and naturalis-
cipline or science, namely those who hold that tic moralists usually hold that goodness can be
ethical first principles are resolutions or prefer- defined in metaphysical or in psychological
ences, not propositions which may be true or terms, generally interpreting "x is good" to
false, e.g., Nietzsche, Santayana, Russell. mean that a certain attitude is taken toward
Ethicaljudgments fall, roughly, into two x by some mind or group of minds. For some
classes, (a) judgments of value, i.e. judgments of them value is objective or absolute in the
as to the goodness or badness, desirability or sense of having the same locus for everyone,
undesirability of certain objects, ends, experi- e.g., Aristotle in his definition of the good as
ences, dispositions, or states of affairs, e.g. that at which all things aim, (Ethics, bk. I).
seemed to them that one must know what ends also often defined as meaning that the act is
are good before one can know what acts are to conducive to the welfare of some individual or
be performed. They all offer both a theory of group the agent himself, or his group, or so-
value and a theory of obligation, bbt it was not ciety as a whole. Many of the ideological and
until the 19th and 20th centuries that value- utilitarian views mentioned below include such
theory became a separate discipline studied for a definition.
its own sake a development in which impor- On
the question as to what acts are right or
tant roles were played by Kant, Lotze, Ritschl, to be ethical theories fall into two groups:
done
certain European economists, Brentano, Mei- (1) Axiological theories seek to determine what
nong, von Ehrenfels, W. M. Urban, R. B. is right entirely by reference to the goodness or
by Oxford. Again, in Germany, England, and the activist tenor of liberal Protestantism.
elsewhere there have" been, on the one hand, Eucken to replace the prevailing in-
sought
the formalistic deontologism of Kant and his idealism by an activistic idealism,
tellectualistic
followers, and, on the other, the aziological or founded on a comprehensive and historical con-
Ideological ethics of the Hegelian self-realiza- sideration of culture at large. He sought to
tionistsand the Wertethik of Scheler and N. interpret the spiritual content of historical
Hartmann. movements. He conceived of historical facts as
Ethical theories are also described as meta- being so many systematized wholes of life, for
physical, naturalistic, and non-naturalistic or which he coined the term syntagma. His dis-
intuitionistic. See Intuitionism , Non-naturalistic tinctive historical method consists of the re-
ethics. Metaphysical ethics, Naturalistic ethics, ductive and the noological aspects. The former
Autonomy of ethics. considers the parts directly in relation to an
Histories of Ethics: H. Sidgwick, Outlines of inward whole. The latter is an inner dialectic
the History of Ethics, Rev. Ed. 1931. Gives and immanent criticism of the inward principles
titles of the classical works in ethics in passing. of great minds, embracing the cosmological and
C. D. Broad, Five Types of Ethical Theory, psychological ways of philosophical construction
1930. and transcending by the concept of spiritual life
Elementary Texts: J. Dewey and J. H. Tufts, the opposition of the world and the individual
Ethics, Rev. Ed. 1932. W. M. Urban, Funda- soul. Preaching the need of a cultural renewal,
mentals of Ethics, 1930. not a few of his popularized ideas found their
Treatises: H. Sidgwick, Methods of Ethics, more articulated form inflthe philosophical soci-
7th Ed. 1907. G. E. Moore, Principia Ethica, ology of his most eminenr pupil, Max Scheler;
1903. W. D. Ross, Foundations of Ethics, 1939. in the cultural psychology of both Spranger and
N. Hartmann, Ethics, 3 vol., trans. 1932. M. Spengler. His philosophy is essentially a call to
Schlick, Problems of Ethics, trans. 1939. R. B. arms against the deadening influences of mod-
Perry, General Theory of Value, 1926. W.K.F. ern life.~-H.H.
Ethics, Absolute: A phrase which is sometimes Euclid: (c. 400 B.C.) Of Megara, founder of
used to designate an ethics which is put forth as the Megarian School. He was chiefly interested
absolute, see Absolutism, and sometimes, as by in the theory of refutation. See Megarians.
H. Spencer, to designate the formulation of the Euclid of Megara identified the good and the
ideal code of conduct of an ideal man in the One. The many are unreal. Not to be confused
ideal society. See Relative Ethics. W.K.F. with the great geometer who lived at Alexandria
Ethics, Relative: A term due to H. Spencer and (c. 300 B.C.), author of the Elements in 13
used to designate any attempt to apply the ideal books. M.F.
code of conduct formulated, by Absolute Ethics Eudaemonia: (Gr. eudaimonia) Happiness, or
to actual men in actual societies. See Absolute well-being, acclaimed by Aristotle at the uni-
Ethics. W.K.F. versally recognized chief good, and described
Ethos: ethos) Character; moral purpose}
(Gr. by him as consisting in the active exercise
distinguished by Aristotle from thought or in- (energeia) of the soul's powers in accordance
telligence as a source of dramatic action; hence with reason. See Aristotelianism. G.R.M.
'that element in a dramatic composition which Eudaemonism : (Gr. eu, well -f- daimon, spirit)
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 101
classes.) By using regions of simple character, tended fact mediately evident if (and only if)
is
such as interiors of circles or ellipses, to stand there is immediate evidence of its entailment
for given classes, convenient diagrammatic rep- as the consequence of an immediately evident
resentations are obtained of the possible logical fact. 3. In a still broader sense, evidence of
relationships between two or more classes. These an intended object may be indirect, i.e., by way
are known as Euler diagrams, although their of direct evidence (evidence in the first or
'
employment by Euler in his Letters to a Ger- second sense) of evidence of the intended
man Princess (vol. 2, 1772) was not their first object in some other consciousness, perhaps the
appearance. Or the diagram may be so drawn as consciousness belonging to another ego. The
n
to show all possible intersections (2 intersec- concept of original evidence is accordingly rela-
tions in the case of n classes), and then inter- tivized and broadened to include all kinds of
sections known to be empty may be crossed out, consciousness in which the intended object is
and intersections known not to be empty marked given in the most original manner possible
with an asterisk or otherwise (Venn diagram). for an object of its kind and status. Thus,
A.C. e.g., clear direct remembering is original evi-
at the school of Pamphilus, became Bishop of (and in each of the above-defined senses) has
Caesarea in 313. His works are in Greek and its in phantasy (fictive consciousness).
parallel
include a Chroniclf, Ecclesiastical History, and Fictive empirical evidence involves non-fictive
a treatise On Tleophanies (PG 19-24). His evidence of the essential possibility of an in-
dividual having the fictively presented determina-
philosophical views are those of a Christian
Platonist and he contributed to the development tions. The evident incompatibility of fictively
nomenon which could not psy-be examined vidual mind considered as existences. Also called
chologically) it all has its "existence" in states Existentialism. A characteristic doctrine of the
of the mind. See Kierkegaard, Heidegger, school the denial of imageless thought.
is L.W.
Jaspers. Existential quantifier: See Quantifier.
Existential Philosophy arose from disappoint- Exoteric: External; belonging to or suited for
ment with Kant's "thing-in-itself" and Hegel's those who are not initiates or experts. The
metaphysicism whose failure was
traced back exoterikoi referred to in Aristotle are
logoi
to a fundamental misrepresentation in psychol-
popular arguments or treatises, as contrasted
ogy. It is strictly non-metaphysical) anti-hypo- with strictly scientific expositions. G.R.M.
thetical, and contends to give only a simple
Expectation: 1. In general, the act or state of
description of existent psychological realities.
looking forward to an event about to happen.
"Existence" is therefore not identical with the
The grounds on which something is believed to
metaphysical correlative of "essence". Conscious-
happen. A supposition, an anticipation, a reason-
ness is influenced by our nervous system, nutri-
able hope, a probable occurrence.
tion, and environment; these account for our 2. A mathematical expectation is the value of
experiences. Such terms as being, equal, similar,
any chance which depends upon some contingent
perceived, represented, have no logical or truth- event. Thus, if a person is to receive an amount
value) they are merely biological "characters"} of money upon the occurrence of an event which
a distinction between physical and psychological
has an equal chance of happening or failing,
is unwarranted. Here lies the greatest weak-
the expectation is worth half that amount. The
ness of the Existential Philosophy, which, how-
mathematical expectation of life is the average
ever, did not hinder its spreading in both con-
duration of life (of an individual or a group)
tinents.
after a given age, as determined by computation
Resuming certain ideas of Locke and Berke- from the mortality tables.
ley, it was first propounded by the physicist '
3. The term actuarial expectation is used
Kirchhoff, and found its best representation by
analogically by Lloyd Morgan to denote the
Richard Avenarius (1843-96) in Menschlicher
qualitativeprobability of the emergence of a
Welthegriff, and, independently, by Ernst Mach or T.G.
genuine primary novelty.
(1838-1916) in Anal. d. Empfindungen. Many
Experience: (Lat. Experientia, from experiri: to
psychologists (Wm. Wundt, O. Kuelpe, Harold
test) The condition or state of subjectivity
or
Hoeffding, E. B. Titchener) approved of it,
awareness. (The term differs from Conscious-
while H. Rickert and W. Moog discredited
ness by emphasizing the temporal or passing
it forcefully. Charles Peirce (Popular Science
character of affective undergoing. Usage, how-
Monthly, Jan. 1878) and Wm. James (Prin-
ever, is not uniform, since its definition involves
ciples of Psych. 1898) applied Avenarius' ideas,
a theoretical standpoint. Thus Bradley identi-
somewhat roughly though, for the foundation
fied it with Consciousness, while W. James used
of "Pragmatism". John Dewey (Reconstruction
in used
it to mean neutral phenomenon, a That or
Philos.) it in his "Instrumentalism",
while F. C. Given, without implications of either subjectiv-
S. Schiller (Humanism) based his
W.L.
ity or objectivity.)
ethical theory on it. S.v.F.
Existential proposition: Traditionally, a propo- Experience, pure: The elimination of all pre-
of thought. See Avenarius, Ex-
sition which directly asserts the existence of its suppositions
Descartes's "ergo sum" or the perientialism. H.H.
subject, as, e.g.,
Christian's "Good exists." Expressed in symbolic Experientialism : The resort to concrete experi-
notation, such a proposition has a form like ence, whether perceptual, intuitive, activistic,
(*)M. axiological, or mystical, as the source of truth.
may be called existential if the prenex normal Experiment: (Lat. experiri, to try) Any situa-
form has a prefix containing an existential quan- tion which is deliberately set up by an investiga-
tifier (see Logic, formal, 3). tor with a view to verifying a theory or hypo-
Brentano (Psychologic, 874) takes an existen-
1 thesis. A.C.B.
tial proposition (Existentialsatz) to be one that Experimental Psychology: (1) Experimental
is the application
directly affirms or denies existence, and shows psychology in the widest sense
that each of the four traditional kinds of cate- to psychology of the experimental method*
gorical propositions is reducible (i.e., equivalent) evolved by the natural sciences. In this sens*,
to an existential proposition in this sense) thus, virtually the whole of contemporary psychology
e.g., "all men are mortal" becomes "immortal is experimental. The experimental method con-
. men do not exist." This definition of an existen- sists in the prearrangement and con-
essentially
in such a way as to isolate
tial proposition and the reduction of categorical trol of conditions
propositions to existential appears also in Key- specific variables.
In psychology, the complexity
ncs's Formal Logic, 4th edn. (1906). A.C. of subject matter is such that direct isolation of
Existential Psychology: A
school of introspec- variables is impossible and various indirect meth-
tive psychology represented in America by E. B. ods are resorted to. Thus an experiment will be
Titchener (1867-1927) which conceived the repeated on the same subjects with all condi-
task of psychology to be the description, analysis tions remaining constant except the one variable
and classification of the experience! of an indi- whose influence is being tested and which is
104 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
varied systematically by the experimenter. This time of different observers having long been
procedure yields control data within a single recognized by astronomers as an important
group of subjects. If repetition of the experi- source of error in their observations.
ment with the same group introduces additional The first laboratory of experimental psy-
uncontrolled variables, an equated control group chology was founded at Leipzig in 1879 by
is employed. Systematic rotation of variables Wundt, who has been called "the first profes-
among several groups of subjects may also be sional psychologist." With such research as that
resorted to. In general, however, psychologists of Stumpf on sound} G. E. Muller on psycho-
have designed their experiments in accordance physics, color and learning} Ebbinghaus on
with what has frequently been called the "prin- memory} and Kulpe and the Wiirzburg school
ciple of the one variable." on the "higher thought processes," experimental
A distinction is frequently drawn between psychology made rapid strides within the next
two observational methods in psychology: (a) two decades. In America, the chief standard
introspection which appeals to private data, bearer of Wundtian psychology was Titchener.
accessible to a single observer (see Intro spec- Among the others who were instrumental in
tion), and (b) objective observation of public the introduction and development of experi-
data, accessible to a number of observers among mental psychology America, may be men-
in
whom there is substantial agreement (see Be- tioned James, Hall, Munsterberg, Cattell, and
haviorism). These two methods, though they Watson.
are often regarded as disparate, may perhaps be Johannes Muller, Elements of Physiology,
more properly regarded as the extremes of a 1834-40. E. H. Weber, De Tractu, 1851. G. T.
continuum of observational objectivity, many Fechner, Element* der Psychophysik, 1860. W.
varying degrees of which can be found in psy- Wundt, Principles of Physiological Psychology,
chological experimentation. 1873-4. G. T. Fechner, In Sachen der Psycho-
(2) The term experimental psychology is also physik, 1877. G. E. Muller, Zur Grundlegung
used in a more restricted sense to designate a der Psychophysik, 1878. G. E. Muller, Die
special branch of psychology consisting of lab- Gesichtspunkte und die Tatsachen der Psycho-
oratory studies conducted on normal, human physichen Methodik, 1904. E. B. Titchener,
adults as distinguished from such branches as Experimental Psychology, 1905. Frobes, Lehr-
child, abnormal, differential, animal or com- buch der Experimentellen Psychologic, 3rd ed.,
parative, social, educational and applied psy- 1923. E. G. Boring, History of Experimental
chology. This restricted sense is employed in Psychology, 1929. L.W.
the titles of text-books and manuals of "experi- Explanation: In general: (1) the process, art,
mental psychology." Included in this field are means or method of making a fact or a state-
such topics as sensory phenomena, perception, ment intelligible} (2) the result and the expres-
judgment, memory, learning, reaction-time, sion of what is made intelligible} (3) the mean-
motor phenomena, emotional responses, motiva- ing attributed to anything by one who makes it
tion, thinking and reasoning. This identifica-
intelligible} (4) a genetic description, causal
tion of experimental psychology with a specific rational
development, systematic clarification,
type of content is largely a result of historical
exposition, scientific interpretation, intelligible
accident; the first experimental psychologists connection, ordered manifestation of the ele-
were preoccupied with these particular topics. ments of a fact or a statement.
The historical antecedents of experimental A. More technically, the method of showing
psychology are various. From British empiricism discursively that a phenomenon or a group of
and the psychological philosophy of Locke, phenomena obeys a law, by means of causal rela-
Berkeley and Hume came associationism (see tions or descriptive connections; or briefly, the
Associationism), the psychological implications methodical analysis of a phenomenon for the
of which were more fully developed by Herbart purpose of stating its cause. The process of
and Bain. Associationism provided the con- explanation suggests the real preformation or
ceptual framework and largely colored the pro- potential presence of the consequent in the ante-
cedures of early experimental psychology. Physics cedent} so that the phenomenon considered may
and physiology gave impetus to experiments on be evolved, developed, unrolled out of its con-
sensory phenomena while physiology and neu- ditioning antecedents. The process and the value
rology fostered studies of the nervous system of a scientific explanation involve the question
and reflex action. The names of Helmholtz, of the relation between cause and law, as these
Johannes Miiller, E. H. Weber and Fechner two terms may be identified (Berkeley) or dis-
are closely with this phase of the de-
linked tinguished (Comte). Hence modern theories
velopment of
experimental psychology. The range between extreme idealism and logical posi-
English biologist Galton developed the statistical tivism. Both these extremes seem to be unsat-
methods of Quetelet for the analysis of data on isfactory: the former would include too much
human variation and opened the way for the into science, while the latter would embrace a
mental testing movement}' the Russian physi- part of it only, namely the knowledge of the
ologist Pavlov, with his researches on "condi- scientific laws. Taking into account Hume's
tioned reflexes," contributed an experimental criticism of causality and Mill's reasons for
:echnique which has proved of paramount im- accepting causality, Russell proposes what seems
portance for the psychologist. Even astronomy to be a middle course, namely (a) that regular
made its contribution) variations in reaction- sequences suggest causal relations, (b) that
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 105
causal relations are one special class of scientific Expression: (Ger. Ausdruck) In Husserl: A
generalization, that is one-way sequences in symbol that embodies and signifies the noematic-
time, and (c) that causal relations as such objective sense of an act of thinking. The sense
should not be used in the advanced stages of is expressed; the act, manifested. D.C.
scientific generalization, functional relations be- Expressionism: In aesthetics, the doctrine that
ing sufficient inall cases. However satisfactory artistic creation is primarily an expressive act, a
in methodology, this view may not cover all the process of clarifying and manifesting the im-
implications of the problem. pressions, emotions, intuitions, and attitudes of
B. There are three specific types of causal the artist. Such theories hold that art has its
Exportation is the form of valid inference of referring to a real external world. See //*-
the prepositional calculusfrom AB 3 C to tionality. L.W.
A =
[B 3
C]. The late of exportation is the External relations, Doctrine of: Neo-realistic
theorem of the prepositional calculus: view that relations are not grounded in the
[ft
a ']
3 [
3 [*
a r]]- A. C. nature of their terms) that relations are inde-
106 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
pendent of the terms) that terms can pass in tributed to physical objects by physical realists
and out of relations without being modified. and to universals by Platonic realists. L.W.
H.H. Extraspective situations: "Situations in which
External sense: In Kant, intuition of spatial we seem to be in direct cognitive contact with
properties, as contrasted with the internal sense other minds and their states". (Broad.) H.H.
which is that of the a priori form of time. Extrinsic: (Lat. exter, out -f ecus, beside) Hav-
External World: The ideally envisaged totality ing external value. Value in the relation of
of objects of actual or possible perception con- wholes to other wholes. J.K.F.
ceived as constituting a unified system. L.W. Extrojection: (Lat. extra -f- jacere, to throw)
Externalization : (Lat. externus, external from The tendency of the mind to externalize sensu-
exter, without) The mental act by which sensory ous qualities and even affective states. See Ex-
data originally considered to be internal are ternal Reference. L.W.
projected into the external world. See Intro jec- Ezra, Abraham Ibn: Jewish exegete and philoso-
tion. The problem of externalization was for- pher (1093-1167). Born in Spain he wandered
mulated by Condillac in these words: "If one in many lands,sojourned for a time in Italy
admits that sensations are only modifications of and Provence. His philosophy is expressed
the mind, how does it come about that the mind largely in his commentaries but also in several
apprehends them as objects independent of and short treatises, such as the Yesod Mora, i.e.
external to it?" Traite de sensations, Part III. Foundation of the Knowledge of God, and the
Shaar ha-Shamayyim, i.e., The Gate to Heaven.
Exteroceptor: See Receptor. Main problems he deals with are that of the
Extramental : (Lat. extra -f mens, mind) Pos- right conception of the universe and its becom-
sessing a status external to and independent of ing and that of knowledge. He was influenced
the knowing mind. Extramental status is at- by teachings of neo-Platonism and Gabirol.
M.W.
Fa chia: The
Legalists School, the Philosophers vis aestimativa (in animals) or cogitativa (in
of also called hsing ming chia, who "had
Law, man), (c) The sensory appetites, subdivided in
absolute faithfulness in reward and punishment the concupiscible appetite aiming at the attain-
as support for the system of correct conduct," able good or fleeing the avoidable evil, the
and made no distinction between kindred and irascible appetite related to good and evil whose
strangers and no discrimination between the attainment or avoidance encounters obstacles.
honorable and the humble, but treated them as 2. The vegetative faculties, comprising the
equals beforelaw. They emphasized the
the .achievements of nutrition, growth and procrea-
power natural to the position of a ruler (shih, tion. While the sensory appetites are common
especially Kuan Tzu, sixth century B.C. and to man and animals, the vegetative are ob-
Shen Tao, 350-275 B.C.?) statecraft (shu, espe- served also in plants. 3. The locomotive fac-
cially Sh6n Pu-hai, 400-337 B.C.?), and law ulty, characteristic of animals and, therefore,
(fa, especially Shang Chun, 390-338 B.C.?), also of man. 4. The rational faculties, found
with Han Fei Tzu (280-233 B.C.) synthesizing with man alone; (a) Intellect, whose proper
all the three tendencies. W.T.C. object is the universal nature of things and
Fact: In Husserl: 1. State of affairs (Sachver- whose achievements are abstraction, reasoning,
halt): an object having categorial-syntactical judging, syllogistic thought) (b) Rational Will,
structure. 2. matter of fact (Tatsache, Faktum): directed towards the good as such and relying
(a) that which simply is, as contrasted with in its operation on particulars on the co-opera-
that which is necessarily; () that which 'i tion of the appetites, just as intellect needs for
actual, as contrasted with that which is merelv the formation of its abstract notions the phan-
possible^ (c) that which is, regardless of its tasm, derived from sense impressions and pre-
value) (d) that wjiich is non-fictive. D.C. sented to the intellect by imagination. The vis
Fact: (Lat. factus, pp. of facio, do) Actual indi- cogitativa forms a link between rational uni-
vidual occurrence. An indubitable truth of actu- versal will and particular strivings; it is there-
ality. A brute event. Syn. with actual event. fore also called ratio particular!*.
7.AT.F. Ch. A. Hart, The Thomistic Theory of Men-
Factual: See Meaning, Kinds of, 2. tal Faculties, Washington, D. C., 1930. R.A.
Faculty: (Scholastic) Medieval psychology dis- Faculty Psychology: (Lat. facultas, faculty or
tinguishes several faculties of the soul which ability) The conception of mind as the unity in
are said to be really distinct from each other a number of special faculties, like sensibility,
and from the substance of the soul. According intelligence, volition, by reference to which indi-
to Aquinas the distinction is based on objects vidual processes thought or will
of sensation,
and operations. The faculties ace conceived as are explained. Faculty psychology, which origi-
accidents of the soul's substance, but as pertain- nated in Plato's division of the soul into the
ing essentially to its nature, therefore "proper appetitive, the spirited and the rational faculties,
accidents". The soul operates by means of the was the dominant psychology of the Middle
faculties. Much misunderstood and deteriorated, Ages and received its most influential modern
this theory remained alive until recent times statement by C. Wolff (1679-1754) in his
and is maintained, in its original and pure
still Rational Psychology, 1734. Faculty psychology
form, by Neo-Scholasticism. A certain rap- is usually associated with the Soul Substance
prochement to the older notion may be ob- Theory of Mind. See Soul Substance. The com-
served in the modern theory of "general fac- mon criticism of the theory is its circularity In
tors". Most of the criticisms directed against the attempting to explain individual mental proc-
faculty-psychology are based on modern ex- esses in terms of a faculty which is merely the
perimental and nominalistic approaches. The hypostatization of those processes. See J. Locke,
faculties listed by Aquinas are: 1. The sensory Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 1690.
faculties, which to operate need a bodily organ) Bk. II, Ch. xxi, 17.L.W.
(a) The external tenses, (b) The internal Faith: (Kant. Ger. Glaube) The acceptance of
senses, sensus communis, memory, imagination, ideals which are theoretically indemonstrable,
108 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
yet necessarily entailed by the indubitable reality substance, but the simplifying power in .contrast
of freedom. For Kant, the Summum Bonum, to the diversifying physical) as "appearance to
God, and immortality are the chief articles of oneself, and matter as appearance to others,
faith or "practical" belief. See Kantianism. Cf. both representing the same reality differentiated
G. Santayana, Skepticism and Animal Faith, only in point of view. He applied the law of
where faith is the non-rational belief in objects threshold to consciousness, explaining thus its
encountered in action. O.F.K. relative discontinuity on one level while postu-
Fallacy is any unsound step or process of reason- lating its continuity on another, either higher
ing, especially one which has a deceptive ap- or lower level. In God, as the highest rung of
pearance of soundness or isfalsely accepted as existence, there is infinite consciousness without
sound. The unsoundness may consist either in an objective world. Evil arises inexplicably
a mistake of formal logic, or in the suppression from darker levels of consciousness. With poetic
of a premiss whose unacceptability might have imagination Fechner defended the "day-view"
been recognized if it had been stated, or in a of the world in which phenomena are the real
lack of genuine adaptation of the reasoning to content of consciousness, against the "night-
its purpose. Of the traditional names which view" of science which professes knowledge of
purport to describe particular kinds of fallacies, the not-sensation-conditioned colorless, sound-
not all have a sufficiently definite or generally less world.
accepted meaning to justify notice. See, how- Main works: Nanna o.d. Seelenleben d.
ever, the following: affirmation of the conse- Pflanuen, 1848) Ueber die physikalische u.
quent } amphiboly} denial of the antecedent} philos. Atomenlehre, 1855; Elementf der Psy-
equivocation} ignoratio elenchi} illicit process chophysik, I860} Drei Motiven des Glaubens,
of the major} illicit process of the minor} 1863; Vorschule der Aesthetik, 1876. See K.
many questions} non causa pro causa} non Lasswitz, G. Th. Fechner, 1896. K.F.L.
sequitur; petitio principii} post hoc ergo propter Feeling: (Ger. Gef&hl) In Husserl: 1. Noetic
hoc i quaternio terminorum} secundum quid; un- processes of valuing (e.g., liking, disliking,
distributed middle} vicious circle. A. C. preferring). 2. Non-intentional, "hyletic", proc-
Fan or fu: The greatest of all the laws under- esses or states, immanent in the stream of
lying phenomenal change, that any one thing
if consciousness. See Hyle and Noesis. D.C.
moves to an extreme direction, a change must Feeling: (Kant. Ger. Gefuhl) A conscious, sub-
bring about an opposite result, called "reversion" jective impression which does not involve cogni-
or "return". Reminds one of Hegel's antithesis. tion or representation of an object. Feelings
(Lao Tzu.)H.H. are of two kinds: pleasures and pains. These
Pang hsin: The lost heart, i.e., the originally represent nothing actual in objects, but reveal the
good mind which has turned away 'from the state or condition of the subject. Kant saw in
principles of benevolence and righteousness. pleasure and pain, respectively, life-promoting
(Mencius.) W.T.C. and life-destroying forces j pleasure results from
Pang shih: "Scholars with formulae," or priests the harmony of an object with the subjective
and magicians who flourished in the Ch'in and conditions of life and consciousness, while pain
Han dynasties (249 B.C.-220 A.D.) and who is the awareness of disharmony. See Kantianism.
offered divination, magic, herbs, charms, al- O.F.K.
chemy, breath technique, and other crafts (fang Felicific: Making happy) conducive to happiness
genetic process of the acceptance of the moral But there is no individual denoted by "the
law as supreme. He assumed that consciousness, average man".
including the representations of physical objects If "S" occurs fictitiously it is customary to
that make up the outer world, is the product of say that S is a fictitious entity or a fiction. (The
one ultimate cause in the universe. The world language is unfortunate as falsely suggesting
in which each individual lives is his own world, that in such case there is a special kind of
brought into being through the creative agency entity denoted by S and having the property of
of the ultimate. being fictitious.)
It is be noted that a symbol "S" occurs
to
Thinking was to Fichte a wholly practical
affair, a form of action. Since experience is fictitiously only if the complex token "C(S)",
given in the form of consciousness, the origin containing "S", does not fully display the logi-
and nature of consciousness is the key to all cal form of the utterance. In such cases the
fictitious character of the occurrence of S is re-
problems. The ego is the point at which the
creative activity of the Absolute emerges in the vealed by translation of the utterance (e.g. by
individual consciousness. The world means translating remarks about the average man in
such a way as to remove any apparent reference
nothing of itself. It has no independent self-
to a specific person).
existence. It existsfor the sole purpose of af-
man the occasion for realizing the ends
The definition is suggested by that of Jeremy
fording
of his existence.
Bentham. Reference: C. K. Ogden, Bentham's
Itmerely the material for
is
his duty. Fichte sought to bring out the struc- Theory of Fictions, 12. See also. Incomplete
tural principles of the act. Symbol, Construction. M.B.
knowing
(Lat. fictio, from fingere, to devise, or
His popular works, influential in the German
form) A logical or imaginative construction
uprising against Napoleon, have been interpreted framed by the mind to which nothing corre-
as being a source of Pan-Germanism.
sponds in reality. See Construction, Imaginative.
J. G. Fichte, Versuch einer Kritik alter Offen-
L.W.
barung, 1792$ Grundlage der gesamten Wissen-
Fictionism : An
extreme form of pragmatism or
schajtslehre, 1794$ Grundlage des Naturrechts,
instrumentalism according to which the basic
1798$ System der Sittenlehre ; Die Bestimmung
concepts and principles of natural science,
des Menschen, 1800$ Der Geschlossene Han-
mathematics, philosophy, ethics, religion and
delsstaat, 1800$ Grundzilge d. Gegenwartigen
jurisprudence are pure fictions which, though
Zeitalters, 1804-5$ Die Anweisung *um seligen
lacking objective truth, are useful instruments
Leben, 1806. H.H. of action. The is advanced under the
theory
Ficino, Marsilio: Of Florence (1433-99). Was influence of Kant, by the German philosopher
the main representative of Platonism in Renais- H. Vaihinger in his Philosophic des Als
sance Italy. His doctrine combines NeoPlatonic
Ob, 1911$ Philosophy of the "As If." English
metaphysics and Augustinian theology with many K. Ogden.) See Fiction, Con-
translation by C.
new, original ideas. His major work, the The- struction. L.W.
ologia PI atonic a (1482) presents a hierarchical Fideism: A
doctrine of Abb6 Bautain which at-
system of the universe (God, Angelic Mind, tempted to justify the teachings of Christianity
Soul, Quality, Body) and a great number of
by the theory that all knowledge rested upon
arguments for the immortality of the soul. Man premises accepted by faith. The premises of
isconsidered as the center of the universe, and
religion are to be found in the tradition of the
human life is interpreted as an internal ascent
Synagogue and Church. This tradition needs no
of the soul towards God. Through the Floren- rational criticism because it is self-critical. The
tine Academy Ficino's Platonism exercised a
doctrine was condemned in 1840 by Gregory
large influence upon his
contemporaries. His XVI- <?.*.
theory of "Platonic love" had vast repercus- Fides: Faith, according to St. Augustine, means,
sions in Italian, French and English literature to believe that which one does not see: Fides
throughout the sixteenth century. His excellent ergo est, quod non vides credere. That is the
Latin translations of Plato (1484), Plotinus reason why faith is praiseworthy. Haec est
(1492), and other Greek philosophers provided enim laus fidei, si quod creditur non videtur.
the occidental world with new materials of the
greatest importance and were widely used up The moods of the categori-
Figure (syllogistic) :
to the beginning of the nineteenth century.
cal syllogism (see Logic, formal, S) are divided
P.O.K. into four figures, according as the middle term
Fiction: Whenever a symbol, as part of an utter- is subject in the major premiss and predicate
ance, occurs in such a context that the truth of in the minor premiss(first figure), or predicate
any utterance of the same form would normally in both premisses (second figure), or subject in
guarantee the existence of an individual denoted both premisses (third figure), or predicate in the
by that symbol, whereas in the case considered major premiss and subject in the minor premiss
no such implication holds, the symbol may be (fourth figure). Aristotle recognized only three
said to occur fictitiously in that context. Thus in figures, including the moods of the fourth figure
the utterance "The average man is six feet tall" among those of the first. The separation of the
the phrase "the average man" occurs fictitiously. fourth figure from the first (ascribed to Galen)
For "X is than six feet tall" normally im-
less is accompanied by a redefinition of "major" and
plies that there is an individual denoted by "X". "minor" so that the major premiss is that in-
no DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
volving the predicate of the Conclusion, and the Florentine Academy: It was a loose and infor-
minor premiss is that involving the subject of mal circle of scholars and educated persons
the conclusion. A.C. which gathered in Florence around the Platonic
Filioque: See Trinitarianism. philosopher Marsilio Ficino. Its activities con-
Final Causes, the doctrine of: The view that sisted in regular lectures on Platonic
philosophy
things and events in the world can be ex- as well as in informal discussions and
parties.
plained, and ultimately can best be explained, by "Platonic" love or friendship was considered as
reference to some end or purpose or good or the spiritual link between the members of the
final cause to which they are conducive. Held, group which was organized and named after the
e.g., by Aristotle and Leibniz. W.K.F. model of Plato's Academy. The main docu-
Finalism: The theory that purpose is present in ments describing it are Ficino's correspondence
all the events of the physical order. Teleology. and a number of dialogues like Ficino's com-
R.T.F. mentary on Plato's Symposion, Landino's Dis-
Fine Arts: Opposite of mechanical arts. Dis- putationes Carnal dulenses, and Benedetto Co-
tinction of the arts whose principle is based on lucci's Declamationes.
Outstanding members or
beauty (poetry, painting, sculpture, architecture, associates of the Academy were Cosimo,
Piero,
L.V. and Lorenzo de'Medici, Angelo
music). Poliziano, and
Finite: For the notion of finiteness as applied to Giovanni Pico della Mirandola. The Academy
classes and cardinal numbers, see the article which was first founded in 1462, dissolved after
cardinal number. An ordered class (see order) the revolution in
Florence (1494) and after
which is finite is called a finite sequence or finite Ficino's death
(1499), but the tradition of
series. In mathematical analysis, any fixed real Platonic philosophy was continued in other
pri-
number (or complex number) is called finite, in vate circles as well as at the universities of
from "infinity" (the
distinction latter term usu- Florence and Pisa throughout the sixteenth cen-
ally occurs, however, only as an incomplete tury .P.O. AT.
symbol, in connection with limits , q. v.). Or Flux: The characteristic of time, by virtue of
finite may be used to mean bounded, i.e., having which all change inevitably. In Hera-
things
fixed real numbers as lower bound and upper cleitus' view, who brought the
problem into
bound. Various physical and geometrical quanti- prominence, "all things flow nothing abides".
5
creative and emergent evolution. See Evolu- formal cause. See Aristotelianisnt. G.R.M.
'onism.L.E.D. In Art: a. Opposite of content. The conclu-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 111
sive aspect of art, the surpassing of emotions, pendent of, without reference to meaning (com-
taste, mattery the final imprint of the person- pare Semiotic, 3). R.C.
ality of the artist, b. Opposite of color. The Formal Cause: See Form} Aristotelianism.
plastic form achieved by drawing and chiaro- Formalism: (a) In ethics: the term is sometimes
scuro. L.V. used as equivalent to intuitionism in the tradi-
tional sense. See Intuitionism. Also used to
Form: Kant) That a priori element in ex-
(in
designate any ethical theory, such as Kant's, in
perience in virtue of which the manifold of
sense is synthesized and unified into meaningful
which the basic principles for determining our
duties are purely formal. See Ethics, formal.
perceptions and judgments. Kant attributed the
form of experience to mind and reason, the
W.K.F.
matter, ordered in itself in such a way tha (b) In art: A
form for form's sake, lacking
O.F.K. in content. L.V.
Formalism (mathematical) is a name which
In Scholasticism. Accidental: That which
has been given to any one of various accounts
comes to a subject already substantially com-
of the foundations of mathematics which em-
plete, e.g. roundness or whiteness.
phasize the formal aspects of mathematics as
Substantial Jorm: Substance distinct from
against content or meaning, or which, in whole
matter to sensuous intuition. See Kantianism.
or in part, deny content to mathematical for-
with prime matter it constitutes a natural body}
mulas. The name is often applied, in particular,
for since matter is indifferent to any composite,
to the doctrines of Hilbert (see Mathematics) ,
it is determined by the form united to itself,
although Hilbert himself calls his method axio-
so that it may be, e.g., a stone, or a dog, or
matic, and gives to his syntactical or metamathe-
wood. There are as many substantial forms a?
matical investigations the name Beweistheorie
there are different bodies.
(proof theory, q. v.). A. C.
Metaphysical: Is the substantial essence of the
whole thing as rational animal is said to be
Normalization: (Ger. Formalisierung) In Hus-
serl: 1. (objective) Ideational "abstraction"
the metaphysical form of man. H.G.
from the determination of an object as belong-
Form, logical See Logic, formal.
:
we say that almost all evils consist in a dis- founded in intending "the same" as a material
ordered self-love not formally but radically. thing} correlatively, the tool-sense is founded in
which the mere-thing-sense. D.C.
(8) If compared with those qualities
constitute a disposition for having that thing, Four Elements: The four primary kinds of body
the correlative will be dispositively. Thus the recognized by the Greek philosophers, viz. fire,
dryness of wood will result in fire not formally air, water, and earth. G.R.M.
but dispositively. Frank, Philipp: (b. 1884) A member of the
(9) If compared with a thing from which it "Vienna Circle," who has made his home in the
receives some denomination (or designation) its U. S. He has been avowedly influenced by Mach.
correlative will be denominatively: e.g. when His major work lies on the borderline between
some part of the body is formally ill, man him- philosophy and physics and he makes an effort
self or the whole man is said to be denomina- "to employ only concepts which will not lose
tively ill. their usefulness outside of physics."
Meaning the same as truly and properly Ph. Frank, Between Physics and Philosophy
then it has as correlatives: apparently, meta- (Harvard, 1941). R.B.W.
phorically. Freedom: (Kant. Ger. Freiheit) The autonomy
Meaning the same as essentially, so that the or self-determination of rational beings. Kant
predicate which is said to belong the subject considers the reality of freedom an indubitable,
formally, enters into the essence and definition albeit an inexplicable, fact, and places it at
of the subject. Thus man is formally animal. the fulcrum of his entire system, theoretical as
Formally, so understood has various correlatives, well as practical. See Kantianism. O.F.K.
according to the various aspects under which the Freedom, Sense of: The subjective feeling of an
essence of a thing can be considered: agent either at the moment of decision or in
(1) An essence can be compared with acci- retrospect that hisdecision is free and that he
dental predicates and then its correlative is might, he had chosen, have decided differ-
if
accidentally: e.g. a man is said to be not for- ently. This feeling is adduced by Free-Willists
as empirical evidence for their position but is
mally, but accidentally white.
(2) An essence can be compared with the interpreted by their opponents as a subjective
attributesor parts of a thing which like the illusion. See Free-Will L.W.
matter of a ribject may indifferently constitute Free-will: The free-will doctrine, opposed to de-
that thing or another, and then the correlative terminism, ascribes to the human will freedom
is materially.: e.g. man is said to be materially in one or more of the following senses:
flrsh. (a) The freedom of indeterminacy is the
When effect: An effect is taken
said of an will's alleged independence of antecedent con-
formally when looked at according to it-
it is
ditions, psychological and physiological. A
self} but it is taken radically or fundamentally free-will in this sense is at least partially un-
when it is looked at according to its cause, root, caused or is not related in a uniform way with
or foundation. Thus visibility taken formally is the agent's character, motives and circumstances.
a property of man, and is distinguished by the (b) The freedom of alternative choice which
mind from rationality; but taken radically, it is consists in the supposed ability of the agent to
the same as rationality, inasmuch as rationality choose among alternative possibilities of action
is the root of visibility. and
When referring to causes containing the per- (c) The freedom of self-determination con-
fection of their effect. Formally, virtually, and sisting in decision independent of external con-
eminently are said of causes according as they straint but in accordance with the inner motives
contain the perfection of their effect. For an and ideals of the agent. See Determinism, In-
effect is said to contained formally in its
be determinism. L W.
.
cause, when the nature of the effect which is Frege, (Friedrich Ludwig) Gottlob, 1848-
produced, is found in the cause itself} thus heat 1925, German mathematician and logician.
is contained formally in fire, because fire also Professor of mathematics at the University of
contains in itself the heat which it produces. An Jena, 1879-1918. Largely unknown to, or mis-
effect is contained virtually in its cause when understood by, his contemporaries, he is now
the cause can indeed produce such an effect, but regarded by many as
"beyond question the
the nature of the effect is not found in the cause greatest logician Nineteenth Century"
of the
itself, e.g. contained virtually in
the statue is (quotation from Tarski). He must be regarded
the artist. Lastly,is an
contained emi- effect after Boole (q. v.) as the second founder
nently in its cause, when the cause is much more of symbolic logic, the essential steps in the
perfect than the effect and is without the im- passage from the algebra of logic to the logistic
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 113
Charcot and later examined the methods em- the function is spoken of as obtained
by apply-
ployed by the Nancy school. In his
own prac- ing the function to the arguments. The domain
tice, he employed hypnotic
methods of treatment of all possible values of the function is called
(see Hypnosis, Hypnotism) in combination
with the range of the dependent variable. If F de-
his own techniques of free association and dream notes a function and Xi, X, . . .
,
Xn denote the
interpretation. (The Interpretation of Dreams, first argument, second argument, etc., respec-
German ed., 1900$ Psychopathqlogy of Every- tively, the notation F(Xi, 2, . . . X , Xn) is used
day Life, German ed., 1901.) Freud not only to denote the corresponding value of the func-
developed a therapeutic technique for the treat- tion} or the notation may be [F](Xi, X* . . .
,
ment of hysteria and neuroses but advanced an Xn), to provide against ambiguities which might
elaborate psychological theory of which the otherwise arise if F were a long expression
main tenets are the predominance of sex and rather than a single letter.
the doctrine of the subconscious. In particular, a monadic junction is a law of
Freud's writings in addition to those already correspondence between an argument (or value
cited include: Wit and its Relation to the Un- of the independent variable) and a value of the
conscious, 1905} General Introduction to Psycho- function (or value of the dependent variable),
Analysis, Eng. trans., 1920-1. L.W. of such a sort that, given any argument belong-
Fries, Jakob Friedrich: (1773-1843) Emi- ing to a certain domain (the range of the func-
nent German philosopher. The contribution tion, or range of the independent variable), the
of Fries lies in the continuation of Kant's value of the function is uniquely determined.
work as offered in New or Anthropological If F denotes a monadic function and X denotes
Criticism of Reason and by his system of an argument, the notation F(X) is used for
philosophy as exact science. the corresponding value of the function.
114 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Instead of a monadic function, dyadic function, ables being said, for example, to denote a func-
etc., one may also speak of a function of one tion. Sometimes also the word function it used
variable, a function of two variables, etc. The in a syntactical sense e.g., to mean an expres-
terms singulary or unary (=
monadic), binary sion containing free variables.
(= dyadic), etc., are also in use. The phrase, See the article Propositional function.
"function from A to B," is used in the case of Alonzo Church
a monadic function to indicate that A and B Functional calculus See Logic, formal, :
3, 6.
(or some portion of B) are the ranges of the Functional Psychology: (Lat. functio from
independent and dependent variables respective- fungor, I execute) A tendency in American
ly in the case of a polyadic function to indi- psychology represented by W. James, G. T.
cate that B (or some portion of B) is the range Ladd, G. S. Hall, J. Dewey and J. R. Angell
of the dependent variable while the range of which considered the mental processes of sense
the function consists of ordered sets of n things perception, emotion, volition and thought as
out of A. functions of the biological organism in its
It sometimes necessary to distinguish be-
is adaptation to and control of its environment.
tween functions in intension and functions in Functionalism arose as a protest against struc-
extension, the distinction being that two -adic tural psychology for .which the task of psy-
functions in extension are considered identical if chology is the analysis and description of con-
they have the same range and the same value sciousness. The functional theory of mind is
for every possible ordered set of n arguments, characteristic of the pragmatism and instrument-
whereas some more severe criterion of identity alism of C. S. Pierce, W. James, G. H. Mead
is imposed in the case of functions in intension. and J. Dewey. See C. H. Morris, Six Theories
In most mathematical contexts the term junction ofMind, Ch. VI. L.W.
(also the roughly synonymous terms operation, Functional Theory of Mind: See functional
transformation) is used in the sense of function Psychology.
in extension. Functionalism: See Functional Psychology.
(In the case of propositional functions, the Functor: In the terminology of Carnap, a junctor
distinction between intension and extension is is a sign for a (non-propositional) junction
usually made somewhat differently, two proposi- (q. v.). The word is thus synonymous -with
tional functions in extension being identical if (non-propositional) junction symbol. ~A.C.
they have materially equivalent values for every Fundamentum divisionis: (Lat.) Principle ac-
set of arguments.) cording to which a genus is subdivided into
Sometimes convenient to drop the con-
it is species. A.C.B.
dition value of a function is unique
that the Fusion, Psychic: See Psychic Fusion.
and to require rather that an ordered set of Future: That part of time which includes all the
arguments shall determine a set of values of events which will happen these events may be \
the function. In this case one speaks of a conceived as determined in advance, though un-
many-valued function. known, or as an indefinite potentiality, not
Often the word function is found used loosely fixed in advance, but subject to chance, free
for what would more correctly be called an choice, statistical determination, or Divine inter-
ambiguous or undetermined value of a function, ference. In Aristotle, assertions about the future
an expression containing one or more free vari- are always contingent or non-apodeictic.
R.B.W.
Gabirol, Solomon Ibn: Known to scholastics as on stolen drives through the city he re- that
Avicebron (q.v.), but not identified as such nounced all when but 29 years of became age,
until the discovery by the French scholar, Munk. a mendicant, sought instruction in reaching an
See Jewish Philosophy. M.W. existence free from these evils and tortures,
Galen, Claudius: Famous physician) died about fruitlessly however, till at the end of seven
the year200 A.D.j an Eclectic philosopher who years of search while sitting under the Bodhi-
combined the Peripatetic and Stoic teachings. ,tree, he became the Buddha, the Awakened One,
Galen was the chief authority in medicine and attained the true insight. Much that is
practically until the time of Vesalius (c. 1543). legendary and reminds one of the Christian
He is responsible for the fourth figure in the mythos surrounds Buddha's life as retold in an
syllogism. His voluminous works remain un- extensive literature which also knows of his
M.F.
translated. former and future existences. Mira, the Eyil
Galenian Figure: See figure, syllogistic. One, tempted Buddha to enter nirvana (s.v.)
Garbha: (Skr. seed) The creative power that directly, thus knowledge of the
withholding
lies bottom of the world, hypostatized in
at the path of from the world) but the
salvation
or symbolized by the germ or seed. In cosmol- Buddha was firm and taught the rightful path
ogico-metaphysical conception it is allied to such without venturing too far into metaphysics, set-
termini technici as hiranyagarbha (golden germ), ting all the while an example of a pure and
blja (seed), retas
(semen), yoni (womb), antfa holy life devoted to the alleviation of suffering.
(egg, world-egg), jan (to give birth to), srj At the age of 80, having been offered and thus
(to pour out), etc., descriptive of psycho-cos- compelled to partake of pork, he fell ill and in
mogony from the earliest days of Indian phi- dying attained nirvana. K.F.L.
losophy (s.v.). K.F.L. Gay, John: (1669-1745) English scholar and
Gassendi, Pierre: (1592-1655) Was a leading clergyman, not to be confused with his con-
opponent of Cartesianism and of Scholastic Aris- temporary, the poet and dramatist of the same
totelianism in the field of the physical sciences. name. He is important in the field of ethics
Though he was a Catholic priest, with orthodox for his Dissertation Concerning the Funda-
views in theology, he revived the materialistic mental Principle of Virtue or Morality. This
atomism of Epicurus and Lucretius. Born in little work influenced David Hartley in his
Provence, and at one time Canon of Dijon, he formulation of Associationism in Psychology
became a distinguished professor of mathematics and likewise served to suggest the foundation
at the Royal College of Paris in 1645. He for the later English Utilitarian School.
seems to have been sincerely convinced that the L.E.D.
Logic, Physics and Ethics of Epicureanism were Gegenstandstheorie: (Ger. the theory of ob-
superior to any other type of classical or modern jects). It is the phenomenological investi-
philosophy. His objections to Descartes' Medita- of various of existential
gation types objects,
(tones, with the Cartesian responses, are printed
and an object being defined in the
subsistential
with the works of Descartes. His other philo-
Commentarius de vita, widest sense as the terminus ad quern of any
sophical works are:
moribus et placitis Epicuri (Amsterdam, 1659), act of perceiving* thinking, willing or feeling.
Syntagma philosophiae Epicuri (Amsterdam, The theory was developed by H. Meinong under
1684). VJ.B. the influence of F. Brentano and is allied with
Gautama Buddha: (Skr. Gautama, a patronymic, the phenomenology of E. Husserl. Sec Phtnom-
meaning of the trite of Gotamaj Buddha, the
enlightened one) The founder of Buddhism, Geist: (Ger. Kant) That quality in a beautiful
born about 563 B.C. into a royal house at object which animates the mind (Gemut) and
Kapilivastu. As Prince SiddhSrtha (Siddhattha) gives life to the work of art. It is best trans-
he had worldly goods and pleasures at his
til lated "soul" or "spirit". See Kantianism, Hegel
disposal, married, had a son, but was so stirred O.F.K.
by sights of disease, old age, and death glimpsed Gemara: (Heb. completion) Is the larger and latter
116 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
part of the Talmud (q.v.) discussing the Mish- (Critique of Judgment), genius creates its own
nah, and incorporating also vast materials not rule8.L.r.
closely related to the Mishnah topics. The 1812 Genres: Types of art to which special rules and
authorities of the gemara are known as Amoraim independent developments were attributed. For
(speakers). Its contents bears on Halaeha (law) example: in poetry epic, lyric, dramatic) in
and Aggadah (tale), i.e. non-legal material like painting historic, portrait, landscape) in music
legends, history, science, ethics, philosophy, biog- oratorial, symphonic, operatic. L.V.
raphy, etc. There are two gemaras better known Gentile, Giovanni: Born in Castelvetrano
as Talmuds: the Jerusalem (i.e. Palestinian) (Sicily) 1875. Professor of Philosophy and
Talmud and the Babylonian Talmud. H.L.G. History of Philosophy at universities in Paler-
Generalization: (Lat. genus, class, kind) 1. mo, Pisa, and Rome. Minister of Public Educa-
Process of arriving at a general notion or con- tion 1922-1924. Senator since 1922. Reformed
the school system of Italy.
cept from individual instances. 2. Any general
notion or concept. 3. A proposition stating an Apupil of late followers of Hegel, he em-
order or relation of events which holds without phasized the unity of spirit which he recognized
exception; universal proposition. A.C.S. in the pure act. His philosophy is therefore
Generalization, rule of: See Logic, formal, 3. called actualism. He Is responsible for the phil-
Generative Theory of Data: (Lat. genera tus, osophic theory of Fascism with the conception
of the Ethic State to which the individual must
pp. of generare, to beget) Theory of sense per-
be totally sacrificed.
ception asserting that sense data or sensa are
generated by the percipient organism or by the G. Gentile, La filosofia di Marx, 1899* II
mind and thus exist only under the conditions concetto della storia delta fiosofia, 1908} L'atto
of actual perception. The Theory which is del pensare como atto pure, 1912} Sistema di
common subjective idealism and representa-
to logica come teoria del conoscere, 1917$ Dis-
tional realism is opposed to the Selective Theory corsi di Religione, 1920} La fUosofia delVArte,
of Data. See Representationism, Selective 1931} Introd. alia filosofia, 1933. L.V.
theory of Data. L.W. Genus: (Gr. genos) In Aristotle's logic: (1) that
Generic Image: (Lat. genus, kind) A mental part of the essence of anything which belongs
also to other things differing from it in
image which Is sufficiently vague and indeter- species}
minate to represent a number of different mem- (2) a class of objects possessing an identical
bers of a class and thus to provide the imaginal character and consisting of two or more sub-
basis of a concept. A
generic image is thus in-
classes or species. See Species. G.R.M.
termediate between a concrete image and a Genus, summum:
(Lat.) In a classificatory
generic concept. The vagueness of the generic scheme the largest and most inclusive genus
image contrasts with the specificity of the con- which is not itself a species to any larger genus.
crete image, yet the generic image lacks the A.C.B.
fullness of meaning requisite to a genuine con- Geometry: Originally abstracted from the meas-
cept. The doctrine of the generic image was urement of, and the study of relations of posi-
introduced by Francis Galton who drew the tion among, material objects, geometry received
analogy with composite photography (Inquiries in Euclid's Elements (c. 300 B.C.) a treatment
into Human Faculty , 1883 appendix on Generic which (despite, of course, certain defects by
Images) and is adopted by Huxley (Hume, Ch. modern standards) became the historical model
IV). The existence of non-specific or generic for the abstract deductive development of a
images would be challenged by most contempo- mathematical discipline. The general nature of
rary psychologists. L.W. the subject of geometry may be illustrated by
Genesis: (Gr. into being, par-
Coming reference to the synthetic geometry of Euclid,
genesis)
ticularly the into being of a substance
coming and the analytic geometry which resulted from
through the taking on of form by matter (Aris- the introduction of coordinates into Euclidean
totle.). The biblical account of creation (Book geometry by Descartes (1637) (q.v.). In the
of Genesis). G.R.M. mathematical usage of today the name geometry
is given to any abstract mathematical discipline
Genetic: (Gr. genesis,origin) Having to do
with the origin and the development of any- of a certain general type, as thus illustrated,
thing. V.F. without any requirement of applicability to
Genetic Fallacy: The misapplication of the spatial relations among physical objects or the
like.
genetic method resulting in the depreciatory
See Mathematics, and Non-Euclidean geom-
appraisal of the product of an historical or
evolutionary process because of its lowly origin. etry. For a very brief outline of the founda-
L.W. tions of plane Euclidean geometry, both from
Genetic Method: of in the synthetic and the analytic viewpoint, see
Explanation thing*
terms of their origin or genesis. L.W. the Appendix to Eisenhart's book cited below.
Genius: Originally the word applied to a demon A more complete account given by Forder.
is
inspiration and was applied to the rejection of om Cambridge, England. 1927 T. L. Hetth.
$i *ftt>
The Thirteen BOPMS of Euclid's Elements, tram-
too rigid rules in art. It defined the real artist
fated from the text of Heiberg, with introduction
and distinguished his creative imagination from and commentary, 3 vols., Cambridge, England,
the logical reasoning of the scientist. In Kant 1908.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 111
Gcrbert of Aurillac: (Pope Sylvester H, died taught at the Universities of Freiburg, Munster
1003) Was one of the greatest scholars of the and Munich (1924--). His criticism of matetial-
IOth century. He studied at Aurillac with Odo istic tendencies in modern psychology, his Aris-
of Cluny, learned something of Arabian science totelian views on causality, and his espousal of
during three years spent in Spain. He taught a semi-Cartesian position in epistemology, aie
at the school of Rheims, became Abbot of Bob- noteworthy. He has written-: Lehrbuch der all-
bio (982), Archbishop of Rheims (991), Arch- gem. Psychologte ) 3rd ed. (1920), Erkenntnis-
bishop of Ravenna (998), Pope in 999. A mas- theorie d. Anstoteles (1917), Das Pnnsip votn
ter of the seven liberal arts, he excelled in his zurelchenden Grunde (1930). See Philosophia
knowledge of the quadrivium, i.e. logic, math., Perennis (Geyser Festg.), II vol. (Regensburg,
astron. and music. His works, the most impor- 1930). VJ.B.
tant of which are on mathematics, are printed
Gioberti, Vincenzo: Born in Turin (Italy)
in PL 139, 57-338. VJ.B. April 1801. Died in Paris, October 26, 1852.
5,
Gerson, Levi ben: (Gersonides) Bible com- Ordained priest 1825. Exiled to Paris, 1833,
mentator, astronomer, and philosopher (1288- because too liberal. Triumphantly returned to
1340). He invented an instrument for astro- Italy 1848. Served as Minister and Ambassador.
nomical observation which is described in his His fundamental problem was the relation
Sefer ha-Tekunah (Hebr.) Book on Astronomy. between sensibility and intelligibility, Being
His philosophy embodied in the Milhamot
createsexistence. The universal spirit becomes
Elohim i.e., The Wars of God, is distinguished individual by own
its creation. Thus, the source
by thoroughgoing Aristotelianism and by its
its
of individuality is not but divine.
subjective
general free spirit. His theory of the soul And individuality returns to universality when
teaches that the passive or material intellect is
it attains the state of intelligibility from the
only a potentiality for developing pure thought state of sensibility.
which accomplished through the influence of
is
'Main works: Teona della sovranaturale,
the Universal Active Intellect, and that it is
1838; Del hello, 1841} Del buono, 1842} Delia
that part of the soul which contains the sum
filosofia della rivelazione, 1856 (posth.)} Delia
total of the exalted thoughts which remains im-
protologia, 1857 (posth.). See B. Spaventa,
mortal, thus making intellectuality a condition La filosofia di <?., 1863. L.F.
of immortality. He also teaches that God knows
things from their general aspect but does not Given, The: Whatever is immediately present to
know the particulars in their infinite ramifica- the mind before it has been elaborated by in-
tions. See Jewish Philosophy. M.W. ference, interpretation or construction. See
Gestalt Psychology: (German, Gestalt, shape or
Datum. L.W.
form) A
school of German psychology, founded Gnosiology: (Gr. gnosis, knowledge -f- logos,
about 1912 by M. Wertheimer, K. Koffka and discourse) Theory of knowledge in so far as it
W. Kohler. Gestalt psychology reacted against relates to the origin, nature, limits and validity
the psychic elements of analytic or associationist of knowledge as distinguished from method-
psychology (see Associationism) and substituted ology, the study of the basic concepts, postulates
the concept of GesAflt or organized whole. The and of the sciences.
presuppositions special
parts do not exist prior to the whole but derive L.W.
their character from the structure of the whole.
Gnosis: (Gr. knowledge) Originally a generic
The Gestalt concept is applied at the physical
term for knowledge, in the first and second
and physiological as well as the psychological
centuries A.D. it came to mean an esoteric
levels and in psychology both to the original and philosophic
knowledge of higher religious
sensory organization and to the higher intel- truths to be acquired by an e"lite group of in-
lectual and associative processes of mind. Con-
tellectually developed believers. Philo Judaeus
figuration has been suggested as an English
(30 B.C. to 50 A.D.) is a fore-runner of Jew-
equivalent for Gestalt and the school is accord- ish Gnosticism} the allegorical interpretation of
ingly referred to as Configurationism. L.W .
the Old Testament, use of Greek philosophical
Geulincx, Arnold: (1625-1669) "Was born in concepts, particularly the Logos doctrine,
in
Antwerpen but later, when he became a Protes- Biblical exegesis, and a semi-mystical number
tant, he moved to Holland. His work lay along theory characterize his form of gnosis. Christian
Cartesian lines, but he felt dissatisfied with gnostics (Cerinthus, Menander, Saturninus,
Descartes' solution of the mind-body problem. Valentine, Basilides, Ptolemaeus, and possibly
As a result, he developed the doctrine of occa- Marcion) maintained that only those men who
sionalism according to which interaction between cultivated their spiritual powers were truly im-
mind and body is impossible, but God effects mortal, and they adopted the complicated teach-
bodily motions "on occasion" of each mental ing of a sphere of psychic intermediaries (aeons)
process. between God and earthly things. There was
A. Geulincx:
Ethica, 1655$ Metaphysica> also a pagan gnosis begun before Christ as a
1695. Complete works in 3 vols. ed. by J. P. reformation of Greek and Roman religion.
good which transcends yet includes all the published before 1934. Die
Chief works:
others. According to Augustine, Varro was Geschichte der nholasthchcn Methods (1909),
able to enumerate 288 definitions. For Plato, Mittelalterliches Gehtesleben (1926), Wei kg
the supreme Idea, the totality of being. For des hi. Thomas v. Aq. (1931). VJ.B.
Aiistotle, eudemonism (q.v.), which consists Grand style: A style based on antique statues
in the harmonious satisfaction of all rational and Italian art of the Renaissance, flourishing
powers. For the Epicureans, pleasure. For in France during the 17th century, and in
Aquinas, obedience to and oneness with God. England during the 18th century. L.V.
The all-inclusive object of desire. J.K.F, ''Greatest Happiness": In ethics, the basis of
Goodness: (AS. god) The extrinsic elections of ethics considered as the highest good of the
things. The positive object of desire. For individual or of the greatest number of indi-
Plato, coextensive with being. For the Romans, viduals. The feeling-tone of the individual,
duty. For Kant, that which has value. For varying from tranquillity and contentment to
Peirce, adaptation of a subject to its end.
the happiness, considered as the end of all moral
In psychology: the characteristic actions which action, as for example in Epicurus, Lucretius and
follow moral norms. Opposite of evil. See Rousseau. The welfare of the majority of in-
Ethtcs. J.K.F. dividuals, or of society as a whole, considered
Gorgias: 480-c. 375 B.C.) Celebrated orator, as the end of all moral action, as for example
(c.
rhetorician and philosopher from Leontini in in Plato, Bentham and Mill. The greatest
Sicily. He was numbered among the leading possible surplus of pleasure over pain in the
Sophists. He spent the major part of his long greatest number of individuals. Although men-
life in Greece, particularly in Athens. The tioned by Plato in the Republic (IV, 420), the
Platonic dialogue bearing his name indicates in phrase in its current form probably originated
some measure the high esteem in which he was in the English translation, in 1770, of Bec-
held. L.E.D. Dei delitti e delle pene t where it occurs
caxia's
as "la massima felicita dtvisa nel tnaggior
Gotama: The founder of the Nyaya (s.v.), also
known as Gautama and Ak?apada. K.F.L. numero", which was rendered as "the greatest
A and happiness of the greatest number", a phrase
Gothic: style in architecture, sculpture
enunciated by Hutcheson in 1725. One of a
painting between the 12th and the 16th century. number of ethical ideals or moral aims. The
During the neo-classical 18th century, a syn. doctrine with which the phrase is most closely
for the barbarousand lawless} the "romanticists"
associated is that of John Stuart Mill, who
who reacted against the 18th century classicism,
said in his Utilitarianism (ch. II) that "the
reverted to a love for the medieval Gothic
L.V. happiness which forms the ... standard of what
styles.
is right in conduct, is not the agent's own hap-
Government: This term is used in two senses.
piness, but that of all concerned". J.K.F.
Sometimes it is used to indicate the particular
administrative institutions or agencies of a Green, Thomas Hill: (1836-1882) Neo-Heg-
elian in revolt against the fashionable
society whose function it is to control individual idealist,
natural law and the ever changing positive or has substance (see dravya) as substratum. It is
civil law. His work has been basic in the his- variously conceived in Indian philosophy and
tory of international law. different enumerations are made. The Vaisesika,
Other works: De mart libero, 1609j De e.g., knows 24 kinds, along with subsidiary
veritate religionis chrtstianae, 1622. L.E.D. ones; the Sankhya, Trika, and others recognize
Guilt: In ethics, conduct involving a breach of three: sattva, rajas, tamas (q.v.). K.F.L.
moral law. The commission of a moral offense Guru: (Skr.) Teacher.
considered as the failure of duty. Defection
H
Habit: (Lat. habitus from habere, to have) In
of Proofs and Arguments in Defense of the
Humiliated Religion, indicates, it aims to prove
psychology: An acquired mental function rein-
forced by repetition. the dignity and worth of Judaism. Secondly, he
In metaphysics, one of Aristotle's 10 cate- endeavors to show the insufficiency of philoso-
gories, Hume's ground for causality ("custom phy and the superiority of the truths of revealed
to those arrived at by logic. The ad-
of the mind") and Peirce's leading principle religion
or basis of natural law. L.W. mission of both Christianity and Islam that
Habit Memory: The retention and reproduction Judaism is their source proves the first. The
of something learned e.g. a poem, a geometrical exaltation of intuition as a means of certainty
demonstration without the recognition char- in matters of religion, and the claim that the
acteristic of memory pioper. See Memory. prophet is the highest type of man rather than
L.W. the philosopher purposes to substantiate the sec-
Haeberlin, Paul: (1878-) A well known Swiss development of people, for only there can
his
thinker whose major contributions until recent this religio-ethical sense come to full expression.
izes singular beings belonging to a class 5 hence of Kant an unsuccessful attempt to make reason
his principle of individuation. J.J.R. independent of all tradition, belief and experi-
winism led him to found upon the evolutionary Hsiin Tzu. The greatest Chinese philosopher of
thoroughgoing materialistic monism
a law (fa chia), he advocated government by law
hypothesis
which advanced in his numerous writings
he and statecraft. Delegated by his native state,
The Riddle of the he appealed to the king of Chin (Shih Huang-ti)
particularly in his popular
Universe. Believing in the essential unity of not to invade his country. At first he was
the organic and the inorganic, he was opposed cordially entertained but later was ordered to
to revealed religions and their ideals of God, commit suicide by the premier of Chin, his
freedom and immortality and offered a monistic former schoolmate, Li Ssu, who became jealous
of him. (Han-fei Tzu, Eng. tr. by W. K. Liao:
religion of nature based on the true, the good
and the beautiful. See Darwin, Evolutionism, Han Fei Tzu, Complete Works.) W.T.C.
Monism. L.E.D. Happiness: (in Kant's ethics) Kant is more con-
cerned with happiness in terms of its ideal pos-
Ha-Levi, Judah: (b. ca. 1080, d. ca. 1140) Poet
and philosopher. His Kuzari (Arabic Kitab Al- sibility than with its realization in actual human
has a experience. Its ideal rests on the a
Khazari), written in dialogue form, possibility
double purpose. First, as its subtitle, A Book priori laws of intelligible freedom (vide)> by
122 DICTIONARY 0? PHILOSOPHY
which the individual through self-determination a time when vitalists were hard put to he en-
achieves unity: the self-sufficiency and harmony deavored to synthesize the new natural sciences
of his own being-. "Real happiness rests with and teleology by assigning to mechanistic causal-
my free volition, and real contentment consists ity a special function in the natural process
in the consciousness of freedom." (Kant.) under a more generalized and deeper purposive-
P.A.S. ness. Dispensing with a pure rationalism, but
Harmony, Pre-Established : The perfect func- without taking refuge in a vital force, v.H. was
tioning of mind and by
body, as ordained then able to establish a neo- vital ism. In ethics
God in the beginning. The dualism of Descartes he transcended an original pessimism, flowing
(1596-1650) had precluded interaction between from the admittance of the alogical and dis-
mind or soul and body by its absolute difference teleological, in a qualified optimism founded
and opposition between res cogitans and res upon an evolutionary hypothesis which regards
extensa. How does it happen, then, that the nature with its laws subservient to the logical,
mind perceives the impressions of the body, and as a species of the Ideological, and to reason
the body
is ready to follow the mind's will? which, as product of development, redeems the
The in order to correct this diffi-
Cartesians, irrational will once it has been permitted to
culty, introduced the doctrine of "occasionalism", create a world in which existence means un-
of the association of ideas was prompted by the ~[BiB>], ~[BiB.] -, ~[Bn-iBn]. This (
bridizing Schopenhauer's voluntarism with evaluate the useful. See Utilitarianism. L.E.D.
Hegel's intellectualism, and stimulated by Hedonism, Ethical: (Gr. hedone, pleasure) A
Schelling, the eclectic v.H. sought to overcome doctrine as to what entities possess intrinsic
irrationalism and rationalism by postulating the value. According to it pleasure or pleasant con-
Unconscious, raised into a neutral absolute sciousness, and this alone, has positive ultimate
which has in it both will and idea in co-ordina- value, that is, is intrinsically good and has no
tion. Backed by an encyclopaedic knowledge he parts or constituents which are not intrinsically
showed, allegedly inductively, how this gen- good. The
contrary hedonic feeling tone, dis-
erates all values in a conformism or correla- pleasure or unpleasant consciousness, and this
tionism which circumvents a subjective monistic alone has negative ultimate value, that is, is
idealism no less than a phenomenalism by intrinsically bad and has no parts or constitu-
means of a transcendental realism. Writing at ents which are not intrinsically bad. The in-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 123
trinsic value of all other entities is precisely klopddie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im
equivalent to the intrinsic value of their hedonic Grundrisse, 1817} Grundlinien der Philotophit
components. The total value of an action is des Rechts, 1820. Shortly after his death his
the net intrinsic value of all its hedonic con* lectures on the philosophy of religion, the his-
sequences. According to pure hedonism either tory of philosophy, the
philosophy of history,
there are no differences of quality among pleas- and aesthetics were published from the collated
ures or among displeasures or else such differ- lecture-notes of his students. His collected works
ences as exist do not affect the intrinsic values in nineteen volumes were published 1832-40 by
of the different hedonic states. These values a group of his students. G.W.C.
vary only with the intensity and duration of Hegelianism: As expounded in the writings of
the pleasure or displeasure. Hegel, Hegelianism is both a doctrine and a
Ethical Hedonism is usually combined with method. The two are held to be logically in-
view of the nature of right action.
a ideological separable: the method is precisely the formula-
It may be combined with Ethical Egoism as in tion of the doctrine, and the doctrine is pre-
the view of Epicurus, or with Ethical Uni- cisely the detailed expression of the method.
versalism, as in the views of J. Bentham, J. S. This integration of the two aspects of the phi-
Mill, andH. Sidgwick. C.A.B. losophy presents a formidable obstacle to in-
Hedonism, Psychological: (Gr. hedone, pleas- terpretation and to
presentation summary of
ure) Theory that psychological motivation is to Hegelianism as conceived by its founder.
be explained exclusively in terms of desire for The method is, of course, the dialectic. On
pleasure and aversion from pain. (See W. James* its formal side, it is constituted by the triadic
criticism of psychological hedonism, The Prin- dialectic of thesis, antithesis and synthesis. In
ciples of Psychology, II pp. 549 ff.) Psychologi- his logical writings Hegel is very fond of ma-
cal hedonism, as a theory of human motivation nipulating this formal apparatus, which he does
in contrast with ethical hedonism which accepts in great detail. From his practice here one
as the criterion of morality, the pleasure-pain might be led to suppose that in his opinion the
consequences of an act. L.W. dialectic itself constitutes the essence of the
Hedonistic Aesthetics: Theories reducing beauty method. In his other writings, however, little
to the pleasure of seeing, hearing and playing, if is made of the schematism, except for
any use
to the satisfaction of sensual enjoyment. L.F. the purpose of presenting the larger patterns of
Hedonistic Paradox: A paradox or apparent the subjcct-matterj and in his remarks on
inconsistency in hedonistic theory arising from method its formal aspect is hardly referred to.
(1) the doctrine that since pleasure is the only In these remarks Hegel is concerned with em-
good, one ought always to seek pleasure, and phasizing the logical structure underlying the
(2) the fact that whenever pleasure itself is machinery, namely, the relationship of con-
the object sought it cannot be found. Human trariety and its resolution. Everywhere, the
nature such that pleasure normally arises as
is method is grounded in system) and the transi-
an accompaniment of satisfaction of desire for tion from thesis and antithesis to synthesis is
any end except when that end is pleasure itself. held to be necessitated by the structure of the
The way to attain pleasure is not to seek for system within which it is grounded. Conse-
it,
for something else which when found
but quently the dialectical advance exhibits part
will have yielded pleasure through the finding. passu the structure of the system which is its
Likewise, one should not seek to avoid pain, matrix; the synthesis is positive throughout
but only actions which produce pain. AJ.B. This characteristic of the method, its "holding
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Priedrich: Born at fast the positive in the negative," is what Hegel
Stuttgart in 1770 and died at Berlin in 183L calls its negativity; and this characteristic is to
He studied theology, philosophy and the classics him the essence of the dialectic.
at Tubingen, 1788-93, occupied the conven- Thesort of system which grounds the method
tional position of tutor in Switzerland and is not the sort within which the principle of
Frankfort on the Main, 1794-1800, and went to contradiction obtains. Contradictories cannot be
Jena as Privatdocent in philosophy in 1801. He dialectically resolved between them there is no
j
was promoted to a professorship at Jena in ground of synthesis. But such systems are ab-
1805, but was driven from the city the next stract, that is, exemplified only in formal deduc-
year by the incursion of the French under Na- tions) they are lacking in factual content.
poleon. He then went to Bamberg, where he Dialectical analysis is possible only within sys-
remained two years as editor of a newspaper. tems which are factual, that is, constituted by
The next eight years he spent as director of the statements of fact and statements of possibility
Gymnasium at Niirnberg. In 1816 he accepted grounded in fact. Here the principle of con-
a professorship of philosophy at Heidelberg, trariety, not the principle of contradiction, ob-
from which position he was called two years tains) and dialectical analysis is identical with
later to succeed Fichte at the University of the resolution of contraries. Here, and here
Berlin. While at Jena, he co-operated with alone, is method applicable) and
the dialectical
Schelling in editing the Kritisches Journal der it aloneapplicable here.
is
Philosophic, to which he contributed many arti- Thus the method is the delineation of sys-
cles. Hi more important volumes were pub- tems which are real, and the doctrine of reality
lished as follows:
Phanomtnologit des Geistcs, nothing other than a detailed statement of the
1807) Wissenschaft der Logik, 1812-16) Ency- result.Such a statement it the final category
124 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
of dialectical analysis, the Absolute Idea; this uine philosophizing which, notwithstanding ap-
is the "truth" of Being. What this category is pearances, has vanished from us in the Western
in can be specified only by the method
detail world because of autonomous science serious
whereby is warranted.
it In general it is the disputing of the position of philosophy. As
structure of fact, possibility and value as deter- human reality is so structured that it discloses
mined by dialectical negation. It is the all- itself immediately, he writes really an idealistic
comprehensive system, the "whole," which har- philosophy of homo jaber. But instead of being
moniously includes every statement of fact, pos- a rationalistic idealist reading reason into the
sibility and value by "sublating" (through dia- structure of the really real, he takes a more
lectical every such statement within
negation) avowedly emotional phenomenon as the center
its own It is also of the nature of
structure. of a new solution of the Seinsfrage.
"subject" in contradistinction to "substance" as Under Kierkegaard's
influence, he pursues an
defined by Spinoza; Hegel sometimes speaks of "existential" analysis of human existence in
it as Absolute Spirit. If this doctrine is to be order to discuss the original philosophical ques-
called absolute idealism, as is customary, its dis- tion of being in a new way. He explores many
tinguishing characteristic should not be sub- hitherto unexplored phenomena which ontology
merged in the name: the system which is here disregarded. Sorge (concern), being par ex-
identified with reality is structured precisely as cellence the structure of consciousness, is ele-
disclosed in the process of dialectical negation vated the ultimate. Concern has a wholly
to
which exhibits it.
special horizon of being. Dread (Angst), the
The later thinkers commonly referred to in feeling of being on the verge of nothing, repre-
the histories as Hegelians fall mainly into two sents an eminently transcendental instrument of
groups. One is the group more or less indiffer- knowledge. Heidegger gives dread a content
ent to the method of Hegel and interested pri- directed upon the objective world. He unfolds
marily in the ramifications of his doctrine; the the essence of dread to be Sorge (concern). As
other is the group committed in principle to concern tends to become obscured to itself by the
the method, to its "negativity" and not to its distracted losing of one's selfhood in the cares
categories, and concerned by its means to build of daily life, its remedy is in the consideration
independently. The early Hegelians in Ger- of such experiences as conscience, forboding of
many belong to the former group; outstanding death and the existential consciousness of time.
representatives of the latter are the recent Brit- By elevating Sorge to the basis of all being,
ish and American philosophers sometimes called he raised something universally human to the
neo-Hegelians. fundamental principle of the world. It is only
See Hegel-Archiv, ed. G. Lasson; K. Fischer, after an elementary analysis of the basic con-
Hegel's Leben, Vkrke und Lehre, 2 vols. (1901, stitution of human existence that Heidegger ap-
1911); W. Dilthey, Gesamm Schr. IV; B. proaches his ultimate problem of Being and
Croce, What ts Living and What is Dead of Time, which more complicated structures
in
Hegel, 1915; G. Lasson, Hegel als Geschichts- such as the existential significance of death, con-
philosoph, 1920; Th, Haering, Hegel sein science, and the power of resolute choice explain
Wollen u. s. Werk, I (1929); II (1939); H. the phenomena of man's position in daily life
Hcraclitus thus foreshadowed the modern con- mental. By denying analysis to psychology,
ception of the uniformity of natural law. Cf. Herbart combatted the division of mind into
Diels, Frag. d. Vor, I, ch. 12.M.F. separate faculties. Psychology is not the mere
Herbart, Johann Friedrich: (1776-1841) Best description of the mind, but the working out of
known the "father" of scientific pedagogy
as itsmathematical laws.
centrally based upon psychology, a general tenet Ideas, he argued, arise originally from the
that still has weight today, Herbart occupies as collision between "reals" or things. As centers
educational philosophical theorist a position of force, they were always in mind and deter-
strikinglysimilar to that of John Dewey, the mined by it by their energies. Once they come
nestor ofAmerican philosophy. to mind through the senses, they are never lost.
Objecting to Fichte, his master's method of Explaining ideas as forces acting very much as
deducing everything from a single, all-embrac- the electrons of modern physics, the ideas al-
ing principle, he obstinately adhered to the ready in consciousness play an important role
axiom that everything is what it is, the prin- with regard to new ideas just appearing. The
ciple of identity. He also departed from him ideas already present are the apperceiving ideas
in the principle of idealism and freedom. As and the new ideas are to be apperceived, i.e.
man not free in the sense of possessing a
is incorporated with the old ideas to form knowl-
principle independent of the environment, he edge. Herbert himself made less of appercep-
reverted to the Kantian doctrine that behind tion, even though most famous for the term
and underlying the world of appearance there "apperceiving mass". He became famous be-
is a plurality of real things in themselves that cause the term is a psychological factor in the
are independent of the operations of mind upon process of education.
them. Deserving credit for having developed , J. F. Herbart, Hauptpunkte d. Logik, 1808}
the realism that was latent in Kant's philosophy, Hauptpunkte d. Metaphysik, 1806-1 808 j All-
he conceived the "reals" so as to do away with gem, prakt. Philos., 1808} Lehrb. z. Psychologie,
the contradictions in the concepts of experience. 1816} Psychol. als Wissensch. neu gegriindet
The necessity for assuming a plurality of "reals" auf Erfahrung, Metaphysik tt. Mathematik,
arises as a result of removing the contradic- <
Allgemeine Metaphysik, 1828-9. See
tions in our experiences of change and of things Werke, 19 vols. (ed. Fluegel,
possessing several qualities. Herbart calls the ).//.//.
method he applies to the resolution of the con- Herbartianism : The philosophical, but particu-
tradictions existing between the empirically de- larly the psychological and pedagogical doctrines
rived concepts, the method of relations, that is of Johann Friedrich Herbart (q.v.) as expound-
the accidental relation between the different ed in modified and developed form by his dis-
"reals" is a question of thought only, and in- notably M. Lazarus and H. Steinthal in
ciples,
essential for the "reals" themselves. It is the psychology, T. Ziller and W. Rein in^pedagogy,
changes in these relations that form the process M. Drobisch in religious philosophy and ethics.
of change in
the^world of experience. Nothing In America, the movement was vigorous and
can be ultimately" real of which two contradic- influential, but shortlived (about 1890-1910)
tory predicates can be asserted. To predicate and confined mainly to education (Charles De-
unity and multiplicity of an object is to predi- Garmo and Charles A. McMurry). Like Her-
cate contradictions. Hence ultimate reality must bart, his disciples strove for a clarification of
be absolutely unitary and also without change. concepts with special emphasis on scientific
The metaphysically interpreted abstract law of method, the apperception, and the
doctrine of
contradiction was therefore central in his sys- efficacy of a mathematical approacr* even in
tem. Incapability of knowing the proper nature their psychology which was dominated by asso-
of these "reals" equals the inability of knowing ciational thinking} yet they discarded more or
whether they are spiritual or material. Although less the master's doctrine of reals. K.F.L.
he conceived in his system that the "reals" are Herder, Johann Gottfried: (1744-1803) A
analogous with our own inner states, yet his founder of modern religious humanism, he ex-
view of the "reals" accords better with mate- plained human history as a consequence of the
rialistic atomism. The "reals" are simple and nature of man and of man's physical environ-
unchangeable in nature. ment. Held implicitly to the view that society
Metaphysics and psychology are not distinct is basically an organic whole. Accounted for
in Herbart's view. In his day psychology was the differences in culture and institutions of dif-
also philosophy. It was still a metaphysical ferent peoples as being due to geographical con-
science in the sense that it is differentiated ditions. Although history is a process of the
from physical science. It was only later that education of the human species, it has no defi-
psychology repudiated philosophy. Accepting nite goal of perfection and development. The
Kant's challenge to make psychology a mathe- vehicle of living culture is a distinct Volk or
matical science, he developed an elaborate sys- Nation with its distinctlanguage and traditions.
tem of mathematical constructions that proved As a child of the Enlightenment, Herder had a
the least fruitful phase of his system. As a blind faith in nature, in man and in the ulti-
mathematical science psychology can use only mate development of reason and justice.
calculation, not experiment. As the mind or J. G. Herder, Ideen s. Philos. d. Gesch."d.
126 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Mtnschheit, Gesfrache fiber
1784-91; Go//. and the Categorical Imperative, are thus one
Spinoza's System, 1787} .
Beforderung Brieje and the same thing. F.L.W.
d. Humanitat, 1793$ Metakritik, 1799) Kalli-
Hetero-psychological Ethics: Ethics based on
gont, 1800) last two work* directed against mental categories other than the conscience, as
Kant's Critiques (q.v.). H.H. contrasted with or
idio-psychological ethics,
Hereditary property: See Recursion, proof By. ethics based on the inner facts of conscience.
Hermeneutics : The art and science of interpret- Introduced as terms into ethics by J. Martineau
ing especially authoritative writings; mainly in (180M899) in 1885. J.K.F.
application to sacred scripture, and equivalent Heterotelio: (from Gr. heteros, another, and
to exegesis. K.F.L. telos, end) Said of any activity having a con-
Herrcnmoral (German)
:
concept popularly A scious or implied reference to the accomplish-
used as a blanket term for any ruthless, non- ment of some end. In aesthetics applied to
Christian type of morality justly and unjustly creative art and playin which a useful purpose
linked with the ethical theories of Friedrich may be discerned or may constitute the motive.
Nietzsche (q.v.) as laid down by him especially See also Autotelic. K.F.L.
in the works of his last productive period Heterozetesis : (Gr. heteros, other -f- zetein, in-
fraught as it was with iconoclast vehemence quiry) In logic, ignorath elenchi> an argument
against all plebeian ideals and a passionate de- which does not prove the conclusion wanted.
sire a new and more virile aristo-
to establish The fallacy of irrelevant conclusion; the gen-
cratic and debated by many writers,
morality, eral name for fallacies due to
irrelevancy.
such as Kaftan, Kronenberg, Staudinger, and
7.AT.F.
Hilbert. Such ideas as will to power, the con-
Heuristic: (Gr. heuriskein, to discover) Serving
ception of the superman, the apodictic primacy to find out, helping to show how the
qualities
of those who with strong mind and unhindered
and relations of objects are to be sought. In
by conventional interpretations of good and Kant's philosophy, applying to ideas of God,
evil, yet with lordly lassitude, are born to lead- freedom and immortality, as being undemon-
ership, have contributed to this picture of the strable but useful in the interpretation of things
morality of the masters (Herren) whom Nietz- and events in time and space. In methodology,
sche envisaged as bringing about the revaluation
aiding in the discovery of truth. The heuristic
of all values and realizing the higher
European method is the analytical method. Opposite of:
culture upon the ruins of the
fear-motivated, ostcnsive. J.K.F.
passion-shunning, narrowly moral world of his
Hexis: (Gr. hexis) In Aristotle's philosophy a
d*y,-~K.F.L.
state or condition of a thing; particularly an
Heterogeneity: (Lat. Heterogeneitas) The con-
acquired disposition or habit, not easily changed,
dition of having different parts; diversity of
and affecting the welfare of its possessor, such
composition; distinction of kind. Hamilton's
as the moral virtues and the intellectual skills.
law: "that every concept contains other con-
G.R.M.
cepts under it; and therefore, when divided
proximately, we descend always to other con-
Hierarchy of types: See Logic, formal, 6.
cepts, but never to individuals; in other words, Hilbert, David, 1862-, German mathematician.
..
Hindu Philosophy: See Indian Philosophy. causality. Owing to this double purpose the phi-
Historical materialism: The social philosophy losophy of history has to study the principles
of dialectical materialism. The application of of historiography, and, first of all, their back-
the general principles of dialectical materialism ground, their causes and underlying laws, their
to the specific field of human history, the de- meaning and motivation. This can be called
velopment of human society. One of the chief the metaphysics of history. Secondly, it concerns
itself with the cognitive part, i.e. with historic
problems Marx dealt with was that of the basic
causal agent in the movement of human history. understanding, and then it is called the logic
He states his thesis as follows: of history.While in earlier times the philosophy
"In the social relations which men carry on of historywas predominantly metaphysics, it has
they enter into definite relations that are in- turned more and more to the methodology or
dispensible and independent of their will. These logic of
history. A complete philosophy of
relations of production correspond to a definite history,however, ought to consider the meta-
stage of development of their material powers physical as well as the logical problems in-
of production. ... At a certain stage of their volved.
development the material forces of production in I. Logic of History: The historical objects
society come in conflict with the existing rela- under observation (man, life, society, biological
tions of production, or what is but a legal ex- and geological conditions) are so diverse that
pression for the same thing with the property even slight mistakes in evaluation of items and
relations within which they had been at work of the historical whole may lead to false re-
before. From forma of development of the sults. This can be seen from the modern logic
forces of production these relations turn into of history. In the 18th century, G. B. Vico
their Then comes the period of social
fetters. contended, under the deep impression of the
revolution. With the change of the economic lawfulness prevailing in natural sciences, that
foundation the entire immense superstructure is historical events alsofollow each other accord-
'
more or less rapidly transformed. In consider- ing to unswerving natural laws. He assumed
ing such transformations the distinction should three stages of development, that of fantasy, of
always be made between the material trans- will, and of science. The encyclopedists and
formation of the economic conditions of produc- Saint-Simon shared his view. The individual is
tion which can be determined with the precision immersed, and driven on, by the current of
of natural science, and the legal, political, re- social tendencies, so that Comte used to speak
ligious, aesthetic or philosophic in short, ideo- of an "histoire sans noms". His three stages of
logical forms in which men become conscious of development were the theological, metaphysical,
this conflict and fight it out." (Marx: Con- and scientific stage. H. Spencer and A. FouilUe
tribution to the Critique of Political Economy, regard social life as an organism unfolding it-
p. 12.) J M.S. selfaccording to immanent laws, either of racial
Historicism: The view that the history of any- individuality (Gobineau, Vocher de Lapauge)
the or of a combination of social, physical, and
thing is a sufficient explanation of it, that
values of anything can be accounted for through personal forces (Taine). The spirit of a people
the discovery of f its origins, that the nature of and of an age outweigh completely the power
of an individual personality which can work
anything is entirely comprehended in its de-
velopment, as for example, that the properties only along socially conditioned tendencies. The
of the oak tree are entirely accounted for by an development of a nation always follows the
exhaustive description of its development from same laws, it may vary as to time and where-
the acorn. The doctrine which discounts the abouts but never as to the form (Burkhardt,
fallaciousness of the historical fallacy. Applied Lantprecht). To this group of historians belong
also O. Spengler and K. Marx: "Fate" rules the
by some critics to the philosophy of Hegel and
Karl Marx. J.K.F. civilization of peoples and pushes them on to
histor to their final destination.
Historiography: (Gr. -f graphein,
The art of recording history (q.v.). Idealists regard such an equalization of physical
write)
Ambiguously used
laws and psychological, historical laws as un-
History: (Gr. histor, learned)
to denote either (a) events or (b) records of tenable. The "typical case" with which physics
the The term historiography (q.v.) is or chemistry analyzes is a result of logical ab-
past.
used for (b). Also ambiguous in denoting straction; the object of history, however, is not
a unit with universal traits but
natural as well as human events, or records of something indi-
either. vidual, in a singular space and at a particular
History of Art: Vasari began
(16th century) time, never repeatable under the same circum-
the history of the artists. Winckelmann (18th stances. Therefore no physical laws can be formed
century) began the history of art, that is of the about it. What makes it a fact worthy of his-
development of the elements comprised in works torical interest, is just the fullness of live activ-
of art. The of art today is directed to- ity in it} it is a "value", not a "thing". Granted
history
wards a synthesis *of the personalities of the that historical events are exposed to influences
artists and of their reaction to tradition and from biological, geological, racial and traditional
environment. L.V. sources, they always carried by a human
are
History, Philosophy of: History investigates the being whose singularity of character has assimi-
%
theories concerning the development of man as a lated the forces of his environment and sur-
social being within the limits of psychophysical mounted them. There) is a reciprocal action
128 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
between man and society, but it is always per- "moral reign of freedom" which achieves its
sonal initiative and free productivity of the in- perfection in the "objective spirit of the State".
dividual which account for history. Denying, As in the earlier systems of historical logic man
therefore, the logical primacy of physical laws lost his individuality before the forces of natural
in history, does not mean lawlessness, and that laws, so, according to Hegel, he is nothing but an
is the standpoint of the logic of history in more instrument of the "idea" which develops itself
recent times. Windelband and H. Rickert estab- through the three dialectic stages of thesis, anti-
lished another kind of historical order of laws. thesis, and
synthesis. (Example: Absolutism,
On their view, to understand history one must Democracy, Constitutional Monarchy.) Even
see the facts in their relation to a universally ap- the great historian L. v. Ranke could not break
and transcendental
system of values. the captivating power of the Hegelian mechan-
plicable
Values they "hold"$ they are not
"are" not, ism. Ranke places every historical epochinto
facts but realities of our reason; they are not a relation to Cod and attributes to it a
purpose
developed but discovered. According to Max and end for itself. Lotze and Troeltsch fol-
Weber historical facts form an ideally typical, lowed in his footsteps. Lately, the evolutionistic
transcendental whole which, although seen, can interpretation of H. Bergson is much discussed
never be fully explained. G. Simmel went fur- and disputed. His "vital impetus" accounts for
ther into metaphysics: "life" is declared an his- the progressiveness of life, but fails to
interpret
torical category} it is the indefinable, last reality the obvious setbacks and decadent civilizations.
ascending to central values which shaped cul- According to Kierkegaard and Spranger, merely
medieval idea of God,
tural epochs, such as the human ideals prove to be too narrow a basis
or the Renaissance-idea of Nature, only to be for the tendencies,
accomplishments, norms, and
defeats of historic life. It all points to a
tragically disappointed, whereupon other values supra-
rise up, as humanity, liberty, technique, evolution mundane intelligence which unfolds itself in
and others. history. That does not make superfluous a
natural both views can be com-
This opposition of natural sciences (Natur- interpretation,
bined to understand an endless
wissenschaften) and cultural or socio-historioU history as
sciences (Geisteswissenschaften) is characteristic struggle between God's will and human will, or
of idealistic of especially non-willing, for that matter. S.v.F.
philosophies history,
modern German variety. See Max Weber,
of the Ho: (a) Harmony; being "neither too weak nor
Gesamm. Aufratze z. Sozio u. Sozialpolittk, too strong." "When the passions, such as joy,
1922} W. Windelband, Geschichte u. Natur- anger, grief, and pleasure, have not awakened,
tvissenschaft, 1894j H. Rickert, Die Grenzen that is our central self, or moral being (chung).
d. Naturtuiss. B e griff sbildung, eine logische Ein- When these passions awaken and each and all
i. d. his tor. Wissenschaften, 1899, attain due measure and degree, that is harmony,
leitung
E. Troeltsch, Der Historisntus or the moral order (ho). Our central self or
Dilthey (q.v.)}
moral being
u. s. Probleme, 1922} E. Spranger, Die Grund- is the great basis of existence, and
harmony or moral order is the universal law
lagen d. Geschichtestuissensch., 1905.
For the opposing, more empirical approach in the world." See Chung.
and criticisms of the idealistic, organismk philos- (b) Change and transformation in the proper
ophies of history, see M. Mandelbaum, The order.
Problem of Historical
Knowledge, 1939; (c) Peace; meekness; amiability. W.T.C.
F. J. E. The Method of History;
Teggart,
Ho: Co-existence, one of the proofs of agreement.
Ph. P. Wiener, "Methodology in the Philos. See Mo che. W.T.C.
of Hist.", Jour, of Philos. (June 5, 1941). Hobbes, Thomas: (1588-1679) Considering
II. Metaphysics of History-. The metaphysical knowledge empirical in origin and results, and
toric events are seen as having a bearing upon of the nervous system} in its affectional and
the redemption of mankind through Christ which volitional,motor aspects, a kick-back to the jar.
will find its completion at the end of this world. Four subdivisions of philosophy cover all physi-
Owing to the secularistic tendencies of modern cal and psychological events: geometry describ-
times the Enlightenment Period considered the ing the spatial movements of bodies; physics,
final end of human history as the achievement the effects of moving bodies upon one another;
of public welfare through the power of reason. ethics, the movements of nervous systems;
Even the ideal of "humanity" of the classic nervous systems upon one
politics, the effects of
Rousseau, Lord Byron, is only a variety of the every organic body in its tendency, which in
philosophy of the Enlightenment, and in the man becomes a natural fight, to self-preserva-
same line of thought we find A. Comte, tion and self-assertion. Hence the primary
H. Spencer ("human moral"), Enggls and K. condition of all organic as of all inorganic
Marx. The German Idealism of Kant and bodies one of collision, conflict, and war.
is
Hegel saw in history the materialization of the The second law of motion, in its organic ap-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 129
%
plication, impels men to relinquish a portion of prominent materialist. He is the probable author
their natural right to self-assertion in return of Le systeme de la Nature, known as "the
for a similar on the part of
relinquishment R.B.W.
Bible of Atheism."
their fellows. Thus a component of the antag- Holism: See Emergent Evolutionism.
onistic forces of clashing individual rights and Holy: (AS. halig) The symbolically universal
wills is established, embodied in a social con- value of things. That aspect of value which
tract, or treaty of peace, which is the basis of reflects the totality, or God. The totality of
the state. To enforce this social covenant en- value. J.K.F.
tered into, pursuant to the second law of mo- Hominism: (Lat. homo, Man) German term
tion, by individuals naturally at war in obedi- (proposed by Windelband) for pragmatic human-
ence to the first, sovereignty must be set up and ism or psychologism. W.L.
exercised through government. Government is Homoeomeries: (Gr. homoiomere) In Aristotle's
most efficient when sovereignty, which has in philosophy those bodies that are divisible into
any case to be delegated in a community of any parts qualitatively identical with one another
size, is delegated to one man an absolute and with the whole, such as the metals and the
monarch rather than to a group of men, or a organisms} in distinction from
tissues of living
Holbach, Paul Henri Thiry, Baron d (1723- : "It begins with serving one's parents, extends
1789) One of the Encyclopedists (q.v.) and a to the duties towards one's sovereign, and ends
130 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
in the establishment of one's personal char- (f) "The pure and refined portion of the
acter." "Itis the beginning of morality, as re- vital force, ch'i." Being such it "has the Great
spect for elders (ti) is the order of morality }" Ultimate as its Reason (li) and Yin and Yang
it "the actuality of benevolence (Jen)" as
is as its passivity and activity." It is the spiritual
respect for elders is "the actuality of righteous- faculty or consciousness of man. (Chu Hsi,
ness (i). w As such "it involves loving kind- 1130-1200.)
ness to relatives, respect to associates, bene- (g) The mind conceived as identical with
volence to friends, and good faith to acquaint- the Universe and Reason (li). (Lu Hsiang-
ances." "True manhood (Jen) means to make shan, 1139-1193.)
filial piety the basis of manhood; righteousness (h) The mind conceived as identical with
(i) means to give it proper application} being Reason (li) and intuition. (Wang Yang-ming,
true to the nature of the self (chung) means 1473-1529.) W.T.C,
to make it the central moral ideal} moral order Hsin: (a) Good faith, one of the Five Cardinal
(li) is to put it to actual practice, and truth- Confucian Virtues (wu ch'ang)} honesty} sin-
fulness (hsin) means to make it strong." cerity} truthfulness} truth. (Confucianism.)
W.T.C. "Actualization of honesty (chung)." (Ch'eng
Hsiao i: "The little unit" is the smallest that Ming-tao, 1032-1086.) See Chung.
has nothing within itself. See Pien chc. (b) Belief} trust.
(Sophists.) H.H. (c) Power, or the efficacy of the essence of
Hsiao jen: (a) The inferior man, the small man, Tao. (Lao Tz,) W.T.C.
the mean man, the vulgar man. The opposite Hsin chai: "Fasting of the mind" is a state of
of the superior man. See Chun tzu. pure experience in which one has no intellectual
(b) Common man} little man} uneducated knowledge, in which there is immediate presen-
man; particularly as distinguished from the tation} the attainment of the mystical state of
ruling class and the literati. W.T.C. unity. (Chuang Tzfi between 399 and 295 B.C.)
Hsiao ku : Minor cause. See Ku. H.H.
Hsiao t'i: The senses which man shares with Hsing: The nature of man and things, especially
animals are "the part of man which is small", human nature, understood as "what is inborn,"
making him not merely an inferior man, but a or "what is created." It is what is imparted by
mere animal. Not man's nature, but his animal Heaven, whereas what is received by man and
nature. (Mencius.) H.H. things is fate (ming). The original state of
Hsiao t'ung i: The little similarity-and-differ- the nature is
tranquil. In
aroused state, its
Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi). (Shao K'ang-chieh, nature. Due to the vital force man may become
1011-1077.) good or evil. Chu Hsi (1130-1200) regarded
(e) One aspect of the Nature (hsing). "When the nature as identical with Reason (li). Sub-
the Nature is viewed from its goodness, it is jectively it is the nature} objectively it is
the Moral Law (tao)} when it is viewed from Reason. It is the framework of the moral order
its essence, it is the Destiny (ming)} when it is (tao), with benevolence, righteousness, propriety,
viewed from its natural state or spontaneity, it and wisdom (ssu tuan) inherent in it. Evil is
is Heaven (T'ien)} and when it is viewed from due to man's failure to preserve a harmonious
.its manifestations, it is the Mind (hsin)." relation between his nature-principles. Wang
(Ch'eng J-ch'uan, 1033-1107.) Yang-ming (1473-1529) identified the nature
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 131
with the mind, which is Reason and originally attains emptiness and vastnets, and enters into
good. W.T.C. mystic union with the Universe." (Chuang Tzu,
within the realm of between 399 and 295 B.C.) W.T.C.
Hsing (eA) hsia: What it
Hsuan tstmg: The
See Hsing (erh) thong. Religion of Mystery, another
corporeality.
and name for the Taoist religion. W.T.C.
Hsing li hsueh: Philosophy of the Nature H s uen men: The School of another
Reason of man and things*. See Li h*8*h. Mystery,
W.T.C. name W.T.C.
for the Taoist religion.
advocated Hsun Tzu: (Hsun Ch'ing, Hsun Kuan, c. 335-
Hsing ming (chia) : The school which
286 B.C.) For thirty years travelled, offered his
government by law (which includes punishment, service to the various feudal
of powerful states,
hsing) and insisted on the correspondence
and succeeded in becoming a high officer of Ch'i
names (ming) to reality, as represented by
T*u and Ch'u. A great critic of all contemporary
Sh8n Tzu (fourth century B.C.)i Han Fei
Another name for the schools, he greatly developed Confucianism, be-
(d. 233 B.C.), etc.
When hsing it in- came the greatest Confucian except Mencius.
Legalist School (fa chia).
to which names Both Han Fei, the outstanding Legalist, and
terpreted in the sense of shape
Li Ssu, the premier of Ch'Jn who effected the
must correspond, the term is also applied to the
first unification of China, were his pupils. {Hsun
Sophists (ming chia).W.T.C.
What above corporeality, Txu, Eng. tr. by H. H. Dubs: The Works of
rising (crh) shang: is
Hsun T**.) W.T.C.
such as The Moral Law (tao), Reason (li), etc.,
the general of which is the Great Hsu wu: (a) Emptiness and non-existence re-
principle
Ultimate (T'al Chi), as contrasted with what is ferring to Tao which is so full and real that
within the realm of corporeality, such as the
it
appears to be empty and non-existent. "It is
in die empty and the non-existent where Tao
vital force (ch'i), a niaterial thing (ch'i), etc.,
the general principles of which are the active
is found." (Huai-nan Tzu, d. 122 B.C.)
(b) Absence of desire and egotism. (Taoism)
(yang) and passive (yih) cosmic forces. (Con-
fucianism and Neo-Confucianism.) W.T.C. W.T.C.
Hua: Change, whether natural or infra-natural}
Hsiu shen: Cultivating one's personal life, which
of extension of transformation) the culmination of the process
involves investigation things,
of change (pien); change from non-ens to ***;
knowledge, sincerity of the will, and rectifica-
sudden change. -W.T.C.
tion of the heart, and which results in the har-
of family life, order in the state, and Huai-nan Tzu: (Liu An, Prince of Huai-nan, d.
mony
world peace. W.T.C. 122 B.C.) Grandson of the founder of the Han
(Confucianism.)
was a man of Confucian traditions
Hsu: (a) Emptiness* non-existence, a major dynasty,
characteristic of Tao. with Taoist inclinations. Thousands of scholars,
experts and Taoist magician-priests gathered
(b) Emptiness of mind in the sense of
abso-
lute peace and purity (Taoism), and also in the
around him. When his rebellion failed, he com-
mitted suicide, leaving Huai-nan Hung-lieh (par-
sense of "not allowing what is already in the
tial Eng. tr. by E. Morgan: Tao the Great
mind to disturb what is coming into the mind."
(Hsun Tzu, c 335-c 288 B.C.) W.T.C. Luminant) and other works now extinct.
Hsuan: abstruse. W.T.C.
(a) Mysterious {profound $
(b) Another name for Tao, understood in Huang Lao: The teachings of the Yellow Em-
the sense of "Mystery of mysteries, the gate to peror and Lao Tzu which emphasized the nour-
all existence." (Lao Tzu.) ishing of one's original nature and which were
(c) The Supremely Profound Principle. See very influential in the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-
T'a hs&an. 220 A.D.). W.T.C.
(d) The heavens. W.T.C. Huang T'ien: August Heaven, identical with
Hsuan chiao: The Doctrine of Mystery, another Shang Ti.
name for the Taoist religion. W.T.C. Hugo of St. Victor: (1096-1141) He was among
the leading mystics and presented his summary
Hsuan chieh: Emancipation, to let nature take
of theological arguments in his contribution to
its course, to be at home with pleasant situations
the popular summa of the so-called summists in
and at ease with misfortune, and not to be
affected by sorrow and joy. (Chuang Tzfi, be-
his "Summa sententiarum." L.E.D.
tween 399 and 295 B.C.) W.T.C. Huizinga, Johan: (1872-) Professor of Philoso-
Hsuan bsueh: The system of profound and mys- phy at the University of Leyden, Holland. He
terious doctrines, with special reference to Tao- has been a pronounced exponent of the philoso-
ism from the third to the fifth centuries A.D. phy of culture which he describes as a condition
W.T.C. of society in which there is a harmonious bal-
Hsuan te: (Profound Virtue) "The Way ance of material and spiritual values and a
pro-
duces things but does not take possession of harmonious ideal spurring the community's ac-
them. It does its work but does not take pride tivities to a convergence of all efforts toward
in it. It rules over things but does not domi- the attainment of that ideal. His best known
nate them. This is called Profound Virtue." work is Homo Ludens. L.E.D.
(Lao Tzu.) Humanism: (Lat. humanus, human) (a) Any
Profound Virtue and Mysterious Power, view in which interest in human welfare is
1
through the cultivation of one * original nature central.
and the returning to the character of Tao. Thus (b) Renaissance revival of classical learning
one "becomes identified with the Beginning, as opposed to merely ecclesiastical studies.
132 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
(c) An and religious movement cul-
ethical copies of complex impressions or may result
minating in Auguste Comte's "Worship of Hu- from the imaginative combination of simple
manity," better known as Humanitarianism. ideas. Knowledge results from the comparison
(d) Philosophical movement represented by of ideas, and consists solely of the intrinsic re-
F. C. S. Schiller in England, better known as semblance between ideas. As resemblance is
Pragmatism. See Pragmatism. nothing over and above the resembling ideas,
(e) Literary Humanism, movement led in there are no abstract general ideas: the gen-
America by Irving Babbit, Paul Elmer More, erality of ideas is determined by their habitual
Norman Foerster protesting against extreme . use as representatives of all ideas and impres-
sions similar to the As
emphasis on vocational education and recom- representative ideas.
return to a classical type of liberal knowledge consists of relations of ideas in vir-
mending
education or study of "the Humanities." tue of resemblance, and as the only relation
which involves the connection of different exist-
(f) Sociological term for tendency to extend
ences and the inference of one existent from
ideals, such as love, loyalty, kindness, service,
another is that of cause and effect, and as there
honesty, which normally prevail in primary or
is no resemblance
intimate groups to guide conduct in non-pri- necessary between cause and
or impersonal groups. effect, causal inference is in no case experien-
mary
tially or formally certifiable. As the succession
(g) Religious Humanism is any view which
and spatio-temporal contiguity of cause and ef-
does not consider belief in a deity vital to re-
fect suggests no necessary connection and as the
ligion, though not necessarily denying its exist-
ence and not necessarily denying practical value constancy of this relation, being mere repetition,
adds no new idea (which follows from Hume's
to such belief. Represented by a group of left-
nominalistic view), the necessity of causal con-
wing Unitarian ministers and university pro-
nection must be explained psychologically. Thus
fessors who, in May, 1933, published "The
the impression of reflection,
Humanist Manifesto," wherein religion is i.e., the felt force
of association, subsequent to
broadly viewed as a "shared quest for the good frequent repetitions
of conjoined impressions is the source of the
life" and social justice and social reform are
idea of necessity. Habit or custom
stressed as important in religious endeavor. suffiicently
AJ.B. accounts for 'the feeling that everything which
begins must have a cause and that similar causes
Humanitarianism: (Lat. humanus, human) (a) must have similar effects. The arguments which
Any view in which interest in human values is Hume adduced to show that no logically neces-
central.
sary connection between distinct existences can
(b) Any moral or social program seeking to be intuited or demonstrated are among his most
lessen suffering and increase welfare of human
signal contributions to philosophy, and were of
beings, often involving intense emotional devo- great importance in influencing the speculation
tion to reform, sometimes extending to
social of Kant. Hume explained belief in external
prevention of cruelty to animals. Philanthropy. existence (bodies) in terms of the propensity to
Altruism.
feign the independent and continued existence
(c) Worship of Humanity. Comtean doctrine, of perceptual complexes during the
interruptions
based on positivistic science, that Humanity, of perception. This propensity is determined by
rather than God or Nature is the Great Being the constancy and coherence which some per-
worthy of worship. .
ceptual complexes exhibit and by the transitive
(d) Theological doctrine denying the divinity power of the imagination to go beyond the
of Christ. AJ.B. limits afforded by knowledge and ordinary
Human nature: The limited range of human causal belief. The sceptical principles of his epi-
possibilities. The human tendency toward, or stemology were carried over into his views on
the human capacity for, only those actions which ethicsand religion. Because there are no logi-
are common in all societies despite their ac- cally compelling arguments for moral *nd re-
quired cultural differences. See Prtmifivism. ligious propositions, the principles of morality
J.K.F, and religion must be explained natural istically
in terms of human mental habits and social
Hume, David: Born 1711, Edinburgh* died at
customs. Morality thus depends on such funda-
Edinburgh, 1776. Author of A Treatise of
Human Nature } Enquiry Concerning the Human mental aspects of human nature as self-interest
Understanding^ Enquiry Concerning the Pas- and altruistic sympathy. Hume's views on re-
sions, Enquiry Concerning Morals, Natural His- ligion are difficult to determine from his Dia-
tory of Religion, Dialogues on Natural Religion, logues, but a reasonable opinion is that he is
History of England, and many essays on letters, totally sceptical concerning the possibility of
economics, etc. Hume's intellectual heritage is proving the existence or the nature of deity.
divided between the Cartesian Occasionalists and It is certain that he found no connection be-
Locke and Berkeley. From the former, he ob- tween the nature of deity and the rules of
tained some of his arguments against the al- morality. J.R.W,
leged discernment or demonstrability of causal Humour: (a) Jocose imagination} sympathetic
connections, and from the latter his psychologi- wit.
cal opinions. Hume finds" the source of cogni- (b) Romantic irony, equivalent of the tri-
tion in impressions of sensation and reflection. umph of the creative power of the artist's soul
All simple ideas are derived from and are copies over all content and all form (Hegel). L.V.
of simple impressions. Complex ideas may be Hun: (C.) The active, positive, or heavenly
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 133
(yang) part of the soul, as contrasted with the matter} and morph, contour, form) theory A
passive, negative, or earthly (yin) part of the that all physical things are constituted of two
soul called p'o. Hun is the soul of man's vital internal principles: the one of which remains
force (ch'i) which is expressed in man's intelli- the same throughout all change and is the pas-
gence and power of breathing, whereas p'o is sive basis continuity and identity in the
of
the spirit of man's physical nature which is physical world, called prime matter; the other
expressed in bodily movements. In heavenly of which is displaced, or removed from actuation
spirits, hun predominates, whereas in earthly of its matter, in every substantial change, called
spirits,p'o predominates. When hun is sepa- substantial form. See Aristotelianism, Thomism,
rated from p'o in man or things, change ensues. Suarezianism. V.J.B.
W.T.C. Hylons: This name (combining the Greek words
Hung fan: The Grand Norm. See Chiu ch'ou. hyle matter and on being) was given by Mitterer
Hun mang The Taoisf conception
: of the Golden to the heterogeneous subatomic and subelemental
Age, in which there was in the beginning, in particles of matter (electrons, neutrons, protons,
the time of the primeval chaos, a state of abso- positrons) which enter into the composition of
lute harmony between man and his surroundings, the elements without being elements themselves.
a life as effortless and spontaneous as the pas- The natural elements represent distinct types or
sage of the seasons, the two cosmic principles species of natural bodies, while the hylons do
of yin and yang worked together instead of in not. These matter-particles have an important
of the "the greatest happiness for the and god, or has the one merge into the other.
phrase
number," utilized by J. Bentham (q.v.)
K.F.L.
greatest
for the development of utilitarianism (q.v.) Hylozoism: (Gr. hyle, matter roe, life) The
His principal work is Inquiry into the Origin doctrine that life is a property of matter, that
of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue. R.B.W. matter and life are inseparable, that life is de-
Huxley, Thomas Henry: (1825-1895) Was a rived from matter, or that matter has spiritual
renowned English scientist who devoted his properties.The conception of nature as alive
mastery of expository and argumentative prose or animated, of reality as alive. The original
to the defense of evolutionism. An example of substance as bearing within itself the cause of
his scintillating style can be found in his famous all motion and change. The early Greek co-
essay on "A Piece of Chalk." His works touch.'*., mologists of the Milesian school made state-
frequently on ethical problems and bore much ments which implied a belief in life for their
of the brunt of the- raging controversy between primary substances. For Straton of Lampsacu*
religion and science. He is credited with having each of the ultimate particles of matter possesses
invented the word "agnosticism", adopted by life. For the Stoics the universe as a whole is
Herbert Spencer. See Evolutionism. L.E.D. alive. For Spinoza different kinds of things
Cf. H. Peterson, Thomas Huxley, for biog- possess life in different grades. J.K.F.
sensa-
raphy and bibliography. Hyperaesthesia : (Gr. hyper -f- aesthesis,
Hyle: See Matter. tion) Excessive sensitivity, either sensory or
Hylomorphism :
(also hylemorphism. Gr. hyle, affective. L.W.
134 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Hyperbole: (Or. hyperbole, overshooting, excess) the statements it has to explain. A hypothesis is
In rhetoric, that figure of speech according to descriptive (forecasting the external circum-
which expressions gain their effect through ex- stances of the event) or explanatory (offering
aggeration. The of things as causal accounts of the event). There are two
representation
greater or less than they really are, not in- kinds of explanatory hypotheses: (1) the hypo-
tended to be accepted literally. Aristotle relates, thesis of law (or genetic hypothesis) which at-
for example, that when the winner of a mule- tempts to determine the manner in which the
race paid enough money to a poet who was not causes or conditions of a phenomenon operate
anxious to praise half-asset, the poet wrote, and (2) the hypothesis of cause (or causal hypo-
"Hail, daughters of storm-footed steeds" thesis) which attempt to determine the causes or
(Rhetoric, III. ii. 14). JJC.F. conditions for the production of the phenom-
Hypnosis; <Gr. hypnos, sleep) A trance-like state enon. A working hypothesis is a preliminary
characterized an exaggerated suggestibility
by assumption based on few, uncertain or obscure
and an alteration of the normal functions of elements, which is used provisionally as a guid-
memory, of personality and perhaps also of per- ing norm in the investigation of certain phe-
ception. The state is ordinarily induced by an- nomena. Often, the difference between a work-
other person, but may also be self-induced and ing hypothesis and a scientific hypothesis is one
then the phenomenon is called auto-hypnosis. of degree) and in any case, a hypothesis is
L.W. seldom verified completely with all its detailed
Hypnotism: A
general term used to designate implications.
hypnotic phenomena including the techniques *for 4. The Socratic Method of Hypothesis, as de-
inducing hypnosis (see Hypnosis)^ the therapeutic veloped by Plato in the Phaedo particularly, con-
uses of hypnotic suggestion, etc. L.W. sists in positing an assumption without ques-
HypOStftSis: Literally the Greek word signifies tioning its value, for the purpose of determining
that which stands under and serves as a support. and analyzing its consequences: only when these
In philosophy it means a singular substance, also are clearly debated and judged, the assumption
called a supposite, supposition, by the Scholastics, itself is considered for justification or rejection.
especially if the substance is a completely sub- Usually, a real condition is taken as a ground
sisting one, whether non-living or living, irra- for inferences, as the aim of the method is to
tional or rational. However, a rational hypo- attain knowledge or to favor action. Plato
stasis has the same meaning as the term, person. used more specially the word "hypothesis" for
JJ.R. the assumptions of geometry (postulates and
Hypothesis: 1. In general , an assumption, a sup- nominal definitions)) Aristotle extended this use
position, a conjecture, ,a postulate, a condition, to cover the immediate principles of mathematics.
an antecedent, a contingency, a possibility, a It may be observed that the modern hypo-
probability, a principle, a premiss, a ground or thetico-deductive method in logical and mathe-
foundation, a tentative explanation, a probable matical theories, is a development of the Socratic
cause, a theoretical situation, an academic ques- method stripped of its ontological implications
tion, a specific consideration, a conceded state- and purposes. T.G.
ment, a theory or view for debate or action, a Hypothetical sentence or proposition is the same
likely relation, the conditioning of one thing by as a conditional (q. v.) sentence or
proposition.
another. A. C.
2. In logic, the conditional clause or ante- Hypothetical dualism: In epistemology, the
cedent in a hypothetical proposition. Also a theory that the external world is known only
thesis subordinate to a more general one. by inference. Absolute dualism of mind and
In methodology, a principle offered as a
3. external world. Opposite of: presentational
conditional explanation of a fact or a group of realism. J.K.F.
facts) or again, a provisional assumption about Hypothetical imperatives: Term due to Kant
the ground of certain phenomena, used as a which designates all statements of the form,
guiding norm in making observations and ex- "If you desire so and so, you
mutt, should, or
periments until verified or disproved by subse- ought to do such and such." In ftuch cases the
quent evidence. A
hypothesis is conditional or obligatoriness of the action enjoined depends on
provisional, because it is based on probable and the presence in the agent of the desire men-
insufficient arguments or elements} yet, it is not tioned. See Categorical imperative. W.K.F.
an arbitrary opinion, but a justifiable assumption Hypothetical morality: In ethics, any moral
with some foundation in fact} this accounts for imperative stated in hypothetical form. For in-
the expectation of some measure of agreement
stance, if thou dost not desire certain conse-
between the logical conclusion or implications quences, thou shalt not commit adultery. Kant's
drawn from a hypothesis, and the phenomena
categorical imperative, stated in hypothetical
which are known or which may be determined form. See Hypothesis, Morality. J.K.F.
by further tests. A scientific hypothesis must be: Hypothetical syllogism: See Logicjormal, 2.
(1) proposed after the observations it must ex- Hysteron proteron: (Gr. hysteron proteron)
plain (a posteriori), (2) compatible with estab- Literally, making the consequent an antecedent)
lished theories, (3) reasonable and relevant, (4) inverting the logical order by explaining a
fruitful in its applications and controllable, (5) thing in terms of something which presupposes
in term* and more fundamental than it G.R.M.
I: (C.) (a) The One, which It engendered by Tao The will} purpose; motive) idea; which
(b)
and which in turn engenders the Two (yin and is "operation of" and "emanation from" the
yang). (Lao Tzu.) "The Formless is the One. mind with an objective in view (Chu Hsi,
The One ha* no compare in the universe . . . 1130-1200). It is called will "when the in-
It is the Great Infinite and forms the Unity. It tuitive faculty, with its pure intelligence and
is the life of myriad generations, everlasting clear understanding, is moved and becomes ac-
without beginning, and most mysterious. It en- tive." (Wang Yang-ming, 1473-1529.) See
folds the universe and opens the portal of Tao. Ck'eng i. W.T.C.
. . . When the One is established and the myriad I: Righteousness, justice) one of the four Con-
things are engendered, there is Tao." (Huai- fucian Fundamentals of the Moral Life (ssu
nan Tzu, 112 B.C.)
d. tuan) and the Five
Constant Virtues (wu
(b) Unity of mind, "not allowing one im- ch'ang). "by which things are
It is the virtue
pression to harm another." (HsGn Tru c 335- made proper," "by which the world is regu-
c 288 B.C.) lated." It means the proper application of filial
(c) The number for Heaven, as two is the piety. It means, as in Han Yu (767-824), "the
number for Earth. See Ta iand Ta i. W.T.C. proper application of the principle of true man-
I: The method of difference in Neo-Mohist logic, hood (Jen)." It also means the removal of evil
which includes duality, absence of generic rela- in the world. Mencius (371-289 B.C.) said
that "righteousness is man's path, whereas true
tionship, separateness, and dissimilarity.
"Dual-
ity means that two things necessarily differ. manhood is man's mind." Tung Chung-shu
Absence of generic relationship means to have (177-104 B.C.) regarded it as the cardinal vir-
no connection. Separateness means that things
tue by which one's self is rectified, whereas
do not occupy the same space. Dissimilarity benevolence (Jen) the virtue by which others
is
means having notfting in common." See che. Mo are pacified. To the Neo-Confucians, "serious-
W.T.C. ness (ching) is to straighten one's internal life
ciple of the universe, arising out of the inter- through Schopenhauer, the Ich, the final, ulti-
action of the two cosmic forces of yin and mate conscious subject, plays a central and dy-
yang, or passive and active principles, and mani- namic role. Kant discredited the traditional
fested in naturalphenomena, human affairs, and Cartesian conception of a simple, undecompos-
ideas. According to Confucian "and Neo-Con- able, substantial I, intuitively known. On his
fucian cosmology, "In the system of Change, view, the Ich is not a substance, but the func-
there is the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi) which tional, dynamic unity of consciousness a neces-
engenders 'the Two Modes (i). The Two Modes sary condition of all experience and the ultimate
engender the Four Secondary Modes (hsiang), subject for which all else is object. This "trans-
which in turn give rise to the Eight Trigrams cendental unity of apperception," bare conscious-
(pa kua). These Eight Trigrams (or Elements) ness as such, is by its very nature empty} it is
determine all good and evil and the great com- neither a thing nor a concept. For the pure
plexity of life." Thus itinvolves in the first transcendental I, myempirical self is but one
place, the meaning of i, or simplicity from experience among others in the realm of phe-
which complexity U evolved { in the second nomena, and one of which Kant does not seek
place, meaning of hsiang, that is, phe-
the an adequate definition. The stress on the pure I
nomenon, image, form} and in the third place, as opposed to the empirical self is carried over
the idea of "production and reproduction." into his practical philosophy, where the moral
W.T.C. agent becomes, not the concrete personality, but
I: ()Subjective opinion) preconceived notion, a pure rational will, i.e., a will seeking to act
(Cocfuciut, Neo-Confucianism.) in accordance with an absolute universal law of
136 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
duty, the categorical imperative (q.v.). being. Concepts derived from objects of in-
"Fichu conceive! the ultimate Ich as an abso- tuitive introspection, such as activity, passivity,
lute, unconditioned, simple ego which "posits" soul, are "notions."
itself and its not-self in a series of intellectual Hume: An Idea is a "faint image"
8. or
acts. He emphasizes the dynamic, creative pow- memory copy of sense "impressions."
ers of the ego, its capacity for self-determination, 9. Kant: Ideas are
concepts representa-or
the act in which the absolute subject creates the tions incapable of adequate subsumption under
I. Self and not-self are products of the original the categories, which escape the limits of
activity of the conscious subject. Sc helling con- cognition. The ideas of theoretical or Pure
ceives the I as a creation of the Absolute Idea. Reason are ideals, demands of the human in-
treats the Ich as thought con- tellectfor the absolute, i.e., the unconditioned
Hegel, however,
ceived as subject, as or the totality of conditions of representation.
thinking, abstracted from
They include the soul, Nature and God. The
all things perceived, willed or felt in short
abstracted from all experience. As such it is ideas ofmoral or Practical Reason include God,
universal abstract freedom, an ideal unity. Freedom, and Immortality. The ideas of Reason
From this point the notion of Ich in the cannot be sensuously represented (possess no
German idealistic tradition passes into "schema"). Aesthetic ideas are representations
(1) vol-
untaristic with emphasis on the dy- of the faculty of imagination to which no con-
channels,
namic will, as in Schopenhauer, Eduard von cept can be adequate. W.L.
Hartmann and Nietzsche j (2) the pragmatic- Ideal: 1. Pertaining to ideas (q.v.)
(8th and 9th centuries) and towards symbolic Idealism: Any system or doctrine whose funda-
art. L.V. mental interpretative principle is ideal. Broadly,
Iconology: Studies in history of art concerned any theoretical or practical view emphasizing
with the interpretation of the matter or subject mind (soul, spirit, life) or what is character-
treated by artists without consideration of their istically of pre-eminent value or significance to
personalities. L.V. it. Negatively, the alternative to Materialism.
Idanta: (Skr. "this-ness") Thingness, the state of (Popular confusion arises from the fact that
being a this, an object of knowledge. K.F.L. Idealism is related to either or both uses of the
Idea: (Gr. idea) This term has enjoyed histori- adjective "ideal," i.e., (a) pertaining to ideas,
cally a considerable diversity of usage.
and (b) pertaining to ideals. While a certain
1. In inner bond of sympathy can be established be-
pre-Platonic Greek: form, semblance,
tween these two standpoints, for theoretical pur-
nature, fashion or mode, class or species.
poses they must be clearly distinguished.)
Mate-
Plato (and Socrates?): The Idea is a time-
2.
rialism the cor-
less essence or universal, a dynamic and crea- emphasizes spatial, pictorial,
tive archetype of existents. The Ideas comprise poreal, sensuous, non-valuational, factual, and
a hierarchy and an organic unity in the mechanistic. Idealism stresses the supra- or non-
Good,
and are ideals as patterns of existence and as spatial, non-pictorial, incorporeal, suprasensuous,
objects of human desire. normative or valuational, and ideological. The
3. The Stoics: Ideas are class in term Idealism shares the unavoidable expansion
concepts
the human mind. of such words as Idea, Mind, Spirit, and even
4. Neo-Platonism Ideas are archetypes of
: Person; and in consequence it now possesses
things considered as in cosmic Mind (Nous or usefulness only in pointing out a general direc-
Logos). tion of thought, unless qualified, e.g., Platonic
5. Early Christianity and Scholasticism: Ideas Idealism, Personal Idealism, Objective Idealism,
are archetypes eternally subsistent in the mind Moral Idealism, etc.
of God. The term appeared in the later 17th century
6. 17th Century: Following earlier usage, to name (a) the theory of archetypal Ideas,
Descartes generally identified ideas with subjec- whether in the original Platonic teaching or as
tive, logical concepts of the human mind. Ideas incorporated into Christian Platonic and Scholas-
were similarly treated as subjective or mental tic theism} (b) the epistemological doctrine of
by Locke, who them with all objects
identified Descartes and Locke, according to which "ideas,"
i.e., direct objects of human apprehension,
of consciousness. Simple ideas, from which, by are
combination, all complex ideas are derived, have subjective and privately possessed. Since this
their source either in sense perception or "reflec- latter view put in doubt the very existence of a
tion" (intuition of our own being- and mental material world, the term began to be used in
processes). the early 18th century for acosmism (according
7. Berkeley: Ideas are sense objects or per- to which the external world is only the projec-
ceptions, considered either as modes of the tion of our minds), and immaterialism (doc-
human soul or as a type of mind-dependent trine of the non-existence of material being). Its
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 137
use was popularized by Kant, who named his interpreted, being with time-
identifies absolute
theory of knowledge Critical or Transcendental less Ideas or disembodied essences. These, or-
Idealism, and by his metaphysical followers, the ganically united in the Good, are the archetypes
Post-Kantian Idealists. and the dynamic causes of existent, material
Metaphysics. Pure Idealism or Immaterialism things. The Ideas are also archetypes of ra-
identifies ontological reality (substance, substan- tional thought, and the goal of fine art and
tives, concrete individuality) exclusively with morality. Axtological Ideahsm } a modern de-
the ideal, Mind, Spirit, Soul, Person, Arche-
*>.., velopment of Platonism and Kantianism, main-
typal Ideas, Thought. See Spiritualtsm, Mental- tains that the category of Value is logically
ism t Monadism Panpsychism Idealistic Phe-
t t
and metaphysically prior to that of Being.
nomenalism. With respect to the metaphysical The idealistic doctrine known
as Conceptual
status of self-consciousness and purposeful ac- Realism identifies the logical
(and at times the
tivity, Idealism is either impersonalistic or per- perceptual) content of experience with universal*
sonalistic. See Personalism. (essences, objectives, subsistents, etc.) considered
Impersonalistic Idealism identifies ontological as non-mental, i.e. as essentially independent of
concrete reality as personal selfhood, i.e. y as or subjects of experience are exclusively noetic
possessing self-consciousness. With respect to objects, i.e. have no existence or reality apart
the relation of the Absolute or World-Ground from the relation of being perceived or
(s.) to finite selves or centers of consciousness, thought. Transcendental Idealism (Critical
varying degrees unity or separateness are
of Idealism) is Kant's name for his doctrine that
posited. The extreme doctrines are radical knowledge synthetic, relational product of
is a
monism and radical pluralism. Monistic the logical self (transcendental unity of apper-
Idealism (pantheistic Idealism) teaches that ception). Phenomenology is Husserl's name for
the finite self Is a part, mode, aspect, mo- the science that investigates the essences or na-
ment, appearance or projection of the One. tures of objects considered apart from their
Pluralistic Idealism defends both the inner pri- existential or metaphysical status.
vacy of the finite self and its relative freedom Ethics. Any system of moral theory may be
from direct or causal dependence upon the One. called Ethical Idealism, whether Ideological or
With respect to Cosmology, pure idealism is formal in principle, which accepts several of
either subjective or objective. Subjective Ideal- the following: (a) a scale of values, moral
ism (acosmism) holds that Nature is merely principles, or rules of action} (b) the axiologi-
the projection of the finite mind, and has no cal priority of the universal over the particular;
external, real existence. (The term "Subjective (c) the axiological priority of the spiritual or
Idealism" is also used for the view that the mental over the sensuous or material; (d) moral
ontologically real consists of subjects, i.e., pos- freedom rather than psychological or natural
sessors of experience.) Objective Idealism necessity. In popular terminology a moral ideal-
identifies an externally real Nature with the ist is also identified with the doctrinaire, as
thought or activity of the World Mind. (In opposed to the opportunist or realist; with the
Germany the term "Objective Idealism" is Utopian or visionary as opposed to the practical-
commonly identified with the view that finite ist;with the altruist as opposed to the crass
minds are parts modes, moments, projections, egoist.
appearances, members of the Absolute Mind.) Aesthetics. Any system or program of fine art
Epistemological Idealism derives metaphysical emphasizing the ideal (s.) is Aesthetic Idealism.
idealism from the identification of objects with 1. The view that the goal of fine art is an
ideas. In its nominalistic form the claim is embodiment or reflection of the perfections of
made that "To be is to be perceived,," From the archetypal Ideas or timeless essences (Platon-
standpoint of rationalism it is argued that there ism). 2. The view of art which emphasizes
can be no Object without a Subject. Subjects, feeling, sentiment, and idealization (as opposed
relations, sensations, and feelings are mental, to "literal reproduction" of fact). 3. The view
and since no other type of analogy remains by of art which emphasizes cognitive content (as
which to characterize a non-mental thing-in- opposed to abstract feeling, primitive intuition,
itself, pure idealism follows as the only possible formal line or structure, mere color or tone).
view of Being, The doctrine that ideas or judg-
Psychology.
Realistic recognizes the reality of
Idealism ments are causes of thought and behavior, and
non-ideal types of being, but relegates them to a not mere effects or epiphenomena, is Psychologi-
subordinate status with respect either to quantity cal Idealism.
of being or power. This' view is either atheistic or History. Inasmuch as pure or basic Material-
theistic. Realistic theism admits the existence of ism has been an infrequent doctrine among
one or more kinds of non-mental being consid- major thinkers, the history of philosophy broad-
ered as independently co-eternal with God, ly understood, is largely the history of Idealism.
eternally dependent upon Deity, or as a di- India. Intimations of advanced theism, both
vine creation. Platonic Idealism, as traditionally in a deistic and immanentistic form, are to be
138 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
found in the Rig Veda. The early Upanishads Lu Chiu Yuan (Lu Hsiang Shan), their oppo-
in general teach variously realistic deism, im- nent, is interpreted both as a
subjective idealist
manent theism, and, more characteristically, mys- and as a realist with a strong idealistic
emphasis.
tical, impersonal idealism, according to which Similarly interpreted is Wang Yang Ming of
the World Ground (brahman} is identified with the Ming Dynasty, who stressed the spiritual
the universal soul (atman) which is the inner and moral behind nature and
principle (Li)
or essential sell within each individual man*
person.
The Bhagavad Gtta, while mixing pantheism, Persia. The theology of Zarathustra was a
immanent theism, and deism, inclines towards a realistic and dualistic personalism. Nature is as-
personalistic idealism and a corresponding ethics sumed to be a plastic order controlled
by Ahura
of bhakti (selfless devotion). Jainism is atheistic Mazda, of
personalized spirit Good, against
dualism, with a personalistic recognition of the whom struggles in vain Ahriman, the personal-
reality of souls. Many of the schools of Buddh- ized spirit of Evil.
ism (see Buddhism) teach idealistic doctrines. Israel. In the period of the written prophets
Thus a monistic immaterialism and subjectivism Jewish thought moved to a personalistic and
(the Absolute is pure consciousness) was ex- realistic theism, reaching maturity in Jeremiah
pounded by Maitreya, Asanga, and Vasubandhu. and Genesis I. The cosmic "I Am" is a per-
The Lankavatarasutra combined monistic, imma- sonal and righteous World Ground who fashions
terialistic idealism with non-absolutistic nihilism. and controls both Nature and human history.
Subject! vistic, phenomenalistic idealism (the Greece. Homeric thought centered in Moira
view that there is neither absolute Pure Con- (Fate), an impersonal, immaterial power that
sciousness nor substantial souls) was taught by distributes to gods and men their respective
the Buddhists Santarak?ita and Kamalasila. stations. While the main stream of pre-Socratic
Examples of modern Vedintic idealism are the thought was naturalistic, it was not materialistic.
Yogavasiffha (subjective monistic idealism) and The primordial Being of things, the Physit, is
the monistic spiritualism of Gaudapada (duality both extended and spiritual (hylozoism). Soul
and plurality are illusion). The most influen- and Mind are invariably identified with Physis.
tial Vedantic system is the monistic spiritualism Empedocles' distinction between inertia and
of Sarikara. The Absolute is pure indeterminate force (Love and Hate) was followed by Anaxa-
Being, which can only be described as pure con- goras' introduction of Mind (No&s) as the first
sciousness or bliss\ For the different Vedantic cause of order and the
principle of spontaneity
doctrines see Vedanta and the references there. or life in things. Socrates the
emphasized
Vedantic idealism, whether in its monistic and teleolbgical principle and introduced the cate-
impersonalistic form, or in that of a more per- gory of Value as primary both in Nature and
sonalistic theism, is the dominant type of meta- Man. He challenged the completeness of the
physics in modern India. Idealism is also pro- mechanical explanation of natural events. Plato's
nounced in the reviving doctrines of Shivaism theory of Ideas (as traditionally interpreted by
(which see). historians) is at once a
metaphysics, epistemol-
China. The traditional basic concepts of ogy, and axiology. Ideas, forming a hierarchy
Chinese metaphysics are ideal. Heaven (T'ien}, and systematically united in the
Good, are time-
the spiritual and moral power of cosmic and less essences
comprising the realm of true Being.
social order, that distributes to each thing and They are archetypes and causes of things in the
person its alloted sphere of action, is theistically realm of Non-Being (Space). Aristotle, while
and personalistically conceived in the Shu Ching moving in the direction of common-sense real-
(Book of History) and the Shih Ching (Book ism, was also idealistic. Forms or species are
of Poetry). It was probably also interpreted secondary substances, and collectively form the
thus by Confucius and Mencius, assuredly so by dynamic and rational structure of the World.
Moue. Later it became identified with Fate or Active reason (Not* Poittikos), possessed by all
impersonal, immaterial cosmic power. Shang Ti rational creatures, is immaterial and eternal.
(Lord on High) has remained through Chinese Mind is the final cause of all motion. God is
history a theistXc concept. Tao, as cosmic prin- pure Mind, self-contained, self-centered, and
ciple, is an impersonal, immaterial World metaphysically remote from the spatial World.
Ground. Mahayana Buddhism introduced into The Stoics united idealism and hylozoistic
China an idealistic influence. Pure metaphysi- naturalism in their doctrine of dynamic rational
cal idealism was taught by the Buddhist monk cosmic law (Logos), World Soul, and Pneuma,
Hsuan Ch'uang. Important Buddhist and Taoist Providence (Pronoia).
influences appear in Sung Confucianism (Ju Alexandrian-Roman Period. Fed by Eastern
Chia), a distinctly idealistic movement. Chou ideas, later Alexandrian-Roman thought was es-
Tun I taught that matter, life and mind emerge sentially idealistic. In neo-Pythagorean, Neo-
from Wu CM (Pure Being). Shao Yung Platonic and Alexandrian Christianity, matter
espoused an essential objective idealism: the was identified with non-being, and placed at the
world is the content of an Universal Conscious- metaphysical antipodes with respect to God or
ness. The Brothers Ch'eng Hsao and Ch'eng I, the Absolute. Early Christianity identified itself
together with Chu Hsi, distinguished two primor- with the personalistic theism of Israel, Pauline
dial principles, an active, moral, aesthetic, and spiritualism, and the neo-Platoniim of Alex-
rational Law (Li), and a passive ether stuff andria.
(Ch'i). Their emphasis upon Li is idealistic. Mtdievtl Period. Medieval Christian thought,
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 139
axiomatically idealistic, united the pertonalitm French thought was grounded in the psychologi-
of Iirael and the speculative idealism of neo- cal idealism of Condillac and the voluntaristic
Platonism and Aristotle. Similarly, Islamic pertonalism of Biran. Throughout the century
thought, centering at Bagdad and Cordova, at- it was essentially "spiritualistic" or personalistic
tached Mohammedan religious idealism to neo- (Cousin, Renouvier, Ravaisson, Boutrour, Lach-
Platoniam and Aristotelianism. elier, Bergson). British thought after Hume was
Modern Period. In the 1 7th century the largely theistic (A. Smith, Paley, J. S. Mill,
move towards scientific materialism was tem- Reid, Hamilton), In the latter 19th century,
pered a general
by reliance on Christian or inspired largely by Kant and his metaphysical
liberal theism (Galileo* Bacon, Descartes, followers, it leaned heavily towards semi-
Hobbes, Gassendi, Toland, Hartley, Priestley, monistic personalism (E. Caird, Green, Webb,
Boyle, Newton). Hie principle of gravitation Pringle-Pattison) or impersonalistic monism
was regarded by Newton, Boyle, and others, as (Bradley, Bosanquet). Recently a more plural-
an indication of the incompleteness of the istic personalism has developed (F. C. S. Schil-
mechanistic and materialistic account of the ler, A. E. Taylor, McTaggart, Ward, Sorley).
World, and as a direct proof of the existence Recent American idealism is represented by Mc-
of God. For Newton Space was the "divine Cosh, Howison, Bowne, Royce, Wm. James
ensorium". The road to pure modern idealism (before 1904), Baldwin. German idealists of
was laid by the epistemological idealism (epi- the past century include Fechner, Krause, von
temological subjectivism) of Campanella and Hartmann, H. Cohen, Natorp, Windelband,
Descartes. The theoretical basis of Descartes' Rickert, Dilthey, Brentano, Eucken. In Italy
system was God, upon whose moral perfection idealism is represented by Croce and Gentile; in
reliance must be placed ("God will not deceive Spain, by Unamuno and Ortega e Gasset} in
us") to insure the reality of the physical world. Russia, by Losskyj in Sweden, by. Bostrdm; in
to the extent that space or extension (with of recent or contemporary personalism, see
modes of Body and Motion) is merely one of Personalism.) W.L.
the infinity of attributes of Being. Leibniz Ideality: Condition of being mental. W.L.
founded pure modern idealism by his doctrine Ideal of Reason: (Ger. Ideal der Vernunft)
of the immateriality and self-active character of Kant: The idea of an all-comprehending reality,
metaphysical individual substances (monads, God, containing the determination of all finite
souls), whose source and ground is God. Locke, existence.In the Cr. of Pure Reason Kant
a theist, gave chief impetus to the modern theory shows how and why the mind hypostatizes this
of the purely subjective character of ideas. The Ideal, the source of "transcendental illusion"
founder of pure objective idealism in Europe (q.v.). He concluded that while the traditional
was Berkeley, who shares with Leibniz the crea- proofs of God's existence were all fallacious,
tion of European immaterialism. According to the idea ofGod had a regulative use for reason,
him perception is due to the direct action of and was a necessary postulate for practical rea-
God on finite persons or souls. Nature consists son (q.v.). See Kantianism. O.F.K.
of (a) the totality />f percepts and their order, Ideal Utilitarianism: See Utilitarianism.
(b) activity and thought of God.
the Hume, Idealization: In art, the process of generalizing
later an implicit Naturalist, earlier subscribed and abstracting from specifically similar indi-
ambiguously to pure idealistic phenomenalism viduals, in order to depict the perfect type of
or scepticism. Kant's epistemological, logical which they are examples j the search for real
idealism (Transcendental or Critical Idealism) character or structural form, to the neglect of
inspired the systems of pure speculative idealism external qualities and aspects. Also, any work
of the 19th century. Knowledge, he held, is of art in which such form or character is ex-
essentially logical and relational, a product of hibited} i.e. any adequate expression of the per-
the synthetic activity of the logical self-con- fected essence inadequately manifested by the
sciousness. He also taught the ideality of space physical particular. In classical theory, the ob-
and time. Theism, logically undemonstrable, re- ject so discovered and described is a Form or
mains the choice of pure speculative reason, al- Idea* in modern theory, it is a product of
though beyond the province of science. It is imagination. 7.7.
also a practical implication of the moral life. Ideas of Pure Reason: (Kant. Ger. Ideen der
In the Critique of Judgment Kant, marshalled reinen Vernunft) Ideas, expounded and criticixed
facts from natural beauty and the apparent in the "Transcendental Dialectic" of the Cr. of
teleological character of the physical and biologi- Pure Reason, in which an absolute whole deter-
cal world, to leave a stronger hint in favor of mines the parts in an aggregate or as series.
the theistic hypothesis. His suggestion that For Kant there were three such Ideas: the soul,
reality, as well as Mind, is organic in character the world, and God. He maintained that these
is refected in the idealistic pantheisms of his Ideas did not constitute "objects", but claimed
followers: Fichte (abstract personalism or "Sub- for them a regulative use in pure reason, and
jective Idealism")* Schelling (aesthetic idealism, asserted their reality as postulates of practical
theism, "Objective Idealism"), Hegel (Absolute reason. See Kantianism, O.F.K.
or logical Idealism), Schopenhauer (voluntaristic Ideatum: Noun denoting the object of an idea,
idealism), Schleiermacher (spiritual pantheism), or that which is represented in the mind by the
Lotce ("Teleological Idealism"). 19th century idea. Also applied to really existing things out-
140 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
side the mind corresponding to the concepts in Ideology: A term invented by Destutt de Tracy
consciousness. JJ.R. for the analysis of general ideas into the sensa-
Identity: (Lat. identicus,
identidem, from re- from which he believed them to emanate.
tions
peatedly) In psychology: personal identity, or The study was advocated as a substitute for
the continuous existence of the personality de- metaphysics.
spite physiological and psychological changes. The term was used in a derogatory sense by
See: Identity, law ofJ.K.F. denominate
Napoleon to all philosophies whose
Identity, law of: Given by traditional logicians influence was republican. In recent times the
as "A is A."
Because of the various possible English equivalent has come to mean: (1) in
meanings of the copula (q.v.) and the uncertainty some economic determinists, ineffectual thoughts
as to the range of the variable A y this formula- as opposed to causally efficacious behavior, (2)
tion is ambiguous. The traditional law is per- any set of general ideas or philosophical pro-
haps best identified with the theorem x *, = gram. G.B.
either of the functional calculus of first order Ideo-motor Action : (Gr. eidos, idea -f motus,
with equality, or in the theory of types (with motion) Bodily action directly induced by the
equality defined), or in the algebra of classes, prevalence of an idea in the mind and consid-
etc. It has been, or may be, also identified with ered by W. Jame,8 as the basis of volition. (See
either of the theorems of the propositional cal- W. James, The Principles of Psychology, Vol.
culus, p =>
p, p
= p, or with the theorem of II, pp. 522 ff.) L.W.
the functional calculus of first order, F(x) 3 Idio-psychological Ethics: Ethics based on the
F(x). Many writers understand, however, by inner facts of conscience, as contrasted with
the law of identity a semantical principle that heteropsychological ethics, or ethics based on
a word or other symbol may (or must) have a mental categories other than the conscience. In-
fixed referent in its various occurrences in a troduced as terms into ethics by J. Martineau
given context (so, e.g., Ledger Wood in his The (1805-1899) in 1885. J.K.F.
Analysis of Knowledge). Some, it would seem, Idol: (Gr. eidolon, and Lat. idolum, image or
confuse such a semantical principle with a propo- likeness) Democritus (5th c. B.C.) tried to ex-
sition of formal logic. A.C. plain sense perception by means of the emission
Identity-philosophy: In general the term has of little particles (eidola) from the sense object.
been applied to any theory which failed to dis- This theory and the term, idolum, are known
tinguish between spirit and matter, subject and throughout the later middle ages, but in a
object, regarding them as an undifferentiated pejorative sense, as indicating a sort of "second-
unity; hence such a philosophy is a species of hand" knowledge. G. Bruno is usually credited
monism. In the history of philosophy it usually with the earliest Latin use of the term to name
signifies the system which has been called Iden- that which leads philosophers into error, but
titatsphilosophie by Friedrich Wilhelm Schelling, this is an unmerited honor. The most famous
who held that spirit and nature are fundament- usage occurs in F. Bacon's Novum Organum, I,
ally the same, namely, the Absolute. Neither the 39-68, where the four chief causes of human
ego nor the non-ego are the ultimate principles error in philosophy and science are called: the
of being; they are both relative concepts which Idols of the Tribe (weakness of understanding
are contained in something absolute. This is in the whole human race), of the Cave (indi-
the supreme principle of Absolute Identity of the vidual prejudices and mental defects), of the
ideal and the real. Reasoning does not lead us Forum (faults of language in the communica-
to the Absolute which can only be attained by tion of ideas), and of the Theatre (faults aris-
immediate intellectual intuition. In it we find ing from received systems of philosophy). A
the eternal concepts of things and from it we very similar teaching, without the term, idol,
can derive everything else. are obliged We to had been developed by Grosseteste and Roger
conceive the Absolute Identity as the indiffer- Bacon in the 13th century. V.J.B.
ence of the ideal and the real. Of course, this Ignorance: (Lat. in, not -f- noscere, to become
is God in Whom all opposites are united. He acquainted with) Partial or complete absence of
is the unity of thought and being, the subjective knowledge.- A.C.B.
and the objective, form and essence, the general Ignoratio elenchi: The fallacy of irrelevance,
and infinite, and the particular and finite. This i.e., of proving a conclusion which is other
than
teaching is similar to that of Spinoza. JJ.R. that required or which does not contradict the
Ideogenetic Theory: (Gr. eidos, idea -f- genesis, thesis which it was undertaken to refute. A. C.
origin) Theory of Brentano (see Brentano, I kuan: The "one thread" or central principle
Franz) and other phenomenologists (see Phe- that runs through the teachings of Confucius.
nomenology) which holds that judgment is an See Chung yung. This is interpreted as:
original act of consciousness directed towards (a) The Confucian doctrine of being true to
presentations. The term is a translation of the the principles of one's nature (chung) and the
German ideogenetische Urteile. L.W. benevolent exercise of them in relation to others
Ideological: 1. Pertaining to the school of Con- (hu), by Confucius' pupil, Tseng Tzfl.
dillac and hie French followers of the early (b) The central principle of centrality and
19th century. harmony (chung yung) by which all human
Pertaining to theories determined by cul-
2. affairs and natural phenomena may be under-
tural environment or non-rational interests. stood, (Early Confucianism.)
3. Idle, unrealistic, fanciful. W.L. (c) "Man and things forming one organic
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 141
unity," there being no discrimination between similitude in general. The idea that Scholasticism
the self and the non-self. (Ch'eng I-ch'uan, believed that the mind contains literally "copies"
1033-1107.) of the objective world is mistaken interpretation
(d) Sincerity (ch'Sng), which is the way of due to misunderstanding of the terms. R.A.
Heaven, indestructible, by which all things are Imageless Thought: Conceptual meanings not
in proper places. Sincerity is the thread
their embodied in sensuous imagery. The existence of
that runs through all affairs and things; and image less thought was a subject of controversy
being true to the principles of one's nature and among American and German psychologists
the benevolent exercise of them in relation to about 1910 imageless thought was affirmed by
j
others is the way to try to be sincere. (Chu Kulpe, and Buhler, but was rejected by Tit-
Hsi, 1130-1200.) chener. L.W.
(e) The "one" is the Great Ultimate in gen- Imagination: Imagination designates a mental
eral and the "thread" is the Great Ultimate in The revival of sense
process consisting of: (a)
each thing. (Chu Hsi.) W.T.C. images derived from earlier perceptions (the
Illative: Having to do with inference. A.C. reproductive imagination), and (b) the com-
Illicit importance, fallacy of: The mistake of bination of these elementary images into new
assuming that because a proposition is self- unities (the creative or productive imagination.)
evident, it is therefore important. H.H. The creative imagination is of two kinds: (a)
Illicit process of the major: In the categorical the fancy which is relatively spontaneous and
syllogism (Logic, formal, 5), the conclusion uncontrolled, and (b) the constructive imagina-
cannot be a proposition E or O unless the major tion, exemplified in science, invention and phi-
term appears in its premiss as distributed i.e., as losophy which is controlled by a dominant plan
subject of a proposition A or E, or the predicate or purpose. L.W.
of a proposition E or 0. Violation of this rule Imitation: In aesthetics, the general theory that
is the fallacy of illicit process of the major. artistic creation is primarily an imitative or
A.C. and the work of art an
revelatory process,
Illicit process of the minor: In the categorical imitation or representation. Such theories hold
syllogism (logic, formal, 5), the conclusion that the artist discovers, and in his work imi-
cannot be a proposition A or E unless the minor tates, real Forms, and not
physical objects -,
term appears in its premiss as distributed i.e., as art is conceived as a revelation of a spiritual
the subject of a proposition A or E, or the realm, and so as the exhibition of the essential
predicate of a proposition E or O. Violation character of the particular object represented.
of this rule is the fallacy of illicit -process of the The work of art reveals adequately the essence
minor. A.C. which the physical thing manifests inadequately.
Illumination: Source of contemplation; trans- In modern expressionistic theory, imitation is
figuration of emotional life for the attainment conceived as servile reproduction of obvious ex-
of measure and harmony (Schleiermacher). ternal qualities, a mere copying of a particular,
L.V. and so is denounced. I.J.
Illusion: (Lat. in -f ludere, to play) An illusion Immanence: (late Lat. Immanere, to remain in)
of sense is an erroneous perception arising from The state of being immanent, present, or in
a misinterpretation of data of sense because they 1. In Medieval Scholasticism a cause
dwelling.
are produced under unusual conditions of per- is immanent whose effects are exclusively within
ception, physical, physiological or psychological. the agent, as opposed to transient. 2. For Kant
Illusion contrasts with hallucination in which the immanent is experiential as opposed to non-
the sensuous ingredients are totally absent. See or transcendent. 3. In modern
experiential
Delusion; Hallucination. L.W. metaphysics and theology immanence signifies
Illusionism: The view that the spatial-temporal presence (of essence, being, power, etc.), as op-
external world is merely a veil of may a, a posed to absence. According to pantheism the
phantasmagoria. Not only is everything illusion, essence of God or th Absolute is completely
deception, appearance, but existence itself has immanent in the world, i.e. is identical with it.
no real value. (Schopenhauer.) H.H. According to Deism God is essentially absent or
Image: (Lat. imago, likeness) sensory quality A transcendent from the world. According to im-
reinstated by the mind in the absence of sensory manent theism He is both immanent (in pres-
stimulation. L. W. ence and activity) and transcendent (in essence)
Medieval: Image and Similitude are frequent- with respect to it. Mysticism in its broadest
ly used by the medieval scholars. Neither of sense posits the mutual immanence of the human
them needs mean copy. Sometimes the terms are and the divine. W.L.
nearly synonymous with sign in general. The Immanence philosophy: In Germany an ideal-
alteration of the sense organs when affected by istic type of philosophy represented by Wilhelm
some external objectis an image of the latter
Schuppe (1836-1913), which combines elements
(species sensibilis) so^ is the memory image
$ or of British empiricism, Kant, and Fichte. It re-
phantasm. The intelligible species resulting from jects any non-conscious thing-in-itself, and iden-
the operation of the active intellect on the tifies the Real with consciousness considered as
phantasm is not less an image of the universal an inseparable union of the "I" and its objects.
nature than the concept and the word expressing The categories are restricted to identity-differ-
the latter is. Images in the sense of copies
strict ence and causality. To the extent that the con-
or pictures are only a particular case of image or tent of finite consciousness is common to all or*
142 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
"trans-subjective" it is posited at the object of to deduce immortality from properties of the
t World Coniciouiness or Betousstsein Utber- soul such as simplicity, independence of the
haupt. Consequently the World is "immanent" body, its knowledge of eternal truth, etc.
in each finite consciousness rather than essen- (b) Valuational and moral -arguments seek
tially transcendent. W.L. to derive the immortality of the soul from its
Immanent and Transient Activity: In logic, supreme worth or as a presupposition of its
the activity of the mind which produces no effect moral nature.
upon the object of knowledge is called imma- (c) Empirical arguments which adduce as
nent} that which does have such an effect is evidence of immortality, automatic writing,
called transient (or According
transitive). to mediumship and other spiritualistic phenomena.
Kant, the immanent use of the understanding L.W.
is valid, since it deals only with subject-matter Immutability: Changelessness, or the state or
furnished by the senses} while the transcendent quality of not being susceptible to any altera-
effort to conceive of things as they are in them- tion. An attribute of God denoting that His
selves is illegitimate. In Christian theology, nature is essentially incapable of any internal
Jesus was created by an immanent act, and the change whatsoever. JJ.R.
world by a transient act J.K.F. Impersonalism: The mechanistic conception of
Immanent Theism: Doctrine that God is both the unconditional regularity of nature in me-
immanent and transcendent with respect to the chanics, physics, and the sciences of the living
World. This view differs from Pantheism (q.v.) organism. Opposite of Personalism. R.T.F.
by denying that God's essence is identical with Implication: See Logic, formal, 1, 3; Strict
that of the World. W.L. implication,
Immaterialism : Doctrine of the non-existence of Importation: The form of valid inference of the
material or Corporeal reality. Pure Idealism. prepositional calculus from
9 [B a C] to A
W.L. AB =* C. The law of importation is the theo-
Immateriality: (Scholastic) Immaterial substances rem of the prepositional calculus:
are the human soul and the subsistent forms, IP
=>
C?
=
'31 3 [/*
=>
r]. A.C.
the angels. The rational faculties of the human Imposition: In Scholastic logic, grammatical
soul, intellect and will are called immaterial terms such as noun, pronoun, verb, tense, con-
and believed to need no bodily organ for their jugation were classed as terms of second im-
performances, although they depend on the position) other terms as of first imposition. The
senses for their activities. Their immateriality latter were subdivided into terms of first and
is proved by their capacity of becoming cog- second intention (q. v.).A.G.
nizant of the univrrsals and of reflection on Impredicative definition: Poincarl, in a pro-
own performances. R.A.
their posed resolution (1906) of the paradoxes of
Immediacy: (Lat. in -f medius, middle) Im- Burali-Forti and Richard (see Paradoxes, logi-
mediacy is used in two senses: cal), introduced the principle that, in making a
(a) Contrasted with representation, immediacy definition of a particular member of any class,
is the direct presence to the mind of the object no reference should be allowed to the totality
of knowledge. See Presentational immediacy. of members of that class. Definitions in viola-
(b) Contrasted with mediation, immediacy tion of this principlewere called impredicative
consists in the absence or minimal and sub- (non predicatives) and were held to involve a
merged presence of inference, interpretation and vicious circle.
'
sions not containing A, but provides no such all crafts, fine art, architecture and ornament,
construction for A
is an incomplete sym-
itself dancing, acting, music and even coquetry. Be-
bol in this In Principia Mathematicat
sense. hind all these endeavors is a deeprooted sense
notations for classes, and descriptions (more of absolute values derived from Indian philoso-
correctly, notations which serve some of the phy (q.v.) which teaches the incarnation of the
purposes that would be served by notations for
divine (KrfQa, Shiva, Buddha), the transitori-
classes and by descriptions) are introduced in ness of life (cf. samsara), the symbolism and
etc., may be consulted in any history of Indian fice, priest-craft, rites, ceremonies, etc.), house-
karma, moksa, ananda (q.v.). Belief in Indian Philosophy: General name designating a
salvation is universal, hence optimism rather plethora of more or less systematic thinking
than pessimism is prevalent even though one's born and cultivated in the geographic region of
own life is sometimes treated contemptuously, India among the Hindus who represent an
fatalism is embraced or the doctrine of non- amalgamation of adventitious and indigenous
attachment and desirelessness is subscribed to. peoples, but confined at first exclusively to the
Social institutions, thoughts, and habits in India caste-conscious Indo-germanic conquerors of the
are interdependent with the theory of karma lands of the Indus and Ganges. Its beginnings
and the belief in universal law and order (cf. are lost in the dim past, while a distinct emer-
dharma). For instance, caste exists because gence in tangible form is demonstrable from
dharma is inviolable j man is born into his about 1000 B.C. Hindu idiosyncrasies are re-
circumstances because he reaps what he has sponsible for our inability to date with any
sown. Western influence, in changing Indian degree of accuracy many of the systems, schools,
institutions, will eventually also modify Indian
and philosophers, or in some cases even to refer
ethical theories. All the same, great moral to the latter by name. Inasmuch as memory,
sensitiveness is not lacking, rather much the not writing, has been universally favored in
contrary, as is proven by the voluminous story India, an aphoristic form (cf. sutra\ subtended
and didactic fable literature which has also by copious commentaries, give Indian Philoso-
acted on the West. Hindu moral conscience is phy its distinctive appearance. The medium is
evident from the ideals of womanhood (sym- Sanskrit and the dialects derived from it. There
bolized in SIta),of loyalty (symbolized in Hanu- are translations in all major Asiatic and Euro-
man), of kindness to all living beings (cf. pean languages. The West became familiar with
ahimsa), of tolerance (the racial and religious it when philologists discovered during last cen-
hotchpotch which is India being an eloquent tury the importance of Sanskrit. As a type of
witness), the great respect for the samnyasin thinking employing unfamiliar conceptions and
(who, as a member of the Brahman caste has a terminology fluctuating in meaning (cf., e.g.,
precedence over the royal or military). Critics rasa), it is distinctfrom Western speculations.
confuse and the wretched conduct of some Several peaks have been reached in the past,
Hindus confirm the indistinction practical mor- yet Indian Philosophy does not cease to act
ality with the fearless statements of metaphysics fructifyingly upon the present mind in India as
pursued with relentless logic "beyond good and elsewhere. Various factions advance conflicting
evil." claims as to the value of Indian speculation,
Periods of despondency and inactivity or even because interpretations have not as yet become
standardized. Textual criticism is now making
degeneracy and depravity in India have kept
pace with disastrous political developments. But strides, but with
varying successes. Among
a joy in life's pursuits is evident from the larger Indian Philosophy may be
histories of
earliest Vedic period and is to be traced in the mentioned those of Deussen, Das Gupta, Bel-
multifariousness of Indian culture and the color- valkar and Ranade, and Radhakrishnan.
ful Indian history itself which has left the Philosophic speculations, heavily shrowded by
Hindus one of the ancient races still virile among "pre-logical" and symbolic language, started
nations and capable of assimilation without it- with the poetic, ritualistic Vedas (q.v.), luxuriat-
self becoming extinct. Happiness may be en- ing in polytheism and polyanthropoism, was then
joyed even in the severest penance and asceti- fostered by the Brahman caste in treatises called
cism for which India is noted, while a certain Aranyakas (q.v.) and Brahmanas (q.v.) and
concomitant heroism seems undeniable. strongly promoted by members of the ruling
The ethical teachings of the Bhagavad Glta caste who instituted philosophic congresses in
(q.v.), of the various religio-philosophical which peripatetic teachers and women participated,
groups, of the Buddhists and Jainas of Greater and of which we know through the Upanishads
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 145
(q.v.). Later, the main bulk of Indian Philosophy of individuals may be taken as
synonymous with
articulated itself organically into systems forming the term universe
of discourse (in the sense of
the nucleus for such famous schools as the which
Boole) is
employed in connection with
Mrmimsi and and Yoga,
Vedanta, SSnkhya the algebra of classes. See Logic,, formal, 3,
Nyaya and Vaise?ika, and those of Buddhism 6, 7. 21. c.
and Jainism (all of which see). Numerous Individualism : The doctrine that emphasizes the
other philosophic and quasi philosophic systems reality of the individual and concrete. Differs
are found in the epic literature and elsewhere from Per son all sm (q.v.) R.T.F.
(cf., e.g., Shaktism, Shivaism, Trika, Vishnuism), In political
philosophy, the doctrine that the
or remain to be discovered. Much needs to be stateexists for the
individual, not vice versa.
translated by competent philosophers. In political economy, laissez
faire system of
All Indian doctrines orient themselves by the competition.
Vedas, accepting or rejecting their authority. In Individual Psychology: (a) In the widest sense,
ranging from materialism to acosmism and ni- individual psychology is one of the major de-
hilism, from physiologism to spiritualism, real- of psychology, comparable to such
partments^
ism to idealism, monism to pluralism, atheism other major subdivisions as
experimental psy-
and pantheism, Hindus believe they have ex- chology, abnormal psychology, comparative psy-
hausted allphilosophic attitudes (cf.
possible chology, etc, It is the branch of psychology
darsana), which they feel supplement rather devoted to the investigation of mental varia-
than exclude each other. A
universal feature is tions among individuals and includes such topics
the fusion of religion, metaphysics, ethics and as: character and temperament (see Character-
psychology, due to the universal acceptance of ology) mental types, genius, criminality, intelli-
a psycho-physical! sm, further exemplified in the gence, testing,etc. Attention was first directed
typical doctrines of karma and samsara (q.v.). to individual differences by Francis Gallon
Rigorous logic is nevertheless applied in theo- (Hereditary Genius, 1869). Gallon's method
logy where metaphysics passes into eschatology was applied to mental
deficiency by Dugdale
(cf., e.g., is) and the generally accepted belief (The Jukes, 1877) and Gallon himself extended
in the cyclic nature of the cosmos oscillating the same type of
inquiry to free association and
between srsti ("throwing out") and pralaya imagery in Inquiries into Human Faculty,
(dissolution) of the absolute reality (cf. dbhasa), 1883. A more recent contribution to individual
and in psychology, where epistemology seeks psychology is Cattell's American Men of Science
practical outlets in Yoga (q.v.). With a genius (1906).
for abstraction, thinkers were and are almost (b) In a somewhat more restricted
sense, in-
invariably hedonistically motivated by the de- dividual psychology, in contrast to folk
psy-
sire to overcome the evils of existence in the chology, group psychology or social
psychology
hope of attaining liberation (cf. moksa) and is the investigation of the individual
considered
everlasting bliss (cf. ananda, nirvana). K.F.L. so
far as possible
apart from the influence
Indifferents : (Gr. adiaphora) In Stoic ethics of the social of which he is a member.
group
those things which are in themselves neither (c) Finally ihe term "individual"
psychology
good nor bad, as producing neither virtue nor has been appropriated by a
special school of
vice; such as life, health, pleasure, beauty, analytic psychology (see
Psychoanalysis), namely
wealth, noble birth, and their contraries. The that of Alfred Adler. See A.
Adler, Problems of
Stoics further distinguished between indifferenta Neurosis} E. Wexberg, Individual
Psychology.
that are to be preferred (proegmena) and those
T j. -j
L.W.
that are not to be preferred (apoproegmena). Individuation: The constitution of a
reality as a
The former, though not goods, have a certain singular member of a species. In the context
value and are the objects of natural inclination. of the matter and form
theory it is difficult to
G.R.M explain how either prime matter (which is in
Indirect proof: See Reductio ad absurdum. itself the same in all physical
things), or sub-
Indiscernibles, Principle of: (Lat. indiscerni- stantial form (which is the same in all mem-
indistinguishable) In the philosophy of
bilis, bers of the same species), can be the cause or
Leibniz (Monadologie, IX $ Nouv. Essais, II, principle of individuality. See Thomism, Scotism,
22), no two monads can be exactly alike. Suareviantsm, for various explanations. VJ.B.
Indriya: (Skr.) One of five or more sensory
Individual: In formal logic, the individuals form functions or "senses", conceived
generally in
the first or lowest type of Russell's hierarchy of Indian philosophy kinetically as powers sub-
types. In the Principia Mathematica of White- servient to manas (q.v.). A common division is
head and Russell, individuals are "defined as into the quintads of karmendriyas and
(q.v.)
whatever is neither a proposition nor a func- fndnendriyas (s.v.). K.F.L.
tion." It is unnecessary, however, to give the Induction: (Lai. in and ducere, to lead in) i.e.,
word any such specral significance, and for to lead 'into the field of attention a number of
many purposes it is better (as is often done) to observed particular facts as ground for a
gen-
take the individuals to be an arbitrary or an eral assertion. "Perfect" induction is assertion
arbitrary infinite domain) or any particular concerning all the entilies of a collection on
well-defined domain may be taken as the domain the basis of examination of each a**d
every one
of individuals, according to the purpose in of them. The conclusion sums
up but does not
hand. When used in this way, the term domain go beyond the facts observed. Ordinarily, how-
146 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ever, "induction" is used mean ampliative
to a picture is in fieri, when the painter is painting
inference as distinguished from explicative) i.e., the canvas, but it is said to be in facto when
it is the sort of inference which attempts to the picture has already been painted. H.G.
reach a conclusion concerning all the members Infima species: The lowest species of a classi-
of a from observation of only some of
class fication. In Aristotle, the individual. R.B.W.
them. Conclusions inductive in this sense are Infinite: Opposite of finite (q. v.), as applied to
only probable, in greater or less degree accord- classes, cardinal and ordinal numbers, sequences,
the etc. See further Cardinal number; Limit.
ing to the precautions taken in selecting A.C.
evidence for them. Induction is conceived by Infinitesimal : In a phraseology which is logically
S. Mill, and generally, as essentially an inexact but nevertheless common, an infinitesimal
J.
evidencing process; but Whewell conceives it as is a quantity, or a variable, whose limit is 0.
ligating" them, i.e., of expressing them ering the limit of /(*) as x approaches 0, the
all at
once, (or, better stated, of making it possible "quantity" x may be said to be an infinitesimal.
to deduce them). For example, Kepler's state- (See the article limit.) A.C.
ment that the orbit of Mars is an ellipse repre- Infinity: An endless extent of space, time, or any
sented the discovery by him that the concep- series. conceived negatively, as hav-
Is usually
tion of the ellipse "colligated" all the observed ing no termination; may be conceived positively,
positions of Mars. Mill's view of induction
di- in respect to reality as actually
extending with-
rectly fits the process of empirical generaliza- out end. R.B.W.
tion} that of Whewell, rather the theoretical, Infinity,, axiom of: See Logic, formal, 6, 9.
explanatory part of the task of science. Charles Ingression: According to A. N. Whitehead, par-
Peirce, viewing induction as generalization, con- ticipation of potentialities in the creation of
trasts it not only with inference from antecedent complex actualities; "a concretion that is, a
to consequent("deduction") but also with in- growing together of diverse elements."
ference from consequent to antecedent, called by R.B.W.
him "hypothesis" (also called by him "abducr Innate Ideas: (Lat, innatis, inborn) The power
tion" (q.v.), but better termed "diagnosis). of understanding given in the very nature of
CJ.D. mind. Such ideas are spoken of as a priori.
Induction, complete or mathematical: See Ideas which are inborn and come with the mind
Recursion. at birth, such as God or immortality. More
In ease, in intellect!!, in re: Medieval Latin generally, ideas which all men as human and
in being, necessarily and universally
expressions of which the first signifies, rational, possess.
in existence} the second, in the intellect, espe- Locke's arguments against Descartes' belief
cially as a general idea formed by the process
of in innate ideas (cf. Essay on the Human Under-
abstraction} the third,- in a really existing thing standing, bk. I) were the target of Leibniz's
outside the mind. One may add that in the Nouveaux Essats, 1701 1765). M.F.
(publ. in
matter of is the commonly known signification Innatism: (Lat. in -f- inborn) A theory
natus,
of the third. JJ.R. of philosophy in which ideas, or principles, are
Inference: (Lat. in +
ferre, to bear) The process considered to be present in the mind at birth,
of reasoning whereby starting from one or more either fully formed or requiring some additional
propositions accepted as true, the mind passes experience for their complete formulation.
to another proposition or propositions whose VJ.B.
truth believed to be involved in the truth of
is Inner sense: The capacity of feeling immediately,
the former. Inference is a psychological process (i.e. unconditioned by the knowledge of prin-
connecting propositions asserted to be true and ciples, causes, or advantages) the beauty and
is to be distinguished from implication, the harmony (or their opposites) of material objects.
logical relation which holds between the same ( Francis Hutcheson. ) K.E.G.
propositions when the inference is valid. An Innervation, Sensation of: (Lat. in -f- nervus,
inference is valid when a genuine implicative nerve) Sensation accompanying the efferent
relation holds between the propositions; invalid nerve currents which discharge from the central
when there is no such implicative relation. In- nervous system into the muscles. The existence
ference deductive or inductive according as
is of such a sensation has been much disputed by
the underlying logic is deduction (see Deduc- psychologists. (See W. James, The Principles
tion) or induction (see Induction). W. B. of Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 498 ft.) L.W.
Joseph, An Introduction to Logic. L. S. Steb- Insolubilia: See Paradoxes, logical.
bing, Modern Introduction to Logic. J. Cook Inspection: (Lat. inspection, from inspectus, pp.
Wilson, Statement and Inference. B. Bosanquet, of inspicere, to look into) Rudimentary knowl-
Implication and Linear Inference. L.W. edge of qualities and relations between qualities
See Logic, formal and Valid inference. as given in immediate experience, (see Presenta-
In fieri: (in Scholasticism) A thing is said to be tional Immediacy) in contradistinction to per-
in fieri when it is beginning to be, but is not yet ception, memory, introspection and other higher
complete. It is said to be in facto when it exists cognitive processes which are conversant not
completely in the nature of things with those with qualities but with objects. L.W.
constituent parts with which it remains. Thus Institutions: (Lat. instituere, to cause to stand)
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 147
(a) Establishments. Relatively permanent group intellect by imagination, memory aad the fo
behavior patterns or established social practices, cogitativa co-operating. The internal senses are
as distinguished from temporary practices or conceived as being bound to organic functions
patterns. of the brain. The intellect operates in a two-
(b) Socially established behavior patterns, au- fold manner, but is only one. As active intellect
thoritatively or legally enforced, as distinguished (intelltc^ agent) it "illuminates" the phan-
from Folkways which are merely taken-for- tasm, disengaging there from the universal na-
granted common but uncompelled ways of be- ture) as passive intellect (int. pessttilit) it is
havior and as distinguished from "mores" which informed by the result of this abstractive opera-
are enforced by group opinion rather than by tion and develops the concept. Concepts are
legally authorized means. A.J.B. united into judgments by combination and divi-
Instrumentalist!! : See Pragmatism. sion (assertion and negation). Judgments are
Instrumental theory: The mind is a substance related to each other in syllogistic reasoning or
existentially independent body, either
of the by the abbreviated form of enthymeme. Aquinas
existing prior to the body, or after the destruc- denies to the intellect the capacity of becoming
tion of the body. (Broad.) H.H. aware of particulars in any direct way. The in-
Instrumental value: See Value y Instrumental. tellect knows of them (e.g. when asserting:
Integral: A whole composed of parts. Belonging Socrates is a man) only indirectly by reflecting
to a whole as one of its parts. Anything com- on its own operations and finally on the phan-
un- tasm which served as starting point Proposi-
posed of distinguishable parts. Complete,
touched. In mathematics, related to integers \ tions, however, have no directly corresponding
the result of integration. 7.AT.F. phantasm. Later Scholastics credit the intellect
Integration: (Lat. integrate, to make whole) The with a direct knowledge of particulars (Suarez).
act of making a whole out of parts. In mathe- See Abstraction, Faculty. R.A.
ratio. Intellection would be impossible without Intelligence, creative: A term denoting the
reason: Intelligere non valemus, nisi rationem presence of self-consciousness, self-direction and
habeamus. The intellect is the soul itself: Non purpose in the creative processes of the world.
enim aliquid aliud est quam anima t sed aliquid Syn. in Personalism for God, elan vital, but
animae est intellectus. It rules the soul: In- in naturalism of Dewey, divorced from such
tellects animam regit t ad ipsam animam perti- association. R.T.F.
nens. Sometimes the intellectus is called intelli- Intelligible: Understandable) comprehensi-
(1)
gentia. Both the intellect and reason are innate ble j knowable) meaningful) (2) Orderly) logi-
in the mind} mens cut ratio et 4ntelligentia cal) coherent) rational) (3) Communicable) ex-
naturalitcr inest. Reason seeks knowledge or pressible) (4) Having unity of principle) cap-
science, scitntta, while the intellect, which is able of complete rational explanation or under-
higher, aims at wisdom, sapientia, or the con- standing) capable of causal explanation) (5)
templation of eternal things, and especially God. Clear to natural or pure reason) apprehensible
-JJ.R. by the intellect (q.v.) only as against appre-
Whence, in typical Scholastic or me-
the hensible through the senses) conceptual as
dieval notion, intellect is an immaterial faculty against perceptual) conceptually describable or
of the soul, that is, its operations are performed explainable) (6) Capable of being known syn-
without a bodily organ, though they depend on optically or as it is in itself or in essence)
the body and its senses for the material from capable of being known through itself as against
which they receive their first impulse. Nothing by agency of something else) graspable by in-
is in the Intellect that has not been previously tuition) self-explanatory) (7) Capable of being
in the senses. The
impressions received by the appreciated or sympathised with) (8) Super-
external senses are synthesized by the internal sensible) of the nature of mind, reason, or their
sensus communis which forms an image or higher powers. M.T.K.
phantasm) the phantasm is presented to the Intension and extension: The btinubn of a
148 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
concept consists of the
qualities or properties (Ger. Intentionalitdt) In Husserl: 1.
which go to make up
the concept. The exten- (broadest sense) The character of anything
sion of a concept consists of the things which as "intending" or pointing beyond itself}
fall under the concept) (most frequent sense) The
or, according to another self-transcendence. 2.
analogous to this one, the adjective extensional intrinsically a modification. See phenomenology.
being applied to notions or points of view which
in some respect confine attention to truth-values Intentionally: (in Scholasticism) Same as men-
of propositions as opposed to meanings consti- tally.-//.*?.
tuting propositions. In the case of (interpreted) Intentional Theory of Mind: The definition of
calculi of propositions or propositional
functions,
mind in terms of intentionality (See Intention-
the adjective intentional may mean that account ality) which originated in the Scholastic doc-
is taken of trine of intentio, was revived
modality, extensional that all func- by F. Brentano
tions of propositions which appear are truth- (Psychologie vom empirischen standpunkte,
functions. The extreme of the extensional point 1874) though his influence has become a char-
of view does away with propositions altogether acteristic theory of German
phenomenology. See
and retains only truth-values in their place. Phenomenology. L. W,
A.C. Interactionism : See Interaction Theory.
The Port-Royal Logic, translated by T. S. Interaction Theory: (Lat. inter -}- actio, action)
Baynes (see Introduction by the translator). A dualistic theory of the body-mind relation,
Lewis and Langford, Symbolic Logic, New York
advanced by Descartes (1596-1650), which as-
and London, 1932. R. Carnap, The Logical Syntax
serts a two directional causal influence between
of Language, New York and London, 1937.
Intensive quantity: Any quantity which is such mind and body. See Mind-Body Relation.
that there exists no known physical process of L.W.
addition which a Interest: (Lat. interest, it concerns, 3rd pers.
by greater quantity of the
kind in question could be produced from a lesser sing, ofinteresse, to be between) The char-
means merely) or desirable for its own sake. (Ibid, V, 39) the greater part of our mind
;
[ntrospective Method: The method^in psychol- As an example of the rejection of the law of
ogy, which, in opposition to the objective method excluded middle, consider the proposition,
of Behaviorism (See Behaviorism) relies largely "Either every even number greater than 2 can
upon introspective observation. See Introsjec- be expressed as the sum of two prime numbers
tion.L.W. or else not every even number greater than 2
[ntuitio: A term generally employed by Spinoza can be expressed as the sum of two prime
in a technical sense than that found in the
more numbers." This proposition is intuitionistically
Cartesian philosophy (see Reg. ad Dir. Ing., unacceptable, because there are infinitely many
III). It is primarily used by Spinoza in con- even numbers greater than 2 and it is impos-
nection with "scientia inluitiva" or knowledge sible to try them all one by one and decide of
"of the third kind" (Ethica, II, 40, Schol. 2). each whether or not it is the sum of two prime
Intuition of this sort is absolutely certain and numbers. An intuitionist would accept the dis-
infallible) in contrast to reason (ratio, q.v.), it junction only after a proof had been given of
produces the highest peace and virtue of the one or other of the two disjoined propositions-
mind (Ibid, V, 25 and 27). Also, as over and in the present state of mathematical knowl-
against ratio, it yields an adequate knowledge edge it is not certain that this can be done
of the essence of things, and thus enables us to (it is not certain that the mathematical problem
know and love God, through which knowledge involved is solvable). If, however, we replace
150 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
"greater than 2" by "greater than 2 and less to on intuitions, particular or general, as
rest
than 1,000,000,000," the resulting disjunction to the Tightness, obligatoriness, goodness, or
becomes intuitionistically acceptable, since the value of actions or objects. Taken in this sense,
number of numbers involved is then 'finite. intuitionism is the dominant point of view in
The law of ex-
intuitionistic rejection of the recent Britiih ethics, and is represented in
cluded middle is not to be understood as an Europe by the phenomenological ethics of M.
assertion of the negation of the law of excluded Scheler and N. Hartmann, having also pro-
middle) on the contrary, Brouwer asserts the ponents in America. That is, it covers not only
negation of the negation of the law of excluded the deontological intuitionism to be found at
middle, i.e., ~~[p
v ~p]. Still less is the Oxford, but also the axiological and even teleo-
intuitionistic rejection of the law of excluded logical or utilitarian intuitionism to be found
middle to be understood as the assertion of the in J. Martineau, H. Sidgwick, H. Rashdall,
existence of a third truth-value intermediate be- G. E. Moore, J. Laird. Among earlier British
tween truth and falsehood. moralists it is represented by the Cambridge
The rejection of the law of excluded middle Platonists, the Moral Sense School, Clarke,
carries with it the rejection of various other Cumberland, Butler, Price, Reid, Whewell, etc.
laws of the classical prepositional calculus and that the basic propositions of ethics
By saying
functional cakulus of first order, including the (i.e. of the theory of obligation, of the theory
law of double negation (and hence the method of value, or of both) are intuitive, the intuition-
of indirect proof). In general the double nega- ists mean at least that they are ultimate and
tion of a proposition is weaker than the propo- underivative, primitive and uninferable, as well
sition itself) but the triple negation of a propo- as synthetic, and sometimes also that they are
sition is equivalent to its single negation. self-evident and a priori. This implies that one
Noteworthy also the rejection of ~(*)F(*)
is or more of the basic notions of ethics (right-
3 (Ex)~F(x)i but the reverse implication is ness, goodness, etc.) are indefinable, i.e. simple
valid. (The sign = here does not denote mate- or unanalyzable and unique j and that ethics is
rial implication, but is a distinct primitive autonomous. Intuitionists also hold that right-
symbol of implication.)- A.C. nessand goodness are objective and non-natural.
L, E. J. Brouwer, ue onbttroitwbaarkeid der Hence their view is sometimes called objectivism
lotiscbt prlncipes, Tijdschrift voor Wijsbegeerte,
or non-naturalism. The views of Moore and
vol. 2 (1908), pp. 152-158;
reprinted in Brouwer's
Wiskmndt, Waarktid, WtrktUjkbeid, Groningen, Laird are also sometimes referred to as realistic.
1919. L. E. J. Brouwer. Intnitionism and formal- See Deontological ethics, Axiological ethics,
ism, English translation by A. Dresden, Bulletin of
the American Mathematical Society, vol. 20 (1913), Ideological ethics, Utilitarianism, Objectivism,
4 '
wrongness of particular acts are intuitive. Dog- without always wishing to endow it as such with
matic intuitionism holds that some general personal attributes except as may be helpful to
material propositions relating to the rightness a lower intelligence or to one who feels the
or wrongness of kinds of acts may also be need of worship and bhakti (q.v.). K.F.L.
intuited, e.g. that promises ought to be kept. Islam: Name peculiar to the religion founded by
Philosophical intuitionism holds that it is only Mohammed, embracing all sects found among
certafo general propositions about what is right his Etymologically the term means
followers.
or wftfof that are intuitive, and that these are "to resign oneself". The word means not fatal-
few and purely formal. istic submission to the deity, but striving after
(b) In the wider more recent sense, intuition- righteousness, the practice of the law, obedience
ism includes all views in which ethics is made to rules and formal performance of outward
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 151
duties. Meaning the acceptance of the divine structural similaritybetween fields in the brain
will, Islam stresses the legal and external per- and the content of consciousness.
formance of religion. H.H. In logic and mathematics, a relation between
Isolation by Varying Concomitants: In the two systems such that there exists a one-one
logic of scientific method, the fourth of the five correspondence between their elements, and an
experimental methods of J. S. Mill (1806- identity of some relation that holds between
1873), whereby cause can be determined in any any of the elements in one system and the
actual case. Known also as the Method of corresponding elements in the other system.
Concomitant Variation. Stated by Mill as fol- J.K.F.
lows: "Whatever phenomenon varies in any I Yuan: The One-Prime which is the supreme
manner whenever another phenomenon varies in It is One and is identical with the
beginning.
some particular manner, is either a cause or an Origin. "The Prime is the root of the myriad
Jacobi, Fricdrich Hcinrich: (1743-1819) Ger- as a brilliant and original lecturer, and his al-
man philosopher of "feeling" who opposed the ready considerable reputation was greatly en-
Kantian tradition. He held that the system of hanced in 1890 when his Principles of Psychol-
absolute subjective idealism, to which he re- ogy made its appearance. Had James written
duced Kant, could not grasp ultimate reality. no other work, his position in American phi-
He was equally opposed to a dogmatic rational- losophy and psychology would be secure; the
ism such as the Spinozistic. He based his view vividness and clarity of his style no less than
upon feeling, belief or faith by which he pur- the keenness of his analysis roused the imagina-
ported to find truth as immediately revealed in tion of a public in this country which had long
consciousness. Main works: Ueber die Lehre been apathetic to the more abstract problems of
des Spinoza in Briefen an Moses Mendelsohn, technical philosophy. Nor did James allow this
1785$ David Hume uber den Glauben, 1787} rising interest to flag. Turning to religious
and
Sendschreiben an Fichte, 1799. L.E.D. moral problems, and later to metaphysics, he
Jainism: An Indian produced a large number of writings which
religion claiming great an-
tiquity, the last of the great teachers (tirthan- gave ample evidence of his amazing ability to
cut through the cumbersome terminology of
kara) being Mahavira (6th cent. B.C.), em-
bracing many philosophical elements of a traditional statement and to lay bare the essen-
tial character of the matter in hand. In this
pluralistic type of realism. It rejects Vedic (q.v.)
authority and an absolute being, gods as well sense, James was able to revivify philosophical
men issues long buried from any save the classical
as partaking of mortality, and holds the
mythologically conceived world to be eternal scholars. Such oversimplifications as exist, for
and subject only to the fixed sequence of six example, in his own "pragmatism" and "radical
ages,good and bad, but not periodic creation empiricism" must be weighed against his great
and destruction. There is -an infinitude of in- accomplishment in clearing such problems as
destructible individual souls or spiritual entities, that of the One and the Many from the dry rot
each possessing by nature many properties in-
of centuries, and in rendering such problems
clusive omniscience, unlimited energy and
of immediately relevant to practical and personal
bliss which come to the fore upon attaining difficulties. W.S.W.
full independence. The non-spiritual substances Other main works. The Will to Believe and
are space and time, rest and motion, and matter Other Essays in Popular Philosophy, 1897}
composed of atoms and capable of being appre- Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study in
hended by the senses and combining to form the Human Nature, 1902} Pragmatism: A New
world of infinite variety. Matter also penetrates Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking, 1907}
spiritual substance like a physician's pill, chang- A Pluralistic Universe, 1909} Some Problems
ing to karma and producing physical attach- of 1911} Essays in Radical Em-
Philosophy,
ments. The good li-fe consists in the acquisition piricism, Cf. R. B. Perry, Thought and
1912.
of the three gems (triratna) of right faith
Character of William James, 2 vols., 1935.
(samyag-darsana), right knowledge (samyag- Jansenism: The teaching of Cornelius Jansen,
jnana), right conduct (samyag-caritra). Salva- latinized Jansenius (1585-1638), Bishop of
tion,i.e., becoming a kevalin (cf. kevala), is Ypres, and his followers in France and Holland.
an arduous task achieved in 14 stages of per- Its most significant doctrineswere the total
fection, the last being bodiless existence in bliss corruption of human nature owing to original
and complete oblivion to the world and its ways. sin, man's inability to resist either concupiscence
K.F.L. or grace implying the denial of free will, pre-
Jamb lie us: 270-330 A.D.) A Syrian Neo-
(c. destination, and the denial that Christ died for
all men without exception. The Jansenists were
Platonist, who wrote extensive commentaries on
Hellenic and Oriental theology and transformed characterized by an unusual harshness, severity
Plotinus' teachings into a dogmatic theology of of manners, and moral rigorism. The doctrine
ihortly after graduation (MD, 1870) from Jaspers analyzes the possible attitudes of man
Harvard University. He became widely known towards the world} the decisions which the in-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 153
dividual must make in inescapable situations tion of one's true self and the restoration of
like death, struggle,
change, guilt} and the the moral order."
(Confucius and Mencius.)
various ways in which man meets these situa- "The active (yang) and passive
(yin) principles
tions. Motivated by the boundless desire for are the way of Heaven the principles of
;
teachings can be traced in the early Agadic due to one creator or one first cause is also
literature. frequently employed.
Speculation in Jewry rose again in the ninth The problem of attributes gave rise to exten-
century in the lands of the East, particularly sive discussions. In general, the attempt is made
in Babylonia, when Judaism once more met to convey some knowledge about God and yet
Greek philosophy, this time dressed in Arabic maintain that His essence is inconceivable. The
garb. The
philosophic tradition of the ancients number of attributes varies with individual phi*
transmitted through the Syrians, to the young losophers, from three of Bahya to eight of Ibn
Arabic nation created a disturbance in the minds Daud. Saadia counts one, living, potent and
of the devotees of the Koran who, testing its wise as essential attributes) Bahya one, existent,
principles by the light of the newly acquired and eternal. Ha-Levi substitutes living for
wisdom, found them often wanting. As a re- existent. Ibn Daud adds to those of Saadia
sult, various currents thought were set in
of and Bahya three more: true, willing, and potent.
motion. Of these, the leading was the Kalamitic Maimonides considers living, potent, wise, and
or the Mutazilitc philosophy, (q.v.) of several willing as those agreed upon by philosophers.
shades, the general aim of which was both to The difficulty, however, does not consist in the
defend doctrines of religion against heresies and number but in their content, or in other words,
also to reconcile them with the principles of how to speak of essential attributes and not to
reason. impair the simplicity of God's essence. Bahya
On the whole, there can be distinguished was the first to assert that their content is nega-
two currents in the entire stream of Jewish tive, e.g., existent means not non-existent. He
philosophy which flowed for about five hun- was followed in this by all others. Maimonides
dred years, the Oriental and the Occidental. is especially insistent upon the negative mean-
The first was limited to the lands of the East, ing and asserts that they are to be applied
such as Babylonia and the neighboring countries, to God and man an absolute homonymic
in
and the leading representatives of which were manner, i.e., there is no possible relation be-
Saadia (q.v.) among the Rabbanites and Aaron tween God and other beings. Gersonides and
ben Elijah (q.v.) among the Karaites. The Crescas, on the other hand, believe that the es-
second developed primarily in Spain and the sential attributes are positive though we cannot
Provence, and among its leading thinkers were determine their content. There are, of course,
Bahya (q.v.), Gabirol (q.v.), Maimonides (q.v.), other attributes which are descriptive of His
Gersonides (q.v.) and Crescas (q.v.). Since action, but these are not essential.
Jewish philosophy, during a large part of its The relation of God to the world includes, as
existence, was developed within the Arabic we have seen, a number of problems. The gen-
world, consequently refects the influence of
it eral conception of the world with almost all
the various systems of thought dominant within Jewish philosophers is mainly Aristotelian. All,
that sphere. not excluding Saadia, who was to a considerable
Almost Jewish philosophers with the ex-
all degree under the influence of the Mutazilites, all
ception of Gabirol, ha-Levi, and Gersonides pro- except Aristotle's theory of matter and form, i.e.,
duce proofs for the existence of God. These that all bodies are composed of two elements, the
proofs are based primarily on principles of substratum or the hyle and the particular form
physics. In the case of the Western philosophers, with which it is endowed. They all speak of
they are Aristotelian, while in the case of the primal matter which was the first creation, and
Eastern, they are a combination of Aristotelian all accept his view of the four elements, i.e.,
and those of the Mutazilites. The Eastern philos- fire, air, water, and earth which are the com-
ophers, such as Saadia and others and also Bahya ponents of all things in the lower world. They
of the Western prove the existence of God in- also accept his cosmogony, namely, the division
directly, namely that the world was created and of the universe of the upper world of the
consequently there is a creator. The leading West- spheres and the lower or sublunar world, and
ern thinkers, such as Ibn, Daud (q.v.) and Mai- also posit the influence of the spheres upon the
monides employ the Aristotelian argument from course of events in this world. On the other
motion, even to positing hypothetically the hand, alloppose his view of the eternity of the
eternity of the world. Ha-Levi considers the world and champion creation de novo with
conception of the existence of God an intuition slight variations.
with which man is endowed by God Himself. The differences begin when the questions of
Crescas, who criticized Aristotle's conception of the mode and mediators between
of creation
space and the infinite, in his proof for the God and the world are dealt with. In these
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 155
to that of Saadia. The Aristotelians, Ibn Daud, edge is not true. Various answers were proposed
Maimonides, and Gersonides accepted the theory by Jewish philosophers to this difficult prob-
of the separate intelligences which was current lem. Saadia says that God's knowledge is like
in Arabic philosophy. This theory teaches that gazing in a mirror of the future which does not
out of the First Cause there emanated an in- influence human action. He knows the ultimate
telligence, and out of this intelligence another result. Maimonides says that God's knowledge
one up to nine, corresponding to the number of is so totally different from human that it re-
spheres. Each of these intelligences acts as the mains indefinable, and consequently He may
object of the mind of a sphere and is the cause know things beforehand, and yet not impair
of its movement. The tenth intelligence is the the possibility of man to choosy between two
universal intellect, an emanation of all intelli- actions. Ibn Daud and Gersonides limit God's
gences which has in its care the sublunar world. knowledge and say that He only knows that
This theory is a combination of Aristotelian certain actions will be present to man for choice
and neo-Platonic teachings; Ibn Daud posits, but not the way he will choose. Crescas is more
however, in addition to the intelligences also logical and comes to the conclusion that action
the existence of angels, created spiritual beings, is possible only per se, i.e., when looked upon
while Maimonides seems to identify the angels singly, but is necessary through the causes. Free
with the intelligences, and also says that natural will is in this case nominal and consist pri-
forces are also called angels in the Bible. marily in the fact that man is ignorant of the
As for creation, Ibn Daud asserts that God real situation and he is rewarded and punished
created the hyle or primal matter and endowed for his exertion to do good or for his neglect
it with general form from which the specific to exert himself.
forms later developed. Maimonides seems to The origin, nature, and the continued existence
believe that God first created a substance con- or immortality of the soul is widely discussed in
sisting of primal matter and primal form, and Jewish philosophy. As to origin, Saadia be-
that He determined by His will that parts of lieves that each individual soul is created by
it should form the matter of the spheres which God considering, of course, creation a con-
is imperishable, while other parts should form tinuous process and that it is of a fine spiritual
the matter of the four elements. These views, substance. As to its faculties, he accepts the
however, are subject to various interpretations Aristotelian-Platonic division of the soul into
by historians. Gabirol and Gersonides posit the three namely, the appetitive, emotional,
parts,
eternal existence of the hyle and limit creation and cognitive. Ibn Daud thinks that the soul
to endowing it with form and organization a existsprior to the body potentially, i.e., that
view close to the Platonic. the angels endow the body with form} he fur-
Divine providence is admitted by all Jewish ther considers it a substance but says that it
events, or even in disturbing the natural order parts. To the three of Saadia he adds the
on occasion. In other words, they admit a fre- imaginative and the conative. Gersonides' view
resembles somewhat that of Ibn Daud, except
quency of miracles. The more liberal, though
that he does not speak of its origin and limits
they do not deny the occurrence of miracles,
attempt to limit it, and often rationalize the himself to the intellect. The intellect, says he,
numerous miraculous events related in the Bible is only a capacity residing in the lower soul,
and bring them within the sphere of the rational and that capacity is gradually developed by the
order. Typical and representative is Maimonides' help of the Active Intellect into an acquired
view of Providence. He limits its extent in and ultimately intp an active reason. All think-
the sublunar world to the human genus only ers insist on immortality, but with Saadia and
on account of its possession of mind. As a ha-Levi it seems that the entire soul survives,
result he posits a graded Providence, namely, while the Aristotelians assert that only the in-
that the one who it more intellectually perfect tellect is immortal. Maimonides is not explicit
receives more attention or special Providence. on the subject, yet we may surmise that even
This theory is also. espoused, with certain modi- the more liberal thinkers did not subscribe to
156 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Averroes* theory of unitat intellects, and they philosophic understanding, insight, believed by
believed that the immortal intellect is endowed some Indian philosophers to effect moksa (q.v.).
with consciousness of personality. To this trend K.F.L.
of connecting immortality with rational reflec- Jninendriya :
(Skr.) One of the five indriyas
tion Crescas took exception, and asserts that it (q.v.) of knowledge, the cognitive senses or
is not pure thought which leads to survival, powers of hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling,
but that the soul is immortal because it is a and tasting. K.F.L.
spiritual being, and it is perfected by its love Jodl, Priedrich: (1848-1914) His central in-
for God and the doing of good. terest was research in the field of ethics} en-
The view of freedom of the will and the soul gaged in developing a humanistic and natural*
influenced to a great extent the ethics of the is tic ethic. Made his most notable contribution
Jewish philosophers. A
large number of thinkers in the history of ethical theories. Following
accepted the Aristotelian norm of the golden the positivists Feuerbach, Comte and Mill, he
mean as the rule of conduct, but considered projected a new religion of national culture.
that the laws and precepts of the Torah help Main works: Gesch. der Ethik, 1906} Wis-
towards obtaining right conduct. Maimonides, sensch u. Religion, 1909} Der Monismus u.d.
however, stated that the norm of the mean is Kulturprotteme, 1911 .tf./f .
only for the average man, but that the higher John of Salisbury: (c. 1115-1180) From the
man should incline towards an extreme good works of this Englishman, much can be learned
way in conduct. Crescas' view of the good way about the schoolmen of his day for he presents
follows from the theory of the soul, he stresses
cogent criticism of their views which he char-
the emotional element, namely the necessity of In his Metalogicus he
acterizes as fruitless.
the love of the Good and the desire to actualize
advocates reform in logic. He was among the
it in life. of absolute separation of
earliest adherents
Of the many theological doctrines included in church and state, a view which he advanced in
this philosophy, there are to be noted those of Policraticus. He adopted a practical attitude
the Torah and prophecy. The Torah is con- toward knowledge, seeking the rejection of what
sidered by all philosophers divinely revealed. was useless and contrary to a pious life, even
The Sinaitic revelation was accomplished by though proof positive could not be advanced
means of a specially created voice which uttered for what was found favorable to the true good.
the commandments. The Torah is therefore im- L.JP.Z).
mutable and is eternal. Its purpose is to train
Joseph, Albo: (1380-1444) Jewish philosopher.
men for a good life. According to Maimonides, His Ikkarim, i.e., Dogmas is devoted primarily
the Torah aims at both the improvement of the
to the problem of dogmatics. He differs with
soul and of the body. The first is accomplished
Maimonides who fixed the Articles of Creed at
the second by numerous laws which regulate the and posits only three fundamental
thirteen,
by inculcating right conceptions about God, and dogmas.
life of the individual and society.
(1) Belief in the existence of God} (2) Di-
Another means of revelation is prophecy. The vine origin of the Torah (3) Reward and 5
and minister, for father and ton, or the distinc- Judgment: (a) The mental act of asserting (af-
tions they make between husband and wife and firming or denying) an asaertible content. Tradi-
between old and young, in these not even the tionally a judgment is said to affirm or to deny
opposition of all other philosophers can make a predicate of a subject. As generalized by
any change." modern logicians this becomes affirmation or
Confucius taught that "it is man that can denial of a relation (not necessarily that of
make truth great, and not truth that can make predication) among certain terms (not neces-
man great." Consequently he emphasized moral sarily two). One classification of judgments lists
philosophy. See e.g., Astikaya, Dravya, Kan- Kantianism: The philosophy of Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804)$ also called variously, the critical
Kalanos: (Grecized from Skr. kalydna) Hindu A philosophy, criticism, transcendentalism, or trans-
cendental idealism. Its roots lay in the Enlight-
philosopher who lived at the court of Alexander
the Great while in India and finally mounted enment) but it sought to establish a comprehen-
his own funeral pile. AT.F.L. sive method and doctrine of experience which
would undercut the rationalistic metaphysics of
Kalology: The study of the beauties of sensible
the 1 7th and 1 8th centuries.
objects and of character combined. (Montague.)
H.H. In an early "pre-critical" period, Kant's in-
terest centered in scientific cos-
Kames, Henry Home: (1696-1782) He was evolutionary,
whole. If the necessary, synthetic principles reason) we know things, in other words, as
cannot be derived from sense data proper, then, "phenomena."
Kant argued, they must be "a priori" logically But reason is not limited to its theoretical
prior to the materials which they relate. He use. Besides objects of cognition and thought,
also called these formal elements "transcen- there are also those of will and feeling. Kant's
dental", by which he meant that, while they "practical philosophy", the real foundation of
are indubitably in experience viewed as a con- his system of transcendental idealism, centers in
nected whole, they transcend or are distinct a striking doctrine of freedom. Even in its
from the sensuous materials in source and status. theoretical use, reason is a law-giver to Nature,
In the Critique of Pure Reason his "theoreti- in that the data of sense must conform to the
cal philosophy" Kant undertakes a complete forms of the sensibility and understanding if
inventory and "deduction" of all synthetic, a Nature is to be known at all. But in moral
priori, transcendental forms employed in the experience, as Kant shows in the Critique of
knowledge of Nature. The first part, the Practical Reason (1788), the will of a rational
"Transcendental Aesthetic", exhibits the two being is directly autonomous a law unto it-
forms or "intuitions" (Anschauungen) of the self. But the unconditional moral law, "duty"
sensibility:space and time. Knowledge of Na- or "categorical imperative", the validity of
ture, however varied its sense content, is neces- which Kant does not question, is possible only
sarily always of something in space and time; on the supposition that the will is really free.
and just because these are necessary conditions As phenomenal beings we are subject to the
of any experience of Nature, space and time laws of nature and reason j but as pure rational
cannot be objective properties of things-in- wills we move in the free, noumenal or in-
themselves, but must be formal demands of telligible realm, bound only by the self-im-
reason. Space and time are "empirically real", posed rational law "to treat humanity in every
because they are present in actual experience; pase as an end, never as a means only."
but they are "transcendentally ideal", since they The influence of Pietism and of Rousseau's
are forms which the mind "imposes" on the data
gospel of Nature are apparent in the essentially
of sense. Christian and democratic direction in which
In the second part, the "Transcendental Kant develops this rigorous ethics. The reality
Logic", Kant treats of the synthetic forms of the of God and the immortality of souls concern-
understanding (Verstand), which he calls "cate- ing which no theoretical demonstration was pos-
gories" or "pure principles of the understand- sible emerge now as postulates of practical
ing". Of these he recognizes twelve in all, reason; God, to assure the moral governance
arranged in groups of threes under the heads: of a world in which virtue is crowned with
quantity, quality, relationand modality. The happiness, the "summum bonum"} immortality,
sensuous materials embedded in the forms of so that the pursuit of moral perfection may
sensibilityconstitute percepts, while reason, continue beyond the empirical life 'of man.
through the understanding, supplies the concepts These postulates, together with moral freedom
and principles by means of which percepts are and popular rights, provide the basis for Kant's
synthesized into njeaningful judgments of Na- assertion of the primacy of practical reason.
ture. In the celebrated "deduction of the cate- Finally, intellect and will are brought into
gories", Kant shows that without these forms meaningful relation (Critique of Judgment^
there could be no knowledge or experience of 1789-1793) in the feeKngs of aesthetic (i.e.,
Nature. Just therein and only therein lies their "artistic") enjoyment and natural purposive-
validity. ness. The appreciation of beauty, "aesthetic
But by the same token, as Kant now shows judgment", arises from the harmony of an
in the third part on "Transcendental Dialectic", object of cognition with the forms of knowl-
the forms of sensibility and understanding can- edge; the perfect compatibility, in other words,
not be employed beyond experience in order to of Nature and freedom, best exemplified in
son, and Royce, saw Kant for the most part of the Brethren of the Common Life, at Deven-
through Hegel's eyes. More recently the study ter. Pie attended no university but attained a
of Kant's philosophy has come into its own in high degree of spiritual development. His Imi-
English-speaking countries through such com- tation of Christ is one of the most famous, and
mentaries as those of N. K. Smith and Paton. most used, books of Catholic spiritual medita-
In France the influence of Kant was most tion) it has been printed in nearly all languages
apparent in Renouvier's "Phenomenism". and is found in innumerable editions. There
O.F.K. seems to be no valid reason for questioning his
Kant-Laplace hypothesis: Theory of the origin authorship of the work. V.J,B.
of the solar system, formulated first by Kant Kenotism: The doctrine of Kenosisj literally
(Natural History and Theory of the Heavens, the Greek term Kenosis means an emptying.
1755) and later by Laplace (Exposition of the The doctrine arose from the discussion of Phil,
System of the World, 1796). According to this ii, 7, where we read that Christ "emptied him-
theory the solar system evolved from a rotating self, taking the form of a servant." Some have
mass of incandescent gas which by cooling and interpreted the text in the sense that the Son
shrinking, and thus inc; easing its rate of spin, of God in becoming man put aside some of His
gradually fattened at its poles and threw off divine attributes, while others, notably the
rings from its equator. These rings became the Catholics, maintain that the abasement referred
planets, which by the operation of the same to signifies only the occultation of the Divinity
laws developed their own satellites. While Lap- when the Word was made flesh. J.J.R.
lace supposed the rotating nebula to have been Kevala: (Skr. alone) A predicate or synonym of
the primordial stuff, Kant maintained that this the Absolute in its unitary, free, autonomous,
was itself formed
and put into rotation by all-inclusive and universal aspect. The condition
gravitational action on the original atoms which or state of being absolute and independent is
through their impact with one another generated kevalatva, one who meditates on or has attained
heat. A.C.B. personal experience of it, is a kevalin. K.F.L.
Kapila: Founder of the Sankhya (q.v.). K.F.L. Kierkegaard, Soren: (1813-1855) Danish re-
Karana: (Skr.) Cause} causa efficiens. K.F.L. ligious thinker whose influence was largely
lim-
Karma, Karman: (Skr.) Action, movement, deed, ited to Scandinavian and German circles until
a category e.g. in the Vaisesika (q.v.). In In-
recently. His works are now translated into
dian philosophy generally thought of as a meta- English and his thought revived by contempo-
physical entity carried by the individual along rary social pessimists. Eternity, he held, is more
in samsdra (q.v.). As law, karma would be important than time} sin is worse than suffer-
identical with physical causation or causality man is an egotist and must experience
ing}
while working with equal rigor in man's psychic
despair; God is beyond reason and man} Chris-
and thought life. As such it is the unmitigated tianity stands opposed to this world and time
law of retribution working with equal precision and to man's reason j paradoxes are the inevita-
in "good" and "evil" deeds and thoughts, thus ble result of man's reflections; Christian ethics
determining the nature and circumstances of realizable only in Kierkegaard was
eternity.
incarnation. Karma is classified into prdrabdha raised in a stern Christian environment} he re-
(effectsdetermining the unavoidable circum- acted against orthodox religion and official phi-
stances of man's life), samcita (effects able to be
losophies (especially Hegelianism). An indi-
expiated or neglected, through jndna), and
e.g., vidualist, a sensitive, melancholic personality
agarni (effects currently generated and deter- suffering intense frustrations. Cf. German ed.
mining the future). Jainas (q.v.) enumerate of K's writings: Sdmmtliche Werke (1909-),
148 kinds of karma. K.F.L. and Eng. translations of Swenson (Post-Scien-
Karmakan^a: (Skr., see Karma above) That tific Philosophy, etc.). V.F.
portion of the Veda (q.v.) with which the Kind: (a) A class or collection of entities having
priests are concerned. K.F.L. a common character that differentiates members
Karmendriya: (Skr.) One of the five indriyas of this class from non-members, (b) J. S. Mill
(q.v.) or powers of action, reactive or muscular (System of Logic) limits the term to natural
senses, corresponding to the physiological capaci- classes,such as biological species, where mem-
of expression or speech, seizing or handling,
ties bers have, in addition to the defining property,
locomotion, excretion, and sexual activity. an unlimited number of other properties in
K.F.L. common. C.A.B.
Kathenotheism : A
term invented byMaxMuller Kinesis: (Gr. kinesis) Motion} change. In Aris-
which literally denotes one at a time theism. totle's philosophy three kinds of kinesis are dis-
It symbolizes the Vedic monotheistic prac- tinguished: (1) quantitative change, i.e. increase
tice according to which the position of the gods and diminution} (2) change of quality} and (3)
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 161
change of
place, or Among
locomotion. the and one time Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy
forms of kinesis Aristotle also sometimes reckons and Letters of Buenos Aires. Director of his
the two forms of substantial change, viz. gen- own review, Valoraciones, and patriarch of the
eration, or coming-to-be, and destruction, or modern philosophical tradition of Argentine.
passing-away. See Aristotelianisnt. G.R.M. The following may be considered his most im-
Knower, The: The subject of knowledge, con- portant works: Influential Filosoficas en la
ceived either as a mental act, an empirical self Evolution National, 1919) La Libertad Crea-
or a pure ego. See Subject. The knower in dora, 1922; Esquema Gnoseologico, 1924; El
contrast to the object known. See Episte mo- Concept o de Cientia, 1926} Axiologia, 1930}
logical object. L.W. Apuntes Filosoficos, 1935.
Knowledge: cnawan, know) Relations
(AS. Korn's philosophy represents an attack against
known. Apprehended truth. Opposite of opin- naive and dogmatic positivism, but admits and
ion. Certain knowledge is more than opinion, even assimilates an element of Positivism which
less than truth. Theory of knowledge, or epi- Korn calls Native Argentinian Positivism. Ale-
stemology (which see), is the systematic investi- jandro Korn may be called The Philosopher of
gation and exposition of the principles of the Freedom. In fact, freedom the keynote of his
is
Lambert, X H.: (172S;1777) Was one of Kant's the (token) utterance may be said to havr ex-
correspondents.
He was of the Leibnir-Wolffcan pressive, evocative and referential functions, The
school which attempted aa eclectic reconciliation utterance expresses thoughts, desires, attitudes of
between rationalism and empiricism and thus the speaker} evokes reactions (thoughts, evalua-
laid a foundation for the later Kantian critical tions, tendencies to action) in the hearer} detig-
he Viewed a* an im- nates or refer* to its reference.
philosophy* A* such, it
portant forerunner of Kant ../>. While all three functions are normally dii-
164 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
tinguishable in any given utterance, type- "form", "convention", "metaphor", etc.
sentences (and, derivatively, words) may be (d) The study of fully formalized language
classified according as one or the other of the systems or "calculi". An increasingly important
functions normally predominates in the occur- and highly technical division which seeks to
rence of the corresponding tokens. (Thus ex- extend -and adapt to all languages the methods
clamations are predominantly expressive, com- first developed in "metamathematics" for the ,
tualized, languages, whether "living" or "dead". Lao Tzu: Whether the founder of Taoism (tao
was the same as Li Erh and Li An,
By "language" is here to be understood a system chia)
of signs (whether worcfo or ideograms) used in whether he lived before or after Confucius, and
regular modes of combination, in accordance whether the Tao Te Ching (Eng. trans.: The
with conventionally established rules, for the Canon of Reason and Virtue by P. Carus, The
purpose of communication. Way and Its Power by A. Waley, etc.) contains
Philosophers* Jiave in the past been concerned his teachings are controversial. According to
with two questions covered by our definition, the Shih Chi Records), he was a
(Historical
though attempts to organize the subject as an native of Chu (in present Honan), land of
autonomous department of philosophy are of romanticism in the south, and a custodian of
recent date. documents whom Confucius went to consult on
(1) Enquiries into the origin of language rituals. Thus he might have been a priest-
(e.g. in Plato's Kratylos) once a favorite sub- teacher who, by advocating the doctrine of "in-
ject for speculation, are now out of fashion, action", attempted to preserve the declining cul- _
both with philosophers and linguists. ture of his people, the suppressed people of Yin,
(2) Enquiries as to the nature of language while Confucius worked hard to promote the
(as in Descartes, Leibniz, and many others) are, culture of the ruling people of Chou. W.T.C.
however, still central to all philosophical inter- Lassalle, Ferdinand: (1825-1864) Was influ-
est in language. Such questions as "What are enced in his thought by Fichte and Hegel but
the most general characters of symbolism?", soon assumed a distinctly materialist position.
"How is 'Language' to be defined?", "What is His main interest and activity lay in the field
the essence of language?", "How is communica- of political and economic philosophy) he ad-
tion possible?", "What would be the nature of vocated, and worked for, the formation of trade
a perfect language?", are indicative of the vary- unions in Germany and adhered to socialism.
ing modulations which this theme receives in Main works: Die Philosophie Herakleitos d.
the works of contemporaries. Dunklen, 1858} System d. Srworoenen Rechte,
Current studies in the philosophy of language 1861) and political speeches and pamphlet! ia
can be classified under five heads: Collected Works (Leipzig, 1899-1901).
(a) Questions of method, relation to other RJB.W.
disciplines, etc. Much^discussion turns here upon Latency: (Lat latere, to be hidden) (a) In meta-
the proposal to establish a science and art of physics,the term latency Is equivalent to po-
symbolism, variously styled semiotic, semantics tency or potentiality. See Potentiality.
or logical syntax. (b) In epistemology and psychology, the term
(b) The analysis of meaning. Problems aris- is to knowledge, e.g. memory, which
applied
ing here involve attention to those under the lies dormant in the mind but it capable of be-
next heading. coming actual and explicit (tee W. Hamilton,
(c) The formulation of general descriptive Lectures on Metaphysics* xviii, cited by J. M.
schemata. Topics of importance here include the Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy-
identification and analysis of different ways in chology, Vol. I, p. 628). Latency in this re-
which language is used, and the definition of stricted sense, designates phenomena now em*
such crucial notions as "symbol", "grammar", braced by the term subconscious. See
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 165
nineteenth century. According to Ueberweg, the form of valid inference. E.g., the law of ex-
influence of Scotus during this period was
Duns portation (q. v.) may be called the leading
greater than that of Thomas Aquinas. principle of the form of valid inference known
(2) The predominantly naturalistic and posi- as exportation. A.C.
tivisticperiod coincides roughly with the nine- Legal Philosophy: Deals with the philosophic
teenth century. The wars of independence were principles of law and justice. The origin is to be
accompanied by revolt from scholasticism. In found in ancient philosophy. The Greek Sophists
the early part of the century, liberal eclectics criticized existing laws and customs by question-
like Cousin and P. Janet were popular in South ing their validity: All human rules are artificial,
America, but French eighteenth century mate- created by enactment or convention, as opposed
rialism exerted an increasing influence. Later, to natural law, based on nature. The theory of a
the thought of Auguste Comte and of Herbert law of nature was further developed by Aristotle
Spencer came to be dominant especially in Mex- and the Stoics. According to the Stoics the
ico, Brazil, Argentina, and Chile. Even an natural law is based upon the eternal law of
idealistically inclined social and educational the universe this itself is an outgrowth of
\
philosopher like Eugenio Maria de Hostos universal reason, as man's mind is an offshoot
(1839-1903), although rejecting naturalistic of the latter. The idea of a law of nature as
ethics,maintains a positivistic attitude toward being innate in man was particularly stressed
metaphysics. and popularized by Cicero who identified it with
(3) The predominantly idealistic period of "right reason" and already contrasted it with
the twentieth century was initiated by the work written law that might be unjust or even tyran-
of the Argentine Alejandro Korn (1860-1936), nical. Through Saint Augustine these ideas were
who introduced modern German philosophy to transmitted to medieval philosophy and by
his fellow-countrymen. Francisco Romero, also Thomas Aquinas built into his philosophical
an Argentine, has brought about the translation system. Thomas considers the eternal law the
of many European philosophical classics into reason existing in the divine mind and con-
Spanish. Leibniz, Kant, Hegel, and the more trolling the universe. Natural law, innate i"
recent neo-Kantians and phenomenologists have man participates in that eternal law.A new
exerted wide influence in Latin America. North impetus was given to Legal Philosophy by the
American personalism has also attracted atten- Renaissance. Natural Jurisprudence, properly so-
tion. In Mexico, Jose Vasconcelos and Pedro called, originated in the XVII. century. Hugo
Gringoire reflect in their own syntheses the Grotius, Thomas Hobbes, Benedictus Spinoza,
main streams of idealistic metaphysics, ethics, John Locke, Samuel Pufendorf were the most
esthetics. with its recent publica- important representatives of that line of thought.
Puerto Rico,
tion of the writings of Hostes, is also a center Grotius, continuing the Scholastic tradition, par-
of philosophic activity. There are signs of ticularly stressed the absoluteness of natural law
growing philosophical independence throughout (it would exist even if God did not exist) and,
Latin America. J.F., E.S.B. following Jean Bodin, the sovereignty of the
Latitudinarianism : (1) A party in the Church people. The idea of the social contract traced
of England (middle of the 17th century) aim- all political bodies back to a voluntary compact
ing to reconcile contending parties by seeking by which every individual gave up his right to
a broad basis in common doctrines. (2) A term
self-government, or rather transferred it to the
applied to a liberal opinion which allows di- government, abandoning a state of nature which
versity in unity. (3) A term used derisively as according to Hobbes must have been a state of
meaning indifference to religious doctrines. perpetual war. The theory of the social compact
V.F. more more accepts the character of a
and
Law: (in Kant) "Every formula which expresses "fiction" or of a regulative idea (Kant). In
the necessity of an action is called a law" this sense the theory means that we ought to
(Kant). P.A.S. judge acts of government by their correspond-
Law, Chinese School of: See Fa chia and ence to the general will (Rousseau) and to the
Chinese philosophy. interests of the individuals who by transferring
Law of Population: In economics, the tendency their rights to the commonwealth intended to
of population to encroach upon the means of establish their real liberty. Natural law by
subsistence. First announced by Malthus (1766- putting the emphasis on natural rights, lakes on
1834), the Law asserts that the increase of un- a revolutionary character. It played a part in
checked population is in geometric ratio while shaping the bills of rights, the constitutions of
the increase of the means of subsistence is in the American colonies and of the Union, as
arithmetic ratio, so that population must always well as of the French declaration of the ifgiits
press upon the limits of the means of subsist- of men and of citizens. Natural jurisprudence
in the teachings of Christian Wolff and Tho-
Laws of thought: See Logic, traditional. masius undergoes a kind of purification in the
166 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
vain attempt to outline an elaborate tystem of value of the consequences of actions and rules
natural law not only in the field of international of action. Deontological ethics is often said to
or public law, but also in the detailed regula- be legalistic. Cf. F. Cohen, Legal Ideals and
tions of the law of property, of contract, etc. Ethical Systems. W.K.F.
This sort of dogmatic approach towards the Lei: (a) Generic name. "All similar substances
problems of law evoked the opposition of
the necessarily bear the same name." (Neo-Mohism)
Historic School (Gustav Hugo and Savigny) (b) Generic relationship or partial relation-
which stressed the natural growth of laws and ship. See Mo che.W.T.C.
customs, originating from the mysterious "spirit Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm: (1646-1716) Born
of the people". On the other hand Immanuel in Leipzig, where his father was a professor in
Kant tried to overcome the old natural law f>y the university, he was educated at Leipzig, Jena,
the idea of a "law of reason", meaning an a and Altdorf University, where he obtained his
priori element in all existing or positive law. doctorate. Jurist, mathematician, diplomat, his-
In his definition of law ("the ensemble of con- torian, theologian of no mean proportions, he
ditions according to which everyone's will may was Germany's greatest 17th century philosopher
coexist with the will of every other in accord- and one of the most universal minds of all times.
ance with a general rule of liberty"), however, In Paris, then the centre of intellectual civiliza-
as in his legal philosophy in general, he still tion (Moliere was still alive, Racine at the
shares the attitude of the natural law doctrine, height of his glory), where he had been sent on
confusing positive law with the idea of just law. an official mission of state, he met Arnauld, a
This is also true of Hegel whose panlogism disciple of Descartes who acquainted him with
(
seemed to lead in this very direction. Under his master's ideas, and Huygens who taught him
the influence of epistemological positivism as to the higher forms of mathematics and their
(Comte, Mill) in the later half of the nine- application to physical phenomena. He visited
teenth century, legal philosophy, especially in London, where he met Newton, Boyle, and
Germany, confined itself to a
"general theory others. At the Hague he came face to face with
of law". Similarity John Austin in England the other great philosopher of the time, Spinoza.
considered philosophy of law concerned only One of Leibniz's cherished ideas was the crea-
with positive law, "as it necessarily is", not as tion of a society of scholars for the investiga-
it ought to be. Its main task was to analyze tion of all branches of scientific truth to com-
certain notions which pervade the science of law bine them into one great system of truth. His
(Analytical Jurisprudence). In recent times the philosophy, the work "of odd moments", bears,
same tendency to reduce legal philosophy to in content and form, the impress of its haphazard
logical or at least methodological tasks was origin and its author's cosmopolitan mode of
further developed in attempting a pure science life. There is no systematic exposition, only a
of law (Kelsen, Roguin). Owing to the influ- large number of letters, essays, memoranda,
ence of Darwinism and natural science in gen- etc., published in various scientific journals.
eral the evolutionist and biological viewpoint Universality and individuality characterize him
was accepted in legal philosophy: comparative both as a man and philosopher.
jurisprudence, sociology of law, the Freirecht Leibniz's philosophy was the dawning con-
movement Germany, the study of the living
in sciousness of the modern world (Dewey). So
law, "Realism" in American legal philosophy, gradual and continuous, like the development of
tendency against rationalism. On
all represent a a monad, so all-inclusive was the growth of his
the other hand there is a revival of older tenden- mind, that his philosophy, as he himself says,
cies:Hegelianism, natural law especially in "connects Plato with Democritus, Aristotle with
Catholic philosophy and Kantianism (beginning Descartes, the Scholastics with the moderns,
with Rudolf Stammler). From here other trends theology and morals with reason." The reform
arose: the critical attitude leads to relativism of all science was to be effected by the use of
(f.i. Gustav
Radbruch)} the antimetaphysical two instruments, a universal scientific language
tendency towards positivism though different and a calculus of reasoning. He advocated a
from epistemological positivism and to a pure universal language of ideographic symbols in
theory of law. Different schools of recent phi- which complex concepts would be expressed by
losophy have found their applications or reper- combinations of symbols representing simple con-
cussions in legal philosophy: Phenomenology, cepts or by new symbols defined as equivalent
for example, tried to intuit the essences of legal to such a complex. He believed that analysis
institutions, thus coming back to a formalist posi- would enable us to limit the number of un-
tion, not too far from the real meaning of
defined concepts to a few simple primitives in
analytical jurisprudence. Neo-positivism, though terms of which all other concepts could be de-
so far not yet explicitly applied to legal philoso- fined. This is the essential notion back of mod-
phy, seems to lead in the same direction. W.E. ern logistic treatments.
Engels. He was born April 22, 1870, in Sim- parts or atoms and he distributes these, in an in-
finite of forms, through infinite space.
birsk, Russia, and received the professional variety
These small particles of "Being" are separated
training of a lawyer. A Marxist from his stu-
dent days onward, he lived many years outside from one another by that which is not-Being, i.e.
of Russia as a political refugee, and read widely by empty space. "Becoming", or the coming into
in the social sciences and philosophy. In the being of things, is essentially the result of the
latter field his "Philosophical Note Books" (as
motion of these atoms in space and their acci-
dental coming Af.F.
yet untranslated into English) containing de- together.
tailed critical comments on the works of many Level: A
grade or type of existence or being
leading philosophers, ancient and modern, and which entails a special type of relatedness or of
in particular on Hegel, indicate his close study organization, with distinctive laws. The term
of texts. In 1909, Lenin published his best has been used primarily in connection with
known philosophic work "Materialism and Em- theories of emergent evolution where certain so-
pirio-Criticism" which was directed against called higher levels, e.g.life, or mind, are sup-
"a number of writers, would-be Marxists" in- posed to have emerged from the lower levels,
cluding Bararov, Bogdanov, Lunacharsky, Ber- e.g. matter, and are considered to exhibit fea-
tures of novelty not predictable from the lower
man, Helfond, Yushkevich, Suvorov and Valen-
tinov, and especially against a symposium of levels. A.C.B.
this group published under the title, "Studies in Levy-Bruhl, Lucien: (1857-1939) Professor of
the Philosophy of Marxism" which in general Philosophy at the Sorbonne 1899-1939, repre-
sents a sociological and anthropological approach
adopted the "positivistic" position of Mach and
Avenarius. to philosophy; his chief contribution is an an-
In his economic and political writings, Lenin thropological study of primitive religion which
extended and developed the doctrines of Marx emphasizes the "prelogical" or mystical character
and Engels especially in their application to a of the thinking of primitive peoples. La Men-
ferent from the abstract system usually inter- universe, while rituals express the order of the
preted as logic. Lewis raises the question how universe. Through harmony all things are in-
"queer" a system can be and still be inter- fluenced, and through order all things have a
pretable properly as a system of logic. proper place. Music rises from Heaven, while
Epistemology (See his JWtnd and the
In rituals are patterned on Earth. ." (Early . .
World-Order) Lewis has presented a "concep- Confucianism.) "The code of propriety has
tualistic pragmatism" based on these theses: (1) three sources: Heaven and Earth gave birth to
"A priori truth *is definitive in nature and rises it this is a source; our ancestors made it fit
exclusively from the analysis of concepts." (2) the situation this is a source; the princes and
"The choice of conceptual systems for . . .
ap- teachers formed it this is a source." (Hsiin
plication [to particular given experiences] is Tzu, c 335-c 238 B.C.) W.T.C.
. .
pragmatic." (3) "That experience in gen-
. Li: (a) Profit, the principle of gain in contrast
eral such as to be capable of conceptual inter-
is with the principle of righteousness (i). (Men-
pretation . could not conceivably be other-
. . cius, etc.)
wise." C.A.B. (b) Benefit, "that which, when obtained,
Li: Reason; Law; the Rational Principle. This gives pleasure," or the largest amount of happi-
is the basic concept of modern Chinese philoso- ness for the greatest number of people, as a
phy. To the Neo-Confucians, especially Ch'eng result of Universal Love (chien ai). Righteous-
I-ch'uan (1033-1107), Ch'eng Ming-tao (1032- ness, loyalty, filial piety, and accomplishment
1086) and Chu Hsi (1130-1200), Reason is the are forms of li. (Mohism and Neo-Mohism.)
rational principle of existence whereas the vital W.T.C.
force (ch'i) is the material principle. All things Libertarianism (Lat. libertas, freedom) Theory
:
have the same Reason in them, making them of the freedom of the will. See Free-Will.
one reality. By virtue of their Reason, Heaven L.W.
and Earth and all things are not isolated. The Liberty: (in Scholasticism) Of exercise: Is the
Reason of a thing is one with the Reason of all same as liberty of contradiction : a potentiality
things. A thing can function easily if it follows for either one of two contradictories, as to do
its own Reason. Everything can be understood good or not to do good, to act or not to act.
by its Reason. This Reason of a thing is the Of specification: Is the same as liberty of con-
same as its nature (hsing). Subjectively it is the trariety: a potentiality for either one of two
nature, objectively it is Reason. Lu Hsiang- contraries, as to do good or to do evil. H.G.
shan said that there is only one
(1139-1193) Liberum Arbitrium: The freedom of indiffer-
mind and only one Reason, which are
there is ence (liberum arbitrium indifferentiae) is the
identical. It fills the universe, manifesting it- ability of the will to choose independently of
self everywhere. To Wang Yang-ming (1473- anticedent determination. See Free-Will. L.W.
1529), the mind itself is the embodiment of Lichtenberg, Georg Christoph: (1742-1799)
Reason. To say that there is nothing existing Influential German satirist. Made discoveries in
independent of Reason is to say that there is physics. He leaned towards theoretical material-
nothing apart from the mind. See Li hsiieh, ism, and yet had a strong religious (Spinozistic)
Chinese philosophy, and ch'i. W.T.C. element. H.H.
Li: Propriety} code of proper conduct; rules of Main works: Briefe aus England, 1776-8;
social contact; good manners; etiquett; mores; editor of Gbttingisches Mag. d. Literatur u.
rituals; rites; ceremonials. In Confucius, it aims Wissensch., 1780-2; Ausjiihrhche Erkldrung d.
at true manhood (jen) through self-mastery, Hogarthschen Kupferstiche, 1794-9.
and central harmony (ho). "Propriety regu- Lieh Tzu: Nothing is known of Lieh Tzu (Lieh
lates and refines human feelings, giving them Yu-k'ou, 450-375 B.C.) except that he was a
c.
due allowance, so as to keep the people within Taoist. The book Lieh Tzu
(partial Eng. tr.
bounds." It is "to determine human relation- by L. Giles Taoist Teachings front the Book of
:
ships, to settle suspicions and dt>ubts, to dis- Lieh Tzu) which bears his name is a work of
the third century A.D. W.T.C.
tinguish similarity and difference, and to ascer-
tain right and wrong." "The rules of propriety Li hsueh: The Rational Philosophy or the Rea-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 169
son School of the
Sung dynasty (960-1279) the same as the limit of <*(*) as * approaches
which insisted on Reason or Law (li) as the infinity.
basis of reality, including- such philosophers as (Of course
it is not meant to be
implied in
Chou Lien-hsi (1017-1073), Shao K'ang-chieh the preceding that the limit of an infinite se-
(1011-1077), Chang Hcng-ch'u (1020-1077), quence or of a function always exists. In par-
Ch'eng I-ch'uan (1033-1107), Ch'eng Ming-tao ticular cases it may happen that there is no
(1032-1086), Chu Hsi (1130-1200), and Lu limit of an infinite sequence, or no limit of
Hsiang-shan (1139-1193). It is also called /(*) x approaches
as c, etc.) A.C.
Hsing-li Hsueh (Philosophy of the Nature and Limitative: Tending to restrict} pertaining to
Reason) and Sung Hsueh (Philosophy of the the limit-value. In logic, an affirmative infini-
Sung Dynasty). Often the term includes the tated judgment, often employed as a third qual-
idealistic
philosophy of the Ming dynasty (1368- ity added to affirmative and negative. More
1644), including Wang Yang-ming (1473- specifically used by Kant to denote judgments
1529), sometimes called Hsin Hsiieh (Philoso- of the type, "Every A is a not-B", and since
phy of Mind). Often it also includes the phi- Kant, applied judgments known to the
to the
losophy of the
Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1911), older logicians as indefinite. J.fC.F.
called Tao Hsueh, including such philosophers
Limiting Notion: The notion of the extreme ap-
as Yen Hsi-chai (1635-1704) and Tai Tung-
plicability of an universal principle considered
yuan (1723-1777). For a summary of the Ra- as a limit. Employed by Kant (1724-1804) in
tional Philosophy, see Chinese philosophy. For his Kritik der Retnen Vernunjt, A 255, to in-
itsphilosophy of Reason (li), vital force (ch'i), dicate the theory that experience cannot attain
the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi), the passive and to the noumenon. J.K.F,
active principles (yin yang), the nature of man Limits of Sensation: The two limiting sensa-
and things (hsing), the investigation of things tions in the sensory continuum of any given
to the utmost (ch'iung li), the extension of sense: (a) the lower limit is the just noticeable
knowledge (chih chih), and its ethics of true sensation which if the stimulus producing it
manhood or love (jen), seriousness (ching) were diminished, would vanish altogether or in
and sincerity (ch'eng), see articles on these the view of some psychologists would pass into
topics. W.T.C. the unconscious. See Threshold of Conscious-
Limit : We
give here only some of the most ele- ness, (b) The upper limit is the maximum sen-
mentary mathematical senses of this word, in sation such that the producing stimulus were
if
connection with real numbers. (Refer to the increased the resultant sensation would again
articles Number and Continuity.") vanish. L.W.
The limit of an infinite sequence of real num- Line of Beauty: Title given by Wm. Hogarth
bers i, as, as, . . . is said to be (the real num- to an undulating line supposedly containing the
for every positive real number e there essence of the graphically
ber) l> if
beautiful, and so re-
is a positive integer N
such that the difference garded as both the cause and the criterion of
between b and a n is less than e whenever is beauty; particular lines and paintings become
beautiful as and because
greater than N. -(By the difference between b they exhibit this line.
and an, is here meant the non-negative difference, According to Hogarth, such lines must express
i.e., ban if b ir greater than a n> an b if b is "symmetry, variety, uniformity, simplicity, in-
lessthan 4 n , and if b is equal to a n .) tricacy, and quantity". (Analysis of Beauty,
Let / be a monadic function for which the London, 1753, p. 47.) /./.
range of the independent variable and the range Lipps, Theodor: (1851-1914) Eminent German
of the dependent variable both consist of real philosopher and psychologist. The study of opti-
numbers, let b and c be real numbers; and let g cal illusions led him to his theory of empathy.
be the monadic function so determined that Starts with the presupposition that
every aesthe-
tic
g(c)-=.b, and g(x)=f(x) if x is different from object represents a living being, and calls
the psychic state which we when we
c. (The range of the independent variable for g experience
is thus the same as that for /, with the addition project ourselves into the life of such an object,
of the real number c if not already included.) an empathy (EinfuAlung) or
"fellow-feeling".
The limit of /(*) as x approaches c is said to be He applied this principle consistently to all the
b if g is continuous at c. More briefly but less
arts. The empathic act is not simply kinaesthetic
the limit of /(*) as x approaches c inference but has exclusively
accurately, objective reference.
is the value which rrust be assigned to / for the Being a peculiar source of about knowledge
in order to make it continuous at other egos, it is blend of inference and in-
a
argument c c.
comparison in point of likeness and difference, in which propositions are expressed, and the
and imaginative recompositon. Even the most formal method can then be characterized by the
abstract notions and ideas, like infinity, power, fact that it deals with the objective form of
cause and effect, substance and identity, which sentences which express propositions and pro-
seemingly are not given by experience, are no vides in these concrete terms criteria of mean-
exceptions to the rule. Thus "infinity" confesses ingfulness and validity of inference. This for-
our inability to limit in fact or imagination the mulation of the matter presupposes the selection
spatial and temporal extension of sense-experi- of a particular language which is to be re-
ence j "substance," to perceive or understand garded as logically exact and free from the
why qualities congregate in separate clumps; ambiguities and irregularities of structure which
"power" and 'cause and effect," to perceive or appear in English (or other languages of every-
understand why and how these clumps follow, day use) i.e., it makes the distinction between
and seemingly produce one another as they do, form and content relative to the choice of a
or for that matter, how our volitions "produce" language. Many logicians prefer to postulate
the movements that put them into effect. Inci- an abstract form for propositions themselves,
dentally, Locke defines freedom as liberty, not and to characterize the logical exactness of a
of choice, which is always sufficiently motivated, language by the uniformity with which the con-
but of action in accordance with choice. "Iden- crete form of its sentences reproduces or parallels
tity" of things, Locke derives from spatial and the form of the propositions which they express.
temporal continuity of the content of clumps of At all events it is practically necessary to intro-
sensations j of structure, from continuity of ar- duce a special logical language, or symbolic
rangement in changing content; of person, from notation, more exact than ordinary English
continuity of consciousness through memory, usage, if topics beyond the most elementary are
which, incidentally, permits of alternating per- to be dealt with (see logistic system, and
sonalities in the same body or of the transfer- semiotic).
ence of the same personality from one body to Concerning the distinction between form and
another. content see further the articles formal, and syn-
In these circumstances real knowledge is very tax, logical.
limited. "Universals" register superficial re- 1. THE PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS formalizes
semblances, not the real essences of things. Ex- the use sentential connectives and, or,
of the
perience directly "intuits" identity and diversity, not, if Various systems of notation are
. . .then.
relations, coexistences and necessary connections current, of which we here adopt a particular one
in itscontent, and, aided by memory, "knows" for purposes of exposition. We use juxtaposition
the agreements and disagreements of ideas in to denote conjunction ("Pq" to mean "p and
these respects. We also feel directly (sensitive ?"), the sign v to denote inclusive disjunction
knowledge) that our experience comes from (up v ? to mean up or q or both"), the sign +
without. Moreover, though taste, smell, colour, to denote exclusive disjunction ("p 4~ 0" to
sound, etc. are internal to ourselves (secondary mean "p or q but not both"), the sign to ~
qualities) extension, shape, rest, motion, unity denote negation ("/-^p" to mean "not p"), the
and plurality (primary qualities) seem to inhere sign
3 to denote the conditional ("p 3 ?" to
in the external world independently of our per- mean p then y," or "not both p and not-?"),
"if
ception of it. Finally, we have "demonstrative the sign 5
to denote the biconditional ("p s
knowledge" of the existence of God. But of q" to mean "p if and only if 0," or "either
anything other than God, we have no knowl- p and q or not-p and not-?"), and the sign to |
edge except such as is derived from and limited denote alternative denial ("p q" to mean "not \
alternative denial is taken as primitive, all the thus infinite, but there are just seven possible
other connectives can be defined in terms of forms of primitive formulas as above.) There
this one. Also, if the signs of negation and is one primitive rule of inference, as follows:
inclusive disjunction are taken as primitive, all Given A and A 3 B to tnjer B. This is the
the others can be defined in terms of these} inference known as modus ponens (see below.
likewise if the signs of negation and conjunc- 2).
tion are taken as primitive. Here, however, for The theorems of the propositional calculus are
reasons of naturalness and symmetry, we prefer the formulas which can be derived from the
to take as primitive the three connectives, de- primitive formulas by a succession of applica-
noting negation, conjunction, and inclusive dis- tions of the primitive rule of inference. In
junction. The remaining ones are then defined other words, (a) the primitive formulas are
as follows: theorems, and (b) if A and A =>
B are theo-
A |
B - ~A v ~B. rems then B is a theorem. An inference from
A => B -> ~A v B. premisses Ai, A* , to a conclusion B is . . . A
A == B - [B = A][A = B]. a valid inference of the propositional calculus
A -f B
-
[~B]A v [~A]B. if B becomes a theorem upon adding Ai, As,
The roman letters here denote arbitrary
capital . . . An to the list of primitive formulas. In
,
formulas of the propositional calculus (in the other words, (a) the inference from AI, A 2 , . .', .
technical sense defined below) and the arrow is to A to B is a valid inference if B is either a
be read "stands for" or "is an abbreviation for," primitive formula or one of the formulas Ai,
Suppose that we have given some specific list A*, . . .
, An, and (b) if the inference from Ai,
of propositional symbols, which may be infinite As, . . .
, AH to C and the inference from Ai
in number, and to which we shall refer as the As, ,
. . . A to C 3 B are both valid infer-
fundamental propositional symbols. These are ences then the . . . ,
inference from Ai, A, A
not necessarily single letters or characters, but to B is a valid inference. It can be
proved that
may be expressions taken from any language or the inference from Ai, As, . . . , to B is a A
valid inference of the propositional calculus if
system of notation} they may denote particular
propositions, or theymay contain variables and (obviously), and only if (the deduction theo-
denote ambiguously any proposition of a certain rem), [Ai = [As => . . . [A = B] . . . ]] is
form or class. Certain restrictions are also nec- a theorem of the propositional calculus.
essary upon the way in which the fundamental The reader should distinguish between theo-
propositional symbols can contain square brackets rems about the propositional calculus the de-
[ ] } for the present purpose it will suffice to duction theorem, the principles of duality (be-
suppose that they do not contain square brackets low), etc. and theorems of the propositional
at all, although they may contain parentheses or calculus in the sense just defined. It is con-
other kinds of brackets. We call formulas of venient to use such words as theorem, premiss,
the propositional calculus (relative to the given conclusion both for propositions (in whatever
list of fundamental propositional symbols) all language expressed) and for formulas represent-
the expressions determined by the four following ing propositions in some fixed system or calculus.
rules: (1) all the fundamental propositional In the foregoing the list of fundamental
symbols are formulas} (2) if A is a formula, propositional symbols has been left unspecified.
^[A] is a formula} (3) if A and B are for- A case of special importance is the case that
mulas [A][B] is a formula} ,(4) if A and B the fundamental are an propositional symbols
are formulas [A] v [B] is a formula. The infinite list of variables, p, q, r, which may . .
.,
formulas of the propositional calculus as thus be taken as representing ambiguously any proposi-
defined will in general contain more brackets tion whatever or any proposition of a certain
than are necessary for clarity or freedom from class fixed in advance (the class should be
ambiguity; in practice we omit superfluous closed under the operations of negation, con-
brackets and regard the shortened expressions as junction, and inclusive disjunction). In this
abbreviations for the full formulas. It will be case we speak of the pure propositional calculus,
noted also that, if A and B are formulas, we and refer to the other cases as applied proposi-
regard [A] [B], [A]
=>
[B], [A]
| [B], s tional calculus (although the application may be
and [A] -f- [B], not as formulas, but as ab- to something as abstract in character as the pure
breviations for certain formulas in accordance propositional calculus itself, as, e.g., in the case
with the above given definitions. of the pure functional calculus of first order
In order to complete the setting up of the ( 3)> which contains an applied propositional
propositional calculus as a logistic system (q. v.) calculus).
it is necessary to state primitive formulas and In formulating the pure propositional calculus
primitive rules of inference. Of the many pos- the primitive formulas may (if desired) be re-
172 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
duced to a finite number, e.g., to the seven listed Thus, given a formula of the (pure) proposi-
above with A, B, C taken to be the particular tional calculus and an assignment of a truth-
for convenience of statement, confine attention mula can be carried out separately for each
to the case of the pure prepositional calculus. possible assignment of truth-values to the vari-
Similar statements hold, with minor modifica- ables.
a given finite list of formulas by a single ap- not already a theorem, and hence not a tau-
plication of modus ponens (or substitution). In- tology, is added to the list of primitive formulas,
deed our formulation would not be satisfactory the calculus becomes inconsistent on the basis of
otherwise. For in the case a the two rules, substitution and modus ponens).
contrary proof
would not necessarily carry conviction, the pro- As another corollary of this, or otherwise, we
poser of a proof could fairly be asked to give obtain also the following theorem about the
a proof that it was a proof in short the formal propositional calculus: If B is a theorem, A S
analysis of what constitutes a proof (in the and D
is the result of replacing a particular
test by means of which it can always be deter- ^T]. In forming the dual of a formula which
mined whether a given formula is a theorem is is expressed with the aid of the defined con-
The three primitive connectives (and con- can be shown that the following principles
It
sequently all connectives definable from them) of duality hold in the propositional calculus
denote truth-functions i.e., the truth-valu* (where A* and B* denote the duals of the
formulas A and B respectively): (1) if A Is a
(truth or falsehood) of each of the propositions
/
'p, p<f t and p v q is uniquely determined by theorem, then ~A*- is a theorem} (2) if A 3
the truth-values of p and q. In fact, ~p
is true
B is a theorem, then B* => A* is a theorem j
applying to laws embodied in the theorems respectively, also to two forms of the
these
rather than to the theorems as formulas} hence, pure hypothetical syllogism. Other variations
in particular, the same name is applied to theo- of usage or additional forms are also found.
rems differing only by alphabetical changes of Some writers include under these heads forms
the variables appearing} and frequently the of inference which belong to the functional cal-
name used for a theorem is used also for one culus of first order rather than to the preposi-
Modus ponendo tollens is either of the follow- x't y* * **> *"> which denote ambiguously
ing forms of inference: any individual} (2) a list of propositional vari-
from A + B and A to ~Bj
~
ables p, q, r, t,p',... t representing ambiguously
from A
-f B and B to A any proposition of a certain appropriate class}
In each case the first premiss named is the major (3) a list of functional variables Fj, ft, Hi,
. , . .
#, F, #, a variable with
premiss and the second one the minor premiss. F, <?,
. . , . . . ,
G*> .
Of the dilemma four kinds are distinguished. subscript n representing ambiguously any n-
The simple constructive dilemma has two major adic propositional function of individuals} (4)
premisses A
3 C and B 3 C, minor premiss a list of functional constants, which denote par-
A v B, conclusion C. The simple destructive ticular propositional functions of individuals.
dilemma has two major premisses A 3 B and There shall be an effective notational criterion
minor premiss A v C, conclusion <B v D. The dividuals. One or more of the lists (2), (3),
complex destructive dilemma has two major (4) may be empty, but not both (3) and (4)
174 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
hall be empty. The list (1) it required to be secutive constituent part of the given formula
infinite, and the remaining may, some or
lists which is itself a formula. An occurrence of an
all of them, be infinite. Finally, no symbol shall individual variable X in a formula is a bound
be duplicated either by appearing twice in the occurrence of X if it is an occurrence in a sub-
same list or by appearing in two different lists) formula of either of the forms (X)[A] or
and no functional constant shall contain braces (X)[A]. Any other occurrence of a variable
[ ] (or either a left brace or a right brace) as in a formula is a free occurrence. may thus We
a constituent part of the symbol. speak of the bound variables and the free vari-
When ables of a formula. (Whitehead and Russell,
(2) and (3) are complete i.e., con-
tain all the variables indicated above (an in- following Peano, use the terms apparent vari-
finite number of prepositional variables and ables and real variables^ respectively, instead of
for each positive integer an infinite number bound variables and free variables.)
of functional variables with subscript *) and If A, B, C are any formulas, each of the
seven following formulas is a primitive formula:
(4) is empty ,we shall speak of the pur* func-
tional calculus of first order. When (2) and [A v A] => A. A = [B =
AB].
(3) are empty and (4) is not empty, we shall
A = [A v B]. AB = A.
speak of a simple applied functional calculus of [A v B] = [B v A]. AB =* B.
first order. [A => B] = [[C v A] =
[C v B]].
Functional variables and functional constants If X any individual variable, and A is any
is
are together called functional symbols (the ad- formula not containing a free occurrence of X,
and B is any formula, each of the two following
jective functional being here understood to refer
to propositional functions). Functional symbols
formulas is a primitive formula:
are called n-adic if they are either functional [A *xB] =
[A = (X)B].
variables with subscript n or functional constants [B = X A] = [(X)B =>
A].
denoting n-adic propositional functions of indi-
If X and Y are any individual variables (the
viduals. The formulas of the functional calculus same or different), and A is any formula such
of first order (relative to the given lists of
that no free occurrence of X in A is in a sub-
formula of the form (Y)[C], and B the
symbols (1), (2), (3), (4)) are all the expres- is
sions determined by the eight following rules: formula resulting from the substitution of Y
(1) all the propositional variables are formulas;
for all the free occurrences of in A, each of X
(2) if F is a monadic functional symbol and X the two following formulas is a primitive for-
chosen here but has become established in use). The dual of a formula is obtained by inter-
A suWormula of a given formula is a con- changing conjunction and (inclusive) disjunction
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 175
A, containing no free individual variables, such when theof prepositional variables and
lists
that both A and ~A are satisfiable. A simple functional variables are empty.
example is the formula (*)F(*). More instruc- The addition to the functional calculus of
tive is the following example, first order individual constants (denoting
of
*, y)F(y, s) particular individuals) is not often made unless
wmbols for functions from individuals to indi-
which is satiftfiable in an infinite domain of viduals (so-called "mathematical" or "descrip-
individuals any finite domain the
but not in tive" functions) are to be added at the same
negation is satisfiable in any non-empty domain. time. Such an addition is, however, employed
It can be shown 'that all theorems A of the in the two following sections as a means of
pure functional calculus of first order which representing certain forms of inference of tradi-
contain no free individual variables have the tional logic. The addition is really non-essen-
property that /'A is not satisfiable. Hence the tial, and requires only minor changes in the
pure functional calculus of first order is not definition of a formulaand the list of primitive
complete in the strong sense in which the pure formulas (allowing the alternative of individual
176 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
constants at certain places where the above Given
a fixed subject S and a fixed predicate
and A , in terms of universal and existential same time inserting ~ if not already present
or deleting it if Thus the obverse of
quantification, whereas the traditional account present.
=>
might be thought to be more closely reproduced S(*) POO is SOO =. ~p(*) (the obverse
tAen of men are mortal" is "no men are im-
"all
if they were as primitive notations. (It
would, however, not be difficult to reformulate mortal"). The obverse of S(*) = ~P(*) is
the functional calculus of first order so that SOO =>* p(*)> the obverse of S(*) A. p(*)
those connectives would be primitive and the
is S(*) A. ~p(*); the obverse of S(*) A.
usual quantifiers defined in terms of them.) ~P(*) is SCr) A.pOO.
The name immediate inference is given to
(2) The traditional account associates the
negation in E and O
with the copula (q. v.), certain inferences involving propositions A, E,
whereas the negation symbol is here prefixed to I, O. These include obversion of A, E,
I, or O,
the sub-formula P(*). (Notice that this sub- simple conversion of E or /, conversion per
accidens of A, subalternation of A, E. The three
formula represents ambiguously a proposition and
last require the additional (Ex)S(x).
that, in fact, the notation of the functional cal- premiss
culus of first order provides for applying nega- Other immediate inferences (for which the
tion only to propositions.) terminology is not wholly uniform among
different writers) may be obtained by means of
(3) The traditional account under includes
A and E, respectively, also (propositions denoted sequences of these: e.g., given that all men are
A mortal we may take the obverse of the converse
by) P(A) and ~P(A), where is an indi-
vidual constant. These singular propositions are of the obverse and so infer that all immortals
are non-men some the contrapositive,
ignored in our account of opposition and im- (called by
mediate inference, but will appear in 5 as giv- by others the obvcrted contrapositive).
ing variant forms of certain syllogisms. The immediate inferences not involving ob-
(4) Some aspects of the traditional account version can be repiesented as valiu inferences
M(x), M()
Bamalip or Bramantip: P(*) =. admitting only variables having a particular one
of these categories as range.
=>.S(), (*)P(*)> S() A. p().
Calemes or Camenes: P(*) =. M(x), M(*) For convenience of statement, we confine at-
Dimatis or Dimaris: P(*) A. M(*), M(*) order. The first step in the extension consists
=>.S(*),S(*) A.P(jr). ia introducing quantifiers such as (Fi), (Fi),
Fesapo: P() =>. ^M(), M(*) =. S(*)i (Fa), (EFs) t etc., binding -adic functional
Singular Forms in the First ference, allowing for these new kinds of bound
and Second Figures variables. The resulting system is the functional
Barbara: M() =. P(*), M(A), P(A). calculus of second order. Then the next step
Celarent: M(*) =>. ^P(), M(A), ^P(A). consists in introducing new kinds of functional
Cesare: P(*) = ^M(*), M(A), ^P(A). variables j namely for every finite ordered set
p of =r
Camestres: P(*) =>. M(*), -'M(A), ^P(A). k, I, m, . . .
,
i non-negative integers (i
178 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
1, 2, 3, . .
.) an infinite list of functional vari- With the aid of the axiom of infinity and a
"", G "*'" p
1 "1 fc
ables p* ,
... , each of method of dealing with classes and descriptions,
which denotes ambiguously any i-adic preposi- the non-negative integers may be introduced in
tional function for which the first argument any one of various ways (e.g., following Frege
may be any (k l)-adic prepositional function and Russell, as finite cardinal numbers), and
of individuals, the second argument any (/ 1)- arithmetic (elementary number theory) derived
adic propositional function of individuals, etc. formally within the system. With the further
(if one of the integers k, /,*,..., p is 1 the addition of the axiom of choice, analysis (real
propositional functions of kinds for which vari- According to an important theorem of Godel,
ables have already been introduced) and quanti- the functional calculus of order omega with the
fiers binding the new kinds of functional vari- axiom of infinity added, if consistent, is incom-
ables, with appropriate extension at each stage plete in the sense that there are formulas A
of the definition of a formula and the lists of containing no free variables, such that neither
primitive formulas and primitive rules of in-
A nor ~A
is a theorem. The same thing holds
ference, may be continued to infinity. This leads of any logistic system obtained by adding new
to what we may call the functional calculus of primitive formulas and primitive rules of in-
order omega, embodying the (so-called simple) ference, provided only that the effective (recur*
theory of types. sive) character of the formal construction of
In the functional calculi of second and higher the system is retained. Thus the system is not
orders, we may introduce the definitions: only incomplete but, in the indicated sense, in-
X = Y -* (F)[F(X) =>
F(Y)], completable. The same thing holds also of a
where X and Y are any two variables of the large variety of logistic systems which could be
same type and F is a monadic functional vari- considered as acceptable substitutes for the func-
able of appropriate type. The notation ==: Y X tional calculus of order omega with axiom of
may then be interpreted as denoting equality or infinity) in particular the Zermelo set theory
( 9 below) is in the same sense incomplete
identity.
The functional calculus of order omega (as and incomputable.
just described) can be proved to be consistent The formalization as a logistic system of the
by a straightforward generalization of the meth- functional calculus of order omega with axiom
od employed by Hilbert and Ackermann to of infinity leads, by a method which cannot
prove the consistency of the functional calculus be given here, to a (definite but quite com-
of first order. plicated) proposition of arithmetic which is
For many purposes, however, it is necessary to equivalent to in a certain sense, expresses the
add to the functional calculus of order omega consistency of the system. This proposition of
the axiom of infinity, requiring the domain of arithmetic can be represented within the system
individuals to be infinite. This is most con- by a formula A containing no free variables,
veniently done by adding a single additional and the following second form of GSdel's in-
primitive formula, which may be described by completeness theorem can then be proved: If
referring to 3 above, taking the formula, the system is consistent, then the formula A,
which is there given as an example of a for- although its meaning is a true proposition of
mula satisfiable in an infinite domain of indi- arithmetic, is not a theorem of the system. We
viduals but not in any finite domain, and pre- might, of course, add A
to the system as a new
fixing the quantifier (EF) with scope extending primitive formula we would then have a new
to the end of the formula. This form of the system, whose consistency would correspond to
axiom of however,
considerably
infinity, is a new proposition of arithmetic, represented by
stronger (in the absence of the axiom of choice) a new formula B (containing no free variables),
than the "Infin ax" of Whitehead and Russell. and we would still have in the new system, if
Other primitive formulas (possibly involving consistent, that fi was not a theorem.
new primitive notations) which may be added Whitehead and Russell, Principia Mathematica,
3 vols., Cambridge, England, 1st edn. 1910-13,
correspond to the axiom of choice (q. v.) or are 2nd edn. 1925-27. R Carnap, Abriss der Logistik,
designed to introduce classes (q. v.) or descrip- Vienna, 1929. W. V. Quine, A System of Logistic,
tions (q. v.) Functional abstraction (q. v.) may Cambridge, -Mass., 1934. Hilbert and Ackermann,
also be introduced by means of additional Grundzuge der theoretischen Logtk. 2nd edn.,
Berlin, 1938. A. Church, A formulation of the
primitive formulas or primitive rules of in- simple theory of types, The Journal of Symbolic
ference, or it may be defined with the aid of Logic, vol. 5 (1940), pp. 56-68. A. Tarski,
Einige Betrachtungen uber die Begriffe der to-
descriptions. Whitehead and Russell employ the Wider sprue hstrtihett und der to-Voilstandiikett,
axiom of infinity and the axiom of choice but Monatshefte fur Mathematik und Physik, vol. 40
avoid the necessity of special primitive formulas (1933), pp. 97-112. G. Gentzen, Die Wider,
in connection with classes and descriptions by spruchsfreiheit der Stufenlogik, Mathematische
Zeitschrifi. vol. 41 (1936), pp. 357-366, K.
introducing classes and descriptions as incom- Godel, Ubtr formal unentstheidbare Satze der
plete symbols Principia Mathematica und verwandter Svsteme
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY IT*
Monatshefte fur Mathematik und Physik, vol. 38 ference from premisses Di, D% . . ., to a D
(1931), pp. 173-198. J. B. Rosser, Extensions
conclusion C is a valid inference of the algebra
of some theorems of Godtl and Church, The
Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 1 (1936), pp. 87- of classes if and only if the inference from
B. Rosser. An informal exposition of
91. J.
proofs of Godel's theorems and Church' i theorem,
(*)V(*), (*)~AU), Dit, D4, . .
, D4 to
The Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 4 (1939), Ct is a valid inference of the functional cal-
pp. 33-60. Hilbert and Bernays, Grundlagen der culus.
Mathemalik, vol. 2, Berlin, 1939. This between the of
isomorphism algebra
7. ALGEBRA OF CLASSES deals with classes classes and the indicated part of the functional
(q. v.) whose members are from a fixed non- calculus of first order can be taken as repre-
empty class called the universe of discourse, senting a parallelism of meaning. In fact, the
and with the operations of complementation, meanings become identical if we wish to con-
logical sum, and logical product upon such strue the functional calculus in extension (see
classes. (The classes are to be thought of as the article prepositional function) j or, inversely,
determined by prepositional functions having if we wish to construe the algebra of classes in
the universe of discourse as the range of the
intension, instead of the usual construction.
independent variable.) The universal class V If we deal only with formulas of the algebra
comprises the entire universe of discourse. The of classes which are equations (i.e., which have
null (or empty) class A
has no members. The the form A =
B), the above description by
complement a of a a has as members
class reference to the functional calculus may be re-
all those elements of the universe of discourse
placed by a simpler description using the applied
which are not members of a (and those only). prepositional calculus ( 1) whose fundamental
In particular the null class and the universal prepositional symbols are xeV, xeA, xeat xeb,
class are each the complement of the other. The .... Given an equation C of the algebra
xcc,
logical sum a ^ h of two classes a and h has of classes, the corresponding formula Cf of the
as members all those elements which are mem- propositional calculus is obtained by replacing
bers either of a or of b, not excluding elements '
equality ( ) =
by the biconditional (s), re-
which are members of both a and h (and those placing complementation, logical sum, and logi-
only). The logical product a b of two * cal product respectively by negation, inclusive
classesa and h has as members all those ele- disjunction, and conjunction, and at the same
ments which are members'of both a and b (and time replacing V, A, a, b, c, . . .
respectively
those only) in other words the logical product by *V, xeA, area, xcb, xtc % .... An equation
of two classes is their common part. The ex- C a theorem of the algbera of classes if and
is
pressions of the algebra of classes are built up only if the inference from *eV, "" *eA to C'f
out of class variables a, b, c, . . . and the sym- is a valid inference of the propositional calculus*
bols for the universal class and the null class
analogously for valid inferences of the algebra
by means of the notations for complementation, of classes in which the formulas involved are
logical sum, and logical product (with paren- equations.
theses). A formula of the algebra of classes As a corollary of this, every theorem of. the
consists of two expressions with one of the
pure propositional calculus (1)
of the form
symbols r=: or ^
between, (a b means that = A =r B corresponding theorem of the
has a
a and b are the same class, a b that a and b ^ algebra of obtained by replacing the
classes
are not the same class.)
principal occurrence of S
by =, elsewhere re-
While algebra of classes can be set up
the placing negation, inclusive disjunction, and con-
as an independent logistic system, we shall here junction respectively by complementation, logical
describe it instead by reference to the functional sum, and logical product, and at the same time
calculus of firs* order (3), using two monadic replacing propositional variables by class vari-
functional constants, V
and A, and an infinite ables. Likewise, every theorem A of the pure
list of monadic functional variables F&, <?i, Hi, propositional calculus has a corresponding theo-
. . .
corresponding in order to the class vari- rem B =
V of the algebra of classes, where B
ables a, b, c, . . .
respectively. Given any ex- is obtained from A
by replacing negation, in-
pression A of algebra of classes, the cor-
ti clusive disjunction, and conjunction respectively
*
responding formula At of the functional cal- by complementation, logical sum, and logical
culus is obtained hv replacing complementation, product, and replacing propositional variables
logical sum, and logical product respectively by by class variables.
negation, inclusive disjunction, and conjunction,
The dual of a formula or an expression of
and at the same time replacing V, A, a t b t c, the algebra of classes is obtained by interchang-
. . .
respectively by VU), A(x), Fi(*), <?i(*), ing logical sum and logical product, and at
J7i(x), .... Given any formula A B of = the same time interchanging V and A. The
the algebra of classes the corresponding formula principle ef duality holds, that the dual of every
of the functional calculus is At B$. Given s theorem i* also a theorem.
^ The relation of class inclusion, c
any formula A B of the algebra of classes, , may be
the corresponding formula of the functional cal- introduced by the definition:
culus is ~[A$ s
Bt]. A formula C is a A c B- A -
B = A.
theorem of the algebra of classes if and only Instead of algebra of chases, the term Boolean
if the inference from (*)V(*) and (*)~A(*) algebra it used primarily when it i* intended
that the formal system shall remain unin-
to Ct (where Cj corresponds to C) is a valid
inference of the functional calculus. The in- terpreted or that interpretations other than that
180 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
described above shall be admitted. For the re- the algebra of relations and an appropriately
lated idea of a Boolean ring see the paper of chosen part of the functional calculus of first
Stone cited below. order can also be exhibited in the same way as
E. Schroder. Algebra der Logik, vol. 1. vol. 2 was done in 7 above for the algebra of classes.
part 1, and vol. 2 part 2, Leipzig. 1890, 1891,
1905. E. V. Huntington, Stts of independent A principle of duality also holds, where duality
postulant for tht algebra of logic, Transactions consists in interchanging logical sum and logical
of the American
Mathematical Society, vol. 5 V
product, relative sum and relative product,
(1904). pp. 288-309. S. K. Langer, An Intro-
duction to Symbolic Logic, 1937. M. H. Stone, and A, 7 and 7.
The representation of Boolean algebras, Bulletin The portion of the algebra of relations which
of the American Mathematical Society, vol. 44
involves, besides relation variables, only the
(1938), pp. 807-816.
universal relation and the null relation, and
8. ALGEBRA OF RELATIONS or algebra of rela-
tives deals with relations (q. v.) in extension
the operations of contrary, sum, and
logical
whose domains and converse domains are each logical product, and =, y^ 1 isomarphic with
8
the definition:
the algebra of classes deals with classes. Funda-
mental ideas involved are those of the uni-
R e S -* R ^ S = A.
verse of discourse and xly fails if * is not identi- done by the algebra of classes (7), and which,
tical with y. *The relation of diversity J is such
in particular, takes account of the relation e be-
that xJx fails for every x in the universe of dis- tween classes (see the article class), must be
course and xJy holds if x is not identical with y. carried out with caution in order to avoid the
The contrary R of a relation R is the re- Russell paradox and similar logical paradoxes
lation such that * JR y holds if and only if (q. v.).
xRy fails (x and y being in the universe of There are two methods of devising such a
discourse). In particular, the universal relation system which (so at least it is widely held or
and the null relation are each the contrary of conjectured) do not lead to any inconsistency.
the other) and the relations of identity and One of these involves the theory of types, which
diversity are each the contrary of the other. was set forth in 6 above, explicitly for prepo-
The converse of a relation is the relation R sitional functions, and by implication for classes
S such that xSy if and only if yRx. The usual (classes being divided into types according to
notation for the converse of a relation is ob- the types of the monadic prepositional functions
tained by placing a breve <- over the letter de- which determine them). The other method is
noting the relation. A
relation is said to be the Zermelo set theory^ which avoids this pre-
symmetric if it is the same as its converse. In liminary division of classes into types, but im-
particular, the universal relation, the null re- poses restrictions in another direction.
lation, and the relations of identity and di- Given the relation (dyadic propositional func-
versity are symmetric. tion) e, the relations of equality and class in-
The logical two relations R and
sum R^S of clusion may be introduced by the following
- ZeY
and only if at least one of xRy and xSy holds. (Z, Y).
- ZiX =>r YeX.
Z=Y
The logical product R*S of two relations R
and 5 is the relation such that * R*S y if -*Z*Y =>r XeY. XZ
and only if both xRy and xSy. The relative Here X, Y, and Z are to be taken as individual
eionality) (x, y) with the set * which has two and only
(Et)[xet [*=y v *=]] (Axiom of pair- two tnembers, x' and y', x' being the set which
ing) has x as its only member, and y' being the set
(Et)[x9t =. (?)[*? ][?<]]. (Axiom of which has x and y as its only two members.
summation) (This is one of various similar possible meth-
(/)[*e/ E=. *=]. (Axiom of the set of sub- ods.)' Relations in extension may then be treated
sets) as sets of ordered pairs.
(Et)[xet
=, [*e]A], (Axiom of subset forma- The Zermelo set theory has an adequacy to
the logical development of mathematics com-
[?*
=
[/* =V [Oey][*ey'] =.?=/]]] parable to that of the functional calculus of
= <*/)[ . =>
[>"ey
= .- <**')[[**][**] order omega (6). Indeed, as here actually
?
#:=:#'l]]. (Axiom of choice) '
formulated, its adequacy for mathematics ap-
parently exceeds that of the functional calculus;
(Axiom of infinity) however, should not be taken as an essen-
this
[ye
=>
(*')[A s. *=*']] both systems are incomplete,
tial difference, since
in accordance with Coders theorem ( 6), but
(Axiom of replacement) are capable of extension.
In the axiom of subset formation, A is any Besides the Zermelo set theory and the func-
formula not containing / as a free varibale (in tional calculus (theory of types), there is a
general, A
will contain * as a free variable). third method of obtaining a system adequate
In the axiom of replacement, is any formula A for mathematics and at the same time it is
which contains neither / nor x as a free vari- hoped consistent, proposed by Quine in his
able (in general, A
will contain x and y as book cited below (1940). The last word on
free These two axioms are thus
variables). these matters has almost certainly not yet been
represented each by an infinite list of primitive 'said. Alonzo Church
formulas the remaining axioms each by one A. Fraenkel. Einleitung in die Mengenlehre,
3rd edn.. Berlin, 1928. W. V. Quine, Set-theoretic
primitive formula.
foundations for logic. The Journal of Symbolic
The axiom of extensionality as above stated Logic, vol. 1 (1936), pp. 45-57. Wilhclm Acker-
has (incidentally to its principal purpose) the mann, Mengentheorettscbe BegrSndung der Logik,
effect of excluding non-classes entirely and Mathematische Annalen, vol. 115 (193.7). I>p. 1
22. Paul Bernays, A system of axiomatic set
assuming that everything is a class. This as- theory, The Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 2
sumption can be avoided if desired, at the (1937), pp. 65-77. and vol. 6 (1941). pp. 1-17.
cost of complicating the axioms somewhat one W. V. Quine, Mathematical Logic, New York, 1940.
method would be to introduce an additional Logic, symbolic, or mathematical logic, or
functional constant, expressing the property to logistic;is the name given to the treatment of
be a class (or **/), and to modify the axioms formal logic by means of a formalized logical
accordingly, the domain of individuals being language or calculus whose purpose is to avoid
thought of as possibly containing other things the ambiguities and logical inadequacy of ordi-
besides sets. nary language. It is best characterized, not as
The treatment? of sets in the Zermelo set a separate subject, but as a new and powerful
This is not known to lead to paradox. Logic, traditional: the name given to those
The notion of an ordered pair can- be intro- parts and that method of treatment of formal
duced into the theory by definition, in a way logic which have come down substantially un-
182 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
L. Couturat, lime Coupes de PbHosopblt,
changed from classical and medieval times.
Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale, vol. 12
of
Traditional logic emphasises the analysis (1904), see p. 1042.
propositions into subject and predicate
and the Logistic system: construction of t
The formal
associated classification into the four forms, A, logistic (1) a list of primitive
system requires:
E t /, O; and it is concerned chiefly with topics symbols (these are usually taken as marks but
immediately related to these, including opposi- may also be sounds or other things they mutt
tion, immediate inference, and the syllogism (see be capable of instances which are, recognizably,
logic, formal). Associated with traditional logic the same or different symbols, and capable of
are also the three so-called laws of thought utterance in which instances of them are put
the laws of identity (q. v.), contradiction (q. forth or arranged in an order one after an-
v.), and excluded middle (q. v.) and the doc- other)} (2) a determination of a class of for-
trine that these laws are in a special sense mula!, each formula being a finite sequence of
fundamental presuppositions of reasoning, or primitive symbols, or, more exactly, each for-
even (by some) that all other principles of logic mula being capable of instances which are finite
can be derived from them or are mere elabora- sequences of instances of primitive symbols (gen-
tions of them. Induction (q. v.) has been added eralizations allowing two-dimensional arrays of
in comparatively modern times (dating from primitive symbols and the like are non-essen-
Bacon's Novum Organum) to the subject matter tial) (3) a determination of the circumstances
}
primitive rules of inference (e.g., in the case of primitive rules of inference, and (if separately
the functional calculus of first order logic, for- needed) for recognizing such restricted applica-
*l> 3 that no free variable of Ai, As, . >
tions of the primitive rules of inference as are
An shall be generalized upon). admitted in proofs as a consequence of a given
A logistic system need not be given any set of formulas.
meaning or interpretation, but may be put for- With the aid of Gddel's device of represent-
ward merely as a formal discipline of interest ing sequences of primitive symbols and sequence!
for its own sake) and in this case the words of formulas by means of numbers, it is possible
be to give a more exact definition of the notion of
proof, theorem, valid inference, etc., are to
dissociated from their every-day meanings and effectiveness by making it correspond to that of
taken purely as technical terms. Even when an recursiveness v.) of numerical functions.
(q.
interpretation of the system is intended, it is E.g., a criterion for recognizing primitive for-
a requirement of rigor that no use shall be mulas is effective if it determines a general
made of the interpretation (as such) in the de- recursive monadic function of natural numbers
termination whether a sequence of symbols is a whose value is when the argument is the
formula, whether a sequence of formulas is a number of a primitive formula, 1 for any other
natural number as argument. The adequacy of
proof, etc.
The kind of an interpretation, or assignment this technical definition to represent the intuitive
minology employed. This is namely such an doubt by developments for details of which the
reader is referred to Hilbert-Bernays and Turing
interpretation that the formulas, some or
all of
eral, to have more than one such interpretation. R. The Logical Syntax of Language,
Carnap,
It is usually to be required that a logistic
New York and London, 1937. H. Scholz, Was
for ist tin Kalkul und was bat Fregt fur fine
system shall provide an effective criterion pun kt He be Beantwortung dieser Frage geleistet?,
as a
recognizing formulas, proofs, and proofs Semester-Berichte, Miinster i. W., summer 1935,
16-34. Hilbert and Bernays, Grundlagen dtr
consequence of a set of formulas; i.e., it shall pp.
Matbematik, vol. 2, Berlin. 1939. A. M. Turing,
be a matter of direct observation, and of follow- On computable numbers, with an application to
ing a fixed set of directions for concrete opera- the Proceedings of the
Enticbeidungsproblem,
tions with symbols, to determine whether a London Mathematical Society, ser. 2 vol. 42
is a
(1937), pp. 230-265, and Correction, ibid., ser. 2
given finite sequence of primitive symbols vol. 43 U937). pp. 544-546. A. M. Turing.
formula, or whether a given finite sequence of Computability and \-definatilityt The Journal ol
formulas is a proof, or is a proof as a con- Symbolic Logic, vol. 2 (1937). pp. 153-163.
seuqence of a given set of formulas. If this Logomachy: (Gr. logos, word -+- mache, battle)
requirement is not satisfied, it may be necessary
A contention in which words are involved with-
out their references. A contention which lacks
e.g. given a particular finite sequence of for-
the real grounds of difference, or one in which
mulas, to seek by some argument adapted to
the special case to prove or disprove that it allegedly opposed views are actually not on the
satisfies the conditions to be a proof (in the
same level of discourse. A battle of words alone,
technical sense)* 'i.e., the criterion for formal which ignores their symbolic character. J.K.F.
recognition of proofs then presupposes, in actual Logos: (Gr. logos) A term denoting either rea-
application, th?t we already know what a valid son or one of the expressions of reason or order
deduction is (in a sense which isstronger than in words or things; such as word, discourse,
that merely of the ability to follow concrete definition, formula, principle, mathematical ratio.
directions in a particular case). See further on In its most important sense in philosophy it
this point logic, formal, 1. refers to a cosmic reason which gives order and
184 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
intelligibility to the world. In this sense the being the highest value, and the most valuable
doctrine first appears in Heraclitus, who affirms is also the most real. Lotze disclaimed the abil-
the reality of a Logos analogous to the reason ity to know all answers: they rest with God.
in man that regulates all physical processes and Unity of law, matter, force, and all aspects of
is the source of all human law. The conception being produce beauty, while aesthetic experience
is developed more fully by the Stoics, who con- consists in Einfuhlung. Main works: Meta-
ceive of the world as a living unity, perfect in physik, 1841} Logik, 1842} Medezinische Psy-
the adaptation of its parts to one another and chologic , 1842} Gesch. der Acsthetik im
to the whole, and animated by an immanent and Deutschland, 1868* Mikrokosmos, 3 vols., 1856-
purposive reason. As the creative source of this 64 (Eng. tr, 1885)} Logik 1874} Metaphysik t
cosmic unity and perfection the world-reason is 1879 (Eng. tr. 1884). K.F.L.
called the seminal reason (logos spermatikos), Love: (in Max Scheler) Giving one's self to a
and is conceived as containing within itself a "total being" (Gesamtwesen) j it therefore dis-
multitude of logoi spermatikoi, or intelligible closes the essence of that being) for this reason
and purposive forms operating in the world. As love is, for Scheler, an aspect of phenomonelogi-
regulating all things, the Logos is identified cal knowledge. P.A.S.
with Fate (heimarmene); as directing all things Lovejoy, Arthur O.: (1873-) Emeritus Professor
toward the good, with Providence (pronoia)j of Philosophy of Johns Hopkins University. He
and as the ordered course of events, with Nature was one of the contributors to "Critical Real-
(physis). In Philo of Alexandria, in whom ism." He wrote the famous article on the
Hebrew modes thought mingle with Greek
of thirteen pragmatisms (Jour. Philoi., Jan. 16,
concepts, the Logos becomes the immaterial in- 1908). Also critical of the behavioristic ap-
strument, and even at times the personal agency, proach. His best known works are The Revolt
through which the creative activity of the trans- against Dualism and his recent, The Great
cendent God is exerted upon the world. In Chain of Being, 1936. The latter exemplified
Christian philosophy the Logos becomes the sec- L's method of tracing the history of a "unit-
ond person of the Trinity and its functions are idea." A. O. L. is the first editor of the
identified with the creative, illuminating and re- Journal of the History of Ideas (1940-). He
demptive work of Jesus Christ. Finally the is an authority on Primitivism (q.v.) and Ro-
Logos- plays an important role in the system of manticism (q.v.). L.E.D.
Plotinus, where it appears as the creative and Lowenheim's theorem The :
theorem, first proved
form-giving aspect of Intelligence (Nous), the by Ldwenheim, that if a formula of the pure
second of the three Hypostases. G.R.M. functional calculus of first order (see Logic, for-
Lombard, Peter: (c. 1100-c. 1160) Was the ma ^ 3 ), containing no free individual vari-
author of the Four Books of Sentences^ i.e. a ables, is satisfiable (see ibid.) at all, it is satia-
compilation of the opinions of the Fathers and fiable in a domain of individuals which is at
early teachers of the Catholic Church concerning most enumerable. Other, simpler, proofs of the
various points in theology. He was born at theorem were afterwards given by Skolem, who
Lumello in Lombardy, studied at Bologna, also obtained the generalization that, if an
Rheims and the School of St. Victor in Paris. enumerable set of such formulas are simultane-
He was made Bishop of Paris in 1159. The ously satisfiable, they are simultaneously satis-
Libri IV Sententiarum was used as a textbook fiable in a domain of individuals at most
in Catholic theology for more than two cen- enumerable.
turies, hence it has been commented by all the There follows the existence of an interpreta-
great theologians of the 13th and 14th cen- tion of the Zermelo set theory (sec Logic,
formal,
turies. The Franciscans of Quaracchi have pub-
9) consistency of the theory assumed accord-
lished a critical edition in 2 vols. (Quaracchi,
ing to which the domain of sets it only enumer-
1916). VJ.B. able although there are theorems of the Zermelo
}
Lotze, Rudolph Hermann: (1817-1881) Em- set theory which, under the usual
interpretation,
piricist in science, teleological idealist in phi- assert the existence of the non-enumerable in-
losophy, theist in religion, poet and artist at finite.
heart, Lotze conceded three spheres: Necessary A like result may be obtained for the func-
truths, facts, and values. Mechanism holds sway tional calculus of order omega (theory of types)
in the field of natural science j it does not
gen- by utilizing a representation of it within the
erate meaning but is subordinated to value and Zermelo set theory.
reason which evolved a specific plan for the It thus
in a certain sense impossible to
is
world. Lotze's psycho-physically oriented medi-
postulate the non-enumerable infinite: any set of
cal psychology is an applied metaphysics in postulates designed to do so will have an un-
which the concept soul stands for the unity of intended interpretation within the enumerable.
experience. Science attempts the demonstration Usual sets of mathematical postulates for the
of a coherence in nature $ being is that which it real number system (see number') have an
ap-
in relationship $ "thing" is not a
conglomeration pearance to the contrary only because they are
of qualities but a unity achieved
through lawj incompletely formalized (i.e., the mathematical
mutual effect -or influence is as little explicable are formalized, while the
concepts underlying
as being: It is the monistic Absolute working logic remains unformalized and indefinite).
upon itself. The ultimate, absolute substance, The situation described in the preceding para-
God, is the good and is
personal, personality graph is sometimes called Skolem's paradox, al-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 185
though it ii not a paradox in the tenie of formal cal contrivance, a sort of or thinking
logical
self-contradiction, but only in the sense of being machine. JJ.R.
unexpected or at variance with preconceived Lumen naturale: Natural light, equivalent to
ideas. A*C. lumen naturalis ration**, in medieval philosophy
Th. Skolem, Sur la portte du thtoreme dt and theology denoted the ordinary cognitive
Ldwenhtim-Skolem, Les Entretiens de Zurich sur les
Fonderaents et la Methode des Sciences Mathc- powers of human reason unaided by the super*
raatiques, Zurich, 1941, pp. 25-52. natural light of grace, lumen gratiae, or divine
Lucretius, Carus: (98-54 B.C.) Noted Roman revelation, lumen fidei. J.J.R.
poet, author of the famous didactic poem De The phrase "natural light of reason" occurf
Natura Rerum, in six books, which forms an also in the scientific
writings of Galileo (q.v.)
interesting exposition of the philosophy of Epi- and Descartes (q.v.) P.P.W.
cureanism. M.F. Lutheranism: An ecclesiastical school of
thought
Lu Hsiang-shan: (Lu Chiu-yiian, Lu Tzu-ching, claiming Martin Luther (1483-1546) as its
1139-1192) Questioned Ch'eng I-ch'iian's in- source and inspiration. See Reformation. The
terpretation of Confucianism when very young, Protestant doctrine of salvation by faith, the
later often argued with Chu Hsi, and claimed free grace of God, wholly without earned merit
that "the six (Confucian) classics are my foot- and institutional sanctions, is emphasized. The
notes." This official-scholar served as transition essence of the church-community is held to re-
from the Reason School (li hsueh) of Neo- volve about the pure, revealed Word of God
Confucianism to the Mind School (hsin hsueh) and the sacraments of baptism and communion.
of Nee-Confucianism. His complete works, Lu Varietiesof Lutheranism range from a liberal
Hsiang-shan Ch'uan-chi, number 36 cAuans in acknowledgment of the Augsburg Confession of
four volumes. W.T.C. 1530 to a more strict adherence to the several
Lullic art: The Art Magna or Ceneralis of Ray- Lutheran documents collectively known as the
mond Lully (1235-1315), a science of the high- , Book of Concord. V.F.
est and most general principles, even above Lyric: a.Literary genre pertaining to the abso-
metaphysics and logic, in which the basic postu- lute uniqueness of poets' sensations.
lates of allthe sciences are included, and from b. Identified with art in general because it
which he hoped to derive these fundamental as- symbolizes expression of sentiment (Croce).
sumptions with the aid of an ingenious mechani- L.V.
M
Machia veil ism: A political principle according Mahatma, mahatman: (Skr. great soul) Term
to which every act of the state (or statesman) is of respect, applied to Gandhi, for instance.
as
tion, analogue, or miniature of it, sometimes concepts by his process of interrogation and
God as against man, or the universe as against examination. JJ.R.
man; or God or the universe as against a Maimon, Moses ben: (better known as Mai-
monad, atom, or other small entity. M.T.K. monidea) (Abu Imram Musa Ibn Maimun Ibn
Madhva: An Indian dualistic philosopher of the Abdallah) (1135-1204) Talmud commentator
13th century A.D., a Vedantist and Vishnuite and leading Jewish philosopher during the
who held that world and soul, as well as the Middle Ages. Born in Cordova, left Spain in
highest reality are entities different in their migrated to Palestine in 1165 and ultimately
essence, and non-commutable. K.F.L. 1160, settled in Fes, N. Africa, whence he
Madhyamaka: Another name for the Buddhist settled in Fostat, Egypt. His Guide for the
school of Sunyavada (s.v.), so-called because it Perplexed (More Nebuktm in Heb.; Dalalat
assumes a middle path (madhyama) between al-hainn t in Arab.) contains the sumtna of
theories clinging to the knowableness of the Jewish philosophic thought up to his time. It
noumenal and the sufficiency of the phenomenal. is written in the spirit of Aristotelianism
K.F.L. and divided into three parts. The first is
is
ciple produced by prakrti (q.v.) according to also on the leaders of the thirteenth century
the Sankhya (q.v.), ideation, spirit, idea. scholastic philosophy. Albertus Magnus and
K.F.L. Thomas Aquinas. M,W.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 187
Engels (q.v.). In 1844 he wrote articles for the elaboration of doctrine in such fields as ethics,
"Deutsch-Franzosische Jahrbiicher," in 1845 the aesthetics or epistemology, although a methodol-
Theses on Feuerbach and, together with En- ogy and a basis are laid down. The fields de-
gels, Die Heilige Familie.
In 1846, another veloped in most detail by Marx, besides economic
joint work with Engels and Moses Hess, Die theory, are social and political philosophy (see
Deutsche Ideologic was
completed (not pub- Historical materialism, and entry, Dialectical
lished until 1932). 1845-47, Marx wrote for materialism) and, together with Engels, logical
various papers including "Deutsche Brusseler and ontological aspects of materialist dialectics.
Zeitung," Westpha'isches Dampfbot," Gesell- J.M.S.
schaftsspiegel" (E)berfeld), "La Re"forme" Marxism: The philosophical, social and economic
theories developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich
(Paris). In 1847 he wrote (in French) Misere
de la Philosophie f a reply to Proudhon's Engels. A
concise statement of the general
Systeme des Contradictions economiques , ou, Marxist position is to be found in the Com-
Philosophic de la Misere. In 1848 he wrote, munist Manifesto.
jointly with Engels, the "Manifesto of the Com- The philosophical aspect of Marxism is known
munist Party", delivered his "Discourse on Free as dialectical materialism (q.v.)} in epistemology
Trade" in Brussels and began work on the it adopts empiricism} in axiology, an interest
"Neue Rheinische Zeitung" which, however, was theory of value strongly tinged, in places, with
suppressed like its predecessor and also its suc- humanitarianism. The social theory of Marxism
cessor, the "Neuc Rheinische Revue" (1850). centers around the concepts of basic (but not
For the latter Marz wrote the essays later pub- complete) economic determinism (q.v.), and the
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 189
class character of society. In economics it main- Materially: (in Scholasticism) A predicate is said
tains a labor theory of value (q.v.) which in- to belong to a subject materially when it belongs
volves the concept of surplus value (q.v.) in to it by reason of its matter or subject but
the capitalistic mode of production. Upon the formally when it belongs to it by reason of its
basis of its analysis of capitalism, Marxism form, e.g. fire is materially wasteful or destruc-
erects the ethical conclusion that capitalism is tive, but formally warm. H.G.
unjust and ought to be supplanted by socialism. Material Mode of Speech: A description intro-
It predicts for the more or less immediate future duced by Carnap and based upon his distinction
the decay of capitalism, an inevitable and vic- between "object-sentences" and "syntactical sen-
torious revolution of the workers, and the estab- tences". A
sentence is syntactical if it can be
lishing of socialism under the dictatorship of translated into (is materially equivalent to) an-
the proletariat. It looks forward to the ultimate other sentence of the same language which refers
goal of the "withering away of the state" lead- only to signs or formal properties of and rela-
ing to a classless society, communistic in econ- tions between signs. All non-syntactical sen-
omy and self-regulatory in politics. M.B.M. tences are said to he object sentences.
objects science can investigate are the physical According to a view which is widely held by
or material (that is, public, mampulable, non- mathematicians, it is characteristic of a mathe-
mental, natural, or sensible); (3) a proposition matical discipline that it begins with a set of
about values: that wealth, bodily satisfactions, undefined elements, properties, functions, and
sensuous pleasures, or the like are either the relations, and a set of unproved propositions
only or the greatest values man can seek or (called axioms or postulates) involving them;
attain; (4) a proposition about explanation of and that from these all other propositions (called
human history: that human actions and cultural theorems) of the discipline are to be derived
change are determined solely or largely by eco- by the methods of formal logic. On its face, as
nomic factors (economic determinism or its ap- thus stated, this view would identify mathematics
with applied logic. It is usually added, how-
proximation); (5) an attitude, postulate, hypo-
thesis, assertion, assumption, or tendency favor- ever, that the undefined terms, which appear in
the role of names of undefined elements, etc.,
ing any of the above propositions; a state of
are not really names of particulars at all but
being limited by the physical environment or the
material elements of culture and incapable of are variables, and that the theorems are to be
regarded as proved for any values of these
overcoming, transcending, or adjusting properly
to them; preoccupation with or enslavement to variables which render the postulates true. If
lower or bodily (non-mental or non-spiritual) then each theorem is replaced by the proposition
values. Confusion of epiphenomenalism or embodying the implication from the conjunction
mechanism with other conceptions of materialism of the postulates to the theorem in question, we
has caused considerable misunderstanding. have a reduction of mathematics to pure logic.
M.T.K. (For a particular example of a set of postulates
for a mathematical discipline see the article
Materialization: (in Scholasticism) The function
of matter when it receives form and with it Arithmetict foundations of.)
constitutes a body, as distinguished from infor- There is also another sense in which it has
mation, which is the function of form when it been held that mathematics is reducible to logic,
perfects the matter united to it so as to constitute namely that in the expressions for the postulates
a specific body. H.G. of a mathematical discipline the undefined terms
190 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
are to be given definitions which involve logical objects no existence is to be ascribed independ-
terms only, in such a way that postulates and ent of thought. Elsewhere Heyting speaks of a
theorems of the discipline thereby become propo- relationship to Kant in the apriority ascribed to
sitions of pure logic, demonstrable on the basis the natural numbers, or rather to the underlying
of logical principles only. This view was first ideas of one and the process of adding one and
taken, as regards arithmetic and analysis, by the indefinite repetition of the latter. At least
Frege, and was afterwards adopted by Russell, in his earlier writings, Brouwer traces the doc-
who extended it to all mathematics. trine of intuitionism directly to Kant. In 1912
Both views require for their completion an he speaks of "abandoning Kant's apriority of
exact account of the nature of the underlying space but adhering the more resolutely to the
logic, which, it would seem, can only be made apriority of time" and in the same paper ex-
by formalizing this logic as a logistic system plicitly reaffirms Kant's opinion that mathemati-
(q. v.). Such a formalization of the underlying cal judgments are synthetic and a priori.
logicwas employed from the beginning by Frege The doctrine that the concepts of mathematics
and by Russell, but has come into use in connec- are empirical and the postulates elementary ex-
tion with the other postulational or axiomatic perimental truths has been held in various forms
view only comparatively recently (with, per- (either for all mathematics, or specially for
haps, a partial exception in the case of Peano). geometry) by J. S.Helmholtz, M.
Mill, H.
Hilbert has given a formalization of arith- Pasch, and others. However, the usual contem-
metic which takes the shape of a logistic system porary view, especially among mathematicians,
is that the propositions of mathematics say noth-
having primitive symbols some of a logical and
some of an arithmetical character, so that logic ing about empirical reality. Even in the case of
and arithmetic are formalized together without applied geometry, it is held, the geometry is used
to organize physical measurement, but does not
taking logic as prior, similarly also for analysis.
This would not of itself be opposed to the receive an interpretation under which its proposi-
is widely different from any of the above is London, 1937, and New York, 1938 B. Russell,
held by the school of mathematical intutttonism Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy, London,
1919 R Carnap, Die logiznttsche Grund-
(q. v.). According to this school, mathematics
legung der Mathemattk, Erkenntnis, vol. 2 (1931 )
is "identical with the exact part of our thought." A Heyting, Die in-
pp 91-105, 141-144 145
"No science, not even philosophy or logic, can tuttionisttsche Grundlegung der Mathemattk, ibid ,
be a presupposition for mathematics. It would pp 106-115 I v. Neumann, Die formalistische
Grundlegung der Mathematik, ibid pp 116-121, ,
be circular to apply any philosophical or logical 144-145, 146, 148. R. Carnap, The Logical Syn-
theorem as a means of proof in mathematics, tax of Language, New York and London 1937.
L. E J Brouwer, Intuittontsme en Pormal-
ince such theorems already presuppose for their
isme, Groningen, 1912 reprinted in Wiskunde,
;
formulation the construction of mathematical Waarhetd. Werkelijkheid, Groningen, 1919; Eng-
concepts. If mathematics is to be in this sense lish translation by A. Dresden, Bulletin of the
American Mathematical Society, vol 20 (1913),
presupposition-free, then there remains for it no H. Weyl, Die heutige Erkenntmslage
pp. 81-96.
other source than an intuition which presents in der Mathematik, Symposion, vol. 1 (1926),
mathematical concepts and inferences to us as pp. 1-32. D. Hilbert. Die Grundlagen der Mathe-
immediately clear. . is noth- matik, Abhandlungen aus dem Mathematischen
. .
[This intuition] Seminar der Hamburgischcn Universita't, vol. 6
ing else than the ability to treat separately (1928), pp. 65-85; reprinted in Hilbert's Grund-
certain concepts and inferences which regularly lagen der Geometrie, 7th edn. A. Heyting,
occur in ordinary thinking." This is quoted in Mathematische Grundlaeenforschung, Intuitionts-
mus, Beweistheorie, Berlin, 1934. H. Poin-
translation from Heyting, who, in the same con- car, The Foundations of Science, English trans-
nection, characterizes the intuitionistic doctrine lation by Cf B. Halsted, New York, 1913.
E. Nagel. The formation of modern conceptions of
as asserting the existence of mathematical ob-
format logic tn the development of geometry,
jects (Gegenstande), which are immediately Osiris, vol. 7 (1939), pp. 142-224. A. N.
grasped by thought, are independent of experi- Whitehcad, An Introduction to Mathematics, Lon-
don, 1911. and New York, 1911. 6. H.
ence, and give to mathematics more than a Hardy. A Mathematician's Apology, London, 1940.
mere formal content. But to these mathematical Histories: Montz Cantor, Vorltsungen ubtr
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 191
Geschichte der Mathemattk, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1880- principle of individuation; by being united to
1908; 4th edn.. Leipzig, 1921. Florian Cajori, A
matter, the form is "contracted", that is nar-
History of Mathematics, 2nd edn.. New York and
London, 1922. Florian Cajori, A History of Ele- rowed from its universal and specific being to
mtntary Mat binaries, revised edn., New York and existence in a
particular. Consequently, indi-
London. 1917. Florian Cajori, A History of Mathe-
matical Notations, 2 vols., Chicago, 1928-1929. viduality is denied to the Angels who are free
D. E. Smith, A Source Book in Mathematics, New of matter, subsistent forms; every angel is a
York and London. 1929. T. L. Heath. A History species of his own. The individuating principle
of Greek Mathematics, 2 vols.. Oxford, 1921. Felix
is, however, not prime matter as such but materia
Klein, Vorlesungen uber die Entwickluna. tier
Mathemattk im 19. jahrhundert. 2 vols., Berlin. signata quantitate; this means that a still in-
1926-1927. J. L. Coolidge, A History of Geometri- definite relation to quantity is added. What i
ing content as against form; the particular as active striving towards a goal is a fundamental
against the universal, (7) the manifold of
category of psychology, and is a process of a
sensation, the given element in experience as
type that cannot be mechanistically explained or
.
against that supplied by mind; (8) that of resolved into mechanistic sequences." Psychol-
which something consists, that from which a
ogies of 1930, p. 4. In his epoch-making book,
thing develops or is made, (9) the first existent Introduction to Social Psychology (1908), Mc-
or primordial what is under
stuff, (10) Dougall developed a purposive theory of the
consideration. Philosophers conceive matter as human instincts designed to serve as an adequate
appearance or privation of reality, as one or
psychological foundation for the social sciences.
the only reality; as the
principle of imperfection His social psychology listed among the primary
and limitation, as potentially or sometimes good, instincts of man flight, repulsion, curiosity, self-
as substance, process, or content, as points,
abasement, self-assertion and the parental in-
atoms, substrata, or other media endowed with stinct. McDougall's teleological theory
is psy-
powers mentioned nbove.M.T.K. chological rather than metaphysical, but he be-
Matter, prime: (Scholastic) Though the notion lieved that the psychological fact of purpos'e was
of prime matter or hyle is not unknown to the a genuine instance of teleological causation.
Schoolmen previous to the 13th century, a con-
(Modern Materialism and Emergent Evolution,
sistent philosophical view has been developed 1929.) He was also led by his psychological
only after the revival of Aristotelian philosophy. studies to adopt a metaphysical dualism and in-
In accordance with the con- which
Stagirite, Aquinas teractionism he designated "animism."
siders prime matter as pure potentiality, lacking See Body and Mind, 1911. L.W.
all positive characteristics. Matter becomes the Mead, George Herbert: (1863-1931) Professor
192 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
of Philosophy Chicago University. One of
at the arithmetic mean, each value of * is counted
the leading figures in the Deweyan tradition. as manytimes over as it occurs in the set of
He contributed an important article to the vol- observations constituting the population, (b) In
ume, Creattve Intelligence. He emphasized like manner, the mean value of a function /(*)
the relationship between the individual and his of x is the weighted mean of the values of /(*),
formulation and testing of hypotheses, on the where the probability of each value of * is taken
one hand, as against the organic relationship of as the weight of the corresponding value of
the individual with the society which is responsi- /(*). (c) The mode of the population is the
ble for him. L.E.D. most probable (most frequent) value of x, pro-
Main works: Philosophy of the Present, 1932} vided there is one such, (d) The median of the
Mind) Self, and Society, 1934} Movements of population is so chosen that the probability that
Thought in the Nineteenth Century, 1936} Phi- x be than the median (or the probability
less
losophy of the Act, 1938. that x be greater than the median) is '/2 (or as
Mean: (I) In general, that which in some way near '/} as possible). In the case of a finite
mediates or occupies a middle position among population, if the values of * are arranged in
various things or between two extremes. Hence order of magnitude reepating any one value of
(especially in the plural) that through which an * as many times over as it occurs in the set of
end is attained} in mathematics the word is used observations constituting the population then
for any one of various notions of average} in the middle term of this seiies, or the arithmetic
ethics it represents
moderation, temperance, pru- mean of the two middle terms, is the median.
dence, t)ie middle way. A.C.
(2) In mathematics: 3. In fundamental means
cosmology, the
(A) The arithmetic mean of two quantities is (arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic) were used
half their sum} the arithmetic mean of n quan- by the Greeks in describing or actualizing the
tities is the sum of the n quantities, divided by process of becoming in nature. The Pythagoreans
n. In the case of /(*) (say from real
a function and the Platonists in particular made consider-
numbers to real numbers) the mean value of able use of these means (see the Philebus and
the function for the values *i, *a, . .
, *n of
* . the Timaeus more especially). These ratios are
is the arithmetic mean of /(*i)> /(**), > among the basic elements
by Plato in used
/(*). This notion is extended to the case of his doctrine of the mixtures. With the appear-
infinite sets of values of x by means of integra- ance of the qualitative physics of Aristotle,
tion} thus the mean value of /(#) for values of the means lost their cosmological importance
x between a and b f(x)dx, with a and b as
is f and were thereafter used chiefly in mathematics.
the limits of integration, divided by the differ- The modern mathematical theories of the uni-
ence between a and b. verse make use of the whole range of means
(B) The geometric mean of or between, or analyzed by the calculus of probability, the
the mean proportional between, two quantities is theory of errors, the calculus of variations, and
the (positive) square root of their product. Thus the statistical methods.
if b is the geometric mean between a and c, c 4. In ethics, the 'Doctrine of the Mean* is
is as many times greater (or less) than b as b the moral theory of moderation, the develop-
is than
a. The geometric mean of n quantities ment of the virtues, the determination of the
is theth root of their product. wise course in action, the practice of temperance
(C) The harmonic mean of two quantities is and prudence, the choice of the middle way
defined as the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean between extreme or conflicting decisions. It has
of their reciprocals. Hence the harmonic mean been developed principally by the Chinese, the
of a and b is 2ab/(a -{- b). Indians and the Greeks} it was used with
(D) The weighted mean or weighted average caution by the Christian on account
moralists
of a set of n quantities, each of which is asso- of their rigorous application of the moral law.
ciated with a certain number as weight, is ob- A) In Chinese philosophy, the Doctrine of
tained by multiplying each quantity by the asso- the Mean Middle Way (the Chung
or of the
ciated weight, adding these products together, Yung, and Harmony') in-
literally 'Equilibrium
and then dividing by the sum of the weights. As volves the absence of immoderate pleasure,
under A, this be extended to the case of an
may anger, sorrow or joy, and a conscious state
by means of integration.
infinite set of quantities in which those feelings have been stirred and
(The weights have the role of estimates of act in their proper degree. This doctrine has
relative importance of the various quantities, and been developed by Tzu Shu (V. C. B.C.), a
if all the weights are equal the weighted mean grandson of Confucius who had already de-
reduces to the simple arithmetic mean.) scribed the virtues of the 'superior man' ac-
(E) In statistics, given a population (i.e., an cording to his aphorism "Perfect is the virtue
aggregate of observed or observable quantities) which is according to the mean". In matters of
and a variable * having the population as its action, the superior man stands erect in the
meaning, if it asserts something and hence is a mental process. In general, the view that
either true or false. In this case, it is called a nature consists merely of material in motion,
cognitive sentence or (cognitive, genuine) and that it operates automatically. Opposite of:
statement} it has usually the form of a declara- all forms of
super-naturalism. See also Mate-
tive sentence. If an expression (a sentence) rialism > Atomism. J.fC.F.
has cognitive meaning, its truth-value (q. i>.) Mechanics: The science of motion, affording
depends in general upon both (a) the (cogni- theoretical description by means of specification
tive, semantical) meaning of the terms occur- of position of particles bound by relations to
ring, and (b) some facts referred to by the other particles, usually having no extension but
sentence. 2. If it does depend on both (a) and possessing mass. This involves space and time
and frames of reference (in a relative fashion).
(b), the sentence has factual (synthetic, mate-
rial) meaning and is called a factual (synthetic, Particles are assumed to traverse continuous
material) sentence. 3. If, however, the truth- paths. Auxiliary kinematical concepts are dis-
value depends upon (a) alone, the sentence has placement, velocity, acceleration. The dynamical
a (merely) logical meaning (or formal mean- concept of forces (F's) acting independently of
one another is coupled with mass (M) in a
ing, see Formal 1). In this case, if it is true,
it is called logically true or analytic (q. v.)\ defining law, as F =
Ma, where a accelera- =
if it is false, it is called logically false or con- tion. Explicit reference to causation is avoided
An and is held to be unnecessary. Classical mechanics
tradictory. 4. expression has an expressive
in so far as is restricted to the use of central forces
meaning (or function) it expresses (along
kind the lines joining particles and a function of
something of the state of the speaker; this
of the length of those lines). This with a knowl-
meaning may for instance contain pictorial,
emotive, and volitional components (e.g. lyrical edge of boundary conditions leads to complete
poetry, exclamations, commands). An expression
mechanistic determinism. The entire system of
may or may not have, in addition to its expres- mechanics may also be developed by starting with
sive meaning, a cognitive meaning) if not, it is other concepts such as energy and a
stationary
said to have a merely expressive meaning. 5. If principle (usually that of "least action") in
an expression has a merely expressive meaning either an integral or differential form. W.M.M.
but is mistaken as being a cognitive statement, Mediation: (Lat. mediatio) The act or condition
it is sometimes called a pseudo-statement. Ac- in which an intermediary is supplied between
cording to logical positivism (see Scientific heterogeneous terms, (a) In philosophy: Media-
tion is necessary in systems in, which two forms
Empiricism, 1C) many sentences in metaphysics
are pseudo-statements (compare Anti-metaphysics % of reality are held to be so different that immedi-
ate interaction is
2).R.C. impossible } this is the case in
later Neo-Platonism, and
particularly in (he
Measurement: (Lat. metiri, to measure) The Cartesianism of Malebranche, Geulincx and
process of ascribing a numerical value to an where mind and matter cannot directly
Spinoza,
or either on the basis of the
object quality interact} God supplies the principle of media-
number of some given unit quantity is
times tion in these latter systems, (b) In theology
contained in it, or on the basis of its position Mediation is an important aspect of the doctrine
in a series of greater and lesser quantities of and practice of many religions; particularly in
like kind. See Intensive, Extensive Quantity. Judaism and Christianity because of the Trans-
A.C.B.
cendency of Cod and the imperfection of men.
Mechanism: Mediation is an important function of Christ;
(Gr. mechane, machine) Theory
that all phenomena are totally explicable on
as the God-Man, He is
eminently fitted to form
the connecting link between Cod and
mechanical principles. The view that all phe- creatures;
His Incarnation is considered as supplying the
nomena is the result of matter in motion and
can be explained by its law. Theory of total means (i.e. media) of salvation to man.
explanation by efficient, as opposed to final, VJ.B.
cause (q.v.). Doctrine that nature, like a ma- Meinon*, Alexius: (1853-1921) Was originally
a disciple of Brentano, who however
chine, is a whole whose single function is served emphati-
automatically by its parts. In cosmology, first cally rejected many of Meinong's later conten-
advanced by Leucippus and Democritus (460 tions. He claimed to have discovered a new
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 195
a priori science, the "theory of objects" (to be and write. (Meng Ttu, Eng. tr. by James
distinguished from metaphysics which is an em- Legge: The Works of Mencius.) W.T.C.
pirical science concerning reality, but was never Mendelsohn, Moses: (1729-1786) A German
worked out by Meinong). Anything "intended" Jewish popular philosopher, holding an admired
by thought is an "object". Objects may either position in German literature. He was the first
"exist" (such as physical objects) or "subsist" to advocate the social emancipation of the Jews,
(such as facts which Meinong unfortunately to plead in Germany for the separation of the
termed "objectives", or mathematical entities)) Church and the State and for freedom of belief
they may either be possible or impossible and and conscience. He philosrohically best known
is
they may belong either to a lower or to a for his adduced proofs of the immortality of the
higher level (such as "relations" and "complex- soul and of the existence of a personal God.
ions", "founded" on their simple terms or ele- Schrijten z. Philos., Acsthetik u. Apologetik
ments). In the "theory of objects," the exist- (ed. Brasch, 1880). H.//.
ence of objects is abstracted from (or as Husserl Mental: (Lat. mens, mind) Pertaining to the
later said it may be "bracketed") and their es- mind either in its functional aspect (perceiving,
sence alone has to be considered. Objects are imagining, remembering, feeling, willing, etc.)
apprehended either by self-evident judgments or or in its contential aspects (sense data, images
by "assumptions", that is, by "imaginary judg- and other contents existing "in" the mind). See
ments". In the field of emotions there is an Mind. L.W.
^
analogous division since there are also "imagi- Mental Chemistry: Psychological procedure,
nary" emotions (such as those of the spectator analogous to chemical analysis and synthesis, con-
in a tragedy). Much of Meinong's work was sisting in the attempted explanation of mental
of a psychological rather than of a meta- states as the products of the combination and
physical or epistemological character. H.G. fusion of psychic elements. See Assoctattonism.
Main works: Psychol.-ethische Unlersuch. *. L.W.
Werttheorie, 1894} Ueber Annahmen,
1907} Mentalism: Metaphysical theory of the exclusive
Ueber d. Stellung d. Gegenstandstheorie im reality of individualminds and their subjective
Syst. d. Wissensch., 1907$ Veber Moglichketi states. The termapplied to the individualistic
is
u. Wahrscheinlichkeit, 1915. Cf. Gesammelte idealism of Berkeley and Leibniz rather than to
Abh. 3 vols., 1914. the absolutistic Idealism of Hegel and his fol-
Meliorism: (Lat. melior, better) View that the lowers. L.W.
world is neither completely evil nor completely Mental tests: Measurement of independent vari-
good, but that the relative amounts of good and ables in a person to specific situations controlled
evil are changeable, that good is capable of in- by the medium of the instrument, expressing
crease. Human effort to improve the world can measuraMe differences in individuals. Chief
be effective in making the world better and form: intelligence test. J.E.B.
probably the trend of biological and social evo- Mesmerism: A term formed from the name of
lution tends in that direction.
Opposed to F. Mesmer (1734-1815) to designate hypnotic
Optimism and Pessimism. The term was coined phenomena (see Hypnotism) but now little
by George Eliot. A.J.B. used. L.W.
Melissus: (c. 450JB.C.) Of Samos. He advanced Metalanguage: A language used to make asser-
proof of the Eleatic doctrine of being
a positive tions about another language} any language
as one and eternal, motionless and without whose symbols refer to the properties . of the
change. The senses deceive us. He wrote in the symbols of another language. (Formed by anal-
Ionic dialect. L.E.D. ogy with "metamathematics", the study of for-
Memory: (Lat. memoria) Non-inferential knowl- malized mathematical systems.) M.B.
edge of past perceptual objects (perceptual mem- Metalogical: That which belongs to the basis of
ory) or of past emotions, feelings and states of logic. Metalogical truths are the laws of
consciousness of the remembering subject (intro- thought, the formal conditions of thinking in-
spective memory). See Introspection. Memory herent in reason. (Schopenhauer.) H.H.
is psychologically analyzable into three func- The same word is now commonly used in
tions: (a) revival or reproduction* of the memory quite a different sense, as a synonym of syn-
image, (b) recognition of the image as belong- tactical. See syntax, logical. A.C.
ing to the past of the remembering subject, and Metamathematics : See Proof theory , and Syn-
(c) temporal localization of the remembered tax, logical.
object by reference to a psychological or physi- Metaphor: a. Rhetorical figure transposing a
cal time-scheme. L.W. term from its original concept to another and
Mencius: (Meng Tzu, Meng b. In its origin, all language was
K'o, 371-289 B.C.) similar one.
A native of Tsao (in present Shantung), studied metaphoric} so was poetry. Metaphor is a short
under pupils of Tzu Ssu, grandson of Confucius, fable (Vico). L.V.
became the greatest Confucian in Chinese his- Metaphysical deduction: An examination of the
tory. He vigorously attacked the "pervasive logical functions of thought that there are cer-
teachings" Yang Chu and Mo Tzu. Like
of tain a priori forms of synthesis which belong to
Confucius, he travelled for many years, to many the very constitution, the bare, purely formal
states, trying to persuade kings and princes to machinery of the understanding. H.H.
practice benevolent government instead of gov- Metaphysical essence: (in Scholasticism) The
ernment by force, but failed. He retired to teach complexus of notes which are in a thing, as
196 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
it conceived by us i.e. the principle and pri-
is ciples and processes which must guide a scientific
mary notes by which that thing is sufficiently inquiry, or which constitute the structure of the
understood and distinguished from other things. special sciences more particularly. Methodology,
H.G. which is also called scientific method) and more
Metaphysical ethics: Any view according to seldom methodeutic, refers not only to the whole
which ethics is a branch of metaphysics, ethical of a constituted science, but also to individual
principles being derived from metaphysical prin- problems or groups of problems within a science.
ciples and ethical notions being defined in terms As such it is usually considered as a branch of
tinguished from the study of being under some significance can be understood only by analyzing
particular aspect; hence opposed to such sciences the structure of the special sciences. In deter-
as are concerned with ens mobile, ens quantum, mining that structure, one must consider (a)
etc. The
term, "science", is here used in its the proper object of the special science, (b) the
classic sense of "knowledge by causes", where manner in which it develops, (c) the type of
"knowledge" is contrasted with "opinion" and statements or generalizations it involves, (d) its
the term cause has the full signification of the philosophical foundations or assumptions, and
Greek aitia. The
"causes" which are the ob- (e) its relation with the other sciences, and
jects of metaphysical cognition are said to be eventuallyits applications. The last two points
"first" in the natural order (first principles), mentioned are particularly important: methods
as being founded in no higher or more complete of education, for example, will vary considerably
generalizations available to the human intellect according to their inspiration and aim. Because
by means of its own natural powers. of the differences between the objects of the
Secondary and "derivative meanings: (a) Any- various sciences, they reveal the following prin-
thing concerned with the supra-physical. Thus cipal methodological patterns, which are not
"metaphysical healing", "metaphysical poetry", necessarily exclusive of one another, and which
etc. (b) Any scheme of explanation which are used sometimes in partial combination. It
transcends the inadequacies or inaccuracies of may be added that their choice and combination
ordinary thought. W.S.W. depend also in a large degree on psychological
Metempsychosis: (Gr. meta, over -\- empsy- motives. In the last resort, methodology results
choun, to animate) The doctrine that the same from the adjustment of our mental powers to
soul can successively reside in more than one the love and pursuit of truth.
body, human or animal. See Immortality. The I. There are various rational methods used by
doctrine was part of the Pythagorean teaching the speculative sciences, including theology
incorporated in mythical form in the Platonic which adds certain qualifications to their use.
philosophy (see Phaedrus, 249; Rep. X, 614). More philosophy has inspired the
especially,
The term metempsychosis was not used before following procedures ( 1 ) The Socratic method
:
critical) of purposive and effective selection as and Jeremy Bentham. Principal philosophical
proposed by Cicero, Suarez and Cousin and } works: Logic, 1843} Liberty, 1859} Utilitarian-
(10) the positivistic method of Comte, Spencer ism, 1861. In logic and epistemology he was a
and the logical empiricists, which attempts to thorough empiricist, holding that all inference
apply to philosophy the strict procedures of the is basically induction on the basis of the prin-
positive sciences. ciple of the uniformity of nature from one
II. The
axiomatic or hypo the tico-deductive particular event to another or a group of others.
method as used by the theoretical and especially Syllogistic reasoning, he holds always involves a
the mathematical sciences. It involves such petitio, the conclusion being included in the
problems as the selection, independence and premises, with knowledge of those in turn rest-
simplification of primitive terms and axioms, ing on empirical inductions. Mill defines the
the formalization of definitions and proofs, the cause of an event as the sum total of its neces-
consistency and completeness of the constructed sary conditions positive and negative.
theory, and the final interpretation. In ethics his Utilitarianism has been very in-
III. The notnologtcal or inductive method as fluential in popularizing universalisttc
hedonism,
used by the experimental sciences, aims at the albeit with certain confusions (see Hedonism).
discovery of regularities between phenomena and His essay on Liberty is authoritative as concerns
their relevant laws. It involves the critical and liberty of thought and discussion, stimulating as
careful application of the various steps of induc- concerns liberty of action in general. C.A.B.
tion: observation and analytical classification, Mill's methods : Inductive methods formulated by
selection of similarities, hypothesis of cause or John Stuart Mill for the discovery of causal
lawj by the experimental canons,
verification relations between phenomena.
deduction, demonstration and explanation} sys- 1. Method of Agreement: If two or more
tematic organization of results, statement of instances of the phenomenon under investiga-
laws and construction of the relevant theory. tion have only one circumstance in common,
IV. The descriptive method as used by the the circumstance in which alone all the in-
natural and social sciences, involves observa- stances agree, is the cause (or effect) of the
analysis, but also experimental procedures, such ence: If two or more instances in which the
as those referring to the relations between stimuli phenomenon occurs have only one circumstance
and sensations, to the accuracy of perceptions in common, while two or more instances in
(specific measurements of intensity) to gradation which does not occur have nothing in com-
it
(least noticeable differences), to error methods mon save the absence of that circumstance} the
(average error in right and wrong cases), and circumstance in which alone the two sets of
to physiologicaland educational processes. T.G. instances differ, is the effect, or the cause, or
Miao: (a) Mystery of existence, which is un- an indispensable part of the cause, of the
fathomable. (Lao Tzu.) (b) Subtlety, such as phenomenon.
the subtle presence of the Omnipotent Creative Method of Concomitant Variations: What-
4.
Power (shen) in the
myriad things. W.T.C. ever phenomenon varies in any manner when-
Middle Term: (Gr. mesos horos) That one of ever another phenomenon varies in some par-
the three terms in a syllogism which appears in ticularmanner, is either a cause or an effect
both premisses} so called by Aristotle because in of phenomenon, or is connected with it
that
the first, or perfect, figure of tfoe syllogism it is through some fact of causation.
commonly intermediate in extension between 5. Method of Residues: Subduct from any
the Major Term and the Minor Term. See phenomenon such part as is known by previous
Aristotelianismi Major Term; Minor Term. See inductions to be the effect of certain antecedents,
Logic, formal, 5. G.R.M. and the residue of the phenomenon is the effect
Mill, James: (1773-1836) Father of John Stuart of the remaining antecedents.
Mill and close associate of Jeremy Bentham as See Mill's System of Logic, bk. Ill, ch. VIII.
a member of the Utilitarian School of Philoso- A.C.B.
phy. His chief original contributions were in Mimamsa : Short for Purva-MlmJrhsa, ,
one of
the field of psychology where he advanced an the six major systems of Indian philosophy (q.
associational view and he is likewise remem- v.)> founded by Jaimini, rationalizing Vedic
bered for his History of India, See Utilitarian- ritual and upholding the authority of the Vedas
ism. by a philosophy of the word (see vac). In
Main work: Analysis of the Phenomena of the metaphysics professes belief in the reality of
it
James Mill, was much influenced by his father assenting to the superhuman and eternal nature
196 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
of the Vcdat. There it also an elaborate epi- actualities so as to make evident the honorable
ttemology supporting Vedic truths, an ethics and the humble and to distinguish similarities
which makes observance of Vedic ritual and and differences." For Rectification of Names,
practice a condition of a good and blissful life. see Ching mfog.W.T.C.
K.F.L. Min<: Fatej Destiny j the Decree of Heaven.
Mimpathy: (Ger. NachfOhlen) The suffering of The Confucians and Neo-Confucians are unani-
another must already be given in some form mous in saying that the fate and the nature
before it is possible for anyone to become a (hsing) of man and things are two aspects of
the same thing. Fate is what Heaven imparts j
fellow Pity and sympathy as experi-
sufferer.
enced are always subsequent to the already ap- and the nature is what man and things received
prehended and understood experience of another from Heaven. For example, "whether a piece
person who is pitied. One may share another's of wood is crooked or straight is due to its
feeling about a matter, and yet have no sym- nature. But that it should be crooked or straight
pathy for that one. The historian, novelist, is due to its fate." This being the case, under-
dramatic artist must possess in high degree the standing fate (as in Confucius), establishing
gift of "after-experiencing" or mimpathizing, but
fate (as in Mencius, 371-289 B.C.), and the
they do not in the least need to have sympathy fulfillment of fate (as in Neo-Confucianism)
with their objects and persons. See Sympathy. all mean the realization of the nature of man
H.H. and things in accordance with the principle or
Mind: (Lat. mens) Mind is used in two prin- Reason (li) of existence. "That which Heaven
cipal senses: (a) The individual mind is the decrees is true ,one, and homogeneous Fate . . .
self or subject which remembers, in its true meaning proceds from Reason its j
perceives,
imagines,feels, conceives, reasons, wills, etc. and variations (i.e., inequalities like intelligence and
which is functionally related to an individual stupidity) proceed from the material element,
bodily organism, (b) Mind, generically con- the vital force (ch'i) ... 'He who understands
sidered, is a metaphysical substance which per- what fate is, will not stand beneath a precipitous
vades all individual minds and which is con- wall.' If a man, saying 'It is decreed,' goes
trasted with matter or material substance. L.W. and stands beneath a precipitous wall and the
Mind-body relation: Relation obtaining between wall falls and crushes him, it cannot be attrib-
the individual mind and its body. Theories of , uted sole'ly to fate. In human affairs when a
the mind-body relation are monistic or dualistic man has done his utmost he may talk of fate."
according as they identify or separate the mind
The fate of Heaven is the same as the Moral
and the body. Monistic theories include: (a) Law (tao) of Heaven. The "fulfillment of
the theory of mind as bodily function, advanced fate" consists of "the investigation of the Rea-
by Aristotle and adhered to by thinkers as di- son of things to the utmost (ch'iung li)" and
vergent as Hobbes, Hegel ,and the Behaviorists, "exhausting gone's nature to the utmost (chin
(b) the theory of body as mental appearance hsing)" the three are one and the same." In
held by Berkeley, Leibniz, Schopenhauer and short, fate is "nothing other than being one's
certain other idealists, (c) the two-aspect theory true self (ch'eng)." W.T.C.
of Spinoza and of recent neutral monism Ming chia: Sophists or Dialecticians, also called
which considers mind and body as mani- hsing-ming chia, including Tertg Hsi Trfi (545-
festations of a third reality which is neither 501 B.C.?), Hui Shih (390-305 B.C.?), and
mental nor bodily. The principal dualistic Kung-sun Lung (between 400 and 250 B.C.), at
theories are:two sided interactionism of
(a) first insisted on the correspondence between
Descartes, Locke, James and others. See Inter- name and reality. The school later became a
actionism. (b) psycho-physical parallelism. See school of pure sophistry which Chuang Tzu and
Parallelism, Psycho-physical, (c) Epephenome-
the Neo-Mohists strongly attacked. See Chien
nalism. See Epephenomenalism. L.W. pai. W.T.C.
Mind-Dust Ming (dynasty) philosophy: See Li hsueh and
Theory: Theory that individual
minds from the combination of
result Chinese philosophy.
particles
virtue.
of mind which have always existed in associa- Ming te: (a) Illustrious virtue j perfect
tion with material atoms. The rival theory is (Early Confucianism.)
emergent evolution which assumes that mind (b) Man's clear character j the virtuous na-
is a novel emergent in the
evolution. L.W.
process of biological
Empirically
(Neo-
distinguished from
minds are constituted of psychic particles analo- sculpture and painting. They are: jewelry, min-
iature, textiles, pottery, etc. L.V.
gus to physical atoms. Differs from mind-dust
theory in its emphasis on the constitution rather Minor premiss: See figure (syllogistic).
than the genesis of mind. See Mind-Dust Minor Term: (Gr. elation horos) That one of
the three terms in a syllogism that appears as
Theory. L.W.
Ming: Name, or "that which designates a thing. 1* subject of the conclusion} so called by Aristotle
This includes "designations of things and their because it is commonly the term of least exten-
qualities," "those referring to fame and dis- sion. See Aristotelianism; Major Term} Middle
1
and "such descriptive appellations as Term; Logic, formal, 5. G.R.M.
repute/
of the
'intelligence' and 'stupidity' and 'love' and Mishnah: (Heb., repetition) Older part
'hate.
1 "
"Names are made in order to denote Talmud (q.v.)containing traditions from the
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 199
close of the Old Testament till the end of the b. Johai to whom the authorship of the Zohar
second century A.D. when it was compiled (in is ascribed.
several revisions) by R. Judah Hanasi (the Juda Hanasi, compiler of the Mishnah
R.
prince), known also as Rabbi (my master) and and possibly friend of Marcus Aurelius (161-
Rabbenu Nakkadosh (our saintly master) who 180), belonged to the fourth generation, while
sedarim (orders), 63 massektot (tractates) and R. Hiyya, author of the Tosephta, belonged to
died between 193-215 A.D. It is divided in 6 the fifth and last generation. H.L.G.
524 perakim (chapters). Mishnah, extra canonical: R. Juda Hanasi in-
Here is a very brief summary of the Mishnah eluded in his Mishnah (now the Mishnah par
according to its sedarim. excellence) selected materials from the older
Seder I, zeraim (seeds), 11 tractates: liturgy, Mishnah-collections, particularly from that of
tithes, inhibited mixtures of plants, animals and R. Akiba (d. 135 A.D.) and his disciple, R.
textiles, sabbatical year, produce offerings, first Meir. In fact, is assumed that any anonymous
it
An excellent one-volume English translation antecedents but by a remote event in time (e.g.
of the entire Mishnah, with introduction and an earlier experience). See Mneme.- -L.W.
copious notes was made by Herbert Danby, D.D. Mnemonics: (Gr. mnemonikos, pertaining to
(Oxford, \933).*-H.L.G. memory) An arbitrary framework or device for
Mishnah, authorities of: The authorities cited assisting the memory, e.g. the mnemonic, verses
in the Mishnah as rings in "golden chain" of summarizing the logically valid moods and fig-
the Jewish masorah (tradition) arc: ures of the syllogism. See J. M. Baldwin, Dic-
a. Sopherim (scribes) known also as Anshe tionary of Philosophy and Psychology, II, pp.
Keneseth Hagedolah (men of the great synod), 87-9. L.W.
beginning with Ezra of the Bible and terminat- Mo: Sometimes spelled Moh. (a)Mo Tzu. (b)
ing with Simeon the Just. Mohism. See Mo chta. (c) Followers of Mo
b. Five
Zugoth (duumviri) the last pair Tzu. See Mo che.W.T.C.
being the noted Hillel and Shamai. The former Mo che: Neo-Mohists, followers of Mo Tzu in
was according to E. Renan^ hypothesis, a
the third century B.C., probably organized as a
teacher of Jesus.
religious or fraternal order, who continued the
c. Tannaim (repeaters) They numbered utilitarian humanism of Mo
Tzu wrote the Mo
277 and are divided into 5 generations. In the
Ching (Mohist Canons) which now form part
first generation were men who still held office
Romans, Elisha b. Abuiah, the heretic. the "joint method of differences and similari-
The third generation consisted of the disciples ties;" refuted the Sophists (pien che) theory of
of R. Ishmael and R. Akiba: R. Meir, Simeon diitinction of quality and substance; and be-
200 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
came the outstanding logical school in Chinese (c) In Spinoza: "that which exists in, and is
philosophy. W.T.C. conceived through, something other than itself."
Mo chia: The School of Mo Tzfi (Moh Tzu, Mo These modes are determinations of the infinite
Ti, between 500 and 396 B.C.) and his fol- Attributes of Divine Substance} of the attribute,
lowers. This utilitarian and scientific minded Thought, the two chief modes are intellect and
philosopher, whose doctrines are embodied in will) of the attribute, Extension, the chief modes
Mo T*u, advocated: (1) "benefit" (li), or the are motion and rest. These modes are nothing
promotion of general welfare and removal of apart from God's Substance; they are infinite
evil, through the increase of population and from one point of view (natura naturans) and
finite from another {natura naturata).
wealth, the elevation of conduct, the regulation
of benevolence and righteousness toward this (d) In Locke: the simple mode of an idea is
practical objective, the elimination of war, and
the manner of thinking in which one idea is
the suppression of wasteful musical events and taken several times over, e.g. a dozen; mixed
elaborate funerals; (2) "universal love" (chien modes of ideas are those types of ideation in
ai), or treating others, their families, and their
which various non-similar simple ideas are com-
countries as one's own, to the end that the bined by the mind so as to produce a complex
amount of benefit will be realized) idea which does not represent a substance: e.g.
greatest (3)
agreement with the superiors (shang t'ung), obligation, drunkenness.
(4) a method of reasoning which involves a (e) In statistics: see Mean. VJ.B.
foundation, a survey, and application (ean Moderate Realism: See Realism.
piao); (5) the belief in Heaven and the spirits Modus tollens: See Logic, formal, 2.
both as a religious sanction of governmental Moha: (Skr.) Distraction, perplexity, delusion,
measures and as an effective way of promotion beclouding of the mind rendering it unfit to
of peace and welfare. For the development of perceive the truth, generally explained as at-
his teachings by his followers, see Mo che. tachment to the phenomenal; in Buddhism,
W.T.C. ignorance, as a source of vice. K.F.L.
Modalism: (Lat. modus, mode) A
theological Mohammedanism: The commonly applied term
doctrine, of the second and third centuries A.D., in the Occident to the religion founded by Mo-
affirming the unity of substance and personality hammed. It sought to restore the indigenous
in God. The Son and the Holy Ghost are but monotheism of Arabia, Abraham's uncorrupted
"modes" of God the Father. Also known as religion. Its essential dogma is the belief in the
Monarchist^ adherents of this position were absolute unity of Allah. Its chief command-
Patripassians or Sabellians. VJ.B. ments are: profession of faith, ritual prayer, the
Modality: (Kant. Ger. Modalitat) Concerning payment of the alms tax, fasting and the pil-
the mode actuality, possibility or necessity in grimage. It has no real clerical caste, no church
which anything exists. Kant treated these as a organization, no liturgy, and rejects monastic-
priori categories or necessary conditions of ex- ism. Its ascetic attitude is expressed in warnings
perience, though in his formulation they are against woman, in prohibition of nudity and of
little more than definitions. See Kantianism. construction of splendid buildings except the
O.F.AT. house of worship; condemns economic specula-
Modality is the name given to certain classifica- tion; praises manual labor and poverty; pro-
tions of propositions which are either supple- hibits music, wine and pork, and the portrayal
mentary to the classification into true and false of living beings. H.H.
or intended to provided categories additional Mohism : See Mo
chia and Chinese philosophy.
to truth and falsehood namely to classifications Moksa: (Skr.) Liberation, salvation from the
of propositions as possible, problematical, and effects of karma (q.v.) and resulting samsdra
the like. See Strict implication, and Proposi- (q.v.). Theoretically, good karma as little as
tional calculus, Many-valued. evil karma can bring about liberation from the
Or, as in traditional logic, modality may refer state of existence looked upon pessimistically.
to a of propositions according to
classification Thus, Indian philosophy early found a solution
the kind of assertion which is contained rather in knowledge (vidyd, jndna) which, disclosing
than have the character of a truth-value. From the essential oneness of all in the metaphysical
this point of view propositions are classed as world-ground, declares the phenomenal world as
assertoric (in which something is asserted as mdyd (q.v.). Liberation is then equivalent to
true), problematic (in which something is as- identification of oneself with the ultimate real-
serted as fiossible), and apo deictic (in which ity, eternal, changeless, blissful, or in a state
something is asserted as necessary). A.C. of complete indifference either with or without
Mode: (Lat. modus, measure, standard, manner) loss of consciousness, but at any rate beyond
(a) In Augustinism: a measure imprinted upon good and evil, pleasure and pain. Divine grace
human minds by God, enabling man to know is also recognized by some religious systems as
what it good and true. effecting moksa. No generalization is possible
(b) In mediaeval Aristotelianism: a determi- regarding the many theories of moksa, its na-
nation of being-in-general to some limited con- ture, or the mode of attaining it. See Nirvana,
are compounds. So far no single molecule has tributes nothing regeneration but
to its that
been synthesized larger than the wave length of this is the work of one factor, the Divine.
ads to distinguish them from the Democritean popular contemporary religion built on an ex-
atoms. The monads, centers of the world life, treme monistic theory of reality. Most meta-
are both psychic and spatial individuals. physical monists hold to a modified or soft
3. Leibniz (borrowing the term possibly from monistic theory (e.g. the metaphysics of Royce).
Augustine, Bruno or Protestant scholastics) iden- (b) Epistemological: The view that the real
tified the monads with the metaphysical indi- object and the idea of it (perception or con-
viduals or souls, conceived as unextended, active, ception) are one in the knowledge relation.
indivisible, naturally indestructible, Ideological (e.g. the school known as New Realism 5 ex-
substances ideally related in a system of pre- treme mystics.) V.F.
established harmony. Monism, neutral: The doctrine that regards
4. extension of Leibnizian usage, a soul,
By mind nor matter as ultimates. H.H.
neither
self, metaphysical unit, when conceived as pos- Mono-personalism: A term ascribed by Kohn-
sessing an autonomous life, and irrespective of stamm to Stern's doctrine of an impersonal-
the nature of its relations to beings beyond it. God. R.T.F.
W.L. Monosyllogism: See Poly syllogism.
Monadology: (also Monadism) The doctrine of Montague, William Pepperell: (1873-) Pro-
monads, the theory that the universe is a com- fessor of Philosophy at Columbia University.
posite of elementary units. monad may also A He was among the early leaders of the neo-
be a metaphysical unit. The notion of monad realist group. He developed views interpreting
can be found in Pythagoras, Ecphantus, Aris- consciousness, variation and heredity mechani- in
totle, Euclid, Augustine, et al. Plato refers to his cal terms. He has characterized his view as
ideas as monads. Nicolaus Cusanus regards in- animistic materialism. Among his best known
dividual things as units which mirror the world. works are: The Ways of Knowing or the Meth-
Giordano Bruno seems to have been the first to ods of Philosophy, Belief Unbound, A Prome-
have used the term in its modern connotation. thean Religion for the Modern World and his
God is called monas monadumj each monad, most recent, Knowledge, Nature and Value A
combining matter and form, is both corporeal Philosophy of Knowledge, Nature and Value.
and spiritual, a microcosm of the whole. But See Neo-Realism. L.E.D.
the real founder of monadology is Leibniz. To Montaigne, Michel De: (1533-1592) French
him, the monads are the real atoms of nature, novelist whose renowned Essays are famous for
the elements of things. The monad is a simple his tolerant study of himself and through him-
substance, completely different from a material self of mankind as a whole. He doubts the
atom. It has neither extension, nor shape, nor possibility of certain knowledge and recommends
divisibility. Nor perishable. Monads begin
is it a return to nature and revelation. He was a
to exist or cease to exist by a decree of God. keen observer of the frailties of human nature
They distinguished from one another in
are and has left among the essays crowned master-
character, they "have no windows" through pieces of insight and delight. L.E.D.
which anything can entere in or go out, that Montanism: A Christian movement dated about
is, the substance of the monad must be conceived the middle of the second century centering about
as force, as that which contains in itself the the teachings of the prophet Montanus and two
principle of its changes. The universe is the women, Prisca and Maximilla. They distin-
aggregate, the idealbond of the monads, con- guished between mortal and venial sins, prac-
stituting a harmonious unity, pre-established by ticed ascetic ideals and believed themselves to
God who the
highest in the hierarchy of
is possess the pure type of Christian living on the
monads. This bond of all things to each, en- authority of a special revelation from the Holy
ables every simple substance to have relations Spirit. The movement faded out about the 4th
which express all the others, every monad being century. Tertullian, famous Latin churchman,
a perpetual living mirror of the universe. The was for a time a member. V.F.
simple substance or monad, therefore, contains Montesquieu, Charles De Secondat: (1689-
a plurality of modifications and relations even
1755) French historian and writer in the field
though has no parts but is unity. The high-
it of politics. His Lettres persanes, thinly dis-
est monad, God, appears to be both the creator guise trenchant criticism of the decadence of
and the unified totality and harmony of self- French society through the letters of two Persian
active and self-subsistent monads. J.M. visitors. His masterpiece, L'Esprit des Lois,
Monadology, The New: Expression used by gives a political and social philosophy in point-
Renouvier for his type of personalism. R.T.F. ing the relation between the laws and the con-
.
Monergism : The view that the human will con- stitution of government. He finds a relation
202 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
between all laws in the laws of laws, the primarily to a few British moralists of the late
necessary relations derived from the nature of 17th and early 18th centuries, notably Shaftes-
things. In his analysis of the English constitu- bury and Hutcheson, who held the organ of
tion, he stressed the separation of powers in a ethical insight to be, not reason, but a special
manner that has had lasting influence though "moral sense," akin to feeling in nature.
based on historical inaccuracy. L.E.D. W.K.F.
Monumentally: Artistic character suggesting the Moral Virtues: (Gr. aretai ethikai) In Aris-
sense of grandeur, even though small in size. totle's philosophy those virtues, or excellences,
L.V. which consist in the habitual control of con-
Moods of the syllogism: See figure (syllogistic), duct by rational principle; as distinct from the
and logic, formal, 5. intellectual virtues, whose end is the knowledge
Moore, George Edward: (1873-) One of the of principles. See Aristotelianism; Dianoetic
leading English realists. Professor of Mental Virtues. G.R.M.
Philosophy and Logic at Cambridge. Editor of More, Paul Elmer: An American literary critic
"Mind." He has been a vigorous opponent of and philosopher (1364-1937), who after teach-
the idealistic tradition in metaphysics, epistemol- ing at Bryn Mawr and other colleges, edited
ogy and in ethics. His best known works are: The Nation for several years before retiring to
ends, an a priori system of objective ethical subject from potency to act. H.G.
truth which somehow underlies this natural or Motivation: Designation of the totality of mo-
existential order as its basis or overarches it as tives operative in any given act of volition or
its pattern and law-giver, or (b) to a belief that of the mechanism of the operation of such mo-
there is a moral direction in the affairs of the tives. See Motive. L.W.
world.W.K.F. Motive: (Lat. motus, from movere, to move) An
Moral Philosophy: See Ethics. animal drive or desire which consciously or un-
Morals: The term is sometimes used as equivalent consciously operates as a determinant of an act
to "ethics." More used to desig-
frequently it is of volition. L.W.
nate the codes, conduct, and customs of indi- Mo Tzu: (Mo Ti, between 500 and 396 B.C.)
viduals or of groups, as when one speaks of the Founder of Mohism (Mo chia), studied Con-
morals of a person or of a people. Here it is fucianism, later repudiated it, especially its doc-
equivalent to the Greek word ethos and the trines of Fate and elaborate rituals. As a high
Latin mores. W.K.F. officer in the state of Sung (in present Honan,
Moral Sense School, The: 'The phrase refers most probably his native state) he "skillfully
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 203
carried out military defense and practiced econ- stood for free will and against divine predestina-
omy." He vigorously defended religious beliefs tion.
and practices, became the chief promoter, if not Mysticism: Mysticism in its simplest and most
the only founder, of religion in ancient China. essential meaning is a type of religion which
His pupils became an organized religious group, puts the emphasis on immediate awareness of
or possibly a society of people who had been relation with God, direct and intimate con-
punished with branding and had become slaves, sciousness of Divine Presence. It is religion in
which is what the word mo in one sense meant. its most intense and living stage. The
acute,
Mo Tzu (Eng. tr. by Y. P. Mei: The Ethical word owes origin to the Mystery Religions.
its
and Political Works Motse) contains his The initiate who had the "secret" was called a
of
teachings recorded by his followers. W.T.C. mystes. Early Christians used the word "Con-
Mou: The method of parallel in argumentation. templation" for mystical experience. The word
See Pien. W.T.C. "mystical" first came into use in the Western
Mukti: (Skr.) Liberation. Same as moksa (q.v.).
World in the writings ascribed to "Dionysius
K.F.L. the Areopagite", which appeared at the end of
the fifth century.
Multiple Inherence, Theory of: The view that
in can "Dionysius" used the word to express a type
qualities, secondary qualities particular
inhere in a triadic or
of "Theology" rather than an experience. For
multiple relationship.
him and for many interpreters since his day,
(Broad.) H.H.
Mysticism stands for a religious theory or sys-
Multiplicative axiom: See choice, axiom of.
tem, which conceives of God as absolutely trans-
Multiplicity: The doctrine of the plurality of
cendent, beyond reason, thought, intellect and
beings, or the manifoldness of the real, denied
all approaches of mind. The way up is a via
by the Eleatics, who contended that the multi-
negativa. It is
Agnostia, "unknowing knowing".
plicity of things was but an illusion of the
This type of Mysticism, which emerged from
senses, was defended by Aristotle who maintained
the Neo-Platonic stream of thought might be
that the term, being, is only a common predi- defined as Belief in the possibility of Union
cate of many things which become out of that
with the Divine by means of ecstatic contempla-
which is
relatively not-being by making the
tion.
transition from the potential to the actual.
The word, furthermore, has been loosely used
JJ.R.
for esoteric, gnostic, theosophical types of
Mundus intelligibilis: (Lat.) The world of in- not capable of verification. It
"knowledge",
telligiblerealities} Plato's realm of Ideas, or has been used, too, for the whole area of psychic
St.Augustine's rationes aeternae in the Divine
phenomena and occult happenings, borderland
Mind. Each species of things is represented here
phenomena. The result of this confusion has
by one, perfect exemplar, the pattern for the been that in scientific laboratories the word
many, imperfect copies in the world of sense. often connotes
mysticism spurious knowledge,
See Mundus sensibilis. V.J.B. occult lore or abnormal phenomena. The Ger-
Mundus sensibilis: (Lat.) The world of things mans use the word Mysticismus for this dubious
perceived by the human senses. In Platonism, type of knowledge and Mystik for the loftier
dundzuge d. Psycho technik, 1914. H.H. tive method of symbolic representation in order
Mutazilite: (Ar. seceders) Member of a Shiite to escape from the limitations of literal mean-
sect of Islam dating from the 8th century, which ing. J.K.F.
N
Na chia: The coordination and interlocking of paradoxes would result (see paradoxes, logical).
the Ten Celestial Stems with the Eight Ele- The same can be said of the semantical name
ments (pa kua), to the end that the first Stem, relation in cases where symbols for formulas are
which is the embodiment of the active or male present.
cosmic force, and the second Stem, which is the Such systems may, however, contain partial
reservoir of the passive or female cosmic force, name relations which function as name relations
gather in the center and the highest point in in the case of some but not all of the formulas
the universe. Taoist religion.) W.T.C. of the system (or of their associated Godel
Naive Realism: The view of the man in the numbers).
street. This view is an uncritical belief in an In particular, it is normally possible at least
external world and the ability to know it. it does not obviously lead to contradiction in
K.F. the case of such systems as the Zermelo set
Name: A word or symbol which denotes (desig- theory or the simple theory of types (functional
nates) a particular thing is called a proper name calculus of order omega) with axiom of in-
of that particular thing. finity to extend a system L\ into a system LI
In English and other natural languages there (the semantics of L\ in the sense of Tarski),
occur also common names (common nouns), such so that L shall contain symbols for the formulas
a common name being thought of as if it could of Li, and for the essential syntactical relations
serve as a name of anything belonging to a between formulas of 1, and for a relation
specified class or having specified characteristics. which functions as a name relation as regards
Underusual translations into symbolic notation, all the formulas of Li (or, in the case of the
common names are replaced by proper names theory of types, one such relation for each type),
together with appropriate new primitive
of classes or of class concepts 5 and this would for-
seem to provide the best logical analysis. In mulas. Then L 9 may be similarly extended into
actual Engliah usage, however, a common noun and so on through a hierarchy of systems
Ls,
is often more nearly like a variable each including the preceding one ao a part.
(q. v.) hav-
ing a specified range. A.C. Or, if Li contains symbols for positive in-
Name relation or meaning relation-. The relation
tegers, we may extend L\ into L by merely
between a symbol (formula, word, phrase) and
adding a symbol for a relation which functions
that which it denotes or of which it is the as a numerical name relation as regards all
name. numbers of formulas of In (or one such relation
Where a particular (interpreted) system does for each type) together with appropriate new
not contain symbols for formulas, it may be
primitive formulas} and so on through
a hier-
Natorp, Paul: (1854-1924) Collaborating with certain negations that define to a great extent
Cohen, Natorp applied the transcendental method the influence of naturalism. First, it is denied
to an interpretation of Plato, to psychology and that nature is derived from or dependent upon
to the methodology of the exact sciences. Like any transcendent, supernatural entities. From
Cohen, Natorp really did not contribute to the this follows the denial that the order of natural
scientific development of critical philosophy but events can be intruded upon. And this in turn
prepared the way for philosophical mysticism. entails the denial of freedom, purpose, and
Cf. Platos Ideenlehre f 1903} Kant u. d. Mar- transcendent destiny.
burger Sckult, 1915. J,K. Within the context of these views there is
Natural: (in Scholasticism) As opposed to super- evidently allowance for divergent doctrines, but
natural, is that which belongs to (or is due to) certain general tendencies can be noticed. The met-
a thing according to its nature, as it is natural aphysics of naturalism is always monistic and if
times it is used to refer to a physical body com- assigned them. The axiology of naturalism can
posed of matter and form. H,G. leek its values only within the context of human
Natural election: The inherent desire of all character and experience, and must ground these
things for all other things in a certain order. values on individual self-realization or social
First employed bv Francis Bacon (1561-1626) utility; though again there is disagreement as to
in a passage quoted by A. N. Whitehead (1861-) both the content and the final validity of the
from the Silva Silvarunt: "there is a kind values there discovered. Naturalistic epistemol-
of election to embrace that which is agree- ogies have varied between the extremes of ra-
able and to exclude or expel that which is in- tionalism and positivism, but they consistently
grate". First erected into a philosophical prin- limit knowledge to natural events- and the rela-
ciple by John Laird (1887-) in The Idea of tionships holding between them, and so direct
Value, following a suggestion in Montaigne's inquiry to a description and systematization of
Essays. Value, considered as a larger category what happens in nature. The beneficent task
than human value, an ingredient of the natural that naturalism recurrently performs is that of
world but regarded without its affective con- recalling attention from a blind absorption in
tent. Syn. with objective value, ,as independent theory to a fresh consideration of the facts and
of the cognitive process. J.K.F. values exhibited in nature and life.
Naturalism: Naturalism, challenging the cog- In aesthetics'. The general doctrine that the
ency of the cosmological, ideological, and moral proper study of art is nature. In this broad
arguments, hoJds that the universe requires no sense, artistic naturalism is simply the thesis
supernatural cause and government, but is self- that the artist's sole concern and function should
existent, self-explanatory, self-operating, and be to observe closely and
report clearly the
self-directing; that the world-process is not character and behavior of his physical environ-
teleological and anthropocentric, but purposeless, ment. Similarly to philosophical naturalism,
deterministic (except for possible tychistic aesthetic naturalism derives much of its impor-
events), and only incidentally productive of tance from its denials and from the manner in
man; that human life, physical, mental, moral which it consequently restricts and directs art.
and spiritual, is an ordinary natural event at- The artist should not seek any "hidden" reality
tributable in all respects to the ordinary opera- or essence; he should not attempt to correct or
tions of nature; and that man's ethical values, complete nature by either idealizing or general-
compulsions, activities, and restraints can be izing; he should not impose value judgments
justified on natural grounds, without recourse upon nature; and he should not concern himself
206 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
with the selection "beautiful" subjects that
of there appeared in Europe a renewed interest in
will yield "aesthetic pleasure". He is simply to nature. Rationalism grown around the authori-
dissect and describe what he finds around him. ties of the Bible and Aristotle was challenged
Here, itimportant to notice explicitly a dis-
is and the right to investigate phenomena was
tinction between naturalism and romanticism claimed. Interest In nature was directed at first
(q.v.): romanticism emphames the felt quality toward the starry heaven and resulted in im-
of things, and the romanticist is primarily in- portant discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo and
terested in the experiences that nature will yield} Kepler. The scientific spirit of observation and
naturalism emphasizes the objective character of research had not yet matured, however, and the
things, and is interested in nature as an inde- philosophers of that time blended their interest
pendent entity. Thus, romanticism stresses the in facts with much loose speculation. Among
intervention of the artist upon nature, while the nature philosophers of that period three de-
naturalism seeks to reduce this to a minimum. serve to be mentioned specifically, Tele$io, Bruno
Specifically, naturalism usually refers to the and Campanella, all natives of Southern Italy.
doctrines and practices of the 1 9th century Despite his assertions that thought should be
school of which arose as the literary
realism guided by the observation of the external world,
analogue of positivism, and whose great mas- Bernardino Telesio (1508-1588) confined his
ters were Flaubert, Zola, and de Maupassant. works to reflections on the nature of things.
The fundamental dogma of the movement, as Particularly significant are twq of his doctrines,
expressed by Zola in "Le Roman experimental" first, that the universe must be described in
and "Les Romanciers naturalistes", states that terms of matter and force, the latter classified as
naturalism is "the scientific method applied to heat and cold, and second, that mind is akin to
literature". Zola maintains that the task of the matter. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600), a Do-
artist is to report and explain \\hat happens in minican monk and a victim of the Inquisition,
nature, art must aim at a literal
transcript of was greatly influenced by the Copernican con-
reality, and the artist attains this by making an ception of the universe regarded by him as a
analytic study of character, motives, and be- harmonious unity of which the earth was but a
havior. Naturalism argues that all judgments small and not too important part. The concept
of good and bad are conventional, \vith no real of unity -was not a condition of human search
basis in nature, so art should seek to under- for truth but a real principle underlying all
stand, not to approve or condemn. Human be- things and expressing the harmonious order of
havior is regarded as largely a function of en- Divine wisdom. Deity, in his view, was the
vironment and circumstances, and the novelist soul of nature, operating both in the human
should exhibit these in detail, with no false minds and in the motion of bodies. Consequent-
idealizing of character, no glossing over of the ly, both living beings and material objects
ugly, and no appeal to supposed hidden forces. must be regarded as animated. Tomaso Cam-
/./. panella (1568-1639), another Dominican monk,
Naturalistic ethics: Any view according to was also persecuted for his teachings and spent
which ethics is an empirical science, natural or 27 years in prison. He contended that observa-
social, ethical notions being reduced to those of tions of nature were not dependent on the au-
of the natural sciences and ethical questions thority of reason and can be refuted only by
being answered wholly on basis of the findings other observations. His interests lay largely
of those sciences. W.K.F. along the lines previously suggested by Telesio,
Naturalistic fallacy, the: The procedure In- and much of his thought was devoted to prob-
volved in metaphysical and naturalistic systems lems of mind, consciousness and knowledge. He
of ethics, and said by G. E. Moore and his believed that all nature was permeated by latent
followers to be a fallacy, of deriving ethical awareness, and may therefore be regarded as an
conclusions from non-ethical premises or of de- animist or perhaps pantheist. Today, he is best
fining ethical notions in non-ethical terms. See known for his City of the Sun t an account of
Naturalistic f/Aus, Metaphysical ethics. W.K.F. an imaginary ideal state in which existed neither
Natural law: (in legjl philosophy) A "higher property nor nobility and in which all affairs
were administered scientifically. R.B.W.,
law" as opposed to the positive law of a state.
The rules of natural law were supposed to be Natural Realism: In epistemology, the doctrine
universally valid and therefore natural. They that sensation and
perception can be relied
are discoverable by reason alone (rationalism). upon to give indubitable evidence of the real
Natural law theories originated in ancient Greek existence of the external world. Theory that
philosophy. From the Renaissance on they were realism is part of the inherent common sense
used as an argument for liberal political doc- of mankind. First advanced by T. Reid (1710-
trines. There is a marked tendency in recent 1796) and held by his followers of the Scotch
legal philosophy to revive the natural law doc- school. Also known as the common-sense phi-
trine. W.E. losophy. See Realism. J.K.F.
Nature Philosophers: Name given to pre- Natural Selection: This is the corner stone of
Socratic "physiologers" and to Renaissance phi- the evolutionary hypothesis of Charles Darwin.
losophers who revived the study of physical He found great variation in and among types as
processes. Early in the 16th century, as a a result of his extensivebiological investiga-
result of the discovery of new lands, the tions and accounted for the modifications, not by
revival of maritime trade, and the Reformation, some act of special creation or supernatural in-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 207
teivention, but by the descent, generation after have such an internal source of change. Though
generation, of modified species selected to sur- both matter and form are involved in the
vive and reproduce the more useful and the mote changes of a natural being, its nature is ordi-
successfully adapted to the environmental narily identified with the form, as the active
struggle for existence. He elaborated a corollary and intelligible factor. (2) The sum total of
to thisgeneral theory in his idea of sexual allnatural beings. See Artstotelianism. G.RM.
selection. See Evolutionism, Charles Dartvtn, Nature "naturing": (Natura naturans; in
Herbert Spencer. L.E.D. Scholasticism) God. Nature "natured" (Natura
Natural Theology: In general, natural theology natural a) is the complexus of all created things.
is a term used to
distinguish any theology based Sometimes nature is used for the essence of a
upon the fundamental premise of the ability of thing or for natural causes, and in this sense it
man to construct his theory of God and of the is said: nature does nothing in vain, for the
world out of the framework of his own reason generation and birth of living beings, for sub-
and of reasonable probability from the so-called stantial formj and for the effective or passive
"revealed theology" which presupposes that God principle of motion and rest. H.G.
and divine purposes are not open to unaided Necessary: According to distinctions of modality
human understanding but rest upon a super- (q. v.), a proposition is necessary if its truth is
give their assent and to offset the extravagant might have been otherwise. (As thus described,
claims of the supernaturalists and their harsh the notion is of course vague, but it may in
various ways be given an exact counterpart in
charges against doubters. The classical attempt
to make out a case for the sweet reasonableness one logistic system or another.)
of a divine purpose at work in the world of A
proposition may also be said to be neces-
nature was given by Paley in his Natural The- sary if it is a consequence of some accepted set
Traditional of propositions (indicated by the context), even
ology (1802). Catholicism, espe-
that of middle Ages developed
the late if this accepted set of propositions is not held to
cially
a kind of natural theology based upon the meta- be a priori. See Necessity.
1. The objective as opposed to the subjective. asmuch as the grounds of an assertion of this
2. An objective standard for values as op- kind may in general be one of three very dis-
posed to custom, law, convention. tinct kinds, it is customary and valuable to dis-
3. The general cosmic order/ usually con- tinguish the three types of necessity affirmed at
reived as divinely ordained, in contrast to (1) logical or mathematical necessity, (2) physi-
human deviations from this. cal necessity, and (3) moral necessity. The
4. That which exists apart from and unin- distinction between these three was first worked
fluenced by man, in contrast with art. out with precision by Leibniz in his Theodicee.
5. The
instinctive or spontaneous behavior of Logical, physical, and moral necessity are
man at opposed to the intellective. founded in logical, physical, and moral lawt
Various normative meanings are read into respectively. Anything is logically necessary the
these, with the result that the "natural" is held denial of which would violate a law of logic.
to be better than the "artificial", the "unnatu- Thus in ordinary commutative algebra the im-
ral", the "conventional" or customary, the in- plication from the postulates to ab-ba is logi-
tellectual or deliberate, the subjective. G.B. cally necessary, since its denial would violate a
In Aristotle's philosophy. (1) the internal logical law (viz. the commutative rule) of this
tource of change or rest in an object as such, system.
in distinction from art, which is an external Similarly, physically necessary things are
tource of change. Natural beings are those that those whose denial would violate a physical or
208 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
natural law. The orbits of the planets are said Neo-Conf ucianism : See Li hsiieh and Chinese
to be
physically necessary. Circular orbits for philosophy.
the planets are logically possible, but not physi- Neo-Criticism : The designation of his philoso-
cally possible, so long as certain physical laws phy used by Cournot, and in the early stage. of
of motion remain true. Physical necessity is his thought by Renouvier, who later changed
also referred to as "causal" necessity. to Personalism as the more fitting title. See
As moral laws differ widely from logical and also Monadology, The New. R.T.F.
physical laws, the type of necessity which they Neo-Hegelianism: The name given to the re-
generate is considerably different from the two vival Hegelian philosophy which began
of the
in Scotland and England about the middle of
types previous defined. Moral necessity is illus-
trated in the necessity of an obligation. Fulfill- the nineteenth century and a little later extended
ment of the obligation is morally necessary in to America. Outstanding representatives of the
the sense that the failure to fulfill it would movement in England and Scotland are J. H.
violate a moral law, where this law is regarded Stirling, John and Edward Caird, T. H. Green
asembodying some recognized value. If it is (perhaps more under the influence of Kant),
admitted that values are relative to individuals F. H. Bradley, B. Bosanquet, R. B. Haldane,
and societies, then the laws embodying these J. E. McTaggart and, in America, W. T. Har-
values will be similarly relative, and likewise ris and Josiah Royce. Throughout, the repre-
the type of thing which these laws will render sentatives remained indifferent to the formal
priori ethicsmay be regarded as an attempt to poses between two kinds of "concrete universals"
reduce moral necessity to logical necessity; while (s.v.). In addition to the Hegelian concrete uni-
the attempt to derive ethical evaluations from versal, conceived as a dialectical synthesis of
the statements of science, e.g. from biology, is two abstract opposites, is posited a second type
an attempt to reduce moral necessity to physical in which the component elements are "concretes"
or causal necessity. F.L.W. rather than dialectical abstracts, i.e. possess rela-
Negation: The act of denying a proposition tive mutual independence and lack the character-
as contrasted with the act of affirming it. The istic of logical opposition. The living forms of
affirmation of a proposition p, justifies the nega- Mind, both theoretical and practical, are uni-
tion of its contradictory, p' } and the nega- versal in this latter sense. This implies that fine
tion of p justifies the affirmation of p'. Con- art, utility, and ethics do not comprise a dia-
trariwise the affirmation of p' justifies the lectical series with philosophy at their head,
negation of p and the negation of p' justifies i.e.they are not inferior forms of metaphysics.
the affirmation of p. C.A.B. Thus neo-Idealism rejects Hegel's panlogism. It
Thenegation of a proposition p is the also repudiates his doctrine of the relative inde-
proposition ~p
(see Logic, formal, 1 ). The ne-
pendence of Nature, the timeless transcendence
gation of a monadic prepositional function F is of the Absolute with respect to the historical
the monadic prepositional function \*[''F(;r)] , process, and the view that at any point of his-
similarly for dyadic prepositional functions, etc. tory a logically final embodiment of the Absolute
Or the word negation may be used in a syn- Idea is achieved. W.L.
tactical sense, so that the negation of a sentence Neo-intuitionism : See Intuitionism.
(formula) A is the sentence ~A. A. C. Neo-Kantianism : A group of Kantian followers
Negative proposition See affirmative proposition.
:
who regard the thing-in-itself or noumenal
Negative Sensation: Term used by Wundt to world as a limiting concept rather than, as did
designate sensations produced by stimuli below Kant, an existent, though unknowable realm.
the threshold of positive sensation. See Limits
Reality is for the Neo-Kantians a construct of
of Sensation. The term has
largely been dis- mind, not another realm. Even Kant's noumenal
carded because the existence of such sensations is world is mind. The phenomenal
a construct of
now generally denied. L.W. world is and it is the realm of ideas.
the real
Nei sheng: Often used as referring to the man Hence Neo-Kantianism is a form of idealism.
who attained to complete self-cultivation, sage- Hermann Cohen, a Neo-Kantian, spoke of the
hood. (Confucius.) H.H. world as the creative act of thought. This
Nei tan: Internal alchemy, as a means of nour- idealism is sometimes termed "positivistic."
ishing life, attaining Tao and immortality, in- V.F.
cluding an elaborate system of breathing tech- Neology: Literally, the introduction of new words
nique, diet, and the art of preserving unity of or new meanings. In theology the neologist is
thought (tsun i, tsiin hsiang, tsiin ssu). Also the heretic who introduces a new doctrine. In
called t'ai hsi. For external alchemy, see Wai the latter sense, the rationalist was called a
tan. (Taoist religion.) W.T.C. neologist by the traditional theologian. V.F.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 209
Neo-Mohism: See Mo che and Chine te -philoso- from the beginning of the twentieth century,
phy. It began as a movement of reaction against the
Neo-Platonism : New Platonism, i.e. a school of wide influence of idealistic metaphysics. Where-
philosophy established perhaps by Ammoniui as the idealists reduce everything to mind, this
Saccus in the second century A.D., in Alexandria, school reduced mind to everything. For the
ending- as a formal school with Proclus in the New Realists Nature is basic and mind is part
fifth century. See Plotinism. VJ.B. and parcel of it. How nature was conceived
Neo-Pythagoreanism ; A school of thought initi- (whether materialistic, neutralists, etc.) was not
ated in Alexandria, according to Cicero, by the important factor. New Realists differed here
Nigidius Figulus, a Roman philosopher who died among themselves. Their theory of knowledge
in 45 B.C. It was compounded of traditional was strictly monistic, the subject and object are
Pythagorean teachings, various Platonic, Aris- one since there is no fundamental dualism.
totelian and Stoic doctrines, including some mys- Two schools of New Realists are recognized:
tical and theosophical elements. JJ.R. (a) English New Realists: Less radical in
Neo-Scholasticism : See Scholasticism. that mind was given a status of its own char-
Nescience: (Lat. nesciens, ignorant) A state of acter although a part of its objective environ-
ignorance such as is professed by the agnostic. ment. Among distinguished representatives
See Agnosticism. L.W. were; G. E. Moore, Bertrand Russell, S. Alex-
Nestorians : A Christian sect dating from the 5th ander, T. P. Nunn, A. Wolf, G. F. Stout.
century. Nestorius, a patriarch of Constantinople (b) American New Realists: More radical in
428-431) opposed the designation "Mother of that mind tended to lose its special status in
God" (a declaration of Origen's) applied to the order of things. In psychology this school
Mary, the mother of Jesus. He said that Christ moved toward behaviorism. In philosophy they
had two distinct natures and that Mary, a were extreme pan-objectivists. Distinguished
human being, could not have delivered anyone representatives: F. J. E. Woodbridge, G. S.
but a human. The emphasis is upon the genuine Fullerton, E. B. McGilvary and six platformists
human nature and the exemplary value of (so-called because of their collaboration in a
Christ. Nestorianism was not only a Christo- volume The New
Reahsm, published 1912):
logical viewpoint and the only cause for much E. B. Holt, W. T. Marvin, W. P. Montague,
theological dispute} it was also a part of a R. B. Perry, W. B. Pitkin, E. G. Spaulding.
political and ecclesiastical feud between bishops The American New Realists agreed on a gen-
east and west. The council of Ephesus in 431 eral platform but differed greatly among them-
declared the view heretical. Nevertheless the selves as to theories of reality and particular
Nestorian churches spread widely and continues questions. V.F.
until our present time in Asiatic
Turkey and Newton's Method : The method
of procedure in
Persia. V.F. natural philosophyformulated by Sir Isaac
as
Neti, neti: (Skr.) "Not this, not that", famous Newton, Rules of Reasoning in
especially in his
passage in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 2.3.6 Philosophy (Mathematical Principles of Natural
et al. loc., giving answer to
questions as to the Philosophy, Book III). These rules are as fol-
nature of brahman (q. v.), thus hinting its in- lows: "I. We are to admit no more causes of
definability. KlF.L. natural things than such as are both true and
Neutralism: A type of monism which holds that sufficient to explain their
appearances. II. There-
reality is neither mind nor matter but a single fore to the same natural effects we
must, as. far
kind of stuff of which mind and matter are but as possible, assign the same causes. III. The
appearances or aspects. Spinoza is the classical qualities of bodies, which admit neither inten-
representative. H.H. sion nor remission of degrees, and which are
Neutral Monism: Theory of American New found to belong to all bodies within the reach
Realism, derived from W. James essay "Does of our experiments, are to be esteemed the uni-
Consciousness Exist?", Journal of Philosophy, versal qualities of all bodies whatsoever. IV. In
1904, which reduces the mental as well as physi- experimental philosophy we are to look upon
cal to relations among neutral entities (i.e. propositions collected by general induction from
entitieswhich are in themselves neither mental phaenomena as accurately or
very nearly true,
nor physical). The theory is qualitatively monis-
notwithstanding any contrary hypotheses that
tic in its admission of
only one kind of ulti- may be imagined, till such time as other phae-
mate reality viz. neutral or subsistent entities nomena occur, by which they may either be made
but is numerically pluralistic in acknowledging a more accurate, or liable to exceptions". To this
multiplicity of independent reals. L.W. passage should be
appended another statement
New Academy: Name commonly given to what from the closing pages of the same work: "I do
is also called the Third Academy, started by not make hypotheses } for whatever is not de-
Carneades (214-129 B.C.) who substituted a duced from the phaenomena is to be called an
theory of probability for the principle of doubt hypothesis) and hypotheses, whether metaphysical
which had been introduced into Plato's School or physical, whether of occult qualities or me-
by Arcesilaus, the originator of the Second or chanical, have no place in experimental philoso-
Middle Academy. The Academy later veered A.C.B.
phy."
toward eclecticism and eventually was merged Ntcht-Ich: (Ger. non-ego) Anything which it
with Neo-Platonitm. JJ.R. not the subjective self. Fichte accounted for
New Realism: A school of thought which dates the not-self in terms of the ontologically posited
210 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
objective lelf. Theis not-self the external, nothing} a negative statement of the principle
outer world opposed to the ego. H.H. of sufficient reason. VJ.B.
Nicolai, Friedrich: one of
(1733-1811) Was Nihilism: The doctrine that nothing, or nothing
the followers of Leibniz-Wolffian school which of a specified and very general class, exists, or
developed an eclectic reconciliation of rational- is knowable, or is valuable. Thus Gorgias held
ism and empiricism in a popular form that that (1) Nothing exists (2) Even if something
j
served to lay a foundation for the Kantian criti- did exist it could not be known, (3) Even if it
cal philosophy. L.E.D. were known this knowledge could not be com-
Nicomachus: Of Gcrasa in Arabia, a Neo-Py- municated. Schopenhauer's pessimism and denial
thagorean (q.v.) philosopher of the second cen- of the Will expresses a nihilistic attitude toward
tury. M.F. the so-called values of the world. As a social
Nidra: (Skr.) Sleep, In Indian philosophy, par- doctrine Nihilism is the belief that progress is
ticularly the Yoga (s.v.), not considered void possible only through the destruction of all social
of mental activity. K.F.L. and political organizations. See Anarchism.
Nietzsche, Friedrich: (1844-1900) Nietzsche's C.A.B.
discovery and description of "resentment", to Nihilism, ethical: The denial of the validity of
mention only one of his major achievements, all distinctions of moral value. As this position
stamps him as one of the philosophical psy- involves in effect the denial of possibility of all
chologists of the last century. His critique of the ethical philosophy, it has seldom been taken by
antiquated and false values of the educated mid- philosophers. In the history of thought, how-
dle class led pre-war generations to the pursuit
ever, a less pure ethical nihilism sometimes
of anethics of more realistic ideals. See Super-
appears as an intermediate stage in a philosophy
man. which wishes to deny the validity of all previ-
He was the first to recognize a fundamental
ous systems of value as a preliminary to sub-
critical between the philosopher and
difference new one in their places. F.L.W.
stituting a
the scientist. He
found those genuine ideals in Nimbarka: An Indian thinker and theologian of
the pre-Socratic period of Greek culture which the 12th century A.D., of Vedantic (q.v.),
he regarded as essential standards for the deep- Vishnuite persuasion, who assumed the world
ening of individuality and real culture in the and the human soul to be essentially and eter-
deepest sense, towards which the special and nally different from Vishnu, yet constituting a
natural sciences, and professional or academic certain unity with him because of complete de-
philosophers failed to contribute. Nietzsche K.F.L.
pendence.
wanted the philosopher to be prophetic, originally
Nirguna: (Skr.) "Devoid of qualities" (cf. guna) y
forward-looking in the clarification of the prob-
predicated as early as the Upanishads (q.v.) of
lem of existence. on a comprehensive
Based the Absolute as its in-it-self aspect (cf. saguna).
critique of the history of Western civilization, The highest reality is conceived to be of such
that the highest values in religion, morals and such transcendence that it has no part
fulness,
philosophy have begun to lose their power, his in the manifold of the phenomenal which is
philosophy gradually assumed the will to power, mere tnaya (q.v.) in Ankara's (q.v.) philosophy
self-aggrandizement, as the all-embracing prin- in so far as it is esoteric. K.F.L.
ciple in inorganic and organic nature, in the Nirvana: (Skr. blown out) The complete extinc-
development of the mind, in the individual and tion of individuality, without loss of conscious-
in society. More interested in developing a ness, in the beatific rejoining of the liberated
philosophy of life than a system of academic with the metaphysical world-ground. A term
philosophy, his view is that only that life is used principally by Buddhists though denoting a
worth living which develops the strength and state the attainment of which has been coun-
integrity to withstand the unavoidable sufferings selled from the Upanishads (q.v.) on as the
and misfortunes of existence without flying into summum bo num. It is invariably defined as a
an imaginary world. condition in which all pain, suffering, mental
His major works are: Thus Spake Zarathustra, anguish and, above all, samsdra (q.v.) have
Beyond Good and Evil, and Genealogy of ceased. It is doubtful that complete extinction
Morals. H.H. of life and consciousness or absolute annihila-
Nihil est in intellect!! quod non prius fuerit tion is meant. K.F.L.
in sensu: (Lat.) Nothing is in the intellect Nisus: The creative principle of emergent evolu-
which was not first in sense. All the materials, tion.See Emergent Evolution. R.B.W.
or content, of higher, intellectual cognition are Nitya-vada: (Skr.) The Vedantic (q.v.) theory
derived from the activity of lower, sense cogni- (vdda) which asserts that reality is eternal
tion. A principle subscribed to by Aristotle, St. (nitya),change being unreal. K.F.L.
Thomas and Locke; opposed by Plato, St. Au- Niyama: (Skr.) The imposing on oneself of good
gustine and Leibniz (who qualified the proposi- and kind habits, including bathing, eating clean
tion by adding: nisi intellectus ipse, i.e. except food, steeling the body, contentedness, cheer-
for what is already present as part of the in- fulness, study, and piety. K.F.L.
nate nature of the intellect, thus making it pos- Noema: (Ger. Noema) In Husserl:
objective The
sible for Kant to suggest that certain forms of sense of a noesis, together with the character
sensibility and reason are prior to sense experi- of the sense as posited in a certain manner, as
ence). VJ.B. given or emptily intended in a certain manner,
Nihil ex nihilo: (Lat.) Nothing comes from etc. For every dimension of the noesis there is
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 211
a
corresponding- dimension of the noema. See within the limits allowed by Church
dogma. In
note under noesis. D.C. the first frankly nominalistic
system Occam dis-
Noematic: (Ger. noematisch) In Husserl: Of or tinguished between the real and the grammatical
pertaining to noema. Noematic sense: see Sense. meanings of terms or universal. He assigned
D.C. a real status to universals in the
mind, and thus
Noesis: (Gr. Noesia) In Husserl: 1. That was the first to see that nominalism can have a
current in the stream of consciousness which is as well as an objective aspect. He
subjective
intrinsically intentional in that it points to an maintained to our intellects, however,
that
object as beyond itself. The noesis animates everything real must be some particular indi-
the intrinsically non-intentional hyletic current vidual thing. After Occam, nominalism as an
in the stream. (See Hyle). 2.
particular in- A explicitly held doctrine
disappeared until re-
stance of the ego cogito. Note. In HusserPs cently, when has been restated in certain
it
usage, noesis and noema are very rarely re- branches of Logical Positivism. J.K.F,
stricted to the sphere of or "in-
"thinking" Non-Being: (1) Non-existence or the non-exist-
tellect" (however defined) but are rather ex- ent; absence or privation of existence or the
tended to all kinds of consciousness. D.C. existent; (2) absence of determinateness or what
In Greek philosophers. The exercise of is thus indeterminate j
nous, (3) unreality or the un-
or reason, the activity of intellectual apprehen- real either lack of any reality or what is so
sion and intuitive thought. See Nous} Arts- lacking (absence, negation, or privation of real-
toteltantsm. G.R.M. ity)* or lack of a particular kind of reality or
Noetic: The character some entities have due to what is so lacking j otherness or existents of
their resulting from the activity of nous or another order of reality than a specified type*
reason. Thus those concepts which are non- failure to the defining criteria of some
fulfill
sensuous and non-empirical but are conceived what
by category, or so fails 5 (4) a category en-
reason alone arc noetic, the noetic
aspects of compassing any of the above. Confusion of non-
reality are those which are knowable reason. by existence and unreality renders paradoxical the
In a more general sense, "noetic" is equivalent question whether non-being is. Af.T.K.
to "cognitive". C.A.B. Non causa pro causa, or false cause, is the
(Ger. noetisch) In "Husserl. Of or per- fallacy, incident to the method of proof by
taining to noesis. See note under noesis. D.C. reductio ad absurdum (q. v.), when a contradic-
Nolition: (Lat. noio, I am The state tion has been deduced from a number of assump-
unwilling)
or act of negative volition. VJ.B. of inferring the negation of one of the
tions,
Nominal :
Having to
with names, nouns, do assumptions,, say M, where actually it is one or
words, or symbols rather than with that which more of the other assumptions which arc false
would ordinarily be regarded as and the contradiction could have been deduced
symbolized by
these verbal forms. See Nominalism. without use of M. This fallacy was
C.A.B.
committed,
Nominalism: (Lat. nominalis, belonging to a e.g., by Burali-Forti in his paper of 1897 (see
name) In scholastic philosophy, the
theory that Paradoxes , logical} when he inferred the exist-
abstract or general terms, or universal, ence of ordinal numbers a, b such that a is
repre-
sent no objective real neither less than, equal to, nor
existents, but are mere greater than b,
words or names', mere vocal
utterances, "flatus upon having deduced what is now known as
vocts". Reality is admitted only to actual physi- Burali-Forti's paradox from the
cal
contrary assump-
particulars. Universal exist only post res. tion: he had used without
question the assump-
Opposite
of Reahsm (q.v.) which main- tion that there is a class of all ordinal
numbers,
tains that universal exist ante res. First sug-
gested by Boethius in his 6th Latin Non-centre theory: Ascribes the unity of mind
century
translation of the Introduction to the to the fact a number of
Categories contemporary mental
(of Aristotle) by Porphyry (A.D. events are directly interrelated in certain char-
233-304).
Porphyry had raised the question of how Aris- acteristic ways. (Broad). H.H.
totle was to be interpreted on this score, and
Non-contradiction, law of: Same as Contradic-
had decided the question in favor of what was
tion, law of (q. v.). A.C.
later called nominalism. The doctrine did not
Non-ego: The outer world that has no inde-
receive any prominence until
applied to the pendent self-existence. (Fichte). H.H.
Sacrament of the Eucharist by Berengar in the Non-Euclidean geometry: Euclid's postulates
11th century. Berengar was the first scholastic for geometry included one, the parallel postulate,
to insist upon the evidence of his senses when which was regarded from earliest times (perhaps
examining the nature of the Eucharist. Shortly even by Euclid himself) as less satisfactory than
after, Roscellinus, who had broadened the doc- the others. This may be stated as follows (not
trine to the denial of the of all uni- Euclid's original form but an equivalent one):
reality
versals and the assertion of the sole reality of P
Through a given point not on a given lint I
physical particulars, was forced by the Council there passes at most one line, in the
plant of
of Soisaons to recant. P and l t which does not intersect I. Here "line"
Thereafter, despite Abe-
lard's unsuccessful means a straight line extended infinitely in both
attempt to reconcile the doc-
trine with realism by
finding a half-way position directions (not a line segment).
between the two, nominalism was not
again Attempts to prove the parallel postulate from
explicitly held until William of Occam (1280- the other postulates of Euclidean geometry
1349) revived it and attempted to defend it were unsuccessful. The undertaking of Saccheri
212 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
(1733) to make a proof by reductio ad absurdum identified with Aristotle's fallacy of the con-
of theparallel postulate by deducing conse- sequent, which includes the two fallacies of
quences of its negation did, however, lead to his denial of the antecedent (q. v.) and affirmation
developing many of the theorems of what is of the consequent (q. v.). A. C.
now known as hyperbolic geometry. The pro- Noology: (Gr. nous, Mind) logos, Science) A
posal that this hyperbolic geometry, in which term variously used, but without common accept-
Euclid's parallel postulate is replaced by its the science of mind or of noetic
ance,' for its
Or an inverted letter v, usually from a gothic times, however, the usage is that a
c b {"a is
font, may be used. In the Lukasiewicz notation a proper subclass of b") does exclude that a
for the prepositional calculus, which avoids ne- b; andthat case another notation is used
in
cessity for parentheses, the conjunction of p and when not meant that a
it is b is excluded, the =
9 i Kpq. sign being either surcharged upon the sign
p v q, the inclusive disjunction of p and q, c or written below it (or a single horizontal
"p or q." Frequently the letter v is from a line below the c may take the place of =).
gothic font. In the Lukasiewicz notation, Apq 3 \a, "the class a is not empty [has at least
is employed. one member]," or, "a's exist."
~p t the negation of p, "not ." Instead of
ix, or 'x, or [x] the unit class of x, i.e.,
~, a dash may be used, written either before the class whose single member is x.
the prepositional symbol or above it. Heyting
V, the universal class. Where the algebra of
adds a short downward stroke at the right end classes is treated in isolation, the digit 1 is
of the dash (a notation which has come to be often used for the universal class.
associated particularly with the intuitionistic Where
A, the null or empty class. the algebra
prepositional calculus and the intuitionistic con-' of classes is treated in isolation, the digit is
cept of negation). Also employed is an accent often used.
after the
prepositional symbol (but this more
a, the complement of a, or class of non-
usual a notation for the complement of a
as
members of the class a. An alternative notation
class). In the Lukasiewicz notation, the nega-
is a'.
tion of p is Np.
=> a ^ b, the
sum, or union, of the
logical
p q, the material implication of q by p t
"if p then q." Also employed is a horizontal
classes a and
Alternative notation, a
b. b. +
- The Lukasiewicz notation is a A, the logical product, or intersection, or
arrow, p q.
common part, of the classes a and b. Alternative
Cpq.
p = equivalence of p and q,
q, the material notation, ab.
Another notation which
and only RELATIONS (see Relation, and Logic, formal,
"p if if q."
has sometimes been employed is p 3 c q. Other 8) (where a notation used in connection with
notations are a double horizontal arrow, with relations is here given as identical with a cor-
point at both ends) and two horizontal arrows, responding notation for classes, the relational
one above the other, one pointing forward and notation will also often befound with a dot
the other back. The Lukasiewicz notation is added to distinguish it from the one for classes) :
Epq. xRy, "x has [or stands in, or bears] the rela-
p
~
strictly implies q."
q t the strict equivalence of p and q, "p
R (or other symbol denoting a relation) instead
n of before it.
strictly impliesq and q strictly implies p. Some
recent writers employ, for strict equivalence, in- R ^ S, the logical sum of the relations R
stead of Lewis's ==, a sign similar to the sign and S, "R or 5." Schroder uses R+S.
of material equivalence, =, but with four lines R * S, the logical product of the relations
instead of three. R and S, "/? and 5." Schroder uses R'S.
Mp, "p is possible." This is Lukasiewicz's /, the relation of identity so that xly is the
notation and has been used especially in con- same as x y. Schroder uses 1'.
nection with his three-valued prepositional cal- 7, the relation of diversity so that xJy is
culus. For the different notion of possibility the same as x ^
y, Schroder uses 0'.
which is appropriate to the calculus of strict A
breve <- is placed over the symbol for a
implication, Lewis employs a diamond. relation to denote the converse relation. An
CLASSES (see class, and logic, formal, 7, alternative notation for the converse of R is
9): Cnv'fl.
ma, "x is a member of the class tf," or, "x is R
-f 5, the relative sum of R and S. Schroder
an a." For the negation of this, sometimes a adds a leftward hook at the bottom of the verti-
vertical line across the letter is em- cal line in the sign -J-.
epsilon
ployed, or a ' '
above it. R\S, the relative product of R and 5. SchrSder
* c b, the inclusion of the class a in the uses a semicolon to symbolize the relative prod-
class b, "a is a subclass of ." This notation is uct, but the vertical bar, or sometimes a slanted
usually employed in such a way that a <= b does bar, is now the usual notation.
not exclude the possibility that a b. Some- = R*, the square of the relation R, i.e., R\R.
214 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Similarly for higher powers of a relation, as R*> the existential quantifier is sometimes expressed
etc. by means of a dash over it.
3 , formal implication with respect to x.
R'y, the (unique) * such that xRy, "the R of See
y." Frequently the inverted comma is of a bold definition in the article logic, formal, 3.
R to at least one member of the class b, "the A See definition in logic, formal,
,. 3.
relation R
to y (where the zero power of is R Dots (frequently printed as bold, or bold
taken to be, either I, or 7 with its field limited square, dots) are used in the punctuation of logi-
to the field of R). cal formulas, to avoid or replace parentheses.
QUANTIFIERS (see Quantifiers, and Logic, for- There are varying conventions for this purpose.
> is used to express definitions, the definien-
mal, 3, 6):
(x), universal quantification with respect to x
dum being placed to the left and the definiens
so that (*)M may be read "for every xt M." to the right. An alternative notation is the sign
An alternative notation occasionally met with, (or, in connection with the propositional
instead of (*), is (V*), usually with the in- calculus,
= ) with the letters Df, or df, written
verted A
from a gothic or other special font. above it, or as a subscript, or separately after the
Another notation is composed of a Greek capital definiens.
pi with the x placed either after it, or before it, Quotation marks, usually single quotes, are
or as a subscript. Negation of the universal employed as a means of distinguishing the name
quantifier is sometimes expressed by means of a of a symbol or formula from the symbol or
dash,_or horizontal line, over it. formula itself (see syntax, logical). A symbol
(Ex), existential quantification with respect to or formula between quotation marks is employed
x so that (Ex)M may be read "there exists an as a name of that particular symbol or formula.
x such that M." The E which forms part of E.g., y is a name of the sixteenth letter of the
the notation may also be inverted; and, whether English alphabet in small italic type.
inverted or not, the E is frequently taken from The reader will observe that this use of quota-
a gothic or other special font. An alternative tion marks has not been followed in the present
notation employs a Greek capital sigma with x article, and in fact that there are frequent in-
either after it or as a subscript. Negation of accuracies from the point of view of strict preser-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 215
vation of the distinction between a symbol and the nous pathetikos, or passive reason, and a
its name. These inaccuracies are of too involved
higher active reason, called by the commentatort
a character to be removed by merely supplying nous poietikos, which alone is truly divine and
quotation marks at appropriate places. But it is eternal, and which is related to the nous pathe-
thought that there is no point at which real tikos as form to matter. See Aristotelianism.
doubt will a r ise as to the meaning intended. G.R.M.
Alonzo Church Null class : See Logic, formal, 7.
Nothing: Literally, not a thing. According to Number: The number system of mathematical
Kant, emptiness of concept, object or intuition. analysismay be described as follows with refer-
According to Hegel, the immediate, indeter- ence, not to historical, but to one possible logi-
minate notion of being. According to Peirce, cal order.
that which possesses contrary attributes. First are the non-negative integers 0, 1, 2, 3,
J.K.F. . ..
, for which the operations of addition and
In translation into logical notation, the word multiplication are determined. They are ordered
nothing is usually to be represented by the nega- by a relation not greater than which we shall
tion of an existential quantifier. Thus "nothing denote by R so that, e.g., OKO, 0/J3, 2K3, 3R3,
has the property F" becomes "~(*)F(x)." 57*218, etc.
dual reference. On one side, it refers to the following conditions (which can be shown to be
essence or nature of the object of thought} on consistent): (1) a/\ = a; (2) a/b = c/d if
the other side, it refers to the true thought of and only if ad = be-, (3) a/b R c/d and
if
that essence or nature. These two aspects of the only if ad R bc\ (4) a/b + c/d = (ad +
Notion are emphasized at length in the third bc)/bd>, (5) (a/b) (c/d) ac/bd. The result-
part of the Logic (The Doctrine of the Notion), ing system is that of the non-negative rational
where it is dialectically defined as the synthesis numbers, which are compactly ordered but not
of Being and Essence under the form of the continuously ordered (see continuity) by the re-
Idea (Die Idee).G.W.C. lation R
(as extended).
phrase koinai ennoiai, by which the Stoics desig- non-negative rational number r, a corresponding
nated such notions as good, evil, and the exist- negative rational number r, subject to the con-
ence of God, which they regarded as common
ditions: (1) r = and only if r
s if s>,
=
to all men, and as, in some sense, natural
(2) r == s if and only if r == and s 0} =
(3) r R s if and only if s R r
(4) r R
(physikai) or implanted (emphytai), though not, y
(b) In Scholastic terminology beginning with the mind possesses objects, norms, or meanings
Duns Scotus and continuing into the 17th and of universal validity. The opposite of subjec-
18th centuries, objective designated anything tivism, psychologism, solipsism, individualism
existing as idea or representation in the mind (q.v.). W.L.
without independent existence, (cf. Descartes, Objectivism, epistemological : Doctrine main-
Meditations, III; Spinoza, Ethics^ I, prop. 30) taining that everything apprehended is inde-
Berkeley's Sjris, 292.) The change from pendent of the apprehender. (Montague.)
sense (b) to (a) was made by Baumgarten. See H.H.
R. Eucken, Geschichte der Philosophischen Ter- Objectivistic ethics: The view that ethical truths
minologie, p. 68. L.W. are not relative, that there are certain action!
Objective idealism: A name for that philosophy which are right or certain objects which are
which is based on the theory that both the sub- good for all individuals alike. See Relativism.
Objective Relativism: Epistemological theory Obligation : This may be said to be present when-
which ascribes real objectivity to all perspec- ever a necessity of any kind is laid upon any
tives and appearances of an object of perception. one to do a certain thing. Here the term "obli-
(See A. E. Murphy, "Objective Relativism in gation" may refer either to the necessity of his
Dewey and Whitehead," Philosophical Review, doing the act or to the act which it is necessary
Vol. XXXVI, 1927.) L.W. for him to do. Always, in any case of obliga-
218 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
tion, there a kind of necessity for someone to
is through the sense organs and of interpreting
do something. This is true in all cases in which them by means of concepts. See Sensation.
one says, "I was obliged to do that", "I have A.C.B.
an obligation to him", "You ought to do so and Observational Judgment: Any judgment, par-
so", "It is our duty to do such and such". It ticular or general, which is based on observation
follows that obligation involves a relational or experience, but especially, and more strictly,
structure. One never
has an obligation simply, any particular judgment based on sense-percep-
one always has an obligation to do a certain tion, e.g. "That is a round tower." W.K.F.
thing. An act is never simply obligatory, it is Obversion See Logic, formal, 4.
:
always obligatory for someone to do. Occasion: (Lat. occasio, a happening) The agency
The necessity involved in an obligation may of action. The proximate or historical cause.
be of various kinds sheer physical compulsion, Any actual thing or event considered as the his-
social pressure, prudential necessity, etc. Thus torical cause of another. The occasion of any-
not all obligation is moral, e.g. when one says, thing is its antecedent reference; the cause, its
"The force of the wind obliged me to take logical reference. Syn. with actual. See Cause,
cover". The question is: what sort of necessity Chance. J.JC.F.
is involved in moral obligation? Is moral obli- Occasional causes, the doctrine of: The doc-
gation hypothetical or is it categorical? Hypo- trine 'that in some or in all cases of apparent
thetical obligation is expressed in such sentences causal connection, the apparent cause does not
as "If you want so and so, e.g. happiness, then itselfactually bring about the apparent effect,
you must or should do such and such." Here the but only serves as the occasion on which some
necessity or obligatoriness is conditional, depend- other agent or force brings about that effect.
ing on whether or not one desires the end to Thus Malebranche and the other Occaseionalists
which the action enjoined is conducive. Cate- held that in all cases where mind and body
gorical obligation is expressed by simple sen- seem be causally connected, the truth is not
to
tences of the form, "You ought to do such and that the one is acting on the other (which is
such". Here the necessity of doing such and impossible because they differ essentially in
such is unconditional. kind), but that an event in the one is taken by
Many moralists deny that there are any cate- God as an occasion for his producing an event
gorical obligations, and maintain that moral in the other. Again, Schopenhauer maintained
obligations are all hypothetical. E.g., John Gay that every natural cause is only an occasional
defines obligation as "the necessity of doing or cause for the manifestation of the Will.
omitting any action in order to be happy." On W.K.F.
such views one's obligation to do a certain deed Occasionalism: A
theory of knowledge and of
reduces to one's desire to do it or to have that voluntary control of action, in which mind and
to which it conduces. Obligation and motiva- matter are non-interactive but events in one
tion coincide. Hence J. S. Mill identifies sanc- realm occur in correspondence with events in
tions, motives, and sources of obligation. the other realm. Thus, God sees to it that an
Other moralists hold that hypothetical obliga- idea df noise occurs in a mind on the occasion
tions are merely pragmatic or prudential, and of the occurrence of a physical noises or, He
that moral obligations are categorical (Kant, makes a physical event happen when a mind
Sidgwick). On this view obligation and motiva- wishes it. See Psycho-Physical Parallelism.
tion need not coincide, for obligation is inde- VJ.B.
pendent of motivation. There is, it is said, a Ockhamism: A term in common use since the
real objective necessity or obligation to do cer- early 15th century, indicating doctrines and
tain sorts of action, independently of our desires methods associated with those of the English
or motives. Indeed, it is sometimes said (Kant, Franciscan theologian William of Ockham (died
Sidgwick) that there is no obligation for one 1349). It is currently applied by neoscholastic
to do an action unless one is at least susceptible writers as a blanket designation for a great
to an inclination to do otherwise. variety of late mediaeval and early modern at-
This categorical necessity or obligation is re- titudes such as are destructive of the metaphysi-
garded by the moralists in question as something cal principles of Thomism, even though they
peculiar. It is not to be identified with physical, may not be directly traceable to Ockham's own
causal, or
metaphysical necessity. com- It is writings.
patible with and even requires freedom to do Three senses of "Ockhamism" may be dis-
otherwise. It is a "moral" necessity. "Duty",
tinguished: (1) Logical, indicating usage of the
says Kant, "is the necessity of acting from re- terminology and technique of logical analysis
spect for the (moral) law." It is a unique and developed by Ockham in his Sumnta totius
indefinable kind of necessity, and the relational in use of the of
logicae; particular, cpncept
structure which is involved cannot be
explained supposition (suppositio) in the significative anal-
in any other terms) it must be intuited to be
ysis of terms. (2) Epistemological, indicating
understood (T. Reid, Sidgwick, W. D. Ross). the thesis that universality is attributable only
See Ethics, Value, Sanctions. W.K.F. to terms and propositions, and not to things as
Obli vescence : (Lat. oblivesci, to forget) The existing apart from discourse. (3) Theological,
gradual obliteration of a memory. L.W. indicating the thesis that no theological doc-
Observation: (Lat. ob +
servare, to save, keep, trines, such as those of God's existence or of the
observe) The act of becoming aware of objects immortality of the soul, are evident or demon-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 219
strable philosophically, so that religious doctrine than which nothing can be thought. Since any-
rests solely on faith, without metaphysical or thing being the greatest and lacking existence
scientific support. It is in this sense that Luther is less then the greatest having also
existence,
isoften called an Ockhamist. the former is not really the greater. The great-
Bibliography: B. Geyer, Ueberwegs Grundriss est, therefore, has to exist. Anselm hat been
d. Gesch. d. Phil., Bd. II (llth ed., Berlin reproached, already by his contemporary Gau-
1928), pp. 571-612 and 781-786$ N. Abbag- nilo, for unduly passing from the field of logical
nano, Guglielmo di Ockham (Lanciano, Italy, to the field of ontological or existential reason-
1931)5 E. A. Moody, The Logic of William of ing. This criticism has been repeated by many
Ockham (N. Y. & London, 1935)} F. Ehrle, authors, among them Aquinas. The argument
Peter von Candia (Muenster, 1925)} G. Ritter, has, however, been used, if in a somewhat modi-
Studien zur Spaetscholastik, I-II (Heidelberg, fied form, by Duns Scotus, Descartes, and Leib-
1921-1922). E.A.M. niz. R.A.
Om, aum: (Skr.) Mystic, holy syllable as a sym- Ontological Object: (Gr. onta, existing things
bol for the indefinable Absolute. See Aksara,
4- logos, science) The real or existing object
Vac, Sabda.K.F.L. of an act of knowledge as distinguished from
Omniscience: In philosophy and theology it the epistemological object. See Epistemological
means the complete and perfect knowledge of Object. L.W.
God, of Himself and of all other beings, past, Ontologism: (Gr. on, being) In contrast to
present, and future, or merely possible, as well called any speculative system
is
psychologism,
a& all their activities, real or possible, including
which starts philosophizing by positing absolute
the future free actions of human beings. J.J.R.
being, or deriving the existence of entities inde-
One: Philosophically, not a number but
pendently of experience merely on the basis of
equivalent to
unit, unity, individuality, in
their being thought, or assuming that we have
contradistinction from multiplicity and the mani- immediate and certain knowledge of the ground
foldness of sensory experience. In metaphysics,
of being or God. Generally speaking any ra-
the Supreme Idea (Plato), the absolute first
tionalistic, a priori metaphysical doctrine} specifi-
principle (Neo-platonism), the universe (Par-
cally the philosophies of Rosmini-Serbati and
menides), Being as such and divine in nature Vincenzo Gioberti. As a philosophic method
(Plotinus), God (Nicolaus Cusanus), the soul censored by skeptics and criticists alike, as a
(Lotze). Religious philosophy and mysticism, scholastic doctrine formerly strongly supported,
beginning with Indian philosophy (j.v.), na8 revived in Italy and Belgium in the 19th cen-
favored the designation of the One for the meta-
tury, but no longer countenanced. K.F.L.
physical world-ground, the ultimate reality, the
Ontology: (Gr. on, being -j- logos, logic) The
world-soul, the principle of the world conceived
theory of being qua being. For Aristotle, the
asreason, nous, or more personally. The One
First Philosophy, the science of the essence of
may be conceived as an independent whole or as Introduced as a term into philosophy
things.
a sum, as analytic or synthetic, as principle or
by Wolff. The science of fundamental princi-
ontologically. Except by mysticism, it is rarely
ples} the doctrine of the
categories. Ultimate
declared a fact of sensory experience, while its
transcendent or transcendental, abstract nature is
philosophy; rational cosmology. Syn. with meta-
physics. See Cosmology, First Principles, Meta-
stressed, e.g., in epigtemology where the "I" or
physics, Theology. J.K.F.
self is considered the unitary background of
tion is said to be, or to determine, a one-to-one or symbol) is given by a semantical rule relat-
correspondence between its domain and its con- ing the term to some concrete process, object
verse domain. A. C. or event, or to a class of such processes, object!
On-handedness : (Ger. Vorhandenheit) Things or events.
exist in the mode of thereness, lying passively 2. Sentences formed by combining operation-
in a neutral space. A "deficient" form of a ally defined terms into propositions are opera-
more basic relationship, termed at-handedness tionally meaningful when the assertions are test-
(Zuhandenheit). (Heidegger.) H.H. able by means of performable operations. Thus,
Ontological argument: Name by which later under operational rules, terms have semantical
authors, especially Kant, designate the alleged significance} propositions have empirical signifi-
proof for God's existence devised by Anselm of cance.
Canterbury. Under the name of God, so the Operationism makes explicit' the distinction
argument runs, everyone understands that greater between formal (q.v.) and empirical sentences.
220 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Formal propositions are signs arranged accord- Science of Science, Psychol. Bull., 36, 1939, 221.
ing to syntactical rules but lacking operational 263. 5.5.5.
reference. Such propositions, common in mathe- Ophelimity: Noun derived from the Greek,
matics, and syntax, derive their sanction
logic ophelimos useful, employed by Vilfredo Pareto
from convention, whereas an empirical proposi- (1848-1923) in economics as the equivalent of
tion is acceptable (1) when its structure obeys
utility, or the capacity to provide satisfaction.
syntactical rules and (2) when there exists a
concrete procedure (a set of operations) for de-
Opinion: (Lat. opinio, from opinor, to think)
termining its truth or falsity (cf. Verification). An hypothesis or proposition entertained on ra-
Propositions purporting to be empirical are tional grounds but concerning which doubt can
sometimes amenable no operational test be-
to
reasonably exist. A belief. See Hypothesis, Cer-
cause they obeying no definite
contain terms
Knowledge. J.K.F.
tainty,
semantical rules. These sentences are some-
Opposition: (Lat. oppositus, pp. of oppono, to
times called pseudo-propositions and are said to
oppose) Positive actual contradiction. One of
be operationally meaningless. They may, how-
Aristotle's Post-predicaments. In logic any con-
ever, be "meaningful" in other ways, e.g. emo- or
trariety contradiction, illustrated by the
tionally or aesthetically (cf. Meaning).
"Square of Opposition". Syn. with: conflict. See
Unlike a formal statement, the "truth" of an 4. J.K.F.
Logic, formal,
empirical sentence is never absolute and its oper-
Optimism: (Lat. optimus, the best) The view
ational confirmation serves only to increase the
inspired by wishful thinking, success, faith, or
degree of its validity. Similarly, the semantical
rule comprising the operational definition of a
philosophic reflection, that the world as it exists
is not so bad or even the best possible, life is
term has never absolute precision. Ordinarily a
term denotes a and the pre-
class of operations
good, and man's destiny is bright. Philosophi-
cally most persuasively propounded by Leibniz
cision of its definition depends upon how defi-
in his Theodicee, according to which God in
nite are the rules governing inclusion in the
his wisdom would have created a better world
class.
had he known or willed such a one to exist.
The difference between Operationism and
Not even he could remove moral wrong and
Logical Positivism (q.v.) is one of emphasis.
evil unless he destroyed the power of self-
Operationism's stress of empirical matters de-
determination and hence the basis of morality.
rives from the fact that it was first employed All systems of ethics that recognize a supreme
to purge physics of such concepts as absolute
good (Plato and many idealists), subscribe to
space and absolute time, when the theory of
the doctrines of progressivism (Turgot, Herder,
relativityhad forced upon physicists the view
that space and time are most profitably defined Comte, and others), regard evil as a frag-
in terms of the operations by which they are mentary view (Josiah Royce et al.) or illusory,
or believe in indemnification (Henry David
measured. Although different methods of meas-
Thoreau) or melioration (Emerson), are in-
uring length at give rise to different con-
first
clined Practically all theologies
optimistically.
cepts of length, wherever the equivalence of
certain of these measures can be established by advocating plan of creation and salvation, are
a
partially ordered by the relation of class inclu- clusive of that grown on Greek soil and includ-
sion. ing the beginnings of philosophical speculation
For explanation of the terminology used in in Egypt, Arabia, Iran, India, and China, the
making the above definitions, see the articles elaborate systems of India, Greater India, China,
connexity, reflexivity, relation, symmetry, transi- and Japan, and sometimes also the religion-
tivity. A. C. bound thought of all these countries with that
Order type: See relation-number. of the complex cultures of Asia Minor, extend-
Ordinal number: A class b is well-ordered by a ing far into antiquity. Oriental philosophy,
The ordinal numbers of finite classes (well- philosophic insight. Bonds with Western, par-
ordered by appropriate relations) are called finite ticularly Greek philosophy have no doubt existed
logic, ethics, law, politics, diplomacy, economics, position between pantheism with its extreme
agriculture, military science, etc., in the third immanence and a theism of the type which
and fourth centuries B.C. with Chi Hsia as a tends to extreme transcendence. V.F.
center. W.T.C. Panlogism: (Gr. pan, -f logos, word) The
all
Pain: See Pleasure. doctrine that the world
is the actualization of
Painting: A plane surface covered with colors as- Mind or Logos. Term applied to Hegel's
theory
sembled in a given order (M. Denis, 1890). of Reality. See Hegel. L.W.
L.V.
Pan-objectivism: (Gr. pan, all -f Lat. objectus,
Paley, William: (1743-1805) Was an English
against) An ex-
pp. of objicere, to throw over
churchman well known for a number of works
treme form of epistemological realism which
in theology. He is also widely remembered in attributes real objectivity to all
objects of knowl-
the field of ethics. His Principles of Moral
edge, veridical and non-veridical alike. See
and Political Philosophy passed through many Epistemological Realism. L.W.
editionsand strved as a text book at Cambridge
for many years. As an advocate of the doctrine
Panpneumatism According to Ed. v. Hartmann
:
practical needs of life, he abandoned some of which all things are modes, moments, members,
the more speculative notions current among his appearances, or projections.
2. As a religious
predecessors. Influenced Cicero and Augustine. concept Pantheism is to be
R.S.W. distinguished from Immanent Theism and Deism
Parcaratra: (Skr.) A quasi philosophical system by asserting the essential immanence of God in
of Vishnuism (q.v.) based upon the Agamas the creatures. See Monism, Idealism. W.L.
Pantheism, medieval: True pantheistic ideas are
Pan-entheism: (Gr. pan, all} en, in; theos, god) rare in medieval literature. The accusation
The term for the view that God interpenetrates raised against Scotus Eriugena seems unfounded
;verything without cancelling the relative inde- and was caused more by his writings being
224 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
quoted as authorities by the followers of Amalric ment on the front of the card is false. But if
of Bene (1206-7) whose views were condemned the statement on the front is false, then the
in 1210. His writings are lost; he apparently statement on the back must be false, and hence
taught the identity of Creator and creature and the statement on the front must be true. Thus
called God the essence of all beings. A con- the paradox.
temporary was David of Dinant of whom still Arelated but different paradox is Grelling's
less is known} he identified, as it seems, God (1908). Let us distinguish adjectives i.e.,
with prime matter. Master Eckhardt too has words denoting properties as autological or
been accused of pantheism and some modern heterological according as they do or do not
authors have believed to find confirmation in have the property which they denote (in particu-
his writings. A more thorough study of them, lar, adjectives denoting properties which cannot
especially of the Latin texts, shows this to be belong to words at all will be heterological).
a misinterpretation./?.^. Then, e.g., the words polysyllabic, common,
Pantheistic Personalism: The doctrine that significant, prosaic are autological, while new,
reality consists of a Supreme Personality of alive, useless, ambtguous, long are heterological.
which the world of persons are parts. The On their face, these definitions of autological
Divine Personality having no separate existence and heterological are unobjectionable (compare
from its creation. See also Critical Personalism, the definition of onomatopoetic as similar in
Mono-Personalism. R.T.F. sound to that which denotes). But paradox
it
Paracelsus, Theophrastus Bombast: (1493- arises when we ask whether the word heterologi-
1541) Of Hohenheim, was a physician who cal is autological or heterological.
endeavored to use philosophy as one of the That paradoxes of this kind could be relevant
to mathematics first became clear in connection
"pillars" of medical science. His philosophy is
a weird combination of Neo-Platonism, experi- with the paradox of the greatest ordinal number,
mentalism, and superstitious magic. He rejected published by Burali-Forti in 1897, and the para-
much of the traditional theory of Galen and the dox of the greatest cardinal number, published by
Arab physicians. His works (Labyrinthus, Opus Russell in 1903. The first of these had been
paramir um, Die grosse Wundarznei, De natura discovered by Cantor in 1895, and communicated
rerum) were written in Swiss-German, trans- to Hilbert in 1896, and both are mentioned in
lated into Latin by his followers) recent investi- Cantor's correspondence with Dedekind of 1899,
gators make no attempt to distinguish his per- but were never published by Cantor.
sonal thought from that of his school. Thorn- From the paradox of the greatest cardinal
dyke, L., Hist, of Magic and Experimental number Russell extracted the simpler paradox
Science (N. Y., 1941), V, 615-651. V.J.B. concerning the class / of all classes * such that
Paraclete: (Gr. parakaleo, to call to one's aid) ~ xex. (Is it true or not that //?) At first
One who is called to assistance. More specifi- sight this paradox may not seem to be very
cally: the designation of the function of the relevant to mathematics, but must be remem- it
Holy Spirit, the third embodiment of the bered that it was obtained by comparing two
Christian Trinity. V.F. mathematical proofs, both seemingly valid, one
Paradigma: The Latin form of the Greek noun, leading to the conclusion that there is no great-
which denotes model. Plato called his ideas in est cardinal number, the other to the conclusion
the world of ideas, models on which were pat- that there is number. Russell
a greatest cardinal
terned the things of the phenomenal world. communicated this simplified foim of the para-
JJ.R. dox of the greatest cardinal number to Frege in
Paradoxes, logical: The ancient paradox of 1902 and published it in 1903. The same para-
Epimenides the Cretan, who said that all Cre- dox was discovered independently by Zermelo
tans were liars (i.e., absolutely incapable of before 1903 but not published.
telling the truth), was known under nlumerous Also to be mentioned are Konig's paradox
variant forms in ancient and medieval times. (1905) concerning the least undefinable ordinal
The medieval name for these was tnsolubtlia. number and Richard's paradox (1905) concern-
A
form of this paradox due to Jourdain (1913) ing definable and undefinable real numbers.
supposes a card upon the front of which are Numerous solutions of these paradoxes have
written the words, "On the other side of this been proposed. Many, however, have the fault
card is written a true statement" and nothing that, while they purport to find a flaw in the
else. It seems to be clear that these words con* arguments leading to the paradoxes, no effective
stitute a significant statement, since, upon turn- criterion is given by which to discover in the
ing the card over one must either find some case of other (e.g., mathematical) proofs whether
statements written or not, and, in the former they have the same flaw.
case, either there will be one of them which is Russell's solution of the paradoxes is em-
true or there will not. However, on turning bodied in what is now known
as the ramified
the card over there appear the words, "On the theory of types, published by him in 1908, and
other side of this card is written a false state- afterwards made the basis of Principia Mathe-
ment" and nothing else. Suppose the statement matica. Because of its complication, and because
on the front of the card is true) then the state- of the necessity for the much-disputed axiom of
ment on the back must be true) and hence the reducibility, this has now been largely abandoned
statement on the front mutt be false. This is a in favor of other solutions.
proof by reductio ad absurdum that the state- Another solution which has recently been
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 225
widely adopted is the simple theory of types between the system of physical events in nature
(see Logic, formal t 6). This was proposed as and the system of psychical events in mind. In
a modification of the ramified theory of types by its more moderate and restricted form, paral-
Chwistek in 1921 and Ramsey in 1926, and lelism asserts only a correlation between all
adopted by Carna'p in 1929. psychoses (mental events in an individual mind)
Another solution is the Zermelo set theory and all or some neuroses (neural events in the
(see Logic, formal, 9), proposed by Zermelo in individual's Thus there may exist
body).
1908, but since considerably modified and im- physico-chemicaland even neural processes in
proved. the body having no psychical con elates. The
Unlike the ramified theory of types, the simple term parallelism was introduced by Fechner
theory of types and the Zermelo set theory both (Zend-Avesta, Bk. Ill, ch. XIX, D) but the
require the distinction (first made by Ramsey) doctrine appeared in Spinoza (Ethics, Bk. II}
between the paradoxes which involve use of the prop. 7 schol. and props. 11 and 12). L.W.
name relation (q. v.) or the semantical concept Paralogism: (Gr. paralogismos) A fallacious
of truth (q. v.), and those which do not. The syllogism} an error in reasoning. See Sophism.
paradoxes of the firstkind (Epimenides, Grell- G.R.M.
ing's, Konig's, Richard's) are solved by the Kant's system the paralogisms are argu-
In
supposition that notations for the name relation ments alleging to prove the substantivity, sim-
and for truth (having the requisite formal prop- plicity and eternality of the soul or pure ego.
erties)do not occur in the logistic system set See Kantianism. O.FAT.
upr and in principle, it is held, ought not to Paramanu: (Skr.) An exceedingly (paramo) or
occur. The paradoxes of the second kind infinitely small or magnitudeless thing (cf.
(Burali-Forti's, Russell's) are solved in each anu), a discrete physical entity playing a similar
case in another way. Alonzo Church role in Indian philosophy as ions, electrons, or
iG. Frege, Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, vol 2, protons in modern physics. K.F.L.
Jena, 1903 (see Appendix). B. Russell The Prin-
ciples of Mathematics, Cambridge, England, 1903 ;
Paramarthika (Skr.) Relating to
: spiritual, es-
2nd edn., London, 1937, and New York, 1938. sential, or absolute matters. K.F.L.
Grelhng and Nelson, Bemerkungen zu den Para- Parapsychology: (Gr. para, at the side of -}-
doxieen von Russell und Burali-Forti, Abhandlungen
der Fries'schen Schule, n.s. vol. 2 (1908), pp. psyche, soul +
logia from logein, to speak)
301-334. A Rustow, Der Lugner (Dissertation The investigation of prescience, telepathy and
Erlangen 1908), Leipzig. 1910. P. E. B. Jourdain, other phenomena which seem
alleged psychical
Tales with philosophical morals, The Open Court,
vol. 27 (1913), pp. 310-315. and physiological ex-
to elude ordinary physical
Parallelism: (philosophical) A doctrine advanced planation. The term was proposed by Boirac
to explain the relation between mind and body (1893) and was adopted by Florunay and
Oesterreich. See A. Lalande, Vocabulaire de la
according to which mental processes vary con-
philosophic, Vol. II, p. 646. See Prescience,
comitantly with simultaneous physiological proc-
esses. This general description is applicable to Telepathy. L.W.
all forms of the theory. More strictly it as- Parinama-vada: (Skr.) Theory of evolution ex-
sumes that for every mental change there exists pounded by the Sankhya (q.v.), according to
a correlated neural change, and it denies any which the disturbed equilibrium between two
causal relation between the series of conscious primary substances (prakrti and purusa) is re-
processes and the series of processes of the sponsible for change. K.F.L.
nervous system, acknowledging, however, causa- Parmenides: 6th-5th century B.C., head of the
tion within each series. It was designed to Eleatic School of Greek Philosophy} developed
obviate the difficulties encountered by the diverse the conception of "Being" in opposition to the
interaction theories. Moreover, no form of "Becoming" of Heraclitus. To think at all we
parallelism admits the existence of a spiritual must postulate something which is; that which
substance or a substantial soul. Some regard isnot cannot be thought, and cannot be. Thought
consciousness as the only reality, the soul which is without being or being without thought are im-
but an actuality, as the sum of psychic acts whose possible, and the two are therefore identical. At
unity consists in their coherence. Others accept the same time the "Being" of Parmenides is that
the teaching of the fundamental identity of mind which fills space} non-being is empty space.
and body, regarding the two corresponding series Empty space therefore cannot be, and if empty
of psychical and physical processes as aspects of space or the "Void" cannot be then the plurality
an unknown series of real processes. Thus mind of individual things is equally not real since
and body are but appearances of a hidden under- this results from the motion of the "full" in the
lying unity. Finally there are those who hold "void". There is thus for Parmenides only one
that the series of conscious states which con- "Being" without inner differentiation; this alone
stitute the mind
but an epiphenomenon, or a
is really while the particularity of individual
is,
sort of by-product of the bodily organism. See things is appearance, illusion. Homogeneous and
Mind-Body Relation. JJ.R. unchangeable "Being" is the only reality. M.F.
Parallelism, psychophysical : (Gr. parallelos, Parmenides' main extant work is a poem
from para, beside allelon, of one another)
"On Truth."
A dualistic solution of the mind-body problem Parousia: (Gr. presence) In Plato's philosophy,
(see Mind-body relation) which asserts, in its the presence of the Idea in the thing which, in
extreme form, a perfect one-to-one correlation turn, partakes of the Idea; in theology, the pres-
226 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ence of Christ after his return to future before it became present. The ontological
prophesied
earth. K.F.L. status of the past is uncertain, insofar as it has
Parsimony, Law of: Name given to various no existence at the moment when it is called
statements of a general regulative principle of past yet cannot be designated as unconditionally
non-existent in the sense applicable to fiction or
economy of thought, or effort, in the use of
means to attain a purpose, like that of William untruth. R.B.W.
of Ockham (died about 1349), called Ockham's Patanjali: The author of the Yogasutras (q.v.),
razor. Entia non sunt multtplicanda praeter not identical with the famous Hindu grammarian
necessitatem. It is interpreted in the sense that by the same name. K.F.L.
the least possible number of assumptions are to Patripassianism : (Lat. pater, father; patior, suf-
be made in the attempt to explain ascertained fer) The
teaching that God suffers. In Christian
facts. It has been supposed that the same prin- thought this view was held by Sabellius (fl. first
of simplicity prevails in the physical cos- half of third century) in connection with the
ciple
mos, since apparently nature employs the fewest sufferings of Jesus conceived to be God mani-
possible means effectively to attain the ends
fested. F.F.
which are intended. J.J.R. Patristic Philosophy: The advent of Christian
Particular: (Lat. pars, a part) A member of revelation introduced a profound change in the
a class as opposed to the property which de- history of philosophy. New
God, facts about
fines the class; an individual as opposed to a the world and man were juxtaposed to the con-
univeisal. A.C B. clusions of pagan philosophy, while reason was
Particular In traditional logic, at once presented with the problem of reconcil-
proposition:
propositions A, E
(excepting singular forms, ac- ing these facts with the pagan position and the
task of constructing them into a new science
cording to some) were called universal and /, O,
A.C. called theology.
particular. See Logic, formal, 4.
nium, De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae, De Vita Their works were mostly apologetic in nature,
et Morte, De Resptrattone. G.R.M. directed either against pagan prejudices and
thought, theology becomes central. These work of Greek thought. It ends with the gigan-
thoughts developed in his Provincial Lei-
arc tic synthesis of Augustine (354-430), whose
ten and fusion of Neo-Platonic thought and Christian
posthumously published master-
in his
pieces of style, the Pensees. L.E.D. truthmolded society and furnished the tradition,
Passive Empiricism: The doctrine that knowl- cultureand mental background for Christian
edge comes by way of experience with the em- Europe up to the end of the 14th century. (3)
From 450 to the %th century During thh
phasis upon the negative character of the mind.
The mind can act only upon the stimulus of period there is a general decline until the Car-
contact with the world outside itself. lovingian renaissance. Great names are not
John
Locke furnishes an example of this view. See lacking, such as those of Pseudo-Denis th
Tabula rasa. V.F. Areopagite, John Damascene, Boethius and Isi-
dore of Seville, however, the originality and
Past: That part of time, continuously growing,
spiritual elevation of an Augustine are not to
vhich includes all the events which have already
be found. The period is generally characterized
happened. Their relationship with other past
events R.ff.W. by the elaboration and systematization of truths
generally regarded as fixed.
is
Past-Time: All the extent of time preceding a already formularized. Platonic and Neo-Platonic
influences predominate, though Aristotle's logic
given event or experience; the term is occasion-
holds an honored place throughout this pre-
ally confined to that extent of preceding time
Scholastic era. Cf. Migne's Patrologiae Latinae.
\\hich is relevant to a given event or experience.
Obviously enough, past-time is not a permanent H.Gu.
condition unrelated to the succession of events Patterns of learning: Reaction modes, physio-
anything that is past has been piesent and also logical habit systems. J.E.B.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 227
Peano, Giuseppe, 1858-1932, Italian mathemati- vant philosophical problems but from whom he
cian. Professor of mathematics at the University differed on almost every solution. He was ex-
of Turin, 1890-1932. His work in mathematical cited by Darwin, whose doctrine of evolution
logic marks a transition stage between the old coincided 'with his own thought, and disciplined
algebra of logic and the newer methods. It is by laboratory experience in the physical sciences
inferior to Frege's by present standards of which inspired his search for rigor and demon-
rigor,
but nevertheless
contains important advances, stration throughout his work. Felt himself deep-
among which may be mentioned the distinction ly opposed to Descartes, whom he accused of
between class inclusion ( = ) and class member-
being responsible for the modern form of the
ship (e) which had previously been confused nominalistic error. Favorably inclined toward
and the introduction of a notation for formation Duns Scotus, from whom he derived his realism.
of a class by abstraction
(q. v.). His logical a sub-class of the science of dis-
Philosophy is
notations are more convenient than and
Frege's, covery, in turn a branch of theoretical science.
many of them are still in common use. The function of philosophy is to explain and
Peano's first publication on mathematical logic hence show unity in the variety of the universe.
was the introduction to his Calcolo All in or the
Geometrico, philosophy takes its start logic,
1888. His postulates for arithmetic (see arith- relations of signs to their "objects, and phenom-
metic, foundations of} appeared in his Anth- enology, or the brute experience of the objective
metices Princtpia (1889) and in revised form in actual world. The conclusions from these two
Sul concetto di numero (Rivista di meet
Matematica, studies in the three basic metaphysical cate-
vo'v 1 (1891)), and were and representation.
repeated in successive gories: quality, reaction,
volumes (more properly, editions) of his Fortnu- Quality is firstness or spontaneity, reaction is
latre de Mathematiques and representation
(1894-1908). The last- secondness or actuality, is
named work, written with the aid of collabora- thirdness or possibility. Realism (q-v.) is
tors, was intended to provide a reduction of all explicit in the distinction of the modes of being:
mathematics to symbolic notation, and often the actuality as the field of reactions; possibility as
encyclopedic aspect was stressed as much as, or the field of quality (or values) and representa-
more than, that of logical .analysis. tion (or relations). He was much concerned to
Peano is known also for other contributions establish the icalism of scientific method that
to mathematics, including the discovery of the the postulates, implications and conclusions of
area-filling curve which bears his name, and for science are the results of inquiry yet presup-
his advocacy of Latino sine flextone as an inter- posed by it. He was responsible foi piagmatism
national language. A, C. as a method of philosophy that the sum of
P. E B Tourdam, Giuseppe Peano, The Quar- the practical consequences which lesult by neces-
terly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, sity from the truth of an intellectual conception
vol 43 (1912), pp. 270-314 Giuseppe Peano,
constitutes the entite meaning of that concep-
supplement to Schola et Vita, Milan, 1928. U.
Cassina, Vita et opera de Giuseppe Peano, Schola tion. Author of the ethical piinciple that the
et Vita, vol. 7 (1932), pp 117-148 E Stamm, limited duration of all finite
things logically
J6zei Peano, Wiadomosci Matematyczne, vol. 36
demands
(1933), pp 1-56. U Cassina, L opera scieniifica
the identification of one's interests with
di Giuseppe Peano, Rendiconti del Seminario those of an unlimited community of persons and
Matematico e fisico di Milano, vol 7 (1933), In
U. Cassina, L oeurre philosophique
things. his cosmology the flux of actua'ity
pp 323-389
de G. Peano, Revue de Mtaphysique et de Morale, left to itself develops those systematic charactei-
vol 40 (1933), pp 481-491. isticswhich are usually associated with the realm
Peirce, Charles Sanders: American Philosopher. of possibility. There is a logical continuity to
Born in Cambridge, Mass, on September 10th, chance events which through indefinite repetition
1839. Harvard M.A. in 1862 and Sc. B. in beget order, as illustrated in the tendency of all
1863. Except for a brief career as lecturer in things to acquire habits. The desire of all things
philosophy at Harvard, 1864-65 and 1869-70, to come together in this certain older renders
and in logic at Johns Hopkins, 1879-84, he love a kind of evolutionaiy force. Exerted a
did no formal teaching. Longest tenure was strong influence both on the American prag-
with the United States Coast and Geodetic Sur- matist, William James (1842-1910), the instru-
vey for thirty years beginning in 1861. Died at mentalist, John Dewey (1859-), as well as on
Milford, Pa. in 1914. He had completed the idealist, Josinh Royce (18^-1916), and
only one work, The Grand Logic, published many others. J.K.F.
posthumously (Coll. Papers). Edited Studies in Peirce's law: The theorem of the prepositional
Logic (1883). No volumes published during his calculus,
lifetime but author of many lectures, essays and IIP
= *]=*]=* A C ' -
reviews in periodicals, particularly in the Popular Pelagianism The teaching of Pelagius of Britain
:
Science Monthly, 1877-78, and in The Monist, who was active during the first quarter of the
1891-93, some of which have been reprinted in fifth century in Rome, North Africa, and Pales-
Chance, Love and Logic (1923), edited by tine. He denied original sin and the necessity
Morris R. Cohen, and, together with the best of baptism in order to be freed fiom it. Death
of his other work both published and unpub- vas not a punishment for sin, and men can be
lished, in Collected Papers of Charles Sanders saved without the aid of divine grace. By jus-
Peirce (1931-35), edited by Charles Hartshorne tification men are puigcd of their sins through
and Paul Weiss. He was most influenced by faith alone. Pelagius was notably influenced bv
Kant, who had, he thought, raised all the rele- Stoic doctrines. He and his followers refused to
228 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
submit to the decisions of the Church, which Pulitzer Prize for 1936. During the first World
repeatedly condemned their tenets, largely owing War he served as a major with the War De-
to the efforts of Augustine. JJ.R. partment Committee on Education and Special
Perception: (Lat. pcrcepti o, from percipere, Training and this service has evidenced itself in
to perceive) (a) In contemporary psychology his fervent advocacy of a militant democracy.
and epistemology: Perception is the apprehen- Among his works are:
Philosophical Present
sion of ordinary sense-objects, such as trees, Tendencies; Philosophy of the Recent Pastt
houses, chairs, etc., on the occasion of sensory General Theory of Value, 1926$ Thought and
stimulation. Perception is distinguished, on the Charter of Wm. James, 2 vols., 193Sj Shall
one hand, from sensation (the apprehension of .
Not Perish From the Earth, 1941. See Neo-
isolated sense qualities) and on the other hand, Realism. L.E.D.
from higher ideational processes of imagination, Perseity: (Lat. per se) The- condition of being
remembrance, conception and reasoning. The per se, by itself, that is being such as it is from
percept or vehicle of perception consists of ac- its very nature. Perseity must not be confused
tually given sense qualities supplemented by with aseity. The former implies independence
imaginatively supplied qualities which on the of a subject in which to inhere, whereas the
basis of earlier experience are ascribed to the latter demands a still higher degree of inde-
perceived object. pendence of any efficient or producing agency
(b) In early modern philosophy, perception whatsoever^ it is predicated of God alone.
was used in a much wider sense than (a). Thus, Thomas Aquinas held: Quod est per se, semper
for Bacon, perception designated the mind's sub- est prius eo quod est per aliud. That which
jection to external influence and its adaptive re- exists per se is always a substance. This mode
action to such influence. (De Augmentis, IV, 3.) of existence is distinguished from that which is
Descartes and Spinoza designated by perception per accidens, that is something which is not
intellectualrather than sensuous apprehension essential, but only belongs to a subject more or
(see 32 and Spinoza's
Descartes, Principles, I,
less fortuitously. A thing is per se owing to its
monad whereby it takes cognizance of other essential Thomas Aquinas taught that
reasons.
monads. onadology,M 21 L.W. .
that which per accidens, non potest esse semper
is
et in
omnibus, whereas that which belongs to
Perception, non-sensory: As the opposite of
imagining, it lacks the sensory content. Space something per se, de necessitate et semper et
and time have-this characteristic as inseparabiliter ei inest. Duns Scotus held that
experienced
by man. (Montague.) H.H. per se esse may be understood in the sense of
Perception, pure: Is a form of action rather being incommunicable, incommunicabiliter esse,
or per se subsistere, subsisting by
than a form of cognition. Involves an actual itself, not by
another. In human acts that which is
presence of external objects to the sense or- directly
the reflection of the intended is per se, while that which is per ac-
gansi} is
body's virtual or
cident is praeter intentionem. Rational
possible action upon these beings
objects, or of the tend toward the good, or that which is regarded
object's possible action upon the The
body. as good. If the good is intended for itself it is
consciousness of perception is a measure of its
indetermination.
bonum per se, otherwise it is a bonum per ac-
(Bergson.) H.H. cidens or secundum quid, that Is
Percepts: The abbreviation for perceptual data. relatively good.
JJ.R.
Perfectibility: The optimistic belief in the abil- Persian Philosophy: Persia was a vast empire
ity of man to attain an eventual
complete before the time of Alexander the Great, embrac-
realization of his moral possibilities. Opposed not most of
ing only the oriental tribes of
to the various
philosophies and theologies of Western Asia but also the Greeks of Asia
moral pessimism (e.g., the sinfulness
and moral
impotence of man, original
Minor, the Jews and the Egyptians. If we con-
in sin, Augustinian- centrate on the central section of Persia, three
ism, Lutheramsm, Barthianism, et F.F.
al.).
See Condorcet, Enlightenment. philosophic may be distinguished: (1)
periods
Perfectionism: The
Zoroastrianism (including Mithraism and Ma-
ethical
theory that perfec-
own gianism), (2) Manichaeanism, and (3) medieval
tion, our or that of others or
both, is the Persian thought. Zarathustra (Gr. Zoroaster)
end at which we ought to
aim, where perfec- lived before 600 B.C. and wrote the Avesta,
tion involves virtue
chiefly and sometimes also
the cultivation of one's apparently in the Zend language. It is primarily
talents or endowments. but the teaching that there are two
religious,
D . . W.K.F. ultimate principles of reality, Ortnazd, the God
Peripatetics: See Aristotelianism. of Light and Goodness, and Ahriman, God of
Peripety: (Gr. peripeteia) A sudden reversal of Evil and Darkness, is of philosophic importance.
condition or fortunes considered by Aristotle
j
They are eternally fighting. Mitra is the inter-
as an essential element in the
plot of a tragedy. mediary between Ormazd and man. In the third
century A.D., Man! of Ecbatana (in Media)
Perry Ralph Barton: (1876-) ProfessoT^mt combined this dualism of eternal principles with
losophy at Harvard University. He was one of some of the doctrines of Christianity. His seven
the founders of the new realist movement. books are now known only through second-hand
His
classic biography of William
James won the reports of Mohammedan (Abu Faradj Ibn Ishaq,
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 229
10th c., and Sharastani, 12th c.) and Christian the World Ground and mediated through per-
(St. Ephrcm, 4th c., and Bar-Khoni, 7th c.) sonality)
writers. St. Augustine of Hippo (354-430 A.D.) Logically, the pragmatic assumption that life
has left several works criticizing Manichaeism, is superior to logical form)
*
which he knew at first-hand. From the ninth Ethically, that values are real and based in
century onward, many of the great Arabic phi- the Cosmic Nature.
losophers are of Persian origin. Mention might While the term Personalism is modern It
be made of the epicureanism of the Rubaiyat of stands for an old way of thinking which grows
the Persian poet, Omar Kayyam, and the re- out of the attempt to interpret the self as a
markable metaphysical system of Avicenna, i.e. part phenomenological experience. Person-
of
Ibn Sina (llth c.), who was born in Persia. alistic elements found expression in Heraclitus'
VJ.B. (536-470 B.C.) statement: "Man's own char-
Persistence* The condition of enduring in time, acter is his daemon" (Fr. 119), and in his as-
material, since matter supplies the principle of Protagoras (cir. 480-410 B.C.) emphasized the
individuation. The soul is not person, only the personalistic character of knowledge in the
Man alone the material famous dictum: "Man is the measure of all
composite is. is among
beings person, he alone having a rational nature. .
things."
He is the highest of the material beings, en- The doctrine of the person reached its high
dowed with particular dignity and rights. R.A. point in Greek philosophy in Socrates (469-399
Personal Equation: (a) Discrepancy between the B.C.) who recognized the soul or self as the
center from which sprang all man's actions.
chronological measurements of different scientific
Plato (427-347 B.C.) recognized the person
observers due to their differing reaction times.
in his doctrine of the soul, but turned the direc-
The error was first discovered in astronomical
tion of thought toward dominance by the ab-
measurements but is a recognized source of error
stract Idea.
in all scientific measurements.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) made his contribu-
(b) The term has been extended to include
tion by insisting that only the concrete and
all observational error due to the intrusion of
individual could be real.
idiosyncrasies of individual observers. L.W.
St. Augustine (354-430 A.D.) asserted that
Personal Idealism: The affirmation of reality in
thought, and therefore the thinker, was the most
the person and the personal nature of the certain of all things.
World-Ground. Synonymous with Absolutistic To Bogthius (475-525) it was given to fur-
Personal! sm.-*-JR . T.F. nish the philosophy and definition of the person
Personal Identity: (Lat. persona) Personal that held for the Middle Ages: "A person is
identity is individual identity as possessed by the individual substance of a rational nature."
a person or self. Any individual, whether an The importance of the person in Scholastic
inanimate thing, a living organism or a con- thought insured the personalistic concepts until
scious self, is identical in so far as
preserves it they found expression in the work of Thomas
from moment to moment a similarity of struc-
Aquinas (1225-1274).
ture. Personality identity involves in addition The renewal of philosophy signalized by Des-
the conscious recognition of sameness. L.W. cartes introduced a long line of personalistic
Personalism: (Lat. persona, actor's mask) A thinkers in France who under various classifica-
modern term applied to any philosophy which main opposition to naturalism,
tions offered the
considers personality the supreme value and tht materialism and positivism. Among these were
key to the meaning of reality. Geulincx (1625-1669), Occasionalism) Male-
Typical or original Personalism was theistic, branche (1638-1715), Activism) de Lignac
the term being first used in America (1863) by (1710-1769), Theistic Personalism; de Biran
Bronson Alcott for "the doctrine that the ulti- (1766-1824), Philosophy of Effort) Cournot
mate reality of the world is a Divine Person (1801-1877), Probabilism, Vitalism) Ravaisson
who sustains the universe by a continuous act of (1813-1900), Spiritual Realism) Renouvier
creative will."(Odell Shepard: Pedlar's Prog- (1815-1903), Neo-criticism, Personalism) Lache-
ress,, p.494.) lier (1832-1918), Spiritual Realism) Boutroux
Metaphysically, the personal nature of the In Germany the first use of the word person-
World Ground) alism seemshave been by Schleiermacher
to
Personalism} William Stern (1871-1939), Criti- actuality, (b) In psychology: the perception of
cal Personalism, Pantheistic Personalism. relative distance by means of the apparent
In England many Theistic Personalists have differences in the size of objects.
Ward (1843-1925), Singularism} A. J. Balfour tude gained by reflection on life, man, and the
(1848-1930)} J. Cook Wilson (1849-1915)} world (psychiatrically explained as due to neu-
W. R. Sorley (1855-1935). Also English were rotic or other physiological conditions, economi-
H. W.
Carr (1857-1931), Monadistic Person- cally to over-population, mechanization, rampant
alism, F. C. S. Schiller (1864-1937), Human- utilitarianism} religiously to lack of faith; etc.)
ism, Personalism; J. M. E. McTaggart (1866- which makes a person gloomy, despondent, mag-
1925, Atheistic Personalism. nifying evil and sorrow, or holding the world
In America we have among Theistic Person- in contempt. Rationalizations of this attitude
alists in Ladd (1842-
addition to Bowne, G. T. have been attempted before Schopenhauer (as in
1921)} J. W. Buckham
(1864-); Mary Whiton Hesiod, Job, among the Hindus, in Byron,
Calkins (1863-1930), Personal Idealism, Abso- Giacomo Leopard!, Heine, Musset, and others),
lutistic Personalism; G. A. Wilson but never with such vigor, consistency, and
(1864-1941);
H. A. Youtz (1867-), R. T. Flewelling acumen, so that since his Welt als Wille und
(1871-), Personal Realism; A. C. Knudson Vorstellung we speak of a 19th century philo-
E. sophic literature of pessimism which considers
(1873-)} S. Brightman (1884-), "The
Given". Though probably rejecting the term thisworld the worst possible, holds man to be
born to sorrow, and thinks it best if neither
personalism, a view of American Personalism
would be incomplete without mention of W. T. existed. Buddhism (q-v.) blames the universal
Harris (1835-1909), G. W. Howison (1834- existence of pain, sorrow, and death; Schopen-
1916), Josiah Royce (1815-1916), G. T. W. hauer the blind, impetuous will as the very stuff
life and the world are made of; E. v. Hart-
Patrick (1857-); J. E. Boodin (1869-); J. A.
Leighton (1870-); W. E. Hocking (1873-),
mann the alogical or irrational side of the all-
J. B. Pratt (1875-), Personal Realism. Among powerful subconscious, Oswald Spengler the Oc-
cidental tendency toward civilization and hence
contemporary Personalists abroad mention should
be made of Ph. the impossibility of extricating ourselves from
Kohnstamm, Holland, Critical the
decay as natural terminus of all organic
Personalism; N. Losski (1870-), Prague, Or-
existence. All pessimists, however, suggest com-
ganismic Personalism, N. Berdyaev (1874-),
Paris; Maurice Blondel (1861-1939), pensations or remedies; thus. Buddhism looks
Pans, Ac-
tivism ; Ch, Baudouin ( 1 hopefully to nirvana (?.v.), Schopenhauer to the
893-) Geneva Radelescu-
; ,
Motru, Bucharest. In France also should be Idea, v. Hartmann to the rational, Spengler to
noted the leader of the Personalistic movement a rebirth through culture. See Optimism.
which might be denominated Political Person- K.F.L.
Petites Perceptions: (Fr. little perceptions)
alism, E. Mounier. R.T.F.
Term by which Leibniz designates confused and
Personalism, Critical: The term used by Wil-
liam Stern to define his unconscious perceptions. (Cf. The Monadology,
concept of as
person
Sects. 21, 23.) The Leibnizian theory of petites
applied to the organic whole of existence. See
Pantheistic Personalism, Mono-Personalistn. perceptions anticipates the modern theory of
unconscious mind. See Unconscious Mind.
R.T.F.
L.W.
Personalities : Term used by William Stern in
Petitio principu, or begging the question, is a
psychology to indicate a study of the facts that
fallacy involving the assumption as premisses of
are true of man as a meaningful living whole one or more propositions which are identical
a fundamental science of the human person. with (or in a simple fashion equivalent to) the
The Personality XVIII, R.T.F.
p. 50.
conclusion to be proved, or which would require
Personality: The totality of mental traits char-
the conclusion for their proof, or which are
acterizing an individual personality or self. See
L.W. stronger than the conclusion and contain it as a
Self.
particular case or otherwise as an immediate
Personal Realism: That type of Personalism
consequence. There is a fallacy, however, only
emphasizes the metaphysical nature
which of
if the premisses assumed (without proof) are
in natural
personality, its continuous activity illegitimate for some other reason than merely
phenomena, and its unanalyzable or realistic
their relation to the conclusion e.g., if they
character as experienced fact, the ultimate real, are not among the avowed presuppositions of
the object of immediate knowledge. R.T.F.
the argument, or if they are not admitted by an
Perspective: (Lat. perspectus, pp. of perspicio, opponent in a dispute. A. C.
to look through) The determination of inclur-
Phala: (Skr.) "Fruit", result, effect. AT.F.L.
siveness of what can be actual for any organiza-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 231
Phantasm: (Gr. appearance) Term
phantasma, (Renouvier, Shadworth, Hodgson), or (b) ex-
used by Hobbea to designate an image or repre-
pressly affirms the reality of things-in-themselves
sentation directly given to the percipient. See but denies their knowability. (Kant, Comte,
Elements of Philosophy Concerning Body, Part Spencer.) See Hume. L.W.
IV, ch. XXV. L.W. Phenomenal World The world of appearance as
:
Pharisaism was a book-centered science, and this we may call the Phaenomenol-
religion, strong-
ly monotheistic, intensely legalistic, teaching a ogy of Mind." Similarly Moritz Lazarus, in his
national and social Lehen der Seele (1856-57), distinguished Pha-
gospel of redemption by an
expectant supernatural visitation. The term nomenologte from Psychologic The former de-
"Pharisaic" unfortunately has scribes the phenomena of mental life; the latter
acquired a sinister
seeks their causal explanation.
meaning, probably due to certain N.T. state-
ments linking Pharisees with
hypocrites. R. T.
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) was the first to
analysis is indispensible to the critical justifica- Every conscious process intends its objects as
tion of logic. In like manner, Husserl main- in a context with others, some intended as pre-
tained, it is necessary to the criticism of other sented, others intended as to become presented
alleged knowledge} while, in another way, its if intended future consciousness takes a particu-
descriptions are prerequisite to explanatory psy- lar course. In other words, consciousness is
chology. However, when Husserl wrote the always an intentional predelineating of processes
Logische Untersuchungen, he did not yet con- in which objects will be intended, as the same
ceive phenomenological different within an all-inclusive objective
analysis as a method for or
dealing with metaphysical problems. context: the world. A pure phenomenology
The mostradical changes in this concept of should therefore describe not only particular in-
phenomenology and its relations to other dis- tended objects but also the intended world, as
ciplines had taken place before Husserl wrote intended as part of the "noematic-objective"
his Ideen u einer reinen Phiinomenologie und sense belonging to consciousness by virtue of
phanomenologischen Philosophic, of which the the latter's intrinsic intentionality. To be sure,
only published volume, "General Introduction in such noematic-objective description the phe-
to Pure Phenomenology," appeared in 1913. nomenologist must still disregard the actual re-
They resulted from a development having two lations of the described
subjective processes to
main aspects. other entities in the world. But, Husserl con-
1. Phenomenological analyses, partly sum- tended, when one disregards everything except
marized in the Logische Untersuchungen, had the intrinsic nature of subjective processes, one
led Husserl to the view that material (generic still can see their intentionality} therefore all
and specific) as well as logically formal uni- the and relations from which one has
entities
versals or essences are themselves observable, abstracted can and should reappear as noe-
though non-individual, objects. Further analyses matic-intentional objects, within one's isolated
showed that awareness of an essence as itself field. In particular, the disregarded status of
presented might be based on either a clear ex- the observed stream of consciousness itself, its
status as related to other entities in the world,
periencing or a clear phantasying (fictive experi-
as a noematic-objective tense which
encing) of an example. In either case, the evi- reappears
dence of the essence or eidos involves evidence the observed consciousness intends. Moreover, as
of some example as ideally possible but not as purely eidetic, phenomenology finds that the in-
actual. Consequently, a science like pure logic, trinsic character of any actual consciousness, as
whose theme includes nothing but essences and intending a world and itself as in that world,
essential possibilities, in Husserl's later termi- is an essentially necessary determination of any
nology, an eidetic science involves no asser- possible consciousness.
tion of actual existence. Husserl used these Husserl noted, however, that even when one's
views to redefine The analyses are thus pure, both abstractively and
phenomenology itself.
latter was now conceived explicitly as the eidetic eidetically, one naturally takes it for granted
science of the material essences exemplified in that possible consciousness is possible in some
subjective processes, qua pure possibilities, and (otherwise indefinite) world. That is
possible
was accordingly said to be pure also in the way to say, besides finding "the world" as part of
tor continues to apprehend this consciousness as actual psychic subjectivity is abstracted as its
essentially worldly, even though he successfully exclusive theme; objects intended in the investi-
disregards even its possible relations to other gated psychic processes are taken only as the
worldly objects. At this point, what Husserl latter's noematic-intentional objects. Such an ab-
considered as the philosophically decisive change stractive and self-restraining attitude, Husserl
in his concept of phenomenology ensues. believed, is necessary, if one is to isolate the
Before writing the Ideen, he had come to be- psychic in its purity and yet preserve it in its
lieve that, as the reflective observer of one's full intentionality. The instituting and main-
subjective processes, one can establish and main- taining of such an attitude is called "psychologi-
tain the attitude of a mere onlooker, who does cal epoch"; effect on the objects of psychic
its
not participate even in his own natural attitude consciousness called "psychological reduction."
is
of believing in a possible world and apprehend- As empiricism, this pure psychology describes the
ing his consciousness as essentially possible in experienced typical structures of psychic processes
that world. If this attitude of self-restraint and of the typical noematic objects belonging
(epoch6) is consistently maintained, one can inseparably to the latter by virtue of their in-
discriminate a status of one's consciousness more trinsic intentionality. Description of typical per-
fundamental than its actuality or its possibility sonalities and of their habitually intended worlds
in a world and one can see that this essential also lies within its province. Having acquired
worldliness of consciousness is a reflexive con- empirical knowledge of the purely psychic, one
sequence of its more fundamental character as may relax one's psychological epoche and inquire
consciousness of a world. One can then see, into the extrapsychic circumstances under which,
furthermore, that every intendable object is es- e.g.,psychic processes of a particular type actu-
sentially, and most fundamentally, a noematic- ally occur in the world. Thus an empirical pure
intentional object (a phenomenon) and has its intentional psychology would become part of a
being and nature because consciousness regard- concrete empirical science of actual psychophysi-
less of the latter's secondary status as in the cal organisms.
world intrinsically an (actual or potential)
is If the psychologist, having isolated some in-
intending of that object, in a certain manner, as stance of considers it only as a
subjectivity,
having certain determinations. Such was Hus- purely possible example of subjectivity in some
serl's contention. possible world, he is effecting a further, so-
In the Ideen and in later works, Husserl ap- called eidetic, reduction of the psychic and is in
plied the epithet "transcendental" to conscious- the position to develop an eidetically pure phe-
ness as it is aside from its (valid and necessary) nomenological psychology or (as Husserl also
self-apperception as in a world. At the same called it) an eidetic psychological phenomenol-
time, he restricted the term "psychic" to sub- ogy. He can discover, not merely empirical types
jectivity (personal subjects, their streams of con- but essential psychic possibilities, impossibilities,
sciousness, etc.) in its status as worldly, animal, and necessities, in any possible world. Moreover,
human subjectivity. The contrast between trans- eidetic reduction can be performed, not only on
cendental subjectivity and worldly being is the psychic but also on any other
abstractive
fundamental to'Husserl's mature concept of pure region of the world, e.g., the physical, the con-
phenomenology and to his concept of a universal cretely psychophysical, the cultural.
can de- We
phenomenological philosophy. In the Ideen , this velop purely eidetic sciences of every material
pure phenomenology, defined at the eidetic region (material ontologies), an eidetic science
science of transcendental subjectivity, was con- of the formally universal region, "something or
trasted with psychology, defined as the empirical other" (formal ontology, the formal logic of
science of actual subjectivity in the world. Two possible being), and finally an all-embracing
antitheses are involved, however: eidetic versus science of the essential (formal and material)
factual, and transcendental versus psychic. compossibilities and non-compossibilities in any
Rightly, they yield a four-fold classification, possible concrete world. An eidetic psychological
which Husserl subsequently made explicit, in his phenomenology would thus become coordinated
formate und transzendentale Logik (1929), in a universal eidetic science ofworldly being.
Nachtvort u meinen Ideen (1930), and Medita- is yet a third kind of epohe that al-
There
tions Cartesiennes (1931). In these works, he legedly enables one to discriminate subjectivity
another kind
spoke of psychology as including all knowledge qua transcendental by effecting yet
of worldly subjectivity while, within this science, of reduction, which Husserl eventually called
he distinguished an empirical or matter-of-fact (In hii
"transcendental-phenomenological."
pure psychology and an eidetic pure psychology. Ideen he called it simply "phenomenological.")
in-
The former is "pure" only in the way phenom- By refraining from participation in one's
enology, as explicitly conceived in the first edi- veterate (and justifiable) natural attitude of pre-
one's sub-
transcendehtal subjects. As one can describe supposing the world and the status of
one's actual psychic subjectivity, so one can de- jectivityin the world, one can see the world
scribe one's actual transcendental subjectivity (and whatever else one may intend) as funda-
and thus produce an empirical transcendental mentally a noematic-intentional object for trans-
cendental subjectivity for one's individual self,
phenomenology. Again, as in the case of the
purely psychic, so in the case of the purely trans- the subject whose life is one's own transcen-
cendental, an eidetic reduction enables one to dental stream of consciousness, and for other
234 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
produce a purely eidetic science here an eidetic ing Husserl's cardinal principle that evidence
theme is the
transcendental phenomenology , the of seeing something that is itself presented
which is the absolutely universal domain of only ultimate source of knowledge, conceive
transcendental subjectivity in general, including their phenomenology more broadly and etymo-
the latter's noematic-objective sense: the entire logically, as explication of that which shows
world and all its possible variants. This eidetic itself, whatever may be the latter's nature and
transcendental phenomenology is what Husserl ontological status. D.C.
ordinarily meant when, in the Ideen or subse- Phenomenon: (Gr. phainomenon, Ger. Phae-
quent works, he spoke simply of "phenom- nomenon) In Kant: Broadly, appearance or that
"things-in-themselves" that are not essentially onwards. In earlier writers the name may refer
objects of consciousness, is seen to be spurious. to any head of a school 5 e.g. to Abelard in the
On the one hand, it is evidently false that all writings of his pupils. R.A.
directly presented objects of consciousness are Philosophes: French 18th century philosophers,
immanent in the mind, on the other hand, the e.g. Condorcet, Condillac, Rousseau, Voltaire
concept of an entity that is not an intentionally (q.v.).
constituted object of transcendental conscious- Philosopher King: In Plato's theory of the ideal
ness is evidently self-contradictory. This is the state rulership would be entrusted to philosopher
central thesis of what Husserl called his "trans- kings. These rulers would reach the top by
cendental-phenomenological idealism." sheer talent and merit after a long period of
The diversity of concepts that Husserl himself training the school of everyday work and
in
expressed by the word "phenomenology" has leadership and by a prescribed pattern of formal
been a source of diverse usages among thinkers discipline and study. The final test of leader-
who came under his influence and are often re- ship lay in the ability to see the truth of the
ferred to as "the phenomenological school." Platonic vision of a reality governed by uni-
Husserl himself always meant by "phenomenol- versal ideas and ideals. V.F.
ogy" a science of the subjective and its intended Philosophical Psychology: Philosophical psy-
objects qua intentional) this core of sense per- chology, in contrast to scientific or empirical
vades the development of his own concept of psychology, is concerned with the more specula-
phenomenology as eidetic, transcendental, con- tive and controversial issues relating to mind
stitutive. Some thinkers, appropriating only the and consciousness which, though arising in the
psychological version of this central concept, context of scientific psychology, have metaphysi-
have developed a descriptive intentional psychol- cal and epistemological ramifications. The prin-
ogy sometimes empirical, sometimes eidetic cipal topics of philosophical psychology are (a)
under the title "phenomenology." On the other the criteria of mentality (see Mental), (b) the
hand, Husserl 's broader concept of eidetic science relation between mind and consciousness (see
based on seeing essences and essentially necessary Consciousness) , (c) the existence of unconscious
relations especially concept of material
his or subconscious mind (see Unconscious mind),
ontology has been not only adopted but made (d) the structure of the mind (see Mind-stuff
central by others, who define phenomenology Theory, Ge stall Psychology), (e) the genesis of
accordingly. Not uncommonly, these groups re- mind (see Mind-Dust, Emergent Mentalistn),
ject HusserPs method of transcendental-phenom- (f) the nature of the self (see Ego, Self, Per-
enological reduction and profess a realistic meta- sonal Identity, Soul), (g) the mind-body rela-
physics. Finally, there are those who, emphasiz- tion (see Mind-Body Relation), (i) the Freedom
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 235
of the Will (sec Determinism, Freedom), (j) meaning of human existence) the character of
psychological methodology (sec Behaviorism, In- value, its status in the world of reality} the
trospection}, (k) mind and cognition. See Cog- existence and character of deity; the nature of
nition, Perception, Memory. L.W. belief and faith; etc.
Philosophy: (Gr. philein, to love sophia, wisdom) The
subject of the philosophy of religion is
The most general science. Pythagoras is said to regarded in conservative circles not as a dis-
have called himself a lover of wisdom. But cipline given to free philosophical inquiry but
philosophy has been both the seeking of wisdom as a particular religion's philosophy. In this
and the wisdom sought. Originally, the rational form it is a more or less disguised apologetic!
explanation of anything; the general principles or defense of an already accepted religious faith.
under which all facts could be explained; in this While the data for this subject include the so-
sense, indistinguishable from science. Later, the called classical religions, philosophy of religion,
science of the first principles of being} the pre- in the genuinely philosophical sense, takes for
suppositions of ultimate reality. Now, popu- its material religious expressions of all types,
larly, private wisdom or consolation,
techni- whether classical or not, together with all the
cally, the science of sciences, the criticism and psychological material available on the nature
systematization or organization of all knowl- of the human spirit and man's whole cultural
edge, drawn from empirical science, rational development. V.F.
learning, common experience, or wherever. Phi- Phoronomy Noun : derived from the Greek, phorein
losophy includes metaphysics, or ontology and used by Plato and Aristotle in the sense of
epistemology, logic, ethics, aesthetics, etc. (all of motion, and nomos, law; signifies, kinematics,
which see). 7.AT.F. or absolute mechanics, which deals with motion
Concerning the task of philosophy. See also from the purely theoretical point of view. Ac-
Science of Science, Epistemology. cording to Kant it is that part of natural phi-
Philosophy of Change: The theory that change losophy which regards motion as a pure quantum,
itself is the only enduring principle and there- without considering any of the qualities of the
fore the fundamental reality. Applied to the moving body. J.J.R.
views Heraclitus, and in modern times to
of Phronesis: (Gr. phronesis) Practical wisdom, or
Henri Bergson. R.T.F.
those of knowledge of the proper ends of conduct and of
Philosophy of Discontinuity: The theory that the means of attaining them; distinguished by
the principle of change is the fundamental basis Aristotle both from theoretical knowledge or
of reality, that natural law is but the outward science, and from technical skill. See Aris-
Philosophy of Effort: The theory that in the that, is called matter, as,' the body in man, but
self-consciousness effort the person becomes
of that which determines and perfects matter it
general subject of religion from the philosophi- kind that a sentence applying the term in ques-
cal point of view, i.e., an inquiry employing tion is intersubjectively (q. v.) confirmable by
the accepted tools of critical analysis and evalu- observations (see Verification). The application
ation without a predisposition to defend or re- of physicalism to psychology is the logical basis
ject the claims of any particular religion. Among for the method of behaviorism (q. v.). See pa*
the specific questions considered are: the nature, pers by O. Neurath, R. Carnap, C. G. Hempel,
function and value of religion; the validity of in Erkenntnis, 2, 1931; 3, 1932; 4, 1934j
the claims of religious knowledge; the relation Scientia 50, 1931; Rev. de Synthese 10, 193$;
of religion and ethics; the character of ideal Phil. 3, 1936; S. S. Stevens in Psych.
Science
religion, the nature qf evil; the problem of Bull. 36, 1939. R.C.
theodicy; revealed versus natural religion; the Physico-Theological Argument: Kant's (q.v.)
problem of the human(soul) and its
spirit term for the teleological proof of the existence
destiny; the relation of the human to the divine of God. O.F.AT.
as to the freedom and responsibility of the indi- Physico-Theology: A
theology which finds cor-
vidual and the character (if any) of a divine roboration in natural philosophy. A term now
purpose; evaluation of the claims of prophecy, in general disuse. V.F.
mystic intuitions, special revelations, inspired Physics: (Gr. physis, nature) In Greek philoso-
utterances; the value of prayers of petition; the phy, one of the three branches of philosophy,
human hope of immortality; evaluation of in- Logic and Ethics being the other two among
stitutionalforms of expressions, rituals, creeds, the Stoics (q.v.). In Descartes, metaphysics it
ceremonies, rites, missionary propaganda; the the root and physics the trunk of the "tree of
236 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
knowledge." Today, the science (overlapping
it is was a preacher of power and founder of charit-
chemistry, biology and human physiology) of able organizations. Spener's Pia Desideriat "The
the calculation and prediction of the phenomena Things Religiously Desired" (1675) is regarded
of motion of microscopic or macroscopic bodies, as the Manifesto of the movement. Pietism also
e.g. gravitation, pressure, heat, light, sound, carries derogatory connotation :a person is
a
magnetism, electricity, radio-activity, etc. Phi- said tobe "pietistic" if the seriousness of his
losophical problems arise concerning the relation religious practices lead him to extremes, even
of physics to biological and social phenomena, to the point of asceticism and fanaticism. See
to pure mathematics, and to metaphysics. See Puritanism. V.F.
Mechanism, Physicalism. Ping t'ien hsia: World peace, the ultimate goal
Physis: See Nature, Physics. of Confucian moral training and education.
Picturesque: A modification of the beautiful in W.T.C.
English aesthetics, 18th century. L.V. Pistology: A noun derived from the Greek, pittis,
Pith Mo: Neo-Mohists) heretical Mohists. See faith j hence in general the science of faith or
Mo che and Chinese philosophy. religious belief. A branch of theology specially
Pien: Argumentation or dialectics, which "is to concerned with faith and its restricted scope, as
make clear the distinction between right and distinguished from reason. /./.fl.
wrong, to ascertain the principles of order and Pity: A more or less condescending feeling for
disorder, to make clear the points of similarity other living beings in their suffering or lowly
and difference, to examine the laws of names condition, condoned by those who hold to the
and actualities, to determine what is beneficial inevitability of class differences, but condemned
and what is harmful, and to decide what is un- by those who believe in melioration or the estab-
certain and doubtful. It describes the ten thou- lishment of more equitable relations and there-
sand things as they are, and discusses the vari- fore substitute sympathy (q.v.). Synonymous
ous opinions in their comparative merits. It with "having mercy" or "to spare" in the Old
uses names
to specify actualities, propositions to Testament (the Lord is "of many bowels"),
express ideas, and explanations to set forth rea- Christians also are exhorted to be pitiful (e.g.,
sons, including or excluding according to 1. Pet. 3.8). Spinoza yet equates it with com-
classes." It involves seven methods: "The miseration, but since this involves pain in addi-
method of possibility to argue from what is
is tion to some good if alleviating action follows,
not exhausted. The method of hypothesis is to it is to be overcome in a life dictated by reason.
argue from what is not actual at present. The Except for moral theories which do not recog-
method of imitation is to provide a model. What nize feeling for other creatures as a fundamental
is imitated is taken as the model. If the reason urge pushing into action, such as utilitarianism
agrees with the model, it is correct. If it does in some of its aspects and Hinduism which
not agree with the model, it is incorrect. This adheres to the doctrine of karma (q.v.), however
is the method of imitation. The method of far apart the two are, pity may be regarded a
comparison to make clear about one thing by
is prime ethical impulse but, due to its coldness
means The method of parallel is to
of another. and the possibility of calculation entering, is no
compare two propositions consistently through- longer countenanced as an essentially ethical
out. The method of analogy says, <You are so. principle in modern moral thinking. K.F.L.
Why should I not be so?* The method of in- Planck, Max: (b. 1858) A German physicist
duction is to grant what has not been accepted who taught at the University of Kiel and later
on the basis of 'its similarity to what has al- at the University of Berlin. He is world-famous
ready been accepted. For example, when it is for his theory of quanta^, according to which all
said that all the others are the same, how can energy travels in units comparable to atoms of
I say that the others are different ?" (Neo- matter. See Planck's constant. R.B.W.
Mohism.) W.T.C. Planck's constant: In quantum mechanics (q.v.),
Pien: Transformation or change in process) a fundamental physical constant, usually denoted
change from ens to non-ens; gradual change. by the letter h, which appears in many physical
See Hua.W.T.C. formulas. It may be defined by the law that the
Pien che; Sophists or Dialecticians. See Ming quantum (q.v.) of radiant energy of any fre-
chia. quency equal to the frequency multiplied by h.
is
Pien hua che: The evolutionary transformation, see further Uncertainty principle. A.C.
which of effortless power is the greatest. Plastic: The effect of relief obtained by the
$
(Sophism. )H.H. nuance of light and' shade. L.V.
Pietism: In general, an emphasis upon the indi- Plato: (428-7348-7 B.C.) Was one of the
vidual appropriation of religious truth as over greatest of the Greek philosophers. He was born
against its formal acceptance. As a movement, either in Athens or on the island of Aegina,
the term refers specifically to the reaction against and was originally known as Aristocles. Ariston,
the cold orthodoxies withinGerman Protestant- his father, traced his ancestry to the last kings
ism of the 17th and 18th centuries. Philip
late of Athens. His mother, Perictione, was a de-
Spener (1635-1705) is regarded as the father scendant of the family of Solon. Plato was
of German Pietism. Under Spener's influence given the best elementary education possible and
August Franke (1663-1727) became one of the he spent eight years, from his own twentieth'
most vigorous champions of the movement to- year to the death of Socrates, as a member of
ward a more genuine Christian living. Franke the Socratic circle. Various stories are told about
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 237
his supposed masters in philosophy, and his it is not the crude existence of physical
ously
travels in and Egypt, but
Greece, Italy, Sicily things > nor can it be merely the mental exist-
all that we know for certain is that he some- ence of logical constructs. Interpretations have
how acquired a knowledge of Pythagoreanism, varied from the theory of the Christian Fathers
Heracleitanism, Eleaticism and other Pre- (which was certainly not that of Plato himself)
Socratic philosophies. He founded his school of viz., that the Ideas are exemplary Causes in
mathematics and philosophy in Athens in 387 God's Mind, to the suggestion of Aristotle
B.C. It became known as the Academy. Here they are realized, in a
that
(Metaphysics, I)
he taught with great success until his death at sense, in the world of individual things, but are
the age of eighty. His career as a teacher was the intellect. The Ideas
apprehended only by
interrupted on two occasions by trips to Sicily, appear, however, particularly in the dialogues
of
where Plato tried without much success to edu- the middle period, to be objective essences, inde-
cate and advise Dionysius the Younger. His pendent of human minds, providing not only the
works have been very well preserved we have \ foundation for the truth of human knowledge
more than twenty-five authentic dialogues, cer- but also the ontological bases for the shadowy
tain letters, and some definitions which are prob-
things of the sense world. Within the world of
ably spurious. For a list of works, bibliography Forms, there is a certain hierarchy. At the
and an outline of his thought, see Platonism. top, the most noble of all, is the Idea of the
VJ.B. Good (Repub. VII), it dominates the other
Platonic Realism: See Realism. Ideas and they participate in it. Beauty, sym-
Platonism: ^hc philosophy of Plato marks one metry and truth are high-ranking Ideas; at
of the high ^oints in the development of Greek times they are placed almost on a par with the
philosophical genius. Platonism is characterized Good (Phtlebus 65, also Sympos. and Phaedrus
by a partial contempt for sense knowledge and passim). There are, below, these, other Ideas,
empirical studies, by a high regard for mathe- such as those of the major virtues (wisdom,
matics and its method, by a longing for another temperance, courage, justice and piety) and
and better world, by a frankly spiritualistic mathematical terms and relations, such as equal-
view of life, by its use of a method of discussion ity, likeness, unlikeness and proportion. Each
involving an accumulation of ever more pro- type or class of being is represented by its per-
found insights rather than the formal logic of fect Form in the sphere of Ideas ; there is an .
Aristotle, and, above all, by an unswerving faith ideal Form of man, dog, willow tree, of every
in the
capacity of the human mind to attain kind of natural object and even of artificial
absolute truth and to use this truth in the ra- things like beds (Repub. 596). The relationship
tional direction of human life and affairs. of the "many" objects, belonging to a certain
The works of Plato are chiefly in the form class of things in the sense world, to the "One",
of dialogues, remarkable for their literary as i.e. the single Idea which is their archetype, is
well as for their philosophic qualities. The fol- another great source of difikulty to Plato. Three
lowing list includes all the dialogued recognized solutions, which are not mutually exclusive, are
as authentic by modern authorities. Early period: suggested in the dialogues: (1) that the many
Ion, Charmides. Hippias I and II (doubtful), participate imperfectly in the perfect nature of
Laches, Lysis, outhyphro, Euthydemus, Gorgias, their Idea; (2) that the many are made in
Protagoras, Meno, Apology, Crito, Phaedo, imitation of the One; and (3) that the many
Menexenus. Middle period: Symposium, Phae- are composed of a mixture of the Limit (Idea)
drus, Republic, Theaetetus, Cratylus. Late period: with the Unlimited (matter).
Timaeus, Critias, Sophistes, Politicus, Phtlebus, The human soul is considered by Plato to be
Parmenides, Laws, Epinomis (doubtful). Thir- an immaterial agent, superior in nature to the
teen Letters have also been preserved, of which
body and somewhat hindered by the body in the
two (VII-VIII), at least, are probably authentic.
performance of the higher, psychic functions of
Plato's knowledge can hardly be
theory of human life. The tripartite division of the soul
discussed apart from his theory of reality. becomes an essential teaching of Platonic psy-
Through sense perception man cpmes to know chology from the Republic onward. The ra-
the changeable world of bodies. This is the tional part is highest and is pictured as the
realm of opinion (doxa} ; such cognition may be ruler of the psychological organism in the well-
more or less clear but it never rises to the level
regulated man. Next in importance is the
of true knowledge, for objects are imperma-
its
"spirited" element of the soul, which is the
nent and do not provide a stable foundation for source of action and the seat of the virtue of
science. It is through intellectual, or rational, courage. The lowest part is the concupiscent or
cognition that man discovers another world, that acquisitive element, which may be brought under
of immutable essences, intelligible realities, control by the virtue of temperance. The latter
Forms or Ideas. This is the level of scientific two are often combined and called irrational in
knowledge (episteme)\ it is reached in mathe- contrast to the highest part. Sensation is an
matics and especially in philosophy (Repub. VI, active function of the soul, by which the soul
510). The world of intelligible Ideas contains "feels" the objects of sense through the instru-
the ultimate realities from which the world of mentality of the body. Particularly in the young,
sensible things has been patterned. Plato- experi- sensation is a necessary prelude to the knowledge
enced much difficulty in regard to the sort of of Ideas, but the mature and developed soul
existence to be attributed to his Ideas. Obvi- must learn to rise above sense perception and
238 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
mutt strive for a more direct intuition of in- tion of and
monogamous marriage, family life,
telligible essences. That the soul exists before of private property. It is to be noted that this
the body (related to the
Pythagorean and, pos- form of semi-communism was suggested for a
sibly, Orphic doctrine of transmigration) and minority of the citizens only (Repub. Ill and V)
knows the world of Ideas immediately in this
and it is held to be a practical impossibility in
anterior condition, is the foundation of the the Laws (V, 739-40), though Plato continued
Platonic theory of reminiscence to think that some form of community life is
(Meno, Phaedo,
Republic) Phaedrus). Thus the soul is born with theoretically best for man. In Book VIII of
true knowledge in it, but the soul, due to the the we find the famous classification
Republic,
encrustation of bodily cares and interests, can- of five types of political organization, ranging
not easily recall the truths innately, and we from aristocracy which is the rule of the best
might say now, subconsciously present in it. men, timocracy, in which the rulers are moti-
Sometimes sense perceptions aid the soul in the vated by a love of honor, oligarchy, in which
process of reminiscence, and again, as in the the rulers seek wealth, democracy, the rule of
famous demonstration of the Pythagorean theo- the masses who are unfit for the task, to tyranny,
rem by the slave boy of the Meno, the ques- which is the rule of one man who may have
tions and suggestions of a teacher provide the started as the champion of the people but who
necessary stimuli for recollection. The personal governs solely for the advancement of his own,
immortality of the soul is very clearly taught by selfish interests.
Plato in the tale of Er (Repub.
X) and, with ThePlatonic philosophy of art and aesthetics
various attempts at logical demonstration, in as might be expected, the value of the
stresses,
the Phaedo. Empirical and physiological psy- reasonable imitation of Ideal realities rather
chology is not stressed in Platonism, but there than the photographic imitation of sense things
is an approach to it in the
descriptions of sense and individual experiences. All beautiful things
organs and their media in the Timaeus 42 ff.
participate in the Idea of beauty (Symposium
The
Platonic theory of education is based on and Phaedrus). The artist is frequently described
a drawing out (educatio) of what is already as a man carried away by his
inspiration, akin
dimly known to the learner. (Meno, Repub. II- to the fool} yet art requires reason and the
VII, Theaetetus, Laws.) The training of the artist must learn to contemplate the world of
in many points a logical development of his School of Chartres (Bernard, Thierry, Wm. of
theory of Ideas. The World-Maker does not Conches, Gilbert of Poitiers) in the 12th century
create things from nothing} he fashions the was a center of Christian Platonism, interested
world out of a pre-existing chaos of matter by chiefly in the cosmological theory of the Timaeus.
introducing patterns taken from the sphere of The Renaissance witnessed a revival of Platon-
Forms. This process of formation is also ex- ism in the Florentine Academy (Marsilio Ficino
plained, in the Timaeus (54 ff.), in terms of and the two Pico del la Mirandolas). In Eng-
various mathematical figures. In an early period land, the Cambridge Platonists (H. More, Th.
of the universe, God (Chronos) exercised a sort Gale, J. Norris) in the 17th century started an
of Providential care over interest in Plato, which has not yet died out in
things in this world
(Poltticus, 269-275), but eventually man was the English Universities. Today, the ethical
left to his own devices. The tale of Er, at the writings of A. E. Taylor, the theory of essences
end of the Republic, describes a judgment of developed by G. Santayana, and the metaphysics
souls after death, their separation into the
good of A. N. Whitehead, most nearly approach a
and the bad, and the assignment of various re- contemporary Platonism. V.J.B.
wards and punishments. Platonism, medieval: Plato's works were not
H. Stephanus et J. Serranus (ed.), Platonis accessible to the medieval writers previous to
Opera (Paris, 1578), has provided the standard the 13th century. Theypossessed only part of
the Timaeus in the translation and commentary
pagination, now used in referring to the text of
Plato 5 it is not a critical edition. J. Burnet by Chalcidius. Nor were they acquainted with
(ed.), Platonis Opera, 5 vol. (Oxford, 1899- the writings of the Neo-Platonists. They had
Man and his Work (N. were the writings of Pseudo-Dionysius of which
1927). P. Shorey,
Y.,
first Alcuin had made a rather insufficient, later
What Plato Said (Chicago, 1933). A. Dies,
Scotus Eriugena a readable translation. Scotus
Autour de Platon, 2 vol. (Paris, 1927). U. von
himself was thoroughly. Neo-Platonic in his phi-
Wilamowitz-Moellendorf, Platon, 2 vol. (Ber-
losophy, however "Christianized" his Platonism
lin, 1919). John Burnet, Platonism (Berkeley,
1928). Paul Elmer More, Platonism (Oxford,
may have been. The medieval "Platonists" held,
Walter Pater, Plato and Platonism. among some propositions of minor importance,
1931).
that universal were existent substances (Real-
Constantin Ritter, Essence of Plato's Philosophy
ism, q.v.), that body and soul were two
(London, 1933). Leon Robin, Platon (Paris,
independent substances, united more or less ac-
1935). Paul Shorey, Platonism, Ancient and
Modern cidentally; they assumed accordingly a "plural-
(Berkeley, 1938). A. E. Taylor, Some believed
ity of forms" in one substance.
Platonism and Its Influence (London, 1924). that Plato had been given a peculiar insight
F. J. E.
Woodbridge, The Son of Apollo (Bos- even in the mysteries of Christian faith. Thus
ton, 1929). Q
Bigg, The Chnsttan Platontsts
they went so far as to identify the antma mundt,
of Alexandria (Oxford, 1913). T. Whittaker,
The Neo-Platonists which they believed to be a Platonic notion,
(Cambridge, 1918, 2nd ed.). with the Holy Ghost (e.g. Abelard). Even
John H. Muirhead, The Platonic Tiadttton tn
after the revival of Aristotelian philosophy,
.
the realm of spirit and partly in the sphere of intellectualistic and mystical currents of thought.
matter. Plotin, Enneades, (Greek text and French
Plotinism offers a well-developed theory of transl.) by E. Brehier, (Bude"), 6 vol., Paris,
sensation. The objects of sensation are of a 1930-40. Mackenna, S., The Enneads of Ploti-
lower order of being than the perceiving or- nus, London, 1917-1919. Heinemann, F., Plotin,
ganism. The inferior cannot act upon the su- Leipzig, 1921. Br6hier, E., La philosophie de
perior. Hence sensation is an activity of the Plotin, Paris, 1928. Inge, W. R., The Philoso-
sensory agent upon its objects. Sensation pro- phy of Plotinus, 2 vol., 2rd ed., London and
vides a direct, realistic perception of material N. Y., 1929. F.7.5.
things, but, since they are ever-changing, such Pluralism: This is the doctrine that there is not
knowledge is not valuable. In internal sense one (Monism), not two (Dualism) but many
perception, the imagination also functions ac- ultimate substances. From the earliest Ionian
tively, memory is attributed to the imaginative fundamentals of fire and water, to
air, earth,
power and it serves not only in the recall of the hierarchy of monads
of Leibniz, the many
sensory images but also in the retention of the things-in-thcmselves of Herbart and the theory
verbal formulae in which intellectual concepts of the many that "works" in the latter day
are expressed. The human soul can look either Pragmatism of James and others, we get a
upward or downward; up to the sphere of purer variety of theories that find philosophic solace in
spirit, or down to the evil regions of matter. variety rather than in any knowable or un-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 241
knowable one. See Dualism, Idealism, Mate- making; artistic production (Aristotle).
rialism, Monism, Political Philosophy (Laski). G.R.M.
L.E.D. Poietic: Relating to production or the arts of
Plurality ot causes: The doctrine according to production} e.g. poietic knowledge, as distin-
which identical events can have two or more guished from practical and from theoretical
different causes. "It is not true that the same knowledge. See Aristotelianism. G.R.M.
phenomenon is always produced by the same Poincare, Henri: (1854-1912) French mathema-
tician and mathematical physicist to whom many
causes," declared J. S. Mill, author of the doc-
trine. Quite the contrary, "many causes may important technical contributions are due. His
produce some kind of sensation) many causes thought was occupied by problems on the border-
line of physics and philosophy. His views reflect
may produce death." position was not
Mill's
taken in support of the doctrine of free will or the influence of positivism and seem to be closely
of that of chance, but rather in opposition to an related to pragmatism. Poincare is known also
old contention of the physicists, among whom for his opposition to the logistic method in the
Newton stated that "to the same natural effect foundations of mathematics, especially as it was
we must, as far as pssible, ascribe the same advocated by Bertrand Russell (q.v.) and Louis
cause." The subsequent controversy has shown Couturat, and for his proposed resolution of the
that Mill's position was based on the confusion logical paradoxes (q.v.) by the prohibition of
between "the same phenomenon" and "the same impredicative definition (q.v.). Among his
kind of phenomena". It is doubtless true that books, the more influential are Science and Hy-
the same kind of phenomena, say death, can be pothesis, Science and Method, and Dtrnieres
but only because we Pensees.R.B.W.
produced by many causes,
take the phenomenon broadly j nevertheless, it Point-event: A. N. Whitehead's term signifying
an event with all its dimensions ideally re-
may remain true that each particular phenom-
enon can be caused only by a very definite cause stricted. R.B.W.
or by a very definite combination of causes. In Poissons Law: This rule, which is also called
other words, the broader we conceive the phe- Poisson's Law
of Small Numbers, is an elabora-
nomenon, the more causes are likely to apply tion of Bernouilli's Theorem dealing with the
to it. R.B.W. difference between the actual and the most
Plutarch of Athens: (5th century A.D.) Founder probable number of occurrences of an event. 1.
of Athenian Neo-Platonism, author of com- In cases of Random Sampling, the Poisson Ex-
mentaries on Platonic and Pythagorean writings. ponential Limit is used in place of the Normal
Plutarch of Chaeronea: (about 100 A.D.) Probability Function or the strict application of
the Bernoulli! Theorem, when considering events
Famous biographer and author of several philo-
M.F, which happen rarely. 2. In cases of Dispersion
sophical treatises.
of Statistical Ratios, a Bernoulli! Distribution is
Parallel Lives; Opera moralia (tr. Bolin's
Classical Libr.).
used when the probability of an event is con-
stant } and a Poisson Distribution is used when
Pneuma: (Gr. pneuma, breath) A Stoic, also that probability is variable. In both cases, there
Epicurean, concept signifying spirit, vital force, is a maximum involved which will not be sur-
or creative fire $n its penetration into matter.
passed } and the values obtained by Poisson's
Sometimes understood as psychic energy, or dis-
Law are smaller than those obtained in the other
tinguished as the formative fire-mind and the cases. T.G.
divinely inspired rational part of man from
the more emotional, physical aspect of soul. In Polarity, philosophy of: Philosophies that make
the concept of polarity one of the systematic
early Christian, particularly Gnostic philosophy,
as spirit, is differentiated from psyche, principles according to which opposite! involve
pneuma,
each other when applied to any significant realm
or soul. See Pneuma Hagion, the Holy Ghost.
of investigation. Polarity was one of the basic
AT.F.L.
concepts in the philosophy of Cusanus and
Pneumatology: (Gr. -f logos,
pneuma, spirit
Schelling. Morris R. Cohen made use of the
theory) In the most general sense pneumatology
is the philosophical or speculative treatment of principle of polarity in scientific philosophy, in
or souls, including human, divine and biology, in social and historical analysis, in law
spirits
and in ethics. (Cf. Reason and Nature). H.H.
those intermediate between God and man.
D'Alembert restricted pneumatology to human Political Personalism: The doctrine that the
souls. Discours preliminaire de I'Encyclopedie, state is under obligation to provide opportunity
73j he considered pneumatology, logic and to each citizen for the highest possible physical,
ethics the three branches of the philosophical mental, and spiritual development, because per-
science of man. The term has also been con- sonality is the supreme achievement of the social
sidered to exclude man and to apply only to order. A movement in France represented by
God and the angelic hierarchy. (See article by the journal Esprit. R.T.F.
Bersot in Franck'a .Diet, des Sci. Philos.) The Political Philosophy: That branch of philosophy
wide sense in which pneumatology embraces first, which deals with political life, especially with
God, second, the angels and third, man is per- the essence, origin and value of the state. In
haps the most convenient and justifiable usage. ancient philosophy politics also embraced what
L.W. we call ethics. The first and most important
Poiesis: (Gr. poiesis) Activity of creating or ancient works on Political Philosophy were
242 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Plato's Politeia (Republic) and Aristotle's Poli- sovereignty of the people took on a more demo-
tics. The Politfia outlines the structure and cratic aspect than in 17th century English politi-
functions of the ideal state. It became the pat- cal philosophy which had been almost exclusively
tern for all the Utopias (see Utopia) of later aristocratic in its spirit. This tendency found
times. Aristotle, who considers man fundament- expression in his concept of the "general will"
ally a social creature i.e. a political animal, in the moulding of which each individual has
created the basis for modern
theories of govern- his share. Immanuel Kant who made these
ment, especially by his distinction of the differ- concepts the basis of his political philosophy,
ent forms of government. Early Christianity recognized more clearly than Rousseau the fictiti-
had a rather negative attitude towards the state ous character of the social contract and treated
which found expression in St. Augustine's De it as a "regulative idea", meant to serve as a
Civitate Dei. The influence of this work, in criterion in the evaluation of any act of the
which the earthly state was declared to be civitas state. For Hegel the state is an end in itself,
diaboli, a state of the devil, was predominant the supreme realization of reason and morality.
throughout the Middle Ages. In the discussion In marked opposition to this point of view,
of the relation between church and empire, the Marx and Engels, though strongly influenced by
main topic of medieval political philosophy, Hegel, visualized a society in which the state
certain authors foreshadowed modern political
would gradually fade away. Most of the 19th
theories. Thomas Aquinas stressed the popular century publicists, however, upheld the juristic
origin of royal and the right of the
power theory of the state. To them the state was the
people to restrict or abolish that power in case only source of law and at the same time invested
of abuse; William of Ockham and Marsiglio of with absolute sovereignty: there are no limits to
Padua held similar views. Dante Alighieri was the legal omnipotence of the state
except those
one of the first to recognize the intrinsic value which are self imposed. In opposition to this
of the state; he considered the world monarchy doctrine of unified state authority, a pluralistic
to be the only means whereby peace, justice theory of sovereignty has been advanced recently
and liberty could be secured. But it was not by certain authors, laying emphasis upon cor-
until the Renaissance that, due to the rediscovery porate personalities and professional groups
of the individual and his rights and to the for- (Duguit, Krabbe, Laski). Outspoken anti-state-
mation of territorial states, political philosophy ism was advocated by anarchists such as
Kropot-
oegan to play a major role. Niccolo Machiavelli and Guild socialists.
kin, etc., by syndicalist*
and Jean Bodin laid the foundation for the new W.E.
theories of the state by stressing its independ- Politics: (Gr. polis, city) The normative science
ence from any external power and its indivisible which treats of the organization of social goods.
sovereignty. The theory of popular rights and The branch of civics concerned with govern-
of the right of resistance against tyranny was ment and state affairs. See Political Philosophy.
especially advocated by the "Monarchomachi" J.K.F.
(Huguenots, such as Beza, Hotman, Languet, Polysyllogism : A
chain of syllogisms arranged
to lead to a single final conclusion, the conclu-
Danaeus, Catholics such as Boucher, Rossaeus,
sion of each syllogism except the last serving as
Mariana). Most of them used the theory of an
original contract (see Social Contract) to justify premiss of a later syllogism.
limitations of monarchical power. Later, the
In contrast, an argument consisting of a
idea of a Natural Law, independent from divine single syllogism is called a mono syllogism.
revelation (Hugo Grotius and his followers), A.C.
served as an argument for liberal sometimes Polytheism: (Gr. polus, many; and theos, god)
revolutionary tendencies. With the exception A theory that Divine reality is numerically
of Hobbes, who used the contract theory in his multiple, that there are many gods; opposed to
plea for absolutism, almost all the publicists of monotheism. See Plotinism. VJ.B.
the 16th and 17th century built their liberal Pompanazzi, Pietro or Pereto: (1462-1524)
upon the idea of an original covenant
theories Was born in Mantua, in Italy, and studied
by which individuals joined together and by medicine and philosophy at Padua. He taught
mutual consent formed a state and placed a philosophy at Padua, Ferrara and Bologna. He
is best known for his Tractatus de immortalitatt
fiduciary trust in the supreme power (Roger
Williams and John Locke). It was this con- animag (ed. C. G. Bardili, Tubingen, 1791) in
tract which the Pilgrim Fathers translated into which he denied that Aristotle taught the per-
actual facts, after their arrival in America, in sonal immortality of the human soul. His inter-
November, 1620; long before John Locke -had pretation of Aristotle follows that of the Greek
developed his theory. In the course of the 17th commentator, Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd c.
century in England the contract theory was A.D.) and is also closely related to the Aver-
methods which greatly promoted the advance of were depersonalized and became forces and es-
sences j and finally the positive. It should be
pedagogy. The most noted among them were
'noted that positivistic description was supposed
Jean Duvergier de Hauranne, abbot of Saint
to result in mathematical formulas, not in intro-
Cyran (1581-1643), Antoine-J* grand Arnauld
spective psychology. See Scientific Empiricism I.
(1612-1694), and Pierre Nicole (1625-1695).
Cf. Sainte-Beuve, Port-Royal J J.R. G.B.
Posidonius of Rhodes: (c. 135-50 B.C.) An In legal philosophy (q.v): That trend in
Legal Philosophy which confines itself to posi-
eclectic philosopher of the Stoic
School, who in-
tive law i.e. the law that actually is valid in
corporated into his thought many doctrines of
a certain country at a certain time. It excludes
Plato and Aristotle. R.B.W.
any higher law such as natural law, sometimes
Posit: (Lat. ponere, to put or place) (a) In logic
even any evaluation of positive law. The Al-
and epistemology, positing is the act of enter-
Igemeine Rechtslehre (general theory of law)
taining or asserting a proposition immediately in Germany, analytical jurisprudence in Eng-
i.e. without recourse to inference. proposition A land, the "pure theory of law" and American
may be posited either because it is regarded as
legal realism are types of legal positivism. See
(1) a self-evident truth or (2) a postulate ar- W.E.
Legal Philosophy.
bitrarily
assumed^
The postulational sense of
Possibility: According to distinctions of modality
positing is the more common at present. See
(q. v.), a proposition is possible if its negation
Postulate.
is not necessary. The word possible is also used
(b) In idealistic metaphysics', positing, in the
in reference to a state of knowledge rather than
philosophy of G. Fichte is the initial act by
to modality; as a speaker might say, "It is pos-
which the Ego creates itself: "The positing of
sible that 486763 is a prime number," meaning
the Ego through itself is the
therefore, pure that he had no information to the contrary (al-
activity of the Ego." (Fichte, The Science of
though this proposition is impossible in the sense
Knowledge, Trans, by A. F. Kroeger, p. 68.) of modality).
L.W. A F
prepositional function may also be said
Positional: The characters of perception are posi-
to be possible. In this case the meaning may be
tional. The positional character of the
thought either simply (Ex)F(x)-, or that (Ex)F(x) is
is the idea. (Avenarius.) H.H.
possible in one of the senses just described; or
Positionality: (Ger. Positionalitat) In Husserl: that F(x) is permitted under some particular
The character common to conscious processes of system of conventions or code of laws. As an
positing or setting an object, whether believing- example of the last we may take: "It is possible
ly, or in valuing or willing. Doxic positionality for a woman to be President of the United
is common to processes involving belief, dis- States." Here F is \x[x is a woman and * is a
belief, doubt, (see Doxa}\ analogical posi-
etc. President of the United States], and the code of
tionality, to processes of loving, hating, or other- laws in question is the Constitution of the
wise valuingj volitional, to those involving in- United States. A.C.
clination, disinclination, voluntary doing, etc. Possible: (Gr. endechomenon) According to
Positionality in all its forms is contrasted with Aristotle that which happens usually but not
guasi-positionality (see Phantasy) and neutrality. necessarily j hence distinguished both from the
n .. DC
' '
necessary and from the impossible. G.R.M.
Positive Theology: A term referring to doctrines Post hoc, ergo propter hoc: (Lat. after this,
alleged to be groanded upon a "positive" reve- therefore on account of this) A logical fallacy
244 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
in which it is argued that a consequent it caused immediate or remote. Even impotence and in-
by an antecedent, simply because of the temporal capacity are not different in kind from power,
relationship, VJ.B. but simply in degree. These Aristotelian views
Postpredicament : Noun generally applied since on power, including its ontological interpreta-
the time of Abelard to any particular one of the tion, have held the ground for centuries) and
five conceptions, or relations, examined in de- we* find them partly also in Hobbes and Locke
tail in the tenth and following chapters of the who defined power as the ability to make or to
treatise on the Categories, or Predicaments, receive change. Hume's analysis of power showed
ascribed to Aristotle, which, however, was very it to be an illusion) and with the advent of
probably written by others after his death. positivism and experimental psychology, this con-
cept lost much of its value. The notion of power
Postulate: (Lat. postulating Ger. Postulat) In has been used by Fechner in his doctrine and
Kant: (1) An indemonstrable practical or moral law concerning the relation between* stimuli and
sensations.
hypothesis, such as the reality of God, freedom,
or immortality, belief in which is necessary for B. In ontology, power is often synonymous
the performance of our moral duty. (2) Any of with potency (q.v.) Aristotle, who is mainly
three principles of the general category of mo- responsible for the development of this notion
dality, called by Kant "postulates
of empirical (Metaph. IV (5) 12.), distinguishes three aspects
See Modality and Kantianism. of it: as a source of change, as a capacity of
thought."
_ O.F.AT. performing, and as a state in virtue of which
Postulate: See Mathematics. things are unchangeable by themselves. Hobbes
Potency: (Scholastic) Potency Is opposed to act accepts only the first of these meanings, namely
as asserted of being. It means the capacity of that power is the source of motion. Various
being or of being thus. Prime matter (q.v.) questions are involved in the analysis of the
is pure potency, indetermined in regard to actual notion of power) as, for example, whether power
in non-repugnance. Thus to be thrown is not sistance. More technically, it is the time rate of
due to a potency strictly speaking in the stone the performance of work, or the transfer of
which has, in regard to this a "merely obedien- energy. In optics, power is the degree to which
tial" potency. The first kind is also called an optical instrument magnifies.
R.A* D. In mathematics, (1) it is a numerical or
operative potency.
Potentiality: See Dynamis. algebraical index showing the number of times
the element it affects must be multiplied by it-
Power: In general: (1) the physical, mental and
moral ability to act or to receive an action j (2) self) concurrently, it denotes the product arising
the general faculty of doing, making, perform- from the continued mutiplication of a quantity
ing, realizing, achieving, producing or succeed- by itself. (2) In the theory of aggregates, the
ing} (3) ability, capacity, virtue, virtuality, po- power of a class is the number of its elements,
tency, potentiality, faculty, efficacy, efficacity, its cardinal number (q.v.). T.G.
efficiency, operative causality, process of change
Practical: (Ger. praktisch) In Husserl: Of or
or becoming) (4) natural operative force, pertaining to such conscious processes as .reach
energy, vigor, strength, or effective condition
fulfilment in behavior. D.C.
Practical Relating to praxis, or conduct.
applied or applicable to work;
:
(5) person,
agent, body, institution, government or state, G.R.M.
having or exercising an ability to act in ac- Practical Imperative: (in Kant's ethics) Kant's
cordance with its nature and functions) (6) famous dictum: "So act as to treat humanity,
spirit, divinity, deity, superhuman agent, super-
whether in thine own person or in that of any
natural principle of activity} (7) an attribute or other, in every case as an end withal, never as
name of God} (8) in theology, an order of means only." P.A.S.
angels j (9) in law the authority, capacity or Practical Reason: (Kant. Ger. praktische Ver-
right to exercise certain natural and legal pre- nunft) Reason or reflective thought concerned
rogatives) also, the authority vested in a person with the issues of voluntary decision and action.
by law) (10) influence, prerogative, force. Practical reason includes "everything which is
A. In psychology, power is sometimes synony- possible by or through freedom." In general,
mous with faculty (?.t/.)> It also meant a qual- practical reason deals with the problems of
ity which renders the nature of an individual ethics. Kant asserted the primacy of practical
agent apt to elicit certain physical and moral reason over theoretical reason} and also asserted
actions. Hence, power is a natural endowment as practical postulates (q.v.) certain conceptions
enabling the intellect to condition the will and which were not theoretically demonstrable. See
x thus create habits and virtues) in a higher de-
gree, power is a moral disposition enabling the Practical Theology: A
special department of
individual to cultivate his perfectibility* The conventional theological study, called "practical"
distinction between powers is given by the dis- to distinguish it from general theology, Biblical,
tinction of their actions. Powers are active or historical and systematic studies. As the term
operative, and passive or receptive) they are denotes, subjects which deal with the application
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 245
of the theoretical phases of the subject come cept, and there
absolutely nothing more in it".
is
under this division: church policy (ecclesiology), Peirce hoped that the suffix, -icism, might mark
Ac work of the minister in worship (liturgies his -more strictly defined acception of the doc-
and hymnology), in preaching (homiletics), in trine of pragmatism, and thus help to distin-
teaching (catechetics), in pastoral service (poi- guish it from the extremes to which it had been
menics), and in missionary effort (evangelistics). pushed by the efforts of James, Schiller, Papini,
For further discussion see Theological Propae- '
and others. J.K.F.
deutic (9th ed., 1912), Philip Schaff. V.F. Pragmatics: The study of the relations between
Practice: (Lat. practica, business) The deliberate signs and their interpreters in abstraction from
application of a theory. Formerly, an estab- relations to their designate or to other signs.
lished custom^ the pursuance of some traditional A department of Semiotic (q.v.). M.B.
action. Now, the organization of actuality ac-
Pragmatism (Gr. pragma, things done) Owes
: its
(1893-1914) for the doctrine of pragmatism tism is the principle that every theoretical judg-
(q.v.) which had been enunciated by him ment expressible in a sentence in the indicative
in 1878. Peirce's definition was as follows: mood is a confused form of thought whose only
"In order to ascertain the meaning of an in- meaning, if it has any, lies in its tendency to
tellectual conception one should consider what enforce a corresponding practical maxim expressi-
ble as a conditional sentence having its apodosis
practical consequences might conceivably result
by necessity from the truth of that conception; in the imperative mood". (Collected Papers of
and the sum of these consequences will constitute Charles Sanders Peirce, edited by Charles Harts-
the entire meaning of the conception". Accord- home and Paul Weiss, 5.18.) Although Peirce's
ing to Peirce, W. James
had interpreted prag- maxim has been an inspiration not only to later
matism to"that the end of man is action",
mean pragmatists, but to operationalists as well, Peirce
whereas Peirce intended his doctrine ai "a the- felt that it might easily be misapplied, so as to
ory of logical analysis, or true definition)" and eliminate important doctrines of science doc-
held that "its merits are greatest in its applica- trines, presumably, which have no ascertainable
tion to the highest metaphysical conceptions". practical consequences.
"If one can define accurately all the conceivable James' definition of pragmatism) written for
experimental phenomena which the affirmation Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy, is simply a
or denial of a concept could imply, one will restatement, or "exegesis", of Peirce's definition
have therein a complete definition of the con- (see first definition listed above) appearing in
246 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the tame place. The resemblance between their another. In general, pragmatism as a method,
positions is illustrated by their common insist- does not seem to imply any final philosophical
ence upon the feasibility and desirability of re- conclusions. It may imply a general direction
solving metaphysical problems by practical dis- of thought, such as empiricism. Although prag-
tinctions, unprejudiced by dogmatic presupposi- matists (Peirce, James, Dewey) frequently attack
tions, their willingless to put every question to older forms of empiricism, or crude empiricism,
the test. "The pragmatic method", says James, and necessarily reject truth as a simple or static
"tries to interpret each notion by tracing its correspondence of propositions with sense data,
respective practical consequences. ... If no they nevertheless continue to describe themselves
practical difference whatever can be traced", be- as empiricists, so that
today pragmatism (especial-
tween two alternatives, they "mean practically ly in Dewey's case) often regarded as synony-
is
the same thing, and all dispute is idle". (Prag- mous with empiricism. See Empiricism.
matism, p. 45. See also Chapters III and IV.) F. C. S. Schiller, the Oxford pragmatist or
But while Peirce thought of pragmatism as humanist, is, if anything, more hostile to ra-
akin to the mathematical method, James* moti- tionalism, intellectualism, absolute metaphysics
vation and interest was largely moral and re- and even systematic and rigorous thinking than
ligious. Thus in his Wtll to Believe (New James himself. In his Humanism (1903) and
World, 1896) he argues, in line with Pascal's his most important book Studies in Humanist*
wager, that "we have the right to believe at our (1907), he attempts to resolve or deflate meta-
own risk any hypothesis that is live enough to physical issues and controversies by practical dis-
tempt our will," i.e. if it is not resolvable in- tinctions of terms and appeal to personal, human
tellectually. Speaking of religious scepticism, he factors, supposedly forgotten by other philoso-
says: "We cannot escape the issue by remaining phers. Schiller wrote about many of the topics
sceptical .
because, although we do avoid error
. , which James treated: absolute metaphysics, re-
in that way if religion be untrue, we lose the ligion, truth, freedom,
psychic research, etc.,
good, */ it be true, just as certainly as if we and the outcome is similar. His spirited defense
positively choose to disbelieve". The position of of Protagoras, "the humanist", against Socrates
the religious skeptic is: "Better risk loss of truth and his tireless bantering critique of all phases
than chance of error, . ." Later, in 1907 in . of logic are elements of novelty.
formal So
the Lowell Lectures he stated that "on prag- also is extreme activism. He goes so far as
his
matistic principles, if the hypothesis of God to say that "In validating our claims to 'truth*
works satisfactorily in the widest sense of the ... we really transform them [realities] by our
word, it is true", and took a position between cognitive efforts, thereby proving our desires
absolutism and
materialism which he called and ideas to be real forces in the shaping of the
"pragmatistic or melioristic" theism. In the same world". (Studies in
Humanism, 1906, p. 425.)
lectures he announces that " 'the true*, to put it Schiller'sapparent view that desires and ideas
briefly, is only the expedient in the way of can transform both truth and reality, even with-
thinking, . . ." James also identifies truth with out manipulation or experiment, could also be
verifiability, thus
anticipating both the experi- found in James, but is absent in Dewey and
mentalism of Dewey and the operationalism of later pragmatists.
Bridgman and the logical positivists. John Dewey prefers to call his philosophy ex-
Pragmatism first is and always a doctrine of perimentalism, or even instrumentalism,
but the
meaning, and often a definition of truth as well, public continues to regard
him as the leading
but as to the latter, not all pragmatists are in
exponent of pragmatism. Dewey's pragmatism
complete agreement. Neither Peirce nor Dewey, (like that of Peirce and James), is (1)
a theory
for example, would accept James* view that if the of meaning, and of truth or "warranted asserti-
hypothesis of God works satisfactorily for the bility", and (2) a body of fairly flexible philo-
individual, it is true. Pragmatism is also a sophical doctrines. The connection between (1)
method of interpreting ideas in terms of their and (2) requires analysis. Joseph Ratner (edi-
consequences. James, however, apparently doet tor ofvolumes of Dewey's philosophy), claims
not believe that this method entails his specific that if Dewey's analysis of experimentalism is
philosophical doctrines his pluralism, individ- accepted almost everything that is fundamental
ualism, neutralism, indeterminism, meliorism, in his philosophy follows (Intelligence in the
pragmatic theism, "crass" supernaturalism, etc. Modern World, John Dewty's Philosophy, ed.
In fact, he states that pragmatism is independent
Joseph Ratner, N. Y., 1939), but on the other
of his new
philosophy of "radical empiricism" hand it might also be claimed that Dewey's
and agrees with the anti-intellectualist bent of method, whatever name is given to it, can be
the Italian pragmatist, Papini, who sees the practiced by philosophers who have important
pragmatic method available to the atheist, the doctrinal differences.
praying penitent, the investigating chemist, the In Reconstruction in Philosophy (New York,
metaphysician and the anti-metaphysician. 1920, p. 156), Dewey states: "When the claim
("What Pragmatism Means".) On the other or pretension or plan is acted upon it guides us
hand, insofar as pragmatism is practically identi- to our end or
truly or falsely; it leads us
fied with the scientific method (as is
allegedly away from it. Its active, dynamic function is
the case with Dewey) it appears that the prag- the all-important thing about it, and in the
matic method might be expected to yield much quality of activity induced by it lies all its truth
the same conclusions for one philosopher as for and The hypothesis that works is the
falsity.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 247
the rediscovery or realization that the divine as formulated by Porphyry and later logicians
and ultimate reality is within the human soul or omits definition and includes species. See Defini-
self. One phase of the philosophy of the Trika tion: Genus i Species; Differentia} Property}
(q.v.). K.F.L. Accident. G.R.M.
Pratyahara: (Skr.) Withdrawal of the senses Predicament: (Ger. from Lat. praedicamentum,
from external objects, one of the psycho-physi- a category) The Kantian name for the innate
cal means for attaining the object of Yoga (q. a priori forms of the understanding; since each
v.). For the theory of the senses conceived as category is a way of predicating something of
powers, see Indriya. K.F.L. a subject, and since there are twelve types of
Pratyaksa: (Skr.) Perception} evidence of the judgment, Kant enumerated twelve praedica-
senses. K.F.L. ments: totality, plurality, unity, reality, negation,
Praxis: praxis) Activity that has its goal
(Gr. limitation, substantiality-inherence, causality-
within itself 5 conduct} distinguished from dependence, reciprocity, possibility-impossibility,
poiesis,or production, which aims at bringing being and non-being, necessity-contingency.
into existence something distinct from the ac- V.J.B.
tivity itself. G.R.M. Predicate: The four traditional kinds of categori-
Preemption: (Lat. prae -f perceptio, a taking) cal propositions (see Logic, formal, 4) are: all
The anticipatory representation of an object S is P, no S is P, some S is P, some S is not P.
which guides and facilitates the perception of it. In each of these the concept denoted by S is the
L.W. subject and that denoted by P is the predicate.
P re-critical This adjective is commonly applied
:
Hilbert and Ackermann use the word predicate
to all Kant's works prior to the
Critique of Pure for a propositional function of one or more
Reason since they all dogmatically assume variables Carnap uses it for the corresponding
i
value* beyond the range of known data is called Presentational Immediacy: (Lat. praesent ppr.
extrapolation. The reliability of these predic- of praeesse; and in 4" medius, middle) Presen-
tions varies on the basis of the known variables, tational immediacy characterizes any items which
and of their limits. T.G. are in the direct cognitive presence of the mind
Reestablished Harmony: A theory expounded such as sense data, images, emotional and affec-
by Leibniz and adopted in modified form by tive data. Immediacy is ascribed by some epi-
other thinkers after him, to refute the theories stemologists to higher levels of knowledge, e.g.
of interactionism, occasionalism, and the parallel- perception and memory and by the mystic to
ism of the Spinotistic type, in psycho-physics. the knowledge of God. L.W.
According to its dynamism, matter and spirit, Presentationism : The epistemological theory that
body and soul, the physical and the moral, each the mind is in perception and perhaps also
a "windowless", perfect monad (q.v.) in itself,
are once and for all not only corresponding
memory and other types of cognition directly
aware of its object (see Epistemological Mon-
realities, but they are also synchronized by God
in their changes like two clocks, thus rendering
ism). Although the term is ordinarily applied
to realistic theories of perception
(see Epistem-
the assumption of any mutual or other influences
ological Realism} Naive Realism), it is equally
nugatory. K.F.L.
applicable to idealistic and phenomenalistic
Prehension: (Lat. prehensus, from prehendere, to theories (see Epistemological Idealism). Pres-
seize) In the terminology of A. N. Whitehead,
entationism, whether realistic or idealistic, is
prehension is the process of feeling whereby
opposed to representationalism. See Representa-
data are grasped or prehended by a subject. See
tionalism. L.W.
Process and Reality, Part III. L.W.
Prehension, Span of: The maximum number of Presupposition: (a) That which must antecedent-
items or groups of items which an individual ly be assumed if a desired result is to be de-
mind is capable of embracing within the unity rived; thus, a postulate.
of attention. See J. Ward, Psychological Prin- (b) That which is logically necessary; thus,
Presentation: (Lat. praesentatio, a showing, rep- bodies: solidity,extension, figure, motion, rest,
resentation) (a) In the narrow sense: anything number. These qualities are conceived to be
inseparable from objects; they are
con-
directly present to a knowing mind such as sense utterly
data, images of memory and imagination, emo- stant. John Locke made classic the distinction
tional and hedonic states, etc. See Datum, (b) of and secondary qualities made by
primary
In the wider sense: any object known by ac- Galileo and Descartes. V.F.
quaintance rather than by description for ex- Primary truth: (Lat. primus, first) conception A
ample, an object of perception or memory. See or proposition which is dependent for its truth
of civilization arc evil. Each of these species is of things which are dispersed throughout the
found in two forms, hard and soft. The hard universe of created beings, in which the resolu-
mankind to tion into particular reasons might go into end-
primitivist believes the best state of
man's power of en- less detail" (Monadology, 31, 32, 33, 36). And
approach the ascetic life)
durance is eulogized. The soft primitivist, while again, "Nothing happens without a sufficient
imagines to be primitive life, nevertheless ac- being possible for one who should know things
centuates its gentleness. The Noble Savage is sufficiently to give a reason showing why things
are so and not otherwise" (Principles of Nature
a fairexample of a hard primitive j the Golden
Race of Hesiod of a soft. G.B. and of Grace)* It seems that the account given
Cf. Studies in Primitivism t ed. Lovejoy and by Leibniz of this principle is not satisfactory
in itself, in spite of the wide use he made of it
Boas.
in his philosophy. Many of his disciples vainly
Primum cognitum: (Lat. primus, first; cognitus
attempted to reduce it to the Principle of Con-
pp. of cognoscere, to know) In Scholastic phi-
tradiction. See Wolf.
losophy the most primitive intellectual cognition
of the mind, in contrast to mere sensible cogni- Kant also developed the Leibnizian princi-
2.
the intrinsic value of a whole need not be equal sense, the term signifies a condition without
to the sum of the intrinsic values of its parts. which something else cannot be understood, ex-
See Intrinsic value. W.K.F. plained, or thought of. R.B.W.
Principle of sufficient reason: According to Privacy, Bpistemic: (Lat. privatus, from privus,
Leibniz, one of the two principles on which private) Status of data of knowledge, e.g. somatic
reasoning is founded, the other being the prin- sensations, hedonic and emotional states, and
ciple of Contradiction. While the latter is the perhaps even sense data, in so far as they are
ground of all necessary truths, the Principle of directly accessible to a single knowing subject.
Sufficient Reason is the ground of all contingent See Publicity, Epistemic.L.W.
and factual truths. It applies especially to exist- Privation: (Lat. privatis) In Aristotle's philosophy
ents, possible or factual) hence its two forms: the condition of a substance that lacks a certain
actual sufficient reasons, like the actual volitions quality which it is capable of possessing and
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 251
tive probability, when reference it made to that relation. But a presumptive inference cannot be
quality of facts and statements, which causes the reduced to either of the other two forms with-
mind to estimate them with a conscious possibil- out losing identity} because the connection
its
ity of error. Usually, methods can be devised between itselements is of an indefinite char-
to objectify technically the subjective aspect of acter. It may be said that inductive and prob-
probability, such as the rules for the elimination able inferences have an intrinsic reasonableness}
of the personal equation of the inquirer. Hence while presumptive inferences have an extrinsic
the methods established for the study and the reasonableness. The former involve determinism
interpretation of chances can be considered in- within certain limits $ while the latter display
dependently of the state of mind as such of the indeterminacy more prominently. That is why
inquirer. These methods make use of rational or very poor, misleading or wrong conclusions are
empirical elements. In the first case, we are obtained when mathematical methods are applied
252 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
to moral acts, judiciary deciiioni or indirect tes- To determine how often an event happens or
timony. The activity of the human will hat an fails. The comparison of the number of oc-
intricate complexity and variability not easily currences with that of the failures of an event,
subjected to calculation. Hence the degree of considered in simple or complex circumstances,
probability of a presumptive inference can be affords a basis for several cases of probable
estimated only by the character and circum- inference. Thus, theorems may be established to
stances of its suggested explanation. In moral deal the probability of success and the
with
cases, the discussion and application of the probability of failure of an event, with the
probability-relation leads to the consideration of probability of the joint occurrence of several
the doctrines of Probabilism and Probabiliorism events, with the probability of the alternative
which are qualitative. The probability-relation as occurrence of several events, with the different
such has the following general implications
conditions of frequency of occurrence of an
which are compatible with its three different event, with mathematical expectation, and with
aspects, and which may serve as general in-
similar questions. The determination of an
ferential principles: (1) Any generalization must a posteriori or inverse probability involves an in-
be probable upon propositions entailing its ex- ference from given situations or events, to past
emplification in particular cases) (2) Any gen- conditions or causes which may have contributed
eralization or system of generalizations forming to their By definition, an inverse
occurrence.
a must be probable upon propositions
theory, probability numerical value assigned to
is the
each one of a number of possible causes of an
following from it by implication) (3) The prob-
actual event that has already occurred) or more
ability of a given proposition on the basis of
other propositions constituting its evidence, is generally, it is the numerical value assigned to
the degree of logical collusiveness of this evi- hypotheses which attempt to explain actual events
dence with respect to the given proposition) (4) or circumstances. If an event has occurred as a
The empirical probability (p S/E) of a = result of any one of n several
causes, die prob-
statement S increases at verifications accrue ability that C was the actual cause is Pp/E
to the evidence E, provided the evidence is (P*P*)> when P is the probability that the event
taken as a whole) and (5) Numerical probabili- could be produced by C if present, and p the
ties may be assigned to factsor statements only probability that C was present before the occur-
when the evidence includes statistical data or rence of that event. Inverse probability is based
other numerical information which can be treated on general and special assumptions which can-
by the methods of mathematical probability. not always be properly stated) and as there are
C. Mathematical Probability. The mathemati- many different sets of such assumptions, there
cal theory of probability, which is also called cannot be a coercive reason for making a defi-
the theory of chances or the theory of relative nite choice. In particular, the condition of the
the likelihood of any event, when there are not probability, which has led to some confusion in
sufficient data to determine with certainty its interpreting their grounds and their relations,
occurrence or failure. As Laplace remarked, it can be technically ignored now as a result of
is nothing more than common sense reduced to the adoption of a statistical basis for measuring
calculation. But. its range goes far beyond that probabilities. In particular, it is the statistical
of common sense: for it has not only condi- treatment of correlation which led to the study
tioned the growth of various branches of mathe- of probabilities of concurrent phenomena irre-
matics, such as the theory of errors, the calculus spective of their direction in time. This distinc-
of variations and mathematical statistics) but it tion may be retained, however, for the purpose
has also made possible the establishment of a of a general exposition of the subject. Thus, a
number of theories in the natural and social number of probability theorems are obtained by
sciences, by its actual applications to concrete using various cases of direct and inverse proba-
problems. A distinction is usually made between bility involving permutations and combinations,
direct and inverse probability. The determina- the binomial theorem, the theory of series, and
tion of a direct or a priori probability involves the methods of integration. In turn, these theo-
an inference from given situations or sets of rems can be applied to concrete cases of the
possibilitiesnumerically characterized, to future various sciences.
events relatedwith them. By definition, the
direct probability of the occurrence of any par- D. Interpretations of Probability. The meth-
ticular form of an event, is the ratio of the ods and results of mathematical probability (and
number of ways in which that form might occur, of probability in general) are the subject of
to the whole number of ways in which the event much controversy at regards their interpretation
may occur, all these forms being equiprobable or and value. Among the various theoriet proposed,
equally likely. The basic principles referring to we shall consider the following: (1) Probability
a priori probabilities are derived from the anal- at a measure of belief, (2) probability at the
ysis of the various logical alternatives involved relative frequency of events, (3) probability at
in any hypothetical questions such as the follow- the truth-frequency of types of argument, (4)
ing: (a) To determine whether a cause, whose probability at t primitive notion, (5) probability
exact nature is or is not known, will prove at an operational concept, (6) probability at a
operative or not in certain circumstances j (b) limit of frequencies, and (7) probability at a
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 253
physical magnitude determined by axioms. (5) that it is operational in form only, but not
I. Probability as a Measure of Belief: Ac- in fact, because it involves the infinite without
equiprobability is difficult to determine actually propositions of the class examined, if the class
in all cases) (5) that it is difficult to attach an is finite) or to all the
propositions of the same
adequate probability to a complex event from type in the long run, if the class is infinite. In
the mere knowledge of the probabilities of its the first case, fair sampling may cover the re-
component parti) and (6) that the notion of strictions of a finite class; in the second case,
probability is not general, as it does not cover the use of infinite series offers a practical limita-
such cases as the inductive derivation of proba- tion for the evidence considered. But in both
bilities from statistical data. cases,probability varies with the class or type
II. Probability as a Relative Frequency: This chosen; and probability-inferences are limited by
interpretation is based on the nature of events, convention to those cases where numerical values
and not on any subjective considerations. It can be assigned to the ratios considered. It will
deals with the rate with which an event will be observed that this interpretation of proba-
occur in a class of events. Hence, it considers bility is similar to the relative frequency the-
probability as thp ratio of frequency of true re- ory. The difference between these two theories
sults to true conditions) and it gives as its is more formal than material: in both cases the
measure the relative frequency leading from true probability refers ultimately to kinds of evidence
conditions to true results. What is meant when based on objective matter of fact. Hence the
a set of calculations predict that an experiment Truth-Frequency theory is open to the same
will yield a result A with probability P, is that objections as the Relative-Frequency theory, with
the relative frequency of A is expected to ap- proper adjustments. An additional difficulty of
proximate the number P
in a long series of such this theory is that the pragmatic interpretation
experiments. This conception seems to be more of truth involves, has yet to be proved, and
it
concerned with empirical probabilities, because the situation is anything but improved by as-
the calculations assumed are mostly based on similating truth with probability.
statistical data or material assumptions suggested IV. Probability as a Primitive Notion: Ac-
by past experiments. It is valuable in so far as cording to this interpretation, whicn is due par-
it satisfies the
practical necessity of considering ticularly to Keynes, probability is taken as ulti-
probability aggregates in such problems. The mate or undefined, and it is made known
main objections against this interpretation are: through its essential characteristics.Thus, prob-
(1) that it does not teem capable of expressing ability is neither an intrinsic property of proposi-
satisfactorily what is meant by the probability of tions like truth, nor an empty concept) but a
an event being true) (2) that itsconclusions are relative property linking a proposition with its
more or less probable, owing to the difficulty of partial evidence. It follows that the probability
defining a proper standard for comparing ratios) of the same proposition varies with the evidence
(3) that neither its rational nor its statistical presented) and that even though a proposition
evidence is made clear) (4)- that the degree of may turn out to be false, our judgment that it is
relevance of that evidence is not properly deter- probable upon a given evidence can be correct.
mined, on account of the theoretical indefinite- Further, since probability belongs to a proposi-
ness of both the true numerical value of the tion only in its relation to other propositions,
probability and of the evidence assumed) and probability-inferences cannot be the lame as
254 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
truth-inferences: as they cannot break the chain in an attempt to evolve conditions for a true
of relations between their premisses, they lack random sequence. A
collective is a random
one of the essential features usually ascritied to sequence of supposed results of trials when
inference. That is why, in oarticular, the con- (1) the total frequency of the event in the
clusions of the natural sciences cannot be sepa- sequence exists, and (2) the same property
rated from their evidence, as it may be the case holds with the same limiting value when the
with the deductive sciences. With such assump- sequence is replaced by any sequence derived
tions, probability is the group name given to the from it. Various methods were devised by
processes which strengthen or increase the likeli- Copeland, Reichenbach and others to avoid
hood of an analogy. The main objection to this objections to the second condition: they
interpretation is the arbitrary character of it* were generalized by Wald who restricted
primitive idea. There is no reason why there the choice of the "laws of selection"
defining
are relations between propositions such that p is the ranks of the trials forming one of the
probable upon q, even on the assumption of the derived sequences, by his postulate that these
There must be
relative character of probability. laws must form a denumerable set. This
conditions determining which propositions are modification gives logical consistency to this
probable upon others. Hence we must look be- theory at the expense of its original simplicity,
yond the primitive idea itself and place the but without disposing of some fundamental
ground of probability elsewhere. shortcomings. Thus, the probability of an
V. Probability as an Operational Concept: In event in a collective remains a relative notion,
this interpretation, which is due particularly to since it must be known to which denumerable
Kemble, probability is discussed in terms of the set of laws of
selection it has been defined
mental operations involved in determining it relatively, order to determine its meaning,
in
enters the postulates of physical theories as a set. Controversial points about the axiomatiza-
useful word employed to indicate the manner in tion of this theory show the possibility of other
which results of theoretical calculations are to alternatives.
be compared with experimental 'data. But beyond VII. Probability as a Physical Magnitude
the usefulness of this word, there must be a determined by Axioms. This theory, which is
more fundamental concept justifying it; this is favoured mainly by the Intuitionist school of
called primary probability which should be mathematics, considers probability as 'a physical
reached by an instrumentalist procedure. The constant of which frequencies are measures.
analogy of the thermometer, which connects a Thus, any frequency is an approximate measure
qualitative sensation with a number, gives an of one physical constant attached to an event
indication such a procedure. The expecta-
for and to a set of trials: this constant is the
tion of the repetition of an event is an ele- probability of that event over the set of trials.
mentary form of belief which can be strength- As the observed frequencies differ little for
ened by additional evidence. In collecting such large numbers of trials from their corresponding
evidence, a selection is naturally made, by ac- probabilities, some
obvious properties of fre-
cepting the relevant data and rejecting the quencies be extended to probabilities. This
may
others. When the selected data form a pattern is done without proceeding to the limit, but
which does not involve the event as such or its through general approximation as in the case
negative, the event is considered as probable. of physical magnitudes. These properties are
The rules of collecting the data and of com- not constructed (as in the axiomatization of
paring them with the theoretical event and its Mises), but simply described: as such, they
negative, involve the idea pi correspondence form a set of axioms defining probability. The
which leads to the use of numbers for its ex- classical postulates involved in the treatises of
pression. Thus, probability is a number com- Laplace, Bertrand or Poincare* have been
puted from empirical data according to given modified in this case, under the joint influ-
rules, and used as a metric and a corrective to ence of the discovery of measure by Borei,
the sense of expectation; and the ultimate value and of the use of abstract sets. Their new form
of the theory of probability is its service as a has been stated
fully by Kolmogorof?
guide to action. The main interest of this theory and interpreted by Frechet who proposes
lies in psychological analysis and its attempt
its to call this latest theory the 'modernized
to unify the various conceptions of axiomatic definition
1
of probability. Its inter-
probability.
But it is not yet complete; and until its epi- pretation that it should be preceded
requires
stemological implications are made clear, its by an inductive synthesis, and followed by
apparent eclecticism
may cover many of the numerical verifications.
difficulties itwishes to avoid. T.G. The various theories outlined
Bibliography.
VI. Probability as a Limit of Frequencies. in this do not exhaust the possible
article
According to this view, developed especially by definitions and problems concerning probability)
Mises and by Wald, the probability of an but they give an idea of the trend of the
event is equal to its total frequency, that is to discussions. The following works are selected
the limit, if it exists, of the
frequency of that from a considerable literature of the subject.
event in n trials, when n tends to infinity.
Laplact, Essai sur les Probability's. Keynes,
The difficulty of working out this conception A Treatise on Probability. Jeffreys, Theory of
led Mises to propose the notion of a collective
Probability. Usptnsky, Introduction to Mathe-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 255
matical Probability. Borel, Traitl de Calcul Project method: An education method which
dcs Probability (especially the last volume makes use of practical activities, organizing the
dealing with its philosophical aspects). Mixes t scholastic work of the child about complex en-
Probability, Statistics and Truth. Reichenbach, terprises, such as making a garden, planning a
Les Fondements Logiques du Calcul des Proba- circus. J.E.B.
bilite"s. Frechet, Recherches sur le Calcul des Prolegomena: (Gr. pro, before j lego, say) Intro-
Probabilites. Ville, Essai sur la TheVie des ductory material. (Singular form: prolego-
Collectifs. Kolmogoroff, Grundbegriffe der menon.) Prolegomena to Every Future
Cf.
Wahracheinlichkeitsrechnung. Wald, Die Wider- Scientific Metaphysic, by Kant (q.v.). V.F.
spruchsfreiheit des Kollektivbegriffes. Nagel, Prolepsis: (Gr. prolepsis) Notion; preconception.
The Theory of Probability. T.G. The term is used by the Stoics and Epicureans
Problem: (Gr. problema, anything thrown for- to denote any primary general notion that arises
ward) 1. Any situation, practical or theoretical, spontaneously and unconsciously in the mind, as
for which there is no adequate automatic or distinguished from concepts that result from
habitual response, and which therefore calls up conscious reflection. These prolepses are re-
the reflective processes. 2. Any question pro- garded by the Stoics as common to all men as
A.C.B. rational beings, and are sometimes called innate
posed for solution.
Problematic knowledge: Knowledge of what (symphytoi), though in general they were looked
upon as the natural outgrowth of sense-percep-
might occur or is capable of occurring as op-
tion. G.R.M.
posed to knowledge of what is actual or of what
Proof by cases: Represented in its simplest form
must occur; opposed to assert oric knowledge and
A.C.B. by the valid inference of the prepositional cal-
apodictic knowledge.
In Kant, the domain of things beyond culus, from A = C and B => C and A v B to
pos-
be-
C. More complex forms involve multiple dis-
sible experience is completely problematic
cause of the a limitations of human junctions, e.g., the inference from A 3 D and
priori '
B => D and C = D and [A v B] v C to D.
knowledge (cf. J. Loewenberg, Calif. Studies tn
The simplest form of proof by cases is thus the
Philosophy). See Modality.
same as the simple constructive dilemma (see
Process: (Lat. processus, pp. of procedo, to go
Logic, formal, 2), the former term deriving
before) A series of purposive actions, generally
from mathematical usage and the latter from
tending toward the production of something. A traditional logic. For the more complex forms
systematic forward movement, resulting in
of proof by cases, and like generalizations of the
growth or decay. As employed by Whitehead
other kinds of dilemma to the case of more than
(1861-), the course of actuality in its cosmologi- two major premisses, logicians have devised the
cal aspects. Syn. with action, becoming, exist- names trilemma, tetralemma, polylcmma but
ence. ./.AT.F.
these are not much found in actual use. A. C.
Process Theory of Mind: The conception of Proof theory: The formalization of mathematical
mind in terms of process in contrast to sub-
proof by means of a logistic system (q. v.)
stance. A
mind, according to the process theory makes possible an objective theory of proofs and
is a relatively permanent pattern preserved provability, in which proofs are treated as con-
a Leib-
through continuously changing process. crete manipulations of formulas (and no use is
niz doctrine of the self-developing monad sig- made of meanings of formulas). This is Hil-
nalizes the transition from the substance to the bert's proof theory, or metamathematics.
process theory of mind and such philosophers A central problem of proof theory, according
as Bradley, Bosanquet, Bergson, James, White-
to Hilbert, is the proof of consistency of logistic
head, Alexander and Dewey are recent exponents systems adequate to mathematics or substantial
of the process theory. See C. W. Morris, Six
parts of mathematics. A
logistic system is said
Theories of Mind, Ch. II. L.W. to be consistent, relatively to a particular nota-
Proclus: (411-485) A prominent Neo-Platonist tion in the system called negation, if there is
and theological commentator, who taught that no formula A
such that both A
and the negation
man becomes united with God through the prac- of A are provable (i.e., are theorems). The sys-
tice of love, truth and faith. Main works: tems with which Hilbert deals, and the notations
Commentaries on Timeus, on Republic, on in them which he wishes to call negation, are
Parmenides; Instit. Theol.} In Platonis Theol. { such that, if a formula A and its negation were
Comment on First Book of Euclid. R.S.W. once proved, every prepositional formula could
Projection: (Lat. projectio, from projicere, to be proved hence he is able to formulate the
j
throw forward) The mental act of attributing consistency by saying that a particular formula
to sensations or sense qualia, an external ami (*> ~[0=0]) is not provable.
independent existence. The projection theory of A consistency proof evidently loses much of
Condillac and other sensationalists (se Sensa- its significance unless the methods employed in
tionalism) asserts that sensations are first experi- the proof are in some sense less than, or less
enced as subjective. states and are subsequently dubitable than, the methods of proof which the
externalized by a special act of mind. Helm- logistic system is intended to formalize. Hilbert
hoi tz restricted projection to spatial projection required that the methods employed in a con-
(the localization of sensations in space at a sistency proof should be finitary a condition
certain distance from the body) but the more more stringent than that of intuitionistic accept-
general usage is preferable. L.W. ability. See Intuitionism (mathematical).
256 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Godel's theorems (see Logic, formal, 6) are between two of these meanings, or among all
how that the methods employed in a consistency The Port-Royal Logic defines a proposition
proof must also be in some sense more than
to be the same as a judgment but elsewhere
those which the logistic system formalizes. Godel speaks of propositions as denoting judgments.
himself remarks that the difficulty may not be Traditional logicians generally have defined a
logistic system. Cf. Logic, formal, 1, 3. same proposition. Recent writers in many cases
A.C. adopt or tend towards (b).
Hilbert and Bcrnays, Grandlagen dtr Mat be- In articles in this dictionary by the present
matik, vol. 1, Berlin. 1934. and vol. 2. Berlin, writer the word proposition is to be understood
1939. P. Bernays. Sur It platonisme dans Its
in sense (b) above. This still leaves an element
matbimatiques, ana Quelques points essentiels dt
la mitamatbimttiqne, T'Enseignement Mathe'matique, of ambiguity, since common usage does not al-
vol. 34 (1935), pp. 52-95. W. Ackermann, Zur ways determine of two sentences whether they
Wfdersprttcbsfretbtst dtr Zablentbeorie, Mathe-
matische Annalen, vol. 117 (1940), pp. 162-194. are strictly synonymous or merely logically
Propensity: (Lat. propenjsio, from propendere, to equivalent. For a particular language or logistic
hang forth) A term used to designate a mental system, this ambiguity may be resolved in various
appetite or desire. See Appetition. Hume ap- ways. A. C.
plied the term to the tendency of the mind to Prepositional calculus: See Logic, formal, 1.
pass from one to the other of two associated Prepositional calculus, many-valued: The
ideas. L.W. truth-table method for the classical (two-valued)
Proper sensible: (in Scholasticism) That which prepositional calculus is explained in the article
through or through its proper species is
itself,
logic, formal, 1. It depends on assigning
truth-tables to the fundamental connectives, with
perceived only one external sense without
by
the result that every formula of the pure prepo-
error, as light is perceived by the eys, sound by
the ear. Common sensible is that which is per-
sitional calculus, to which we here restrict our-
selves for the sake of
ceived by several external senses through modi- simplicity has one of
fied species of the
the two truth-values for each possible assignment
proper sensibles, e.g. quantity,
distance. Accidental sensible (sensibile per ac- of truth-values to the variables appearing. A
formula is called a tautology if it has the truth-
cident) is that which falls under the external
senses neither through its proper species nor value truth for every possible assignment of truth-
values to the variables} and the calculus is so
through the modified species of another, but only
constructed that a formula is a theorem if and
through another with which it is joined, e.g.
material substance. H.G. only if it is a tautology.
Property: (Gr. idionj Lat. proprium) In Aris- This may be generalized by arbitrarily taking
totle'slogic (1) an attribute common to all
n different truth-values, /i, /,..., /m, /i, /t,
members of a species and peculiar to them} (2) . . .
, /fi-m, of which the first m are called desig-
an attribute of the above sort not belonging to nated values and then setting up truth-tables
the essence of the species, but necessarily fol- (in terms of these n truth-values) for a set of
precious possessions, even of human life, of tautology if it has a designated value for each
animals, by
pilgrimages, tithing, self-imposed possible assignment of truth-values to the vari-
asceticism of one kind or another, fastings, rit- ables, and the theorems of the fi-valued preposi-
uals, tortures, contrition, etc. The substitution tional calculus are to coincide with the tau-
of some one else as an act of voluntary propitia- tologies.
tion has found classic expression in Christian In 1920, Lukasiewicz introduced a three-
tradition in the estimation of Jesus' life and valued prepositional calculus, with one desig-
death as the supreme Ransom, Substitute and nated value (interpreted as true) and two non-
Mediator. V.F. designated values (interpreted as problematical
Proposition: This word has been used to mean: and false respectively). Later he generalized
(a) a declarative sentence (in some particular this to M-valued prepositional calculi with one
language)} (b) the content of meaning of a designated value (first published in 1929). Post
- valued
declarative postulated abstract
sentence, i.e., a introduced prepositional calculi with
object common not only to different occurrences an arbitrary number of designated values in
of the same declarative sentence but also to 1921. Also due to Post (1921) is the notion of
different sentences (whether of the same lan- symbolic completeness an ^-valued prepositional
guage or not) which are synonymous or, as we calculus is symbolically complete if every pos-
say, mean the same thing\ (c) a declarative sible truth-function is expressible by meant of
sentence associated with its content of meaning. the fundamental connectives.
Often the word proposition it used ambiguously The case of Infinitely many truth-values was
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 257
first considered by Lukasiewicz. A. C. numerous occasions and was finally forced to
). Lukasiewicz, O
logic* tr6)wartoiciowej, Ruch flee after having been convicted of
Filo2oficzny. vol. 5 (1920). pp. 169-171. E. L. impiety. His
famous formula that man is the measure of all
Post, Introduction to a general theory of ele-
mentary propositions, American Journal of Mathe- things is indicative of his relativism which ulti-
matics, vol. 43 (1921), pp. 163-183. Lukasiewicz mately rests upon his theory of perception ac-
and Tar ski, Untersuchungen fiber den Aussagen-
kalkul. Rendus des Stances de la cording to which we know only what we per-
Coraptcs
Societe des Sciences et des Lettres de Varsovie. ceive but not the thing perceived. M.F.
Classe III, vol. 23 (1930), pp. 30-50. J. Protasis: (Gr. protasis, placed first) In Aristotle's
Lukasiewicz, Philosophische Bemerkungen zu
mehrwertigen Systemen des Aussagenkalkuls, ibid., logic a proposition} more particularly a proposi-
pp. 51-77. Lewis and Langford, Symbolic Logic, tion used as a premiss in a
New York and London, 1932. syllogism. G.R.M.
Protensity: (Lat. protensum from protendere, to
Prepositional function is a junction (q. v.) for stretchforth) Duration-spread considered as a
which the range of the dependent variable is
primary characteristic of all conscious experi-
composed of propositions (q. v.) A monadic ence. This usage was introduced by Kant
prepositional function is thus in substance a
(Critique of Pure Reason, A
805 -B 833) where
property (of things belonging to the range of the protensive is distinguished from the exten-
the independent variable), and a dyadic preposi-
sive and the intensive and this
tional function a relation. If F denotes a prepo- usage has been
adopted by recent psychologists. L.W.
sitional function and Xi, Xa, . . . , n denote X
Protocol Sentences: See Basic Sentences.
arguments, the notation F(Xi, Xa, . . . , Xn)
or [F](Xi, X, . . . , Xn)~ is used for the re-
Proximum genus: (Lat. nearest kind) In Aris-
totelian theory of definition
sulting proposition, which is said to be the value (q.v.), must be
used with differentia. R.B.W.
of the prepositional function for the given argu-
ments, and to be obtained from the prepositional
Pseudo-Statement: See Meaning, Kinds of, 5.
function by applying it to, or predicating it of Psyche: (Gr. soul, World-Soul, spirit) In Plotin-
the given arguments. t ism, it is the name of the second emanation
from the One. See Soul. V.J.B.
Often, however, the assumption is made that
two propositional functions are identical if cor- Psychic or psychical: (Gr. psychikos, from
responding values are materially equivalent, and psyche, the soul) (a) In the general sense,
in this case we speak of propositional functions psychic is applied to any mental phenomenon.
in extension (the definition in the preceding See Psychosis, Mental, (b) In the special sense,
paragraph applying rather to propositional func- psychic is restricted to unusual mental phenom-
tions in intension). The values of a proposi- ena such as mediumship, telepathy, prescience,
tional function in extension are truth-values (q. etc.which are the subjects of "Psychic Research."
v.) rather than propositions. A monadic proposi- See Telepathy, Prescience, Parapsychology.
tional function in extension is not essentially L.W.
different from a class (q. v.) Psychic Fusion: The supposed merging of a
Whitehead and Russell use the term preposi- number of separate psychic states to form a new
tional junction in approximately the sense above state. The possibility of psychic fusion is highly
described, but qualify it by holding, as a corol- questionable and alleged instances of it may be
lary of Russell'Sjdoctrine of descriptions (q. v.), interpreted as the associative revival of images
that propositional functions are the fundamental based on the memory of physical mixture. L.W.
kind from which other kinds of functions are Psychic Summation: See Psychic Fusion.
derived in fact that non-propositional ("de- Psycho-analysis: The psychological method and
scriptive") functions do not exist except as in- therapeutic technique developed by Freud (see
complete symbols. For details of their view, Freud, Sigmund). This method consists in the
which underwent some changes between publica- use of such procedures as free association, auto-
tion of the first and the second edition of matic writing and especially dream-analysis 10
Principia Mathematica, the reader is referred to recover forgotten memories, suppressed desires
that work. and other subconscious items which exert a dis-
Historically, the notion of a function was of turbing influence on the conscious life of an
gradual growth in mathematics. The. word junc- individual. The cure of the psychic disturbances
tion used in approximately its modern sense
is is effected by bringing the suppressed items into
by John Bernoulli (1698, 1718). The divorce the full of consciousness of the individual. Psy-
of the notion of a function from that of a
cho-analytic theory has posited a subconscious
particular kind of mathematical expression (ana- mind as a repository for the suppressed ele-
lytic or quasi-algebraic) is due to Dirichlet ments. Freud exaggerated the sexual origin of
(1837). The general logical notion of a func- the suppressed desires but other psycho-analysts,
and in particular the notion of a propoei-
tion,
notably Jung and Adler, corrected this exaggera-
tional function, were introduced by Frege tion. The psycho-analytical school has developed
(1879). Alonzo Church its terminology in which the following are char-
Proprioceptor See Receptor.
: , acteristic
Prosyllogism : See Episyllogism. (a) Free association is the method of en-
Protagoras of Abdera: (about 480-410 B.C.) A couraging the patient to recall in random fash-
leading Sophist, renowned for his philosophical ion experiences, particularly of childhood.
wisdom author of many treatises on grammar,
{ (b) A
"complex" is a more or less: perma-
logic, ethics and politics) visited Athens on nent emotional system or mechanism responsible
258 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
for the mental disturbances of the patient. called "primitive" peoples from "civilized" ones.
(c) Libido designates the underlying sexual Thevarious branches of psychology depend
drive or impulse, the suppression of which is on the class of problems studied: (a) physio-
responsible for the psychic disturbance. logical psychology is the most experimentally
(d) Suppression or repression is the rejection exact in so far as specific physiological processes
from consciousness of desires and urges which it and effects (vision, hearing, reaction-time, learn-
finds intolerable. ing curves, fatigue, effects of drugs, etc.) ire
(e) Sublimation is the transference of a sup- measurable and controllable. Wundt established
pressed desire to a new object. the laboratories of experimental psychology
first
These terms are only a few samples of the in Germany, Pavlov in Russia, James and Cat-
elaborate and at times highly mythological ter- tell in the U. S.j (b) pathological or abnormal
study of the data of conscious experience, termed origin and character of beliefs in God and im-
association psychology. In Freud, the study of mortality, the techniues of mystics, types of
the unconscious (depth psychology). In be- worship, etc. Due to the confused state of psy-
haviorism, the physiological study of physical chology-in-general and especially to the recent
and chemical responses. In Gestalt psychology, vogue of behaviorism this subject has fallen
the study of organized psychic activity, reveal- somewhat into an eclipse at least for the pres-
tises, mainly
cosmological, mythological, or we can say that they occur as if there were,
legendary in character and composed in pCh.n. though we cannot bring the purpose under defi-
times. Interspersed are ethical, philosophical nite concepts. A.C.E.
and K.F.L.
scientific observations. Purusa: (Skr.) "Man", a symbol for the world
Pure: (Ger. rein) In Kant: Strictly, that which is in the Veda (q.v.). One of the two cardinal
unmixed with anything sensuous or empirical. principles of the Sankhya (q.v.) and Yoga (q.v.),
Loosely, whatever pertains to the form instead representing pure spirituality, consciousness, and
of the matter of our cognition. See Kantianism. self. Various, theories prevail in Indian philoso-
O.F.K. phy, some semi-physical, others psycho-physical,
Pure Ego: See Ego, Pure. or logical, taking the term to denote a real self
Pure Experience: (Lat. purus, clean) (a) The or an entity produced by may a (q.v.). K.F.L.
qualitative ingredients of experience, e.g. sense Purutaitha: (Skr.) Object (artka) of man's
data, feelings, images, etc., which remain after (puruja) pursuits, enumerated as four: kama
the ideal elimination of conceptual, interpreta- (desire), artha (wealth), dharma (duty), moks*
tional and constructional factors, (b) The world (liberation). Also, a statement of aims with
of ordinary immediate experience which consti- which Indian philosophers traditionally preface
tutes the point of departure for science and phi- their works. K.F.L.
losophy. See Avenarius, Kritik der rtinen Er- Purvapaksa: (Skr.) "The prior view", the first
fahrumg.L.W. step in a logical argument, stating the view to
Pure Theory of Law: An attempt to introduce which exception is taken. K.F.L.
the "critical" method of Kant to the under- Pu tung hsint The state of unperturbed mind, as
standing of positive law. Kelsen, who coined a result of "maintaining firm one's will and
the expression, intended to create "a geometry doing no violence to the vital force" which
of the totality of legal phenomena." All legal pervades the body. (Mencius.) H.H.
phenomena are to be reduced to norms which Pyrrho of Elis: (c. 365-275 B.C.) A systematic
have the form: "If A is, then B ought to be"; skeptic who believed that it is impossible to
all norms are to be derived from one basic know the true nature of things and that the
norm [Grundnorm]. It is the task of a theory wise man
suspends his judgment on all matters
of law to establish the unity of all legal phe- and seeks
to attain imperturbable happiness
nomena. W.E. (ataraxy) by abstaining from all passion and
Puritm: Taste tending towards archaistic and curiosity. See Timon of Phlius, pupil of Pyrrho.
Quakerism: The name given to that Christian variant or alternative notations employed for
group officially known as the Society of Friends the same purpose. And of course the same name
founded by Geotge Fox (1624.1691). Central is given when the particular variable appearing
principles include: guidance by an inner light} is some other letter than jr.
freedom from institutional or outward sanctions) Similarly, existential quantifier is the name
the sanctity of silence; the simplicity of living j given to the notation (Ex) prefixed to a logical
and, commitment to peaceful social relations. formula A (containing the free variable x) to
Three American groups are: orthodox, Hicksites express that A
holds for some (i.e., at least one)
(liberal) and Wilburites (formalists). V.F. value of x usually, for some value of x within
Quale: (PI. qualia) (Lat. from quails, of what a certain range or domain. The which forms E
kind) A quality considered as an independent part of the notation is often inverted, and vari-
entity rather than as a quality of a thing. A ous alternative notations also occur.
quale is usually conceived as a universal essence It may also be allowed to prefix the quantifiers
(like redness, sweetness, etc.) but the term may (x) and (Ex) to a formula (sentence) not A
also be applied to individual qualities (this red, containing x as a free variable, (x)A and (x)A
this sweet taste). L.W. then having each the same meaning as A.
Qualities t exteasional: Qualities which char- See logic, formal, 3. A. C.
acterize certain complex wholes composed of W. V. Quine, EUmttttary7 Logic. * Boston tad
New York, 1941.*
point-instants related to each other in virtue of
their different positional qualities. (Broad.) Quantity: In Aristotle and Kant (q.v.), one of
H.H. the categories (q.v.) of judgment See Quality.
which has arisen from the study of atomic struc- essence) the purest, most highly concentrated
ture and phenomena of emission and absorption form of a nature or essence) originally, in
of light by matter) embracing the matrix me- Aristoteliamsm, the fifth element, found in
chanics of Heisenberg, the wave mechanics of celestial bodies, distinguished from the four
VSlmlki, celebrating in about 24,000 verses the (Ethica, II, 41), and since by means of it, we
doings of Rima and his wife SIt and contain- perceive "under a certain form of eternity'*
ing ethical and philosophic speculations. (sub quadam aeternitatis specie; Ibid, II, 42,
K.F.L. Cor. 2). Likewise, by means of reason (ratio),
Ramified theory of types: See impredicative we are enabled to distinguish truth from falsity
definition, and paradoxes, logical. (Ibid, 42), and to master the emotions (Ibid,
B. Russell. Mathematical logic as based on tbt IV, passim). The objects cognized by reason are
theory of types, American Journal of Mathematics, (primarily) "common notions" and their deriva-
vol. 30 (1908). pp. 222-262. L. Chwistek, The
tives) reason cannot, however, accomplish or
theory of constructive types, Annales de la Societe
Polonaise de Mathematique. vol. 2 (1924), pp. bring about the highest virtue of the mind, as
9-48. and vol. 3. (1925). pp 92-141.. W. V. can scientia intuitiva by which blessedness and
Ouine. On the axtom of reductbtltty, Mind, n. s.
true liberty are conferred (Ibid, V, 36, Schol.).
vol. 45 (1936). pp. 498-500. F. B. Fitch, The
consistency of the ramified Principia, The Journal WS.W.
of Symbolic Logic, vol. 3 (1938). pp. 140-149.
Ratiocination: (Lat. ratiocinatio, reasoning) Dis-
Ramsey, Frank Plumpton: (1903-1930) In the
cursive reasoning, the third act of the intellect
light of Wittgenstein's work, he proposed several of a
in the Aristotelian theory knowledge j
modifications in the Principia Mathematics treat-
process of intellectual demonstration involving
ment of functions. These, he urged, made possible VJ.B.
the use of three terms.
the omission of the Axiom of Reducibility, a
simplification of the Theory of Types and an
Rationalism: A method, or very broadly, a
improved definition of identity. In stimulating theory of philosophy, in which the criterion of
truth is not sensory but intellectual and deduc-
philosophical papers he denied any ultimate dis-
tinction between particulars and universal, de- tive. Usually associated with an attempt to
fended a Wittgensteinian interpretation of gen- introduce mathematical methods into philosophy,
as in Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoca. VJ.B.
eral propositions, proposed a subjective theory
of probability and a pragmatic view of induc- The history of rationalism begins with the
tion, and offered a theory of theories -and a
Eleatics (q.v.), Pythagoreans and Plato (q.v.)
whose theory of the self-sufficiency of reason
theory of the nature of causal propositions. Most
became the leitmotif of neo-Platonism and
of his work is included in The Foundations of
idealism (q.v.).
Mathematics, London, Kegan Paul, 1931.
C.A.B. Rationalization: (Lat. rationales, from ratio,
Rasa: (Skr. sap, nectar, essence, flavor,
juice, reason) A psychological term to describe the
etc.) In Indian aesthetics (q.v.), pleasure, enjoy- mind's fabrication of rational ar/rument to jus-
ment, love, charm, grace, elegance, taste, emo- tify conduct of which one is really ashamed.
tion, sentiment, spirit, passion, beauty etc.
L.W.
K.F.L. Rational Psychology: A speculative and meta-
Ratio: According to St. Augustine, reason is the physical treatment of the soul, its faculties and
mind's capacity of distinguishing and connecting its immortality in contrast to a descriptive, em-
the things that are learned. Ratio est mentis oiri<"al psycholorv. L.W.
motto ea quae discuntur distinguendi ft con- Ravaisson-Mollien, Jean Gaspard Felix
nectendi potens. He also calls it an aspectus (1813-1900) French idealistic philosopher who
animi, quo per seipsum, non per corpus vtrum studied under Schelling at Munich, became Pro-
intuetur. It precedes the exercise of the intel- fessor of Philosophy at Rennes in 1838 and
lectual capacity. He says of man: Nam
ideo later inspector ofHigher Education. Although
valt intelligtre, quia ratio prate edit, Reason is, he wrote be profoundly influncd French
little,
however, inferior to the intellect. Man possesses thought in the direction of the "dynamic ptrt->
reason before he begins the activity of intellec- tualism" of Maine de Biran. He explored the
tion, which it a contemplation. Action is rather spiritual implications of individual personality
the province of reason./././?. especially in the domains of art and morals.
264 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
See Moral* et Metaphysique in Revue de Met. Reals: Are atomic or monadic beings which
et de Mor. 1893. L.W. underlie the phenomenal world. Alike in qual-
Real: (Lat. realis, of the thing itself) Absolute- ity, not being points of self-directive force, they
ness of being. The immediate object of that are conceived to be in a state of mechanical
which is true. Invented in the 13th century to interaction, not in the realm of phenomenal
signify having characters sufficient to identify space but in the realm of intelligible space.
their subject, whether attributed by men or not. (Herbart.) #./f.
Sometimes, the existential as opposed to mere Reason: (Lat. ratio, Ger. Vernunft) In Kant: (1)
possibility, or the physical as opposed to con- The special mental faculty (distinct from sensi-
sciousness. Syn. with: external (q.v.), actual. bility and understanding) which in thinking Ideas
Opposite of: figment. J.K.F. of absolute completeness and unconditionedness
Realism: Theory of the reality of abstract or transcends the conditions of possible experience.
general terms, or universals, which are 'held to See Ideas of Pure Reason. (2) All those mental
< have an equal and sometimes a superior reality functions and relations characterized by spon-
to actual physical particulars. Universals exist taneity rather than receptivity. In this sense,
before things, ante res. Opposed to nominalism reason includes both reason (1) and the under-
(q.v.) according to which universals have standing, but excludes the sensibility. (3) The
a being only after things, post res. Realism source of all a priori synthetic forms in experi-
means a) in ontology: that no derogation of ence. In this sense, reason includes elements of
the reality of universals is valid, the realm of understanding and reason (1). When
sensibility,
essences, or possible universals, being as real as, Kant "reason is a law-giver to Nature,"
says,
if not more real than, the realm of existence, or he employs the term in the third sense. See
actuality; b) in epistemology : that sense ex- Kantianism, Understanding, Ratio. O.F.K.
perience reports a true and uninterrupted, if
Reasoning: 1. Discursive thought. Faculty of
limited, account of objects* that it is possible connecting ideas consciously, coherently and
to have and direct knowledge
faithful of the purposively. Thinking in logical form. Draw-
actual While realism was implicit in
world. ing of inferences. Process of passing from given
Egyptian religion, where truth was through deifi- data or premisses to legitimate conclusions. Form-
cation distinguished from particular truths, and ing or discovering rightly relations between
further suggested in certain aspects of Ionian ideas. Deriving properly statements from given
philosophy, it was first explicitly set forth by assumptions or facts. Power, manifestation and
Plato in his doctrine of the ideas and developed result of valid argumentation. Ordering con-
by Aristotle in his doctrine of the forms. Ac- cepts according to the canons of logic. Legiti-
cording to Plato, the ideas have a status of mate course of a debate.
possibility which makes them independent both 2. In psychology, the act or process of ex-
of the mind by which they may be known and
ercising the mind, the faculty of connecting
of the actual world of particulars in which judgments the power and fact of using reason}
j
they may take place. Aristotle amended this, so the thought-processes of discussion, debate, argu-
that forms have
his a being only in things, mentation or inference} the manifestation of the
in rebus. Realism in its Platonic version was discursive property of the mind} the actual use
the leading philosophy of the Christian Middle of arguments with a view to convince or
Ages until Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) of-
persuade} the art and method or proving or
ficially adopted the Aristotelian version. It has demonstrating; the orderly development of
been given a new impetus in recent times by
thought with a view to, or the attainment of a
Charles S. Peirce (1839 r 1914) in America and conclusion believed to be valid. The origin,
by G. . Moore (1873-) in England. Moore's nature and value of reasoning are debated ques-
realism has been responsible for many of his with their answers ranging from spiritual-
tions,
contemporaries in both English-speaking coun- ism(reasoning as the exercise of a faculty of
tries.Roughly speaking, the American realists, the soul) to materialism (reasoning as an
Montague, Perry, and others, in The New epiphenomenon depending on the brain), with
Realism (1912) have directed their attention all the modern schools of psychology ordering
to the epistemological side, while the English themselves between them. A few points of agree-
have constructed ontological systems. The most ment might be mentioned here: (1) reasoning
comprehensive realistic systems of the modern follows judgment and apprehension, whichever
period are Process and Reality by A. N. White- of the last two thought-processes comes first
head (1861-) and Space, Time and Deity by in our psychological development} (2) reason-
S. Alexander (1859-1939). The German, ing proceeds according to four main types,
Nicolai Hartmann, should also be mentioned, namely deductive, inductive, presumptive and
and there are others. J.K.F. deceptive} (3) reasoning assumes a belief in
Realism in Legal Philosophy: No connection its own validity undisturbed by doubt, and im-
with epistemological realism. Theory that law is plies various logical habits and methods which
not a system of rules but in flux, and part of may be organized into a logical doctrine} (4)
actual social process. W.E. reasoning requires a reference to some ultimate
Realm of ends: The cosmic order viewed as the principles to justify its progress.
means for the achievement by a Supreme Person 3. In logic, the process of
Reasoning
is
of higher or spiritual purposes. Teleological inference} it is the process of passing
Personalism. R.T.F. from certain propositions already known or
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 265
atiumed to be true, to another truth distinct where A
denotes some particular non-negative
from them but following from them* it it a integer, and 5 denotes the successor function (so
discourse or argument which infers one proposi- that S(x) is the same as *+!), and * is a
tion from another, or from a group of others variable (the second equation being intended to
having some common elements between them. hold for all non-negative integers x). Similarly
The is necessary in the case of deduc-
inference the dyadic function / is said to be defined
by
tive reasoning) and contingent, probable or primifive recursion in terms of a triadic function
wrong, in the case of inductive, presumptive or g and a monadic function h by the pair of
deceptive reasoning respectively. There are var- equations,
ious types of reasoning, and proper methods /(, 0) = h(a\
for each type. The definition, discussion, de- f(a, S(*)) =
g(at *, f(a, *)),
velopment and evaluation of these types and the equations being intended to hold for all non-
methods form an important branch of logic negative integers a and x. Likewise for functions
and its subdivisions. The details of the applica- / of more than two variables. As an example
tion of reasoning to the various sciences, form of definition by primitive recursion we may take
the subject of methodology. All these types are the "definition" of addition (i.e., of the dyadic
reducible to one or the other of the two funda- function plus) employed by Peano in the de-
mental processes ot reasoning, namely deduction velopment of arithmetic from his postulates (see
and induction. It must be added that the logical the article Arithmetic, foundations of):
study of reasoning is normative: logic does not a+0 = a,
analyze simply in its natural development, but
it
4+S(*) = S(a+x).
with a view to guide it towards coherence, This comes under the general form of definition
validity or truth. T.G. by primitive recursion, just given, with h and g
Receptivity: (Lat. recipere, to take back) The taken to be such functions that h(a) a and
collective name for receptive or sensory func- g(a t x, y) =
5(y). Another example is Peano's
tions of the mind in contrast to its active or introduction of multiplication by the pair of
motor functions. In the Kantian terminology, equations:
receptivity defined as the faculty of receiving
is tfXO = 0,
principle of the simplest form of proof by re- puted (see Paradoxes, logical). An exact state-
cursion. In the Frege-Russell derivation of ment of the axiom can be made only in the
arithmetic from logic, the non-negative integers context of a detailed formulation of the ramified
are identified with the inductive cardinal num- theory of types which will not here be under-
bers (q. v.), the possibility of proof by recursion taken. As an indication or rough description of
the axiom of reducibility, it may be said that it
being implicit in the definition of inductive.
A.C. cancels a large part of the restrictive conse-
Recursiveness: The notion of definition by re- quences of the prohibition against impredicative
cursion, and in particular of definition by primi- definition (q.v.) and, in approximate effect, re-
tive recursion, duces the ramified theory of types to the simple
is explained in the article recur-
sion, definition by. An *-adic function / (from theory of types (for the latter see Logic , formal,
6). A.C.
non-negative integers to non-negative integers)
is said to be defined by composition in terms of Reductio ad abturdum : The method of proving
the w-adic function g and the n-adic functions a proposition by deducing a contradiction from
Ai, A> . . .
, hm by the equation: the negation of the proposition taken together
/(*!, XS> ...,*)= g(Al(*l, Xft, . . .
, **), with other propositions which were previously
As(*i, as, ...,**),..., (*!, *,..., **)). proved or are granted. It may thus be described
(The case is not excluded that m 1, or n = as the valid inference of the prepositional cal-
1,or both.) culus from three premisses, B and B[-*"A] 3 C
A
function from non-negative integers to non- and B[~A] = ~C, to the conclusion A (this
negative integers is said to be primitive recursive presupposes the deduction theorem, q. v.). Such
if it can be obtained by a succession of defini- an argument may be rearranged so that the ele-
tions by primitive recursion and composition, ment of ad absurdum appears in the
reductio
from the following list of initial functions: the inference from ~A
D A to A.
successor function S, the function C such that The name reductio ad absurdum is also given
C(x) = for every non-negative integer *, and to the method of proving the negation of a
the functions (/< (i 2g n, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .) proposition by deducing a contradiction from
such that t/<n(*i, *,..., *) = *4. Each the proposition itself, together with other propo-
successive definition
by primitive recursion or sitions which were previously proved or are
composition may employ not only the initial granted.
functions but also any of the functions which The first of the two kinds of reductio ad
were introduced by previous definitions. absurdum, but not the second, is called indirect
Moregeneral notions of recursiveness result proof.
from admitting, in addition to primitive recur- Whitehead and Russell give the name prin-
sion, also more general kinds of definition by ciple of reductio ad absurdum to the theorem of
recursion, including those in which several func- the prepositional calculus:
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 267
[p
=> ~P ]
* ~p. A.C. standing 13) and Leibniz (cf. Monadology, and
Reductio ad impottibile: The method of es- New Essays, Preface, 4) but has now largely
tablishing a
proposition by showing: that its been supplanted by the term introspection. See
contradictory involves impossible consequences} Intelligence, Introspection. L.W .
of character C is called the referent of the utter- already parted company with a whole tradition.
ance in question. (This covers only true utter- The ideology which found a response in his in-
ances. The 'referents' of false expectations and ner experience was set forth by Augustine, a
general beliefs require a separate account). See: troubled soul who had surrendered himself com-
Ogden and Richards, Meaning of Meaning, pletely to divine grace and mercy. The phi-
passim. losophers who legitimated man's endeavor to get
c
(3) In any proposition of form aRb', where on in the world, the church which demanded
R is a propositional function of two variables, unquestioned loyalty to its codes and commands,
a is termed the referent by contrast with the he eschewed as thoroughly inconsonant with his
relatum b. (Due to Whitehead and Russell, own inner life. Man is wholly dependent upon
Principia Mathematica).M.B. the merits of Christ) the miracle of faith alone
Referential: Relating to an act of reference. See before God. Man's conscience, his rea-
justifies
(1933-1938), University of California at Los there exists a one-one relation S whose domain
Angeles (since 1938); the leading figure of the is the field of R and whose converse domain is
Berlin group in the development of recent the field of R', such that, if aSa and AS*', then
logi-
cal empiriscism. See Scientific Empiricism. aRo if and only if aR'b'. The relation-number
Reichenbach's work has been devoted mainly of a dyadic relation may then be defined as the
to the class of relations similar to it cardinal
philosophy of empirical science) for a cf.
Mind, Ch. III. See Neutral Monism. L.W. cial theory of relativity (Einstein, 1905) and the
Relative: A
concept is relative if it is a word, general theory of relativity (Einstein, 1914-16).
if denotes
it a polyadic prepositional function, The name arises from the fact that certain things
or relation, rather than a monadic prepositional which the classical theory regarded as absolute
function.The term relative is applied especially e.g.,the simultaneity of spatially distant events,
to words which have been or might be thought the time elapsed between two events (unless co-
to denote monadic prepositional functions, but
*
incident in space-time), the length of an extend-
for some reason must be taken as denoting rela- ed solid body, the separation of four-dimensional
tions. Thus the word short or the notion of space-time into a three-dimensional space and a
shortness may be called relative because as a one-dimensional time are regarded by the rela-
monadic prepositional function it is vague, while tivity theory as relative (q.v.) to the choice of a
as a relation (shorter than) it is not vague. coordinate system in space-time, and thus rela-
tive to the observer. But on the other hand the
Analogously, the term relative may be applied
to words erroneously thought of or used as if relativity theory represents as absolute certain
denoting binary relations, but which actually things which are relative in the classical theory
must be taken as denoting ternary or quaternary e.g., the velocity of light in empty space. See
passages suggest that relative is a syntactical the priority of reason over faith and the ac-
term, but others approximate the usage adopted ceptance of creed, subjecting the latter to a
by Schroder. C. A logical analysis. As such, the history of the
Relativism: The view that truth is relative and Philosophy of Religion is coextensive with the
may vary from individual to individual, from free enquiry into religious reality, particularly
group to group, or from time to time, having no the conceptions of God, soul, immortality, sin,
objective standard. See Ethical relativism. salvation, the sacred (Rudolf Otto), etc., and
W.K.F. may be said to have its roots in any society
Relativism, Epistemological t The theory that above the pre-logical, mythological, or custom-
all human knowledge ia relative to the knowing controlled level, first observed in Egypt, China,
mind and to the conditions of the body and India, and Greece. Its scientific treatment as
sense organs. Relativism is usually combined a subsidiary philosophic discipline dates from
with a subject! vistic theory of knowledge (see about Kant's Religion innerhalb der Grenzen
Subjectivism) but, in recent epistemology, a der reinen Vernunft and HegePs Philosophie
realistic or object! vistic relativism has been der Religion, while in the history of thought
advanced. See Objective Relativism. Ethical based on Indian and Greek speculation, sporadic
relativism. L.W. sallies were made by all great philosophers,
Relativism, Psychological: The psychological especially those professing an idealism, and by
principle that the character of any present con- most theologians.
scious content is relative to and influenced by With reference to the approach to the central
past and contemporaneous experiences of the reality of religion, God, and man's relation to
organism. The law of psychological relativity it, types of the Philosophy of Religion may be
was prominent in the psychology of Wundt, distinguished, leaving out of account negative
and has recently been emphasized by Ge stall (atheism), skeptical and cynical (Xenophanes,
Psychology. L.W. Socrates, Voltaire), and agnostic views, although
Relativity of Knowledge: See Relativism, assertions by them are not to be separated from
Epistemological. the history of religious consciousness. Funda-
Relevance or Relevancy: (Fr. relevant)" Rela- mentalism, mainly theological and often a
a
tion between concepts which are capable of com- Church phenomenon of a revivalist nature,
bining to form meaningful propositions or be- philosophizes on the basis of unquestioning
tween propositions belonging to the same "uni- faith, leekftig to buttress it by logical argument,
verse of discourse." L.W. usually taking the form of proofs of the exis-
Relativity, theory oft A
mathematical theory of tence of God (see God). Here belong all his-
space-time (q.v.), of profound epistemological as toric religions, Christianity in its two principal
well as physical importance, comprising the spe- forms, Catholicism with its Scholastic philosophy
270 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
and Protestantism with its greatly diversified Varieties of Religious Experience ; the sacred
philosophies, the numerous religions of Hindu- literature of all peoples in various editions
ism, such as Brahmanism, Shivaism and Vishnu- together with a voluminous theological exegesis i
ism, the religion of Judaism, and Mohammedan* Church history and, finally, the history of
ism. Mysticism, tolerated by Church and philos- dogma, especially the monumental work of von
-
ophy, is less concerned with proof than with Harnack, all are contributing illustrative
description and personal experience, revealing material to the Philosophy of Religion which
much of the psychological factors involved in became stimulated to scientific efforts through
belief and speculation. Indian philosophy is the positivism of Spencer, Huxley, Lewes, Tyn-
saturated with mysticism since its inception, dall, and others, and is still largely oriented
Sufism is the outstanding form of Arab mysti- by the progress in science, as may be seen, e.g.,
cism, while the greatest mystics in the West by the work of Emile Boutroux, S. Alexander
are Plotinus, Meister Eckhart, Tauler, Ruys-
-
(Space, Time and Deity), and A. N. Whitehead.
broek, Thomas a Kempis, and Jacob Bohme. See, apart from the works of the authors
Metaphysics incorporates religious concepts as named, George Trumbull Ladd, The Philosophy
thought necessities. Few philosophers have been of Religion; Edwin A. Burtt, Types of Reli-
able to avoid the concept of God in their gious Philosophy, Edgar S. Brightman, A
ontology, or any reference to the relation of Philosophy of Religion. K.F.L.
God to man in their ethics. So, e.g., Plato, Religion, Promethean: An 'anarchistic piety
Spinoza, Leibniz, Schelling, and especially Hegel which refrains from making past or present
who made .the investigation of the process of revolutionary doctrine the basis of new tyranny.
the Absolute the essence of the Philosophy of (Montague). H.H.
Religion. Religious A
Priori: A separate, innate category
With respect to the concept of God, a specific of the human consciousness, religious in that it
philosophy of religion may be a theism with issue* certain insights and indisputable certain-
its many forms of henotheism, monotheism, ties concerning God or a Superhuman Presence.
etc., a deism, pantheism, anthropomorphism, Man's religious nature rests upon the peculiar
animism, panpsychism (all of which see), or character of his mind. He possesses a native
the like* or it may fall into the general philo- apprehension of the Divine. God's existence is
sophic classification of a transcendentalism, im- guaranteed as an axiomatic truth. For Ernst
manentalism, absolutism, etc. By the term Troeltsch (1865-1923) this a priori quality of
modernism is meant the tendency, subtended the mind is both a rational intuition and an
by the recent interest of science in religion (Sirs immediate experience. God is present as a real
J. H. Jeans and A. S. Eddington, A. Carrell fact both rationally and empirically. For Rudolf
tt al.) to interpret religious experience in close Otto this a priori quality of the mind is a non-
contact with physical and social reality, thus rational awareness of the holy, mysterious and
transforming the age-old personalism into a awe-inspiring divine Reality. Man possesses a
thoroughgoing humanism, thereby accomplishing kind of eerie sense of a Presence wnich is the
an even greater attachment to social thinking basis of the genuinely religious feeling. See
and practical ethics and a trend away from Numinous. V.F.
metaphysical speculation toward a psychologizing Religious Phenomenology: (in Max Scheler)
in the Philosophy of Religion. The doctrine of the essential origin and forms
of the religious, and of the essence of the di-
Practically all philosophers of religion (to
name in addition to those above only Schleier- vine, as well as of its revelation. P.A.S.
macher, Lotze, Pfleiderer, Hoffding, Siebeck, Renaissance: (Lat. re -f nasci, to be born) Is
Galloway, Ladd, Wundt, Josiah Royce, W. E. a term used by historians to characterize various
Hocking, Barth, and Hauer) are carried by an periods of intellectual revival, and especially
ethical idealism, being interested in the good that which took place in Italy and Europe during
life as the right relation between God and the 15th and 16th centuries. The term was
man, conforming by and large to the ethical coined by Michelet and developed into a histori-
categories of determinism, indeterminism, cal concept by J. Burckhardt (I860) who con-
mechanism, rationalism, etc. Buddhists, though sidered individualism, the revival of classical
not believing in God, profess an ethics reli- antiquity, the "discovery" of the world and of
giously motivated and supported philosophically. man as the main characters of that period as
The scientific study of primitive religions, opposed to* the Middle Ages. The meaning, the
with such well-known names as E. B. Tylor, temporal limits, and even the usefulness of the
F. B. Jevons, W. H. R. Rivers, J. G. Fraier, concept have been disputed ever since. For the
R. H. Codrington,' Spencer and Gillen, E. emphasis placed by various historians on the dif-
Westermarck, E. Durkheim, L. LeVy-Bruhl$ the ferent fields of culture and on the contribution
numerous outlines of the development of reli- of different countries must lead to different in-
gion since Hume's Natural History of Religion terpretations of the whole period, and attempts
and E. Caird's Evolution of Religion i the pro- to express t complicated historical phenomenon
life literature dealing with individual religions in a simple, abstract definition are apt to fail.
of a higher typej the science of comparative Historians are now inclined to admit a very
religion with such names as that of L. H. considerable continuity between the "Renais-
Jordan) the many excellent treatises on the sance 11 and the Middle Ages. Yet a sweeping
psychology of religion including Win. James
1
rejection of the whole concept is excluded, for
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 271
it expresses the view of the writers of the period substance (res constitute his
extensa) dualism.
itself) who considered their century a revival of The term presumably designates not only the
ancient civilisation after a period of decay. individual mind which thinks but also the sub-
While Burckhardt had paid no attention to phi- stance which pervades all individual minds.
losophy, others began to speak of a "philosophy L.W.
of the renaissance)" regarding thought of those Retentiveness: (Lat. re
-f tendere, to hold)
centuries not as an accidental accompaniment of The mind's capacity to retain and subsequently
renaissance culture, but as its characteristic phi- revive earlier experiences. See Memory. L.W.
losophical manifestation. As yet this view has Revelation: The communication to man of the
served as a fruitful guiding principle rather than
Divine Will. This communication has taken, in
as a verified hypothesis. Renaissance thought the history of religions, almost every conceivable
can be defined in a negative way as the period
form, e.g., the results of lot casting, oracular
of transition from the medieval, theological to
declarations) dreams, visions, ecstatic experiences
the modern) scientific interpretation of reality. It
(induced by whatever means, such as intoxi-
also displays a few common features, such as
cants), books, prophets, unusual characters,
an emphasis our man and on his place in the revered traditional practices, storms, pestilence,
universe, the rejection of certain medieval stand- etc. The general conception of revelation has
ards and methods of science, the increased influ- been that the divine communication comes in
ence of some newly discovered ancient sources,
ways unusual, by means not open to the ordi-
and a new style and literary form in the pres-
nary channels of investigation. This, however,
entation of philosophical ideas. More obvious is not a necessary
corollary; revelation of the
are the differences between the various schools Divine Will may well come through ordinary
and traditions which cannot easily be brought to
channels, the give-and-take of everyday experi-
a common denominator: Humanism^ Platonism, and and
ence, through reason reflection intuitive
Aristotelianism, scepticism and natural philoso- insight. V.F.
phy, to which may be added the group of the Rhetoric: (Gr. Rhetor, public speaker) Art turned
founders of modern science (Copernicus, Kepler,
to the practical purpose of persuading and im-
Galileo). P.O.AT.
pressing. L.V.
Cf. "Study of the Renaissance
Philosophies," Rhythm: (a) Harmonious correlation of parts in
P. O. Kristcller and J. H.
Randall, Jr. in a work
of art. (b) (Music) Systematic grouping
Jour. History of Ideas, II, 4 (Oct. 1941). of notes according to duration. L.V.
Renouvier, Charles: (1818-1903) a thinker
Rickert, Heinrich: (1863-1936) Believing that
strongly influenced by Leibniz and Kant. His
only in system philosophy achieves its ends,
philosophy has been called 'phenomenological Rickert established under the influence of Fichte
neo-criticism', and its peculiar feature is that
a transcendental idealism upon an epistemology
it denies the existence of all transcendental
which has nothing to do with searching for
entities, such as thing-in-itself, the absolute, and
connections between thought and existence, but
the noumenon, R.B.W.
admits being only as a being in consciousness,
Main works: Uchronie, 1857& Philos. analy- and knowledge as an affirming or negating,
tiqut de l>histoire t 4 vols., 1896-98) La nou-
approving or disapproving of judgments. Hence,
velle monad ologi*) 1899; Le Personnalisme,
philosophy is one of norms in which the con-i
1903} Essais d* critiqu* general*, 1851-64.
cept of reality dissolves into a concept of value,
Representative Ideas, Theory of: Theory that while consciousness ceases to be an individual
the mind in perception, memory and other types
phenomenon and becomes impersonal and gen-
of knowledge, does not know its objects directly
eral. Value exists not as a physical thing but
but only through the mediation of ideas which
in assent and our acknowledging its validity.
represent them. The theory was advanced by In thiswe are guided by meaning and obligated
Descartes and the expression, representative by the ought. Method distinguishes history as
ideas, may have been suggested by his statement the discipline of the from science
particular
that our ideas more or less adequately "repre- which must advance beyond fact-gathering to
sent" their originals. See Meditations, III. the discovery of general laws, and from philoso-
Locke, Hobbes, Malebranche, Berkeley subscribed
phy which seeks absolute cultural values through
to the theory in one form or another and the
explanation, understanding, and interpretation.
theory has supporters among contemporary epi- Main works: Die Grenxen d. naturtoiss.
stemologists (e.g. Lovejoy and certain other
Begrifsbildungt 1896j Kultur u. Naturwissen-
Critical Realists). The theory has been
severely sckajten, 1899} Pkilos. d. Ltbens, 1920.
criticized ever since the time of Arnauld.
(See K.F.L.
Des vrais de fausses ideet) and has become
et
Right: In an ethical sense inaction conforming
one of reproach. See Epistttnc logical Dualism.
to the moral law. Also the correlative of duty.
L.W. In a legal sense, any claim against others,
Representative Realism: The view that in the recognized by law. Political rights, the capacity
knowing process our ideas are representations of exercizing certain functions in the formation
or ambassadors of the real external world.
(E.g. and administration of government the right
the view of John Locke.)- KF. to to be
vote, elected to public office, etc.
Res Cogitans: (Lat. res, thing -f cogitans from Natural rights, as against positive rights, those
cogitare, to
think) Descartes' designation for claims or liberties which are not derived from
thinking substance which along with extended positive law but from a "higher law", the law
272 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
of nature. The right to live, the right to work, initial phase of German Idealism, serving as a
the "pursuit of happiness", the right to self- transition from Kant to Hegel, and flourishing
development are sometime* considered natural chiefly between 1775 and 1815. It is associated
rights. W.E. primarily with the Schlegel brothers,
Novalis,
Right action: (a) Teleologically defined as action Fried, Schelling, and
Schleiermacher, with
such that no alternative possible under the cir- Schelling as its culmination and most
typical
cumstances is better. Cf. G. E. Moore, Princ. figure. The philosophical point of departure
Ethica. C.A.B. for romanticism is the Kantian philosophy, and
"fittingness" in that situation and of its utility and so knowable by the human spirit. The
in that situation. W. D. Ross holds that in essence of philosophical romanticism as expressed
given circumstances that action is right whose by Schelling, that which differentiates it from
prima facie Tightness in the respects in which other types of Idealism, resides in its conception
it is prima facie right outweigh ts its prima facie of Spirit} upon this depend its metaphysical ac-
wrongness in the respects in which it is prima count of nature and man, and its epistemological
faciewrong to a greater degree than is the case doctrine of the proper method for investigating
with any possible alternative action. C.A.B. and understanding reality. Romanticism holds
that Spirit, or the Absolute, is essentially
Right Reason: (Gr. orthos logos j L. recta ratio)
the ultimate ground of all things is
creative}
The law or order exhibited in the constitution
primarily c an urge to self-expression, and all
of the world, to which, according to the Stoics,
that it has brought into being is but a means
human law and human action should conform}
to its fuller self-realization. If the Absolute of
the Law of Nature. G.R.M.
Fichte is a moralist, and that of Hegel a
to which the
Rigorism: Any view according logician, then that of the romanticists is pri-
ethical life involves a rigorous treatment
of the
marily an artist. From this basic view there
more natural or physical desires, feelings, and springs a metaphysic that interprets the universe
passions. W.K.F. in terms of the concepts of evolution, process,
Ritschlianism : A
celebrated school of 19th cen-
life, and consciousness. The world of nature is
Albrecht
tury Christian thought inaugurated by one manifestation of Spirit \ man is another and
for God
Ritschl (1822-89). This school argued a higher such manifestation, for in man Spirit
upon the basis of what is called the religious seeks to become conscious of its own work. The
Two kinds of judgments are
value-judgment. metaphysical process is the process by which
said to characterize man's reaction to his world the Absolute seeks to realize itself, and all
of experience: (1) dependent or concomitant, particular things are but phases within it. Hence,
those dependent upon perceived facts, such
as
the epistemology of romanticism is exclusively
the natural sciences j (2) independent or
re-
emotional and intuitive, stressing the necessity
ligious, those which -affirm
man's superior worth for fullness of experience and depth of feeling
the finite world
independent of the limitations of if reality is to be understood.
Reason, being
and man's upon a superhuman order
dependence artificial and inadequate to the
analytical, is
of reality, God. God
not reached by specula-
is task of comprehending the Absolute} knowing
in nature, nor by
tion, nor by the "evidences" is living, and the philosopher must approach
intuitions or mystic experience, nor by a ra-
'
in nature, and an attempt to seize natural be observed in the philosophy of Romero: (a)
of human society, into which he introduced Christianity the Rule of Faith (Regula Fidci)
democratic His was includes the whole of apostolic teaching and its
novel ideas. thought
characterized by skepticism and criticism of the further elaborations. V.F.
Western civilization regarded by him as a sad Rule of inference: See logic, formal, 1, 3,
lonia where he was appointed in 928 Gaon of sianic doctrine as regards the House of David,
the Academy of Sura. He translated the Bible but not as regards a priestly source, and also
and wrote numerous works, both in
into Arabic that of resurrection of the body, but not that
Hebrew and Arabic, in the fields of philology, of the soul. On the whole, however, Jesus and
exegesis, Talmudics, polemics, Jewish history, Paul both proved to be the enemies of Pharisee-
and philosophy. His chief philosophical work is ,
ism and in effect sided with the Sadduccees
the Kitab Al-Amanat iva'l-lttkadat, better against traditional law. F.K.
known by its Hebrew title, Emunot tve-Deot t Saguna: (Skr.) "possessed of qualities" (see
i.e., Doctrines and Religious Beliefs. Its purpose guna)j predicated of the Absolute from the
is to prove the compatibility of the principles exoteric point of view of the worshipper, ac-
of Judaism with reason and to interpret them cording to Sankara (q.v.j tee Nirguna).
in such a way that their rationality be evident. K.F.L.
The nine sections establish philosophically
first
Saint-Simon, Claude Henry, Count De:
the ten fundamental articles of faith, and the
(1760-1825) French philosopher who fought
tenth deals with ethics. Philosophically, Saadia with the French army during the American
was influenced by the teachings of the Mutazilia. Revolution. He supported the French Revolu-
See Jewish Philosophy. Q.V. tion. He advocated what he termed a new
Sabda: (Skr.) Sound, an Indian
metaphysical science of society to do away with inequalities
concept) word, particularly the cosmic or divine in the distribution of property, power and hap-
word (see vac)'* testimony, a valid source of Love for the poor and the lowly was
piness.
knowledge in some philosophic systems. K.F.L. basic for the reform he urged. He greatly in-
Sabellianism : The view of Sabellius who taught fluenced Comte and Positivism. LJ5.D.
in the first half of the third century the doctrine
Main work: L*Indus trie on discussion*
that there is one God but three (successive)
politiques, morales, tt philosophiqvts, dans
modes or manifestations of God: as creator and I*inter et de tout let hommts livres a des travail*
governor God is Father, as redeemerGod is utiles tt independants, 1817. Cf. Otuvres de
the Son, as regenerator and sanctifier God is
Saint-Simon, 46 vols., 1865-77.
the Holy Spirit one and ,the same God. The
Sakti: (Skr.) Strength, might, of feminine gender,
view approximated the later orthodox Trini-
the word designates in Tantric (see Tantra)
tarian conception (see Trinitarianism) but was
literature the female generative power of energy
too harsh to be maintained. Further clarifica-
in the universe, worshipped by the religious at
tion was needed. Sabellianism has been called
the wife of some deity or other, e.g., as Durga,
by several names, Modalism, Modalistic Mon-
wife of Shiva. See Shaktism. K.F.L,
archianism and Patripassianism (Father suffer-
Samadhi: (Skr.) The final stage in the practice
ing).-^.
of Yoga (q.v.) according to the Yogasutras
Sacerdotalism: (Lat. sacerdotalis: pertaining to
A (q.v.) in which individuality it given up while
a priest) religious system revolving about a
priestly order. The term, when employed in a merging with the object of meditation, thus
derogatory sense, means the unwholesome prefer- producing a state of unqualified bltssfulness and
ence for ecclesiastical and sacramental obser- unperturbed consciousness, which it moksa
(q.v.). K.F.L.
vance! in contrast to the more valid personal
and moral values. V.F. Simanya: (Skr. similar, generic, etc.) Generality,
Sadducee-ism: Both a party and a belief so universality} the universal in contrast to the
named after the Zadokites, sons of Zadok, the particular. The is understood in the
universal
family and temple hierarchy, advocates of the realist manner by Nyiyt-Vaisesikt to be
the
written Torah (teaching) in Judaism, the party eternal and distinct from, yet inherent in the
and attitude opposite to the Pharisees and particular i in the nominalist manner, by die
scribes, who prized oral and developing thought Buddhists, to have no intrinsic existence! in the
276 DICTIONARY QF PHILOSOPHY
manner of universal** in re by the Jainai and ordinary actions and judgments of one' fellows,
Advaita VedSnta^ K.F.L. (3) the civil or political sanction, i.e., the
Same and Other: One of the "persistent prob- threat of punishment or the promise of reward
lems" of philosophy which goes back at least made by the government, (4) the religious
to Parmenides and Heraclitus (q.v.). In its sanction, i.e., the fear of God, etc. J. S. Mill
most general form it raises the question: Is labelled these external, and added an internal
reality explicable in terms of one principle, sanction, viz., the desire or the feeling of
ultimately the same in all
things (monism), obligation to do the kind of conduct in question.
or is reality ultimately heterogeneous, requiring See Obligation. W.K.F.
a plurality of first principles (pluralism)? Sanga: (Skr. sticking to) Attachment, especially
Plato really developed the probleifc (in the to material things, or entanglement in earthly
Many, Identity and Difference, of Universal the standard of the son, and the husband the
and Individual in Mediaeval Scholasticism, %tandard of the wife) on the ground that the
With Hegel and Fichte the problem becomes active or male cosmic principle of the universe
fused with that of Spirit and Matter, or of (yang), to which the sovereign, the father, and
Self and Not-self. VJ.B. the husband correspond, is the standard of the
Samnyaain: (Skr.) A wise man, philosopher. passive or female cosmic principle (yin) to
K.F.L. which is his commentary on the VedSnta (q.v.)
Samsara: (Skr.) "Going about", the passage of respond. (Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.)
the soul in the cycle of births and deaths) the W.T.C.
round of existence j transmigration, a universally Sankara: One of the greatest of Indian philos-
accepted dogma in India, early justified philo- ophers, defender of Brahamism, who died about
sophically on the basis of karma (q.v.). and die
820 A.D., after having led a manysided, partly
nature of afman (q.v.), but its modus operandi legendary, life as peripatetic teacher and author
the object of practi-
It is of numerous treatises, the most influential of
variously explained.
cally every Indian philosophy to find a way to
which is his commentary on the Vedinta (s.v.)
moksa in which he established the doctrine of advaita
escape from samsara and attain ' (q.v.).
AT.F.L. (q.v.). K.F.L.
Samskara: Sankhya: Perhaps the oldest of the major systems
putting together) Mental im-
(Skr.
of Indian philosophy (q.v.), founded by Kapila.
pression, memory. Also the effects of karma
(q.v.) as shaping one's life. K.F.L. Originally not theistic, it is realistic in episte-
San cheng: The Three Rectifications, also called mology, dualistic in metaphysics, assuming two
san t'ung, which means that in the scheme of moving ultimates, spirit (purusa, q.v.) and
macrocosmos microcosmos relationship between matter (prakrti, q.v.) both eternal and uncaused.
man and the universe, the vital force (ch'i) Prakfti possesses the three qualities or principles
underlying the correspondence should be so of sattva, rajas, famas (see these and gna) t
directed and controlled that, first of all, the first in equipoise. When this is disturbed, the
world in its multifariousness evolves in con-
germination of things, its symbolic color, black,
and all governmental and social functions cor- junction with purufa wm'ch' becomes the plu-
responding to it} secondly, the sprouting of rality of selves in the process. The union
things together with its symbolic color, white, (samyofa) of spirit and matter Is necessary for
and social and political correspondences) and, worlcJ evolution, the inactivity of the former
thirdly, the movement
of things and its color, needing the verve of the latter, and the non-
red, and correspondence in human affairs all intelligence of that needing the guidance of
become correct. Applied to the interpretation of conscious puntfa. Successively, prakrti produces
means that the Hsia dynasty
history, 'this theory
mahat or buddhi, ahamkara t manas, the ten
(2207-1766 B.C.?) was the reign of Man, the indriya:, five tanmatras and five mahabkutas
Shang dynasty (1765-1122 B.C.?) that of (all of which tee). K.F.L.
Earth, and the Chou dynasty (1122? -249 B.C.) Sankhya-kirikI: (Skr.) The earliest extant text
that of Heaven. (Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 of the SSnkhya by Isvarakrs, na ) a famous com-
B.C.) W.T.C. mentary on it is that of Gauo*eapSda. K.F.L.
San chiao: The three systems, doctrines, philos- San piao: The three laws in reasoning and argu-
or religions of Confucianism, Buddhism,
ophies., mentation, namely, that "there must be a basil
and Taoism. W.T.C. or foundation" which can be "found in a study
Sanction: A sanction is anything which serves of the experiences of the wisest men of the
to move (and, in this sense, to oblige) a man past," that "there must be a general survey" by
to observe or to refrain from a given mode of "examining (its compatibility with) the facts
conduct, any source of motivation, and hence, of the actual experience of the people," and that
on a hedonistic theory, any source of pleasure "there must be practical application 1' by "putting
or pain. Gay and Bentham distinguished four it into law and governmental policies, and see
such sanctions: (1) the natural or physical whether or not it is conducive to the welfare of
anction, i.e., the ordinary course of nature, the state and of the people." (Mo Trfl, between
(2) the virtuous or moral sanction, i.e., the 500 and 396 B.C.) W.T.C.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 277
Santayana, George: For Santayana (1863-), Reason in Art, Reason in Science) j Winds of
one of the most eminent of contemporary Doctrine, 1913) Egottsm in German Philosophy,
naturalists, consciousness, instead of distorting 1.915$ Character and Opinion in the U. S.,
the nature of Reality immediately reveals it. 1920; Skepticism and Animal Faith, 1923$.
So revealed, Reality proclaims itself an infinity Realms of Being, 4 vols., 1927-40 (Realm of
of (Platonic Ideas) subsisting in and
essences Essence, Realm of Matter, Realm of Truth,
by themselves, some of which are entertained by Realm of Spirit).
minds, and some of which are also enacted in B.A.G.F.
and by a non-mental substratum, substance or Sarva-darsana-sangraha : (Skr.) A work by
matter, which adds concrete existence to their Midhvavacarya, professing to be a collection
subsistence. The presence of this substratum, (sangraha) of all (sarva) philosophic views
though incapable of rational proof, is assumed (darsana) or schools. It includes systems which
in action as a matter of animal faith. Further- acknowledge and others which reject Vedic
more, without it as a selective principle, the (s.v.) authority, such as the Cirvaka, Buddhist
concrete enactment of some essences but not of and Jaina schools (which see). K.F.L.
others is inexplicable. Sarvakartrtva: (Skr.) "All-makingness", descrip-
other things, external to tive of the ultimate principle in the universe,
Matter, among is
scious. Mindi being an activity of the body, and currently is, and will be but now is, potentially.
is not causally effective, but K.F.L.
unsubstantial,
Sastra: (Skr.) A Sanskrit textbook. AT.F.L.
simply entertains and contemplates essences both
enacted and unenacted. Its registration of the Sat: (Skr.) Being, a metaphysical concept akin
natural functions and drives of the body of to Eleatic thinking, which a school of thinkers
which the aura, is desire, which gives values
it is regards as fundamental, as in Chandogya
like truth, goodness, and beauty to the essences Upanishad 6.2.1: "In the beginning . this . .
entertained. The desire to know, satisfied by world was just being, one only, without a
intelligibility, creates science, which is investiga- second." It refutes the theory of non-being.
tion of the world of enacted essences, where (See MO*). K.F.L.
alone the explanation of things is to be found. Sat-cit-inanda, saccidinanda : (Skr.) "Being-
The natural desire to experience social harmony awareness-bliss", a VedSntic (s.v.) definition of
and to contemplate beauty creates morality, art, the highest, all-inclusive reality, also of the
poetry and religjpn, which entertain in imagina- atman (q.v.) insofar as it has attained its full
subjected to continual testing} that the only this that neither the present nor past existence
or the best or a reliable method of obtaining of a finite external agent is necessarily involved
knowledge of one or more of the above kinds in cognition (Pelstex p. 346). Later Petrus
is to doubt until something indubitable or Aureoli and Ockham made the same observation
as nearly indubitable as possible found} that is (Michalski, p. 94), and Ockham concluded that
wherever evidence is indecisive, judgment should natural knowledge of substance and causal con-
be suspended} that knowledge of all or certain nection fs possible only on the assumption that
kinds at some point rests on unproved postulates nature is pursuing a uniform, uninterrupted
or assumptions} 3) a proposition about values: course at the moment of intuitive cognition.
that morality is entirely a matter of individual Without this assumption, observed sequences
preference} or that there are no fixed and might well be the occasion of direct divine
eternal values} or that all values are relative causal action rather than evidence of natural
to time, place, or other circumstance (these causation. It is possible that these sceptical
propositions, properly or improperly, have been views were suggested by reading the arguments
called scepticism because of their association with of certain Moslem theologians (Al Gazali and
certain other propositions here mentioned)} 4) the Mutakallimun), as well as by a considera-
a method of: intellectual caution} systematic tion of miracles. The most influential sceptical
suspense of judgment on the basis of some author of the fourteenth century was Nicholas
criteria of certainty or truth} criticism, par- of Autrecourt (fl. 1340). Influenced perhaps
ticularly in absence of conclusive evidence; by the Scotist conception of logical demonstra-
questioning or doubting as a means to gaining tion, Nicholas held that the law of non-
absolute or relative certainty} 5) an attitude, contradiction is the ultimate and sole source of
dency favoring any of the above propositions guaranteed because the consequent is identical
or methods} an attitude of complete or dog- with part or all of the antecedent. No logical
matic disbelief} an attitude -involving greater connection can be established, therefore, between
inclination to disbelief than to belief} an atti- the existence or non-existence of" one thing and
tude involving no greater inclination to belief the existence or non-existence of another and
than to disbelief nor to disbelief than to belief, different thing. The inference from cause to
but favoring dispassionate consideration. Scepti- effect or conversely is thus not a matter of
cism may be treated as such attitudes, beliefs, certainty. The existence of substance, spiritual
etc.,as applied to all or only certain particular or physical, is neither known nor probable. We
are unable to infer the existence of intellect or
propositions} 6) a proposition negating the
will from acts of intellection or
sincerity, rectitude, or existence of motives of volition, and
human conduct other than selfish or at least sensible experience provides no evidence of ex-
negating their significance in human affairs} ternal substances. The only
certitudes properly
or a proposition expressing lack of confidence so-called are those of immediate experience and
in the worth or hope of success of any one or those of principles known tx ttrminis together
all of man's enterprises (cynicism)} or an with conclusions immediately dependent on
attitude, belief, postulate, assumption, assertion, them. This thoroughgoing scepticism appears to
or tendency favoring such propositions} or have had considerable influence in its time, for
moroseness, surliness, or pessimism growing out we find many
philosophers expressing, expound-
of cynicism or any of the aforesaid attitudes, ing, or criticizing it. John Buridan has a de-
beliefs, etc. Confusion of cynicism with other tailed criticism in his commentary on Aristotle's
conceptions of scepticism may result in great Physics (in 1. I, q. 4), Fitz-Ralph, Jacques
misunderstanding and harm. See Pyrrhonism, d'Eltville, and Pierre d'Ailly maintain views
agnosticism. M. . T.K. similar to with some modifications,
Nicholas',
Scepticism, Fourteenth Century: At the be- and there is one exposition of Nicholas'
at least
ginning of the 14th century, Duns Scotus views in an anonymous commentary on the
adopted a position which is not formally scepti- Sentences (British Museum, Ms. Harley 3243)
cal, though his critical attitude to earlier These sceptical views were usually accompanied
scholasticism may contain the germs of the by a kind of probabilism. The condemnation of
scepticism of his century. Among Scotistic pre- Nicholas in 1347 put a damper on the sceptical
sceptical tendencies may be mentioned the stress movement, and there is probably no continuity
on self-knowledge rather than the knowledge from these thinkers to the French sceptics of
of extra-mental reality, psychological volun- the 16th century. Despite this lack of direct
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 279
influence, the sceptical arguments of 14th cen- developments by unfolding powers or potencies,
tury thinkers bear marked resemblances to together forming one great organism in which
those employed by the French Occasionalists, nature is dynamic visible spirit and spirit in-
Berkeley and Hume. visible nature. Freedom and necessity are dif-
Michalski, C., Let sourest du criticisme et ferent refractions of the same reality. Supple-
du scepticisme dans la philosophic, du XIV e s., menting science which deals with matter as
sonality beyond individual persons ; of his connects sense and understanding. This is
showing man's position in and towards the Schiller, Ferdinand Canning Scott: (1864-
whole of being. His most important works current
1937), unwilling to accept the idealism
include: Die transitendentale und die psycholo- at Oxford in his day on grounds that it was
gische Methods (1900); Der Formaltsmus in "absolutist", sought by a metaphysical pluralism
der Ethik und die materiale Wertethik (1916); not only to account for the unity and multi-
Vom Ewigen in Menschen (1921); Wesen und plicity of things, but also to furnish
the basis
Formen der Sympathie (1923); Schriften *ur for evolution theory. His developed philoso-
Soeiologieund Weltanschauungslehre (3 vols., phical was generally known as "per-
position
1923-1924)) DU Wissensformen und die sonal idealism", or "humanism", though it was
Gesellschaft (1926)j Die Stellung des Mtn- closely akin to the pragmatism of William
schen in Kosmos (1928)$ Philosophische James. The kinship may be seen in Schiller's
Weltanschauung (1929); Zur Ethik und Er- thesis that a theory of knowledge cannot be
kenntnislehre (1933). P.A.S. formed by abstracting from man's total ex-
Schilling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von perience, and may be seen further in his ad-
(1775-1854): Founder of the philosophy of vocacy of the "bogie of discovery" over the
identity which holds that subject and object "logic of proof." Main works: Riddles of the
coincide in the Absolute, a state to be realized Sphinx, 1891; Humanism, 1903; Logic For
in intellectual intuition. Deeply involved in Use, 1930. C.K.D.
romanticism, Schelling's philosophy of nature Schism: The withdrawal of a party from an
culminatei in a transcendental idealism where established group and its inclination to form a
nature and spirit are linked in a series of new order. The term may also mean "dissen-
280 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
ion." The former meaning-, however, is the Wienl938 Problems of Ethics (Rynin, transl.),
usual one. Thus, the separation of the Greek New York 1939.S.S.S.
and the Roman Catholic churches (culminating Scholasticism: Scholasticism is both a method
in 10S4) is known as the "Great Schism."- and system of thought. The namo is derived
F.F. from its proponents who were called doctores
Schleiermacher, Friedrich Ernst Daniel scholastic*. This term, in turn, came from
(1768-1834): Religion, in which Schleiermacher scholazein, which originally meant to have leisure
substitutes for a theology (regarded impossible or spare time but later, as in Xen. Cyr. 7. 5, 39,
because of the unknowableness of God) the feel- took the meaning to denote oneself to pupils
ing of absolute dependence, is sharply delineated or, conversely, to a master. The term Skolasti-
from science as the product of reason in which kos is used for the first time by Theophrastus
nature may ultimately attain its unity. Schleier- as recorded by Diog. L. 5. 37 (or V. 50 ac-
macher, a romanticist, exhibits Fichtean and cording to Ueberweg). From Roman antiquity
Schellingean influence, and transcends Kant the expression was handed down to the ninth
by proclaiming an ideal realism. Nature, the century, when doctores scholastici came into
totality of existence, is an organism, just as general usage and was applied indifferently to
knowledge is a system: Through the unity of those who taught the seven liberal arts or
the real and the ideal, wisdom, residing with theology in the cloister and cathedral schools.
the Absolute as the final unity, arises and is Hence in its widest sense Scholasticism em-
ever striven for by man. A determinism is evi- braces all the intellectual activities, artistic,
dent in religion where sin and grace provide two
philosophical and theological, carried on in the
poles and sin is regarded partly avoidable, medieval schools. Any attempt to define its
partly uur ai, and in ethics where freedom is narrower meaning in the field of philosophy
admitted only soteriologically as spontaneous raises serious difficulties, for in this case, though
acknowledgment of identity with the divine in the term's comprehension is
lessened, it still
the person of Christ. However, the right to has to cover many centuries of many-faced
uniqueness and individuality in which each thought. However, it is still possible to list
attains his real nature, is stressed. An elaborate several characteristics sufficient to differentiate
ethics ison four goods: State, Society,
based Scholastic from non-Scholastic philosophy. 1)
School, and Church, to which accrue virtues While ancient philosophy was the philosophy
and duties. An absolute good is lacking, except of a people and modern thought that of indi-
insofar as in the complete unity of reason
it lies
viduals, Scholasticism was the philosophy of a
and nature. K.F.L. Christian society which transcended the charac-
Complete works: Werke 32 vols., 1835-64. teristicsof individuals, nations and peoples. It
Cf. W.
Dilthey: Das Leben Schleiermachers. was the corporate product of social thought, and
Schlick, Moritz: (1882-1936) Taught at as such its reasoning respected authority in the
Rostock, Kiel, Vienna, also visit, prof.: Stan- forms of tradition and revealed religion. 2)
ford, Berkeley. Founder of the Vienna Circle Tradition consisted primarily in the systems of
(see Scientific empiricism.) Called his own view Plato and Aristotle as sifted, adapted and
"Consistent Empiricism." Main contributions: absorbed through many centuries. 3) It was
A logically revised correspondence view of the natural that religion, which played a paramount
nature of truth. A systematic epistemology based role in the culture of the middle ages, should
bring
on the distinction of (immediate) experience influence to bear on the medieval, rational view
and (relational) knowledge. Clarified the of life. Revelation was held to be at once a
analystic-a priori character of logic and mathe- norm and an aid to reason. Since the philos-
matics (by disclosing the "implicit definitions" ophers of the period were primarily scientific
in postulate systems). Repudiation of Kantian
theologians, their rational interests were domi-
and phenomenological
(synthetic) apriorism. nated by religious preoccupations. Hence, while
Physicalistic, epistemological solution of the in general they preserved the formal distinctions
psycho-physical problem in terms of a double between reason and faith, and maintained the
language theory. Earlier critical-realistic views relatively autonomous character of philosophy,
were and formulated as Empirical
later modified
the choice of problems and 'the resources of
Realism. Greatly influenced in this final phase science were controlled by theology. 4) The
by Carnap and especially Wittgenstein, he con- most constant characteristic of Scholasticism was
sidered the logical clarification of
meanings the its method. This was formed naturally by a
only legitimate task of a philosophy destined to series a) The need
of historical circumstances,
terminate the strife of systems.
Important spe- of a medium
of communication, of a consistent
cial applications of this
general outlook to logic body of technical language tooled to convey the
and methodology of science
(space, time, sub- recently revealed meanings of religion, God,
stance, causality, probability,
organic life) and man and the material universe led the early
to problems of ethics
(meaning of value judg- Christian thinkers to adopt the means most
ments, hedonism, free-will, moral motivation). most widely extant, and nearest at hand,
viable,
An optimistic, poetic view of the
meaning of viz. Greek scientific terminology. This, at first
life expressed in only partly published writ-
is
purely utilitarian, employment of Greek thought
ings on a "Philosophy of Youth." soon developed under Justin, Clement of Alex-
Major publications: Allgemeine Erkenntnis- andria, Origin, and St. Augustine into the
lehre, Berlin 1925) Gesammelte Aufsatze, "Egyptian-spoils" theory j Greek thought and
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 281
secular learning were held to be propaedeutic translations of the rest of his works (Physic*,
to Chriitianity on the principle: "Whatever Ethics, Metaphysics, De Anima, etc.) from the
things were rightly taid among all men are the Arabic by Gerard of Cremona, John of Spain,
property of us Christians. (Justin, Second Gundisalvi, Michael Scot, and Hermann the
Apology, ch. XIII). Thus was established the German, from the Greek by Robert Grotseteste,
first characteristic of the Scholastic method: William of Moerbeke, and Henry of Brabant
philosophy is directly and immediately sub- At the same time the Judae-Arabian speculation
ordinate to of Alkindi, Alfarabi, Avencebrol, Avicenna,
theology, b) Because of this sub-
ordinate position of philosophy and because of Averroes, and Maimonides together with the
the sacred, exclusive and total nature of revealed Neoplatonic works of Proclus were made avail-
able in translation. At this fame period the
wisdom, the interest of early Christian thinkers
was focused much more on the form of Gfeek Scholastic attention to logic was turned to
thought than on its content and, it might be metaphysics, even psychological and ethical
added, much less of this content was absorbed problems and the long-discussed question of
by early Christian thought than is generally
the universals were approached from this new
supposed. As practical consequences of this angle. Philosophy at last achieved a certain
specialized interest there followed two important degree of autonomy and slowly forced the
factors in the formation of Scholastic philos- recently founded universities to accord it a
provision was made in Catholic centers of (vide) period, its proper history does not begin
until the Carolingian renaissance in the ninth
learning for the formal teaching of philosophy.
There was a century. From that date to the present day,
faculty to teach logic as part of
the trivium and a faculty of theology. For itshistory may be divided into seven divisions.
1, Period of Preparation (9-12 cent.). Though
-
these two reasons, what philosophy there was
he does not belong in time to this period, the
during this long period of twelve centuries,
was dominated first, as has been seen, by most dominant figure in Christian thought was
St. Augustine (+430)), who constructed the
theology and, second, by logic. In this latter
point is found rooted the second characteristic
general framework within which all subsequent
of the Scholastic method: its preoccupation
Scholastic speculation operated. Another in-
fluential figure was Boethius (+525) whose
with logic, deduction, system, and its literary
opuscula sacra established the Scholastic method
form of syllogistic argumentation. 3) The third
and who furnished many of the classical defini-
characteristic of the Scholastic method follows
tions and axioms. The first great figure of this
directly from the previous elements already
indicated. It adds, period was John Scottus Erigena (+c. 877) who
however, a property of its
introduced to Latin thought the works of Denis
own gained from the fact that philosophy dur-
the Pseudo-Areopagite, broadened the Scholastic
ing the medieval period became an important
method by his glossary on Boethius' opuscule
instrument of pedogogy. It existed in anH i~*
sacra and made an unfruitful attempt to interest
the schools. This new element coupled with the
his contemporaries in natural philosophy by his
domination of logic, the tradition-mindedness
and social-consciousness of the medieval Chris- semi-pantheistic De Division* Naturae. Other
figures of note: Gerbert (+1003) important in
tians, produced opposition of authorities for or
the realm of mathematics and natural philos-
against a given problem and, finally,
disputa-
ophy) Fulbert of Chartres (+1028) influential
tion, where a given doctrine is sylloffistically
in the movement
to apply dialectics to theology)
defended against the adversaries' objections.
This third element of the Scholastic method is Berengar of Tours (+1088) Fulbert's disciple,
who, together with Anselm the Peripatetic, was
its most original characteristic and accounts
a leader in the movement to rationalize the-
more than any other single factor for the forms
of the works left us from this
period. These
ology. Peter Damiani ( 1072), preached +
are to be found as commentaries on
strongly against this rationalistic spirit. More
single or moderate and more efficacious in his reaction to
collected texts; summae, where the method is
the dialectical spirit of his age was Lawfranc
dialectical or disputational in character.
(+1089), who strove to define the true bound-
The main sources of Greek thought are aries of faith and reason.
relativelyfew in number: all that was known II. Early Scholastics (12 cent.) St. Anselm
of Plato was the Timaeus in the translation and
of Canterbury (+1109) did more than anyone
commentary of Chalcidius. Augustine, the else in this early period to codify the
spirit of
pseudo-Areopagite, and the Liber de Causis were Scholasticism. His motto: credo, ut intelligam t
the principal fonts of Neopl atonic literature.
taken from St. Augustine, expressed the organic
Parti of Aristotle's logical works (Categoriae relation that existed between the supernatural
nd de Interpre.) and the hugoge of Porphyry and the natural during the Middle Ages and
were known through the translations of the interpretative and the directive force which
Boethius.Not until 1128 did the Scholastics faith had upon reason. In this
period a new
come know the rest of Aristotle's logical
to interest was taken in the problem of the uni-
works. The golden age of Scholasticism was versals. For the first time a clear demarkation
heralded in the late Xllth century by the was noted between the realistic and the nemi-
282 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
nalistic solutions to this problem. William of testc (+1253). The last three were instru-
mental in interesting Scholastic thought in the
Champeaux (+1121) proposed the former and
Roscclin (+c. 1124) the latter. A third solu- natural sciences while the last (Robert), if
5
(+1180). The latter was a humanistic scholar this group is Bonaventure ( + 1274), who com-
of great stylistic skill and calm, balanced bined great constructive ability with profound*
judgment. It is from his works, particularly psychologicaland mystical insight. Prominent
the Metalogtcus, that most of our knowledge among his pupils were Matthew of Aquasparta
of this period still derives. Juxtaposed to the (+1302), John Peckham ( 1292), William +
dialectic, syllogistic and rationalistic tendencies de la Mare ( +
1298) and Walter of Brugge
of this age waa a mystical movement, headed by (+1306). Also prominent in this line are
St. Bernard of Clairvaux ( 1153). This+ Roger of Marston, Richard of Middleton
movement did not oppose itself to dialectics in (+1308), of
a Duns Scotua,
forerunner
the uncompromising manner of Peter Damiani, William of Ware, Duns Scotus' master, and
but sought rather to experience and intcriorize Peter Johannis Olivi (+1298). Among the
truth through contemplation and practice. Dominicans who belonged to this group should
Bernard found a close follower and friend in be mentioned Roland of Cremona, Peter of
William of St. Thierry (+1148 or 1153). An Tarantaise (+1276), Richard Fitacre (+1248)
attempt to synthesize the mystic and dialectical and Robert Kilwardby (+1279). Among the
movements is found in two outstanding mem- secular clergy, althoughmore independent in
bers of the Victorine School: Hugh of St. Victor their allegiance, we may place here Gerard
( + 1141) who founded its spirit in his omnia of Abbeville and Henri of Ghent (1293).
dtsce,vtdebis postea nihil esse supervuum and Aristoteltanistn: In this group there are two
Richard of St. Victor (+1173), his disciple, broad currents of thought. The first attempted
who introduced the a posteriori proof for God's to harmonize Aristotle with St. Augustine and
existence into the Scholastic current of thought. the Church's dogmas. This line was founded
Finally, this century gave Scholasticism its by St. Albert the Great (+1280), who
principal form of literature which was to remain amassed the then known Aristotelian literature
dominant for some four centuries. While the but failed to construct any coherent synthesis.
method came from Abelard and the formulas His pupil, St. Thomas Aquinas (+1274) suc-
and content, in great part, from the Didascalion ceeded to a remarkable degree. From the stand-
of Hugh of St. Victor, it was Robert of Melun point of clarity and formula fixation, St. Thomas
(+1167) and especially Peter the Lombard marks the apex of medieval Scholasticism.
(+1164) who fashioned the great Summae Pupils and adherents worthy of note: among
sententiarum. Albert's, Hugo and Ulrich of Strassburg, this
Michael Scot (+c. 1234) and Robert Grosse- Aristotle and his doctrine of separated orders
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 283
gathered about the two great minds of the past Jesus. Dominicans of note were: Dominic Soto
century. Thomas and Duns Scotus, contenting (1560), Mclchior Cano (+1560), de Medina
themselves with merely reproducing their (+1581), and Bane* (+1604). Jesuits:
masters' positions. Thus Scholasticism broke up Francis Toledo ( +
1596), Fonseca (+1599),
into three camps: Thomism, Scotism and Molina (+1600), Vasquez (+1604), Lesslus
Nominalism or Terminismj the first two stag- ( + 1623), Valentia (+1603), Bellarmine
de
nant, the third free-lance. Nominalism: critical (+1625), Suarer
Francis (+1617), the
and skeptical, this is the largest and most greatest philosopher and jurist of this period,
Important mem-
influential school of the period. whose Disputationes Metaphysicae constitutes
bers are, Occam's pupils: Adam Wodham
first, perhaps the greatest philosophical work pro-
(+1358), Walter Chatton, and Robert Holcot duced by Scholasticism. Others worthy of men-
(+1349), then come Gregory of Rimini tion: Cosmas de Lerma (+1642), John a S.
(+1358), of Mirecourt, Nicholas of
John Thoma (+1644), Goudin (+1695), Philip a
Autrecourt, medieval Hume, John Buridan
a SS. (+1671), Ruiz de Montoya
Trinitate
(+c. 1360) and Nicholas of Oresme (+1382), (+1632), Cosmas Alamannus (+1634), Hur-
two forerunners of modern physics and astron- tado de Mendora (+1651), De Lugo (+1660),
284 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Arriaga (+1667), Sylvester Maurua (+1687). which Schopenhauer found greatest personal
Among the Scotistj active during this period: satisfaction. Propounding a determinism and a
Maurice a Portu (+1513), Francis Lychetus consequential pessimism (q.v.), Schopenhauer
a Brixia (+1520), John Poncius (+1660), concurs with Kant in the intelligible character
Bellutus (+1671) and Mastrius (+1673). In of freedom, makes compassion (Mitleidt see
XVII Pity) the foundation of ethics, and upholds the
the second half of the cent., a group of
Buddhist ideal of deitrelessness as t means for
Scholastics attempted to modify the traditional
allaying the will. Having produced intelligence,
system by adopting some of the modern theses
the will has created the possibility of its own
particularly from Cartesianism.
This tendency,
negation in a calm, ascetic, abstinent life.
together with the conservative reaction which
SSmmtlich* Werke, ed. P. Deussen, 14 vols.
accompanied it, brought about the second decline
of Scholasticism. Two movement
leaders in this JT.F.L.
were Emmanuel Maignau (+1676) and Hon- Schroder, (Fried rich Wilhelm Karl) Ernst,
oratus Fabri (+1688). VI. Second Decline 1841-1902, German mathematician. Professor
of mathematics at 1876-1902. Hit
(18-19 cent.)* This group and its tendencies Karlsruhe,
three-volume Algebra der Logik
were continued by Du Hamel (+1706), (1890-1895,
with a posthumous second part of vol. 2
Tolomei (+1726), Fortunatus a Brizia pub-
lished in 1905) is an able compendium and
(+1754), Steinmeyer (+1797) and Reuss systematization of the work
Louis of his predecessors,
(+1798). Among the conservatives:
with contributions of his own, and may be re-
de Lossada (+1748). In 1773 the Society of
garded as giving in nearly all essentials the
Jesus was suppressed. This disaster completed
final form of the Nineteenth
the downfall of Scholasticism. Not until its Century algebra of
reiteration in 1814 did the Church's traditional
logic (q. v.), including the algebra of relatives
(or relations). 4. c.
philosophy revive. Prominent in preparing for J. Lflroth, Ernst Scbrtdtr, Jthresbericht der
this second renaissance was the Jesuit-trained Deutschen
kathematiker-Vereinigung, vol/12
Vincent Bruzzetti (+1824). Others: Taparelli i^U'^V
Algebra der Logik,
2 9 - 26 ;
A ? "P'iateS
vol. 2, part 2.
Schrdder's
(+1862), Liberatore (+1872), Sanseverino
Science of Science: The analysis and description
+ 1865), Kleutgen ( + 1883), Zigliara
of science from various points of view, includ-
(+1893) and Gonzalez (+1895). For the first
time in the modern period, history began to ing logic, methodology, sociology, and history
of science. One of the chief tasks of the science
play an important part in Scholasticism. Karl
of science is the analysis of the language of
Werner (+1888) and Al. Stoeckl (1895) were
science (see Semiotic).
the first figures in this movement. VII. Leonine Scientific empiricism
Restoration (1879). The Encyclical Aeterni (q.v.) emphasizes the r61e of the science of
Patrit of Leo XIII gave this new movement a science, and tries to clarify
the different aspects.
conscious direction. Since Leo XIII's time to
Some empiricists believe that the chief task of
the Catholic Scholars have been philosophy is the development of the logic and
present day,
active both in the fields and
of speculation methodology of science, and that most of the
problems of traditional as far as
history. Numerous reviews have been founded philosophy,
and Scholasticism has raised its voice even in they have cognitive meaning (see Meaning,
the non-sectarian Universities of America.
Kinds off 1, 5), may be construed as problems
H.G. of the science of science. R.C.
Schopenhauer, Arthur: (1788-1860) Brilliant, Science, philosophy of: That philosophic dis-
manysided philosopher, at times caustic, who cipline which is the systematic study of the
attained posthumously even popular acclaim. His nature of science, especially of its methods, its
concepts and presuppositions, and its place in the
principal work, The World as Will and Idea,
starts with the thesis that the world is my idea, general scheme of intellectual disciplines.
a primary fact of consciousness implying the
No very precise definition of the term is
possible since the discipline shades imperceptibly
inseparableness of subject and object (refutation
into science, on the one hand, and into philos-
of materialism and subjectivism). The object
underlies the principle of sufficient reason whose ophy in general, on the other. A working divi-
fourfold root Schopenhauer had investigated pre- sion of its subject-matter into three fields is
recognized sciences (e.g., anthropology, geology) Science?, 1921. C. D. Broad, Scientific Thought,
contain important historical aspects, hence there 1923. A. D. Ritchie, Scientific Method, 1923.
if tome justification for the inclusion of the E. W.Hobson, Domain of Natural Science,
historical method in this aspect of the philosophy 1923. A. S. Eddington, Nature of the Physical
of science. As a study of method, the philosophy World, 1929. M. R. Cohen, Reason and
of science includes much of the traditional logic Nature, 1931. A. C. Benjamin, An Introduction
and theory of knowledge The attempt is made tothe Philosophy of Science, 1937. W. H.
Werkmeister, A Philosophy of Science, 1940.
to define and further clarify such terms as
includes a similar study of certain presupposed as developed especially by Frcge, Whitehead and
beliefs, such as the belief in an external world, Russell, Wittgenstein. Russell (q.v.) was the
the belief in the uniformity of
nature, and the first to combine these trends and therefore had
belief in the rationality of natural an especially strong influence.
processes.
3. A highly composite and diverse study C. The views developed in the V. C. have
which attempts to ascertain the limits of the been called Logical Positivism (A. E. Blum-
sciences, to disclose their interrelations
special berg and H. Feigl, J. Phil. 28, 1931 )j many
one with another, and to examine their implica- members now prefer the term "Logical Empiri-
tions so far as these contribute to a theory cism". Among the characteristic features: em-
either of the universe as a whole or of som? phasis on and on co-operation}
scientific attitude
pervasive aspect* of it. This aspect of the philos- hence emphasis on intersubjective (q.v.) lan-
ophy of science is the least precise and definite guage and unity of science. Empiricism: every
of the three, and employs the more speculative
knowledge that is factual (see Meaning , Kinds
methods. One of the most characteristic of its is connected with
of, 1), experiences in such a
problems is that of the of the
classification way that verification or direct or indirect con-
sciences.This involves the attempt to construct firmation is possible (see Verification),
a general table, or diagram, or map of the
The emphasis
sciences which will properly integrate the on logical analysis of language (see Semiotic)
sciences according to method, subject-matter, or movement from earlier empiri-
distinguishes this
tome other principle of organization. Another cism and positivism. The task of philosophy is
characteristic problem is that of the implications analysis of knowledge, especially of science chief \
of science for some general theory of the method: analysis of the language of science
universe, e.g., idealism, materialism, positivism, (tceJSemiotia Meaning, Kinds of).
mechanism, teleology, monism, or pluralism. In D. Publications concerning the historical
recent years a new type of problem has appeared development of this movement and its chief
which, if it is properly part of the philosophy views: Wissemchaftliche Weltaujassung: Der
of science at all, belongs to this aspect of the Wiener Kreis, Wien 1929 (with bibliography).
subject.- This is the problem of the social rela- O. Neurath, Le Developpement du Cercle de
tions of science. It examines such problems as
Vienne, et I'Avenir de I'Empirisme Logique,
the place of science in a given cultural scheme, 1935. C. W. Morris, Logical Positivism,
e.g., its relations to government, business, art, Pragmatism, and Scientific Empiricism, Paris
religion and morality. 1937. E. Nagel, "Impressions and Appraisals
Bibliography: Karl Pearson, Grammar of of Analytic philosophy in Europe", I, II,
Science, 1892. Henri Poincare, Science and tic Empiricism in Germany, and the Present
Hypothesis, 1905.' W. S. Jevons, Principles of State of its Problems. Ibid. E. Nagel, "The
Science, 1907. J. A. Thomson, An Introduction Fight for Clarity: Logical Empiricism", Amer.
to Science, 191 K
N. Campbell, What is Scholar, 1938. Many papers by members of
286 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the group have been published in "Erkenntnis" 1. The periodical "Erkenntnis", since 1930,
since 1930, now continued as "Journal of now continued as "Journal of Unified Science".
Unified Science". 2. The "Encyclopedia of Unified Science", its
Amongthe individual adherents not belong- Morris (for both, see above, I D), further H.
ing to the groups mentioned: E. Kaila (Fin- Reichenbach, Ziele and Wege der heutigen
land), J. Jorgensen (Denmark), A. Ness (Nor- Naturphilosophie, 1931} S. S. Stevens, "Psy-
way)} A. J. Ayer, J. H. Woodger (England); chology and the Science of Science", Psych.
M. Boll (France) $ K. Popper (now New Bull 36, 1939 (with bibliography). Biblio-
Zealand)} E. Brunswik, H. Gomperz, Felix graphies in "Erkenntnis": L 1931, p. 315, p.
Kaufmann, R. V. Mises, L. Rougier, E. Zilsel 335 (Polish authors)} 2, 1931, p. 151, p. 189}
(now in U. S. A.)j E. Nagel, W. V. Quine, and 5, 1935, p. 185, p. 195 (American authors),
many others (in U.S.A.). p. 199 (Polish authors), p. 409, larger biblio-
B. The general attitude and the views of graphy: in Encycl. Unif. Science, vol. II, No.
Scientific Empiricism are in esential agreement 10 (to appear in 1942). R.C.
with those of Logical Empiricism (see above, Scotism: The philosophical and theological sys-
1). Here, the unity of science is especially tem named after John Duns Scotus (1266?-
emphasized, in various respects (1) There is 1308), Doctor Subtilis, a Franciscan student and
a logical unity of the language of science; the later professor at Oxford and Paris and the
concepts of different branches of science are not most gifted of the opponents of the Thomist
of fundamentally different kinds but belong to school. The name is almost synonymous with
one coherent system. The unity of science in subtlety and the system generally is characterized
this sense is closely connected with the thesis by excessive criticism, due to Duns Scotus'
of Physicalism (q.v.), (2) There is a practical predilection for mathematical studies the in-
task in the present stage of development, to fluence, perhaps, of his Franciscan predecessor,
come to a better mutual
adaptation of ter- Roger Bacon, upon him. This spirit led Scotus
minologies in different branches of science. (3) to indiscriminate attack upon all his great
There is today no unity of the laws of science. predecessors in both Franciscan and Dominican
It isan aim of the future development of science Schools, especially St. Thomas, upon the
to come, if possible, to a simple set of connected, ground of the inconclusiveness of their philo-
fundamental laws from which the special laws sophical arguments. His own system is noted
in the different branches of science, including especially for its constant use of the so-called
the social sciences, can be deduced. Scotist or formal distinction which is considered
C. Here the analysis of language is to be on the one hand less than real, because it
also,
as one of the chief methods of the is not between thing and thing, and yet more
regarded
science of science. While logical positivism than logical or virtual, because it actually
stressed chiefly the logical side of this analysis, exists between various thought objects or "for-
it is here carried out from various directions, malities" in one and the same individual prior
an analysis of the biological and to the action of the mind distinctio jormalis
including
sides of the activities of language actualis ex natura ret; e.g., the distinction be-
sociological
and knowledge, as they have been emphasized tween the essence and existence, between the
earlier by Pragmatism (?.v.), especially C. S. animality and rationality in a man, between
Peirce and G. H. Mead. Thus the development the principle of individuation in him and his
leads now to a comprehensive general theory of matter and form, and between the divine attri-
butes in God, are all formal distinctions. This
signs or'semiotic (?.v.) as a basis for philosophy.
D. The following publications and meetings undoubtedly leaves the system open to the
charge of extreme realism and a tendency
may be regarded as organs of this movement.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 287
thought with little regard for sense experience. thinker, Thomas Reid (1710-1796), and dis-
Further by insisting also upon a formal unity seminated by his followers as a reaction against
of these formalities which exists apart from the idealism of Berkeley and empiricism and
conception and is therefore apparently real, the skepticism of Hume. Its most salient charac-
system appears to lead logically to monism, teristic is the doctrine of common sense, a
e.g., the really distinct materiality in all ma- natural instinct by virtue which men are
of
terial things is formally one apart from the prompted to accept certain fundamental prin-
abstracting and universalizing activity of the ciples as postulates without giving a reason for
mind. By insisting that this formal unity is their truth. Reason is subordinated to the
less than real unity; the Scotists claim to role of a servant or able assistant of common
escape the charge. sense. Philosophy must be grounded on common
The general superiority of theology in this sense, and skepticism is a consequence of aban-
system over the admittedly distinct discipline of doning its guidance. JJ.R.
philosophy, makes it impossible for unaided Secondary Qualities: Those sensible qualities
reason to solve certain problems which Thomism which are "nothing in the objects themselves,
claims are quite within the province of the latter, but powers to produce various sensations in us
e.g., the omnipotence of God, the immortality by their primary qualities." This is the defini-
of the soul. Indeed the Scotist position on this tion of John Locke. Such qualities (colors,
latter question has been thought by some critics sounds, tastes, smells) are distinguishable from
to come quite close to the double standard of primary in that they are highly variable, less
truth of Averroes, (q.v.) namely, that which constant. They appear in human consciousness
true in theology be false in philosophy. in various forms} whereas the primary ones
is may
The univocal assertion of being in God and remain the same. See Primary Qualities. V.F.
creatures; the doctrine of universal prime matter
Secunda Petri: the second of Peter,
Literally,
even angels, that is the second part of a work on logic,
(q.v.) in all created substances,
Institutions Dialecticae, of Pierre de la Rame"e,
though characteristically there are three kinds
of the of forms in latinized Petrus Rarnus (15 15-1572), which
prime matter)} plurality
substances two
in man) giving successive treated of judgments, de iudicio. Hence a stupid
(e.g.,
generic and specific determinations of the sub- person was said to be deficient in secunda Petri,
or sound judgment.JJ.R.
stance; all indicate the opposition of Scotistic
to that of Thomism despite the Secundi adjacentis: Latin expression employed
metaphysics
to describe a proposition which consists solely
large body of ideas the two systems have in
common. The denial of real distinction between of a subjectand a predicate without even a
the soul and its faculties; the superiority of will copula. JJ.R.
over the attainment of perfect hap-
intellect}
Secundum quid: (Lat.) Relatively, in some
in a sense} contrasted with
piness through a will act of love} the denial of respect, qualified
the absolute unchangeableness of the natural simpliciter, absolutely. V.J.B.
law in view of its dependence on the will of Secundum quid, or more fully, a dicto simpli-
ctter ad dictum secundum quid, is any fallacy
God, acts being good because God commanded
f
themj indicate the further rejection of St. arising from the use of a general proposition
Thomas who holds the opposite on each of without attention to tacit qualifications which
these questions. However the opposition is not would invalidate the use made of it. A. C.
Selective Theories of Sensa: A selective in
merely for itself but that of a voluntarist
contrast to a creative holds that sensa
against an intellectualist. This has caused many theory,
students to point out the affinity of Duns Scotus experienceable by any mind under all possible
with Immanuel Kant, (q.v.) But unlike the conditions of perception; preexists the act of
great German philosopher who relies entirely sensing and that, consequently the function of
the of moral consciousness, the mind in relation to the sensa is selective
upon supremacy
Duns makes a constant appeal to revela- rather than creative. The selective
Scotus theory has
and its order of truth as above all philos-
been advanced by such
tion contemporary Realists
In his own age, which followed imme- as B. Russell (The E. B.
ophy. Analysis of Mind),
Holt (The Concept of
diately upon the great constructive synthesis Consciousness), J. Laird
of Saints Albert, Bonaventure, and Thomas, (A Study in Realism). See Creative Theory of
this lesser light was less a philosopher be- Sensa. L.W.
cause he and his School were incapable of Self: 1. Ego, subject, I, me, as opposed to the
powerful synthesis and so gave themselves to object or to the totality of objects? may be
analysis and controversy. The principal Scotists distinguished from "not-me," as in W. James*
were Francis of Mayron (d. 1327) and Antonio statement (Principles of Psychology, I, 289)
Andrea (d. 1320)} and later John of Basoles, "One great splitting of the whole universe into
John Dumbleton, Walter Burleigh, Alexander two halves is made by each of us, and for
of Alexandria, Lychetus of Brescia and Nicholas each of us almost all of the interest attaches
de Orbellis. The complete works with a life toone of the halves^ but we all draw the line
of Duns Scotus were' published in 1639 by of division between them in a different place.
Luke Wadding (Lyons) and reprinted by Vives When I say that we all call the two halves
in 1891. (Paris) C.A.H. by the same names, and that those names are
Scottish philosophy: Name applied to the cur- 'me* and 'not-me* respectively, it will at once
288 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
be seen what I mean." or not all of our actions, approvals, etc., are
2. The and persistence
quality of uniqueness motivated entirely by self-love. Hobbes holds
through changes (Lat. ipe), by virtue of which that they are. Spinoza, similarity, holds that
any person calls himself I and leading to the the endeavor to conserve oneself is the .basis
distinction as in such of all of one's actions and virtues. Shaftesbury,
among selves, implied
words as myself, yourself, himself, etc. (By Hutcheson, Butler, and Hume, in opposition to
transfer, this applies to the uniqueness of any- Hobbes, argued that benevolence or sympathy
thing, as in 'itself').
and the moral sense or conscience are springs
3. The metaphysical principle of unity under- of action which are not reducible to self-love.
Butler also pointed out that self-love itself pre-
lying subjective experience, which may be con-
ceived as dependent upon the given organism supposes the existence of certain primary desires,
or as distinct in nature $ sometimes identified such as hunger, with whose satisfaction it is
with the soul. concerned, and which therefore cannot be sub-
Some philosophers doubted or even denied sumed under it. See Egoism. W.K.F.
the existence of the self. Thus, Hume pointed Self- Realization : A notion central to the ethics
out (Treatise of Human Nature, I, pt. 4) that, of recent Idealism, e.g., T. H. Green, F. H.
apart from the bundle of successive perceptions, Bradley, J. Seth, J. H. Muirhead. These writers
hold that self-realization is the end, and that
nothing justifying the concept of self can be
discerned by introspection. right action is action which conduces to self-
The meaning of self, with its metaphysical, realization. W.K.F.
linguistic and psychological distinctions, has Selves, Knowledge of other: The knowledge
become so ambiguous that it may be useful to by one self of another. See Intersubjective
distinguish between:
Intercourse. L W..
subjective experience, or the physical or somatic signs to the objects to which the signs are
(G. S. Hall, The American Journal of Psy- applicable" (C. W. Morris). A department of
semiotic.
chology, 1897-1898) self} and
(b) the self as applied to the contents of (2) The study of signs and symbolism. In
that experience, or the psychological self, which this sense equivalent to semiotic (q.v.). M.B,
is "an organization of experiences in a dynamic The theory of the relation between the for-
whole." (W. Pillsbury, Attention, 217). mula* of an interpreted logistic system (semanti-
R.B.W. cal system in Carnap's terminology) and their
Self-Consciousness: The knowledge by the self meanings. Name relation; Semiotic 2j and
See
The term is usually restricted to Truth, semantical. A.C.
of itself.
self-consciousness. (See Empirical .C. W. Morris. Foundations of the Theory of
empirical Signs, International Encyclopedia of Unified Science,
Ego)L.W. vol. 1, no. 2, Chicago, 1938. R. Carntp, Pounda-
Self-determination: a) In political theory: the tions of Logic and Mathematics, International
its own Encyclopedia, of Unified Science, vol. 1. no. 3.
working out by a people or nation of 1939.
free from interference Chicago,
problems and destiny, Semasiology: Noun derived from the Greek,
from without. It is often said that peoples and
semasia, signification of a term 5 the equivalent
nations have a right to self-determination, at of semantics, the science of the meanings of
least under certain conditions.
words. JJ.R.
b) In ethics the notion of self-determination Semiosis: The process in which something func-
is used by self-determinists to solve the free-
tions as a sign. It involves that which acts
will problem. H. Rashdall, e.g., uses the
as a sign (the sign vehicle), that which the
notion of a "causality of a permanent spiritual
sign refers to (the designatum), and that effect
self" as mediating between the indeterminlsts
upon some interpreter in virtue of which the
on the one hand and the mechanical deter-
thing in question is a sign to that interpreter.
minists on the other, his view being that our
See also Semiotic.
actions are indeed determined but determined
by "the nature or character of the self" and Semiotic; Theory of Signs: A general theory
of signs and their applications,
not just mechanically, and that it is in this especially in
determination by the self that our moral freedom language} developed and systematized within
Scientific Empiricism II C). Three
consists. W.K.F. (q.v.
branches: pragmatics, semantics, syntactics.
Self -Evidence: That property of a proposition
1. pragmatics. Theory of the relations be-
by which its truth is open to direct inspection
and requires no appeal to other evidence. See tween signs and those who produce or receive
Intuition.- A.X.B. and understand them. This theory comprehends
Selfhood: The Unique individuality possessed by psychology, sociology, and history of the use
a self or ptnon.-^-L.W. of cigns, especially of languages. 2. Semantics.
Self-love: The may be used to denote Theory of the relations between signs and what
tern\
self-complacency or se'{-admiration (see Spinoza, they refer to (their "designata" or "denotata").
Ethics, Book III, Prop.\55, note), but in ethical This theory contains also the theory of truth
discussions it usually (designates concern for (q.v., semantical definition) anrd the theory of
one's own individual interest, advantage, or logical deduction. 3. Syntactics. Theory of the
happiness. Taking the terr.1 in this latter sense
formal relations (see Formal 2) among signs.
philosophers have debated the question whether Logical Syntax it syntactics applied to theoretical
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
language (language of science) j it contain! faculty by meant of which the mind receives
the theory of formal calculi (?.v.), including sensuous intuitions (q.v.). The sensibility It
from sensations. Hobbes (De Corpore, 16SS) subject to Type-Token Ambiguity (q.v.).
is considered the founder of modern sensational- References: J. Ries, Was ist ein Sat*? 208,
ism and Condillac (Traite des Sensations, 1754) ff. (for quoted definitions). R. Carnap, Logical
is most typical exponent. Sensationalism is Syntax of Language, 26. M.B.
uscually combined with associationism. See In connection with logic, and logical syn-
A ssociationism L. W. tax, the word sentence is used for what might
Sensation: (Ger. Empnndwng) In Kant: The con- be called more explicitly a declarative sentence
tent of sensuous intuition, or the way in which thus for a sequence of words or symbols which
a conscious subject is modified by the presence (in some language or system of notation, at
of an object. Kant usually employs the term determined by the context) expresses a proposi-
to designate the content sensed instead of the tion (q. v.), or which can be used to convey an
process of sensing. The process he calls 'intui- assertion. A
sequence of words or symbols which
tion' (q.v.)) the faculty he names 'sensibility' contains variables and which expresses a
free
(q.v.). See Kantianism. O.F.K. proposition when values are given to these vari-
Sense and denotation: See descriptions. ables (see the article variable) may also be called
Sense Datum (pi. sense data): (Lat. sensus, a a sentence.
feeling datum, a gift from dare, to give). In connection with logistic systems, sentence
A datum conditioned by one of the outer senses. is often used as a technical term in place of
See Datum.L.W. formula (see the explanation of the latter term
Sense, internal: The mind's supposed ability to in the article logistic system). This may be done
scrutinize reflectively its own inner operations. when, under the intended interpretation of the
The term was suggested by J. Locke (Essay system, sentences in this technical or formal
Human Understanding, 1690, Bk. sense become sentences in the sense of the pre-
Concerning
II, ch. 1, 4.) .W. ceding paragraph. A.C.
Sense Manifold: See Manifold of Sense. Sentences (Scholastic): Sententiae were origi-
Sensibility: (Kant. Ger. Sinnlichkeit) The nally collections of various propositions and
290 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
explanations thereof} e.g., the Sententiae of religion common in Siberia and neighboring
divinitatis of Anselm of Laon. Peter Lombardua regions without systematic beliefs but entirely
condensed the main theological and philosophical inspired by the shaman (priest or priestess)
ideas of his time into the famous Quattuor libri who, working up a frenzy by dancing, puts
sententiarum which became the textbook for the himself in touch with the spirits of animals or
medieval universities and had to be studied deceased humans for purposes of magic or
and expounded by everyone aspiring to higher divination, K.F.L.
academic honors. The student had to pass the Shan: Goodness, "the practice of virtue." (Con-
degree of sententiarius, and as such he had to fucianism). It is antecedent to the Great
read on the sentences. From these expositions Ultimate (T'ai Chi) and motion, although it
developed the many commentaries on the four is involved in the Reason of the universe.
books of sentences. Practically every scholar of (Neo-Confucianism) W.T.C.
renown has left such a commentary. Peter's Shang ti: Anthropomorphis, Supreme Emperor or
books are divided into "distinctions" which Ruler on High, who as the highest authority,
division is conscientiously followed by the presides over an elaborate hierarchy of spirits;
commentators. R.A. the supreme object of veneration used inter-
Sentential calculus: Same as proportional cal- changeably with the above. Also called Heaven
culus (see logic, formal, 1). A.C. (Tien'ien), August Heaven (Huang T'ien),
Sentential function has been used by some as a and Sovereign (Ti). H.H.
syntactical term, to mean a sentence (q. v.) con- Shang t'ung: 'The principle of agreement with
taining free variables. This notion should not the superior' by Mo Tzfl that all people must
be confused with that of a prepositional junction without the slighest divergence put themselves
(q. v.) ; the relationship is that a prepositional
in agreement with their superior. H.H,
function may be obtained from a sentential func- Shao K'ang-chieh: Shao K'ang-chieh (Shao
tion by abstraction (q. v.) A.C. Yung, Shao Yao-fu, 1011-1077) was son of
a scholar (Ch'eng I-ch'iian's teacher). Although
Sentience: (Lat. sentiens, from sentire, to feel)
Consciousness at a rudimentary sensory level. he served in the government in a few minor
L.W. capacities, in general, his life was that of
Sentimentalism : Anexaggerated and distorted quietude and poverty. But his reputation of
sentiment, revealing a lack of, integrity and scholarship grew so high that
expression of
or a superficiality of feeling. L.V. scholars far and near regarded him as their
SextUS Empiricus: A physician who lived about "teacher," and people "warned one another to
200 A.D. His writings contain numerous refrain from evil for fear that Master Shao
the sciences and ethics. His Adversus Mathe- hsueh) work. W.T.C.
maticos (Against the Mathematicians} is an Shao vin: The Minor Mode of Passivity. See:
important source for the history of the sciences T'ai Chi.
of astronomy, geometry, and grammar as well Shao yang: The Minor Mode of Activity. See:
as of the Stoic theology of the period. M.F. T'ai Chi.
Shaftesbury, Anthony Ashley Cooper, Third Shen: (a) In religion: Spirits; heavenly spirits
Earl of: (1671-1713) He was a pupil and later as against earthly spirits (kuei); spiritual power
a patron of Locke although in the field of which is unfathomable in the movement of
morals, for which he remains best known, he yin and yang or passive and active cosmic
was opposed to the Lockean position. He advo- forces; the or yang aspect of the soul
active
cated the so-called moral sense view which finds (hun) as against the passive aspect (p'o).
a sense of right and wrong in man, guiding (b) In philosophy: god-like power, spiritual
him with social or natural affections to the power, or creative power; mystery; the divine
good of the species rather than to self-interest. man, a spirit man, god-like man, a sage who
He was a lover of liberty in thought and in is beyond our knowledge; vital force; the mind;
political affairs. He was numbered among the the animal spirit; energy j the operation of the
deists but remained a churchman throughout active cosmic principle yang (as in Neo-Con-
his life. His most famous work was his fucianism).
Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, (c) In aesthetics: Rhythmic vitality; ex-
Times. L.E.D. pression; wonderful quality; style full of spirit,
Shaktism, Saktism: The philosophy, supported energy or vivacity. W.T.C.
by liturgy and ritual of various degrees of (c) What is given by nature. W.T.C.
purity, of the believers in the Tantra (q.v.). Sheng (jen) : (a) A person of the highest
It explains Brahma as absolute spirit which, wisdom.
on becoming Shiva and Shakti, the male and (b) A sage (Confucianism). Agreat man
female principles, produces through mayd (q.v.) who exercises a transforming influence (as in
from itself as the One in a series of 36 tattvas Mencius).
(q.v.) the Many, a process which at the end of (c) Confucius.
the world is made to retrogress and again (d) The ideal ruler. (Lao TzQ).
progress periodically. K.F.L. (e) One who "regards nature as the essential,
Shamanism: (from Tungusic shaman) A type the character of Tao (tc) as the basis, Tao as
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 291
the way, and follows the indications of (q.v.). One of the trimurti (q.v.). K.F.L.
changes." (Taoism ) W.T.C. Shivaism, Sivaism, Saivism: One of the major
Shen Jen: 'The spiritual man', one who has groups of Hinduism which has evolved, in
reached a state of mystical union with the addition to religious doctrines and observances,
universe, or "who has not separated from the also philosophical systems of note, based upon
pure and the mysterious." (Chang Tzu, be- certain Agamas (q.v.). Shiva, as one aspect of
tween 399 and 295 B.C.) H.H. the trimurti (q.v.), has inspired cosmological
Shen tu: Being watchful over himself when one speculations no less than psychological and
is alone. This is important in Confucian moral logical ones. As philosophy it attained its
training, because "there is nothing more evident greatest flower in the Kashmirian Trika (q.v.).
than that which cannot be seen by the eyes AT.FX.
and nothing more palpable than that which Shu: "The benevolent exercise of the principle of
cannot be perceived by the senses." It is a way human nature in relation to others}" "the
of "making one's will sincere," and of ex- extension of the principle of the self to other
hausting one's heart and nature. W.T.C. people and things}" "the application of the
Shih: Actuality, substance, to which a name principle of true manhood (jen)}" "the applica-
must correspond. W.T.C. tion of the principle of the central self
Shih: (a) Authority and power natural to the (chung)}" "putting oneself in the position of
position of a ruler, especially the power of others}" "measuring others by oneself}" con-
reward and punishment as in Han Fei Tzu sideration} altruism} reciprocity} the Confucian
"central thread" (i kuan) with respect to social
(d. 233 B.C.). See: fa chia. (Legalists).
(b) External force $ tending force circum- } relationship, as being truet to the principles of
stances; such as that which completes things one's nature (chung) is with respect to the
after Tao engeners them and the Individual self. W.T.C.
Principle (te) develops them. (Lao Tzu). Shu: (a) Statecraft, craft, tact, or method for
(c) Movement} tendency. W.T.C. a ruler to keep the ministers and the people
Shih fei: Right and wrong, with reference to under control, "to award offices according to
both opinion and conduct, a distinction strongly their responsibilities, to hold actualities in ac-
stressed by the Confucians, Neo-Confucians, cordance with their names, to exercise the power
Mohists, Neo-Mohists, Sophists, and Legalists of life and death, and to make use of the
alike, except the Taoists who repudiated
such ability of the ministers." See: fa chia. (Le-
distinction as superficial, relative, subjective, galists).
unreal in the eyes of Tao, and inconsistent with (b) Magic. See- shu and shu shu. W.T.C.
the Taoist idea of the absolute equality of Shu: Number, which gives rise to form (hsiang)
things and opinions. To most of the ancient according to which things become. This philos-
Chinese schools, correspondence of name to ophy was based on the / Ching (7, Book of
actuality, in the social sense
both and the Changes), developed in the medieval interpreta-
served as the standard of right
sense,
tion of it (chan wei), and culminated in Neo-
logical
and wrong. The
Sophists often employed the Confucianism, especially in Shao K'ang-chieh
result of as the standard. The (1011-1077). According to this philosophy, to
argumentation
one who won was right and the one who lost Heaven belong the odd numbers which represent
was wrong. The Neo-Mohists emphasized logi- the active principle (yang) and are charac-
terized by the tendency to increase, and to
cal consistency, whereas the Legalists insisted
on law. The early Confucians emphasized con- Earth the even numbers, which represent the
formity with the moral order. "Whatever con- passive principle (yin) and are characterized
forms with propriety is right and whatever does by the tendency to decrease, forming two series
not conform with propriety is wrong." As of five numbers. The numbers of Heaven add
Hsiin Tzu (c335-c 288 B.C.) put it, "What- up to twenty-five and those of Earth to thirty,
ever conforms with the system of the sage-kings making a total of fifty-five. It is by these
is right and whatever does not conform with that changes and transformations are ef-
the
the system of the sage-kings is wrong." To the fected and the heavenly and earthly spirits have
their movements. The system of numbers be-
Neo-Confucians, "Whatever is in accord with
Reason (li) is right." "The right is the ex- gins with 1, which represent the Great Ultimate
('ai Chi) and is completed with 5, which cor-
pression of justice and impartiality based on the
Universal Reason, and the wrong is the ex- responds to the Five Elements (wu hsing) out
of selfishness and partiality based on of the interplay of which all things are what
pression
human desire."- W.T.C. they are. Thus, in the final analysis, every-
Shiites: A collective name for countless groups things comes from number, by which it can
small in number, whose basic be understood, evaluated, and adjusted to other
of an Islamic sect,
that AH and his descendants are the things with a corresponding number. W.T.C.
dogma is
sole legitimate successors of Mohammed. They Shuo: Inference, one of the methods of knowl-
arc the rallying point for all revolutionary edge of the Neo-Mohists (Mo chS). W.T.C.
and heterodox tendencies among Islamic Shu shu: (a) Divination and magic in ancient
peoples outside Arabia. H.H. China, including astrology, almanacs, the art
Shiva, Siva: (Skr. the kind one) Euphemistic of coordinating human affairs by the active and
name of the God Rudra, the ultimate destruc- passive principles of the universe (yin yang)
tive principle in the philosophies of Shivaism and the Five Elements (wu hsing), fortune
292 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
telling by the use of the stalks of the divination arities, the geographical segregation, and even
plant and the tortoise shell, and miscellaneous the beliefs and rituals of those who use them.
methods such as dream interpretation, the regula- Their study would also give material for
tion of forms and shapes of buildings, etc. various syntactical, semantical and logical prob-
(b) The method of enforcing law and main- lems.
taining the order of the state. -W.T.C. Note on the Indian Sign-Language* Certain
Sibylline Books: These were allegedly ancient, general principles concerning gesture speech may
mythical and inspired utterances of prophecy be established, by considering the sign-language
consulted in times of calamity. Their destruc- of the North American Indian which seems
tion led to composite and forged versions. The to be the most developed. (1) A sign-language
so-called Sibylline Oracles were a group of is established when equally powerful tribes of
Jewish and Christian writings dating from the different tongues come into contact. (2) Better
2nd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D., gestures are composed and undesirable ones are
written in Homeric style, and in imitation of weeded out, partly as a result of tribal federa-
the lost Sibylline Books. They included prophe- tions and partly through the development of
cies of future events, of the fate of eminent technical skills and crafts. (3) Signs come into
persons, of cities and kingdoms. V.F. being, grow and die, according to the needs
Siddhi: (Skr.) Reaching of the aim, success, of the time and to the changes in practical
particularly the attainment of supernatural processes. (4) Stimulus of outside intercourse
powers, such as clairvoyance, clairaudience, is necessary to keep alive the interest required
levitation, the penetration of matter, etc., for the maintenance and growth of a
gesture
claimed for the Yogin (q.v.) in the highest speech j without it, the weaker tribe is absorbed
stage of the practice of Yoga (q.v.). K.F.L. in the stronger, and the vocal
language most
Sidgwick, Henry: (1838-1900) Last of the lead- easily acquired prevails. (5) Sign-languages in-
ing utilitarians, remembered principally for his volve a basic syntax destined to convey the
work in ethics. He was an advocate of college fundamental meanings without refinement and
education for women and one of the founders in abbreviated form. Articles, prepositions and
of the Society for psychical Research. See: conjunctions are omitted} follow
adjectives
Utilitarianism. L.E.D. nouns } verbs are used in the present tense j
Main works: Method of Ethics, 1875; Off/- nouns and verbs are used in the
singular,
lines of the History of Ethics (5th ed. 1902)} while the idea of plurality is expressed in some
Scope and Nfethod of Economic Science, 1885} other way. The use of signals with the
smoke,
Lect. on Philosophy of Kant, 1905. the pony,- the mirror, the blanket and the drum
Sign: (Lat. signum, sign) Logic has been (as is also the case with the African tam-tams)
called the science of signs. In psychology: may be considered as an extension of the sign-
that which represents anything to the cognitive language, though they are related more directly
faculty. That which signifies or has significance j to the general art of
signalling. T.C.
a symbol. Semasiology or sematology is the Signate: (In Schol.) Refers to the intention or
science of signs. See Logic > symbolic ; Symbolism. direction of the agent} as distinguished from
For Theory of Signs, see Semiotic. J.K.F. exercite, which refers to the effects of the
Any event of character A whose occurrence work or the exercise. E.g., one who studies
is invariably accompanied by another event of
mathematics, signate intends to acquire the
character B may be said to be an index of that knowledge of truths concerning quantity,
event. Any index which is recognized as being but exercite, or in the exercise itself of
studying,
such may be said to function as a sign. Thus, renders the mind more able and
apt for
as contrasted with 'index*, the use of 'sign' pre- reasoning rightly. H.G.
supposes a triadic relations. M.B. Signifies: Theory of Meaning (q.v.). See Peirce,
Sign -Language: A system of signs established Semiotic.
either (primitive tribes) or tech- Signification: Signify
traditionally may be synonymous with
nically (deaf-mutes) for the purpose of com- designate (q.v.), or it may be used rather for
municating concepts or sentences, rather than the meaning of words which are not or are
letters or sounds or words as in signalling. not thought of as proper
names, or it may be
The question of the priority of vocal and used to indicate the intensional rather than the
gesture speech is much debated} but there is no extensional meaning of a word. A.C.
doubt that
primitive peoples used signs for Similarity, Law of: (Lat. similis, like) Asso-
communicating intentions and expressing their ciation depending upon resemblance between
needs, especially when dealing with tribes with the associated ideas. See Association, Laws of.
a different tongue. This is almost a psychological yy
reflex, as it may be noted in the elementary Similia similibus percipiuntur : like
(Lat.
improvised mimic of travellers among people things are apprehended through like
things)
they do not understand, and also in the vivid Like knows likej the basic
principle of nearly,
gestures accompanying the utterances of even all
epistemologies, viz., that knowledge involves
civilized people like those of the Mediterranean an assimilation of subject to object, or vice
shores. Sign-languages have a versa. V.J.B.
psychological,
sociological and ethnological importance, as Similitudo (Scholastic): Similitude may be
they may reveal the fundamental trains of called anything which stands for another so
thought, the sociological status, the race peculi- that the second may be known by the first.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 293
Aquinas use* the term at a translation of symbol according to certain philosophers of modern
in Aristotle. It does not necessarily imply any times Hooker, Hobbes, Althusius, Spinoza,
resemblance. -RJ( . Locke, Pufendorf, individuals have united
etc.
Simmel, Geor*: (1858-1918) Occupying himielf and formed the This theory' was com-
state.
bined with the older idea of the governmental
mostly with the reciprocal effects between in-
contract by which the people conferred the
dividuals, he practically ignored the problem of
the individual to the group. Calling attention power* of government upon a single person or
to the psychical interactions as constituting the a group of persons. This theory goes back
real foundation of community life, he stressed to ancient philosophy and was upheld by
the reciprocity of relations. As alleged founder medieval thinkers, such as Thomas Aquinas,
of the "formalistic" sociology, he regards the Marsilius of Padova. Though most of the
forms of socialization, the kinds of interactions philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth
of individuals upon each other as the distinctive century realized that no such original compact
as the idea of the Social Contract called
subject of sociology. He defended in his earlier for,
had actually occurred, the idea, nevertheless,
years a descriptive and relative, as opposed to
a normative, absolutistic ethics. Subscribing to
served as a criterion to determine whether any
act of the government was
a metaphysics of life, he characterizes life as just or not, i.e.,
ceaseless self-transcendence. H.H. whether the consent of the governed might be
Main works -.Problem d. Geschichtsphilosophie,
assumed (especially Rousseau, Kant). The theory
of the Social Contract had a remarkable in-
1892) Philosophie des Geldes, 1900} Soziologie,
fluence upon the political
1908) Goethe, 1913) Lebensanschauung, 1918. philosophy of the
American colonies. See Political Philosophy.
Simple Enumeration: (Bacon) The name given
by F. Bacon to the Aristotelian and the Scho- W.E.
lastic process of induction whicl} advances to Socialism, Marxian: Early in their work, Marx
the knowledge of laws from the knowledge of and Engels called themselves communists (e.g.,
facts established by observation and experiment 'the "Communist Manifesto")* Later they found
it more accurate, in view of the
and clearly arranged. This type of induction terminology of
treats instances by noting the number of ob- the day, to refer to themselves as socialists.
served coincident happenings of the antecedent During the war of 1914-'! 8, when socialists
and the consequent under investigation, and then split into two camps, one supporting and the
other opposing participation in the War, Lenin
formulating a causal connection between them.
Bacon that
considers Simple Enumeration proposed for the latter group, which became
the Third International, a return to the name
lacks methodological characteristics which
the
he conceived (rather than determined and ap- communist, so far as a party designation was
plied) for the process of induction. It may be concerned, which proposal was adopted. Those
added that the ancient and medieval logicians who remained connected with the Second Inter-
were fully aware of this type of induction. national retained the name socialist as a party
T.G. designation. This split not only involved the
Simplicius: (6th cent.) A prominent commenta- problem of the war, but crystallized other
tor on Aristotelian works in the closing years of fundamental divergences. For example, among
the New Academy of Plato. Af.F. "socialists", there was a widespread belief in
Main works: Commentaries on Aristotle's De gradualism the doctrine that the socialist so-
De Anima, and Categoriae.
Caelo, Pfiysica, ciety could be attained by piecemeal reform
Simulacrum: (pi. simulacra) (Lat. likeness, within the capitalist system, and that no sudden
image) A likeness or copy of an original) change or contest of force need be anticipated.
applied especially to a perceptual image which
These beliefs were rejected by the "communists".
copies its object. See Effluxes, Theory of L.W. By way of connoting different types of society,
Simultaneity: The condition of belonging to the many contemporary Marxists, especially in the
same time. As two or more events observed U.S.S.R., building upon Marx's analysis of the
as simultaneous may actually take place at two phases of "communist society" ("Goth a
different moments, it is useful to distinguish Program") designate the first or lower phase
between subjective and objective simultaneity. by - the term socialism, the second or higher
See Relativity, theory of. R.B.W. by the term communism (q.v.). The general fea-
tures of socialist society (identified by Soviet
Singular proposition : See logic, formal, 4, 5.
thinkers with the present phase of development
Skepticism: See Scepticism.
Skolem paradox: See Lotvenheim's theorem. of the U.S.S.R.) are conceived as follows:
Social Contract: The original covenant by which, ditions is it possible to apply the formula,
294 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
"from each according to ability, to each ac- rationally defensible. A strong ethical note
cording to work performed", the first part of pervaded their theology. They opposed the view
which implies continuous employment, and the of" sacramental mysteries. Although condemned
second 'part, the absence of private profit. 2) by the Protestant churches, the Socinians exerted
Political: a state based upon the dictatorship a tremendous influence even after their formal
of the proletariat (q.v.) 3) Cultural: the extension dissolution as a party. V.F,
of all educational and cultural facilities through Sociology: The word "sociologie" was coined by
state planning; the
emancipation of women the French philosopher, Auguste Comte, (1798-
through unrestricted economic opportunities) the 1857).
abolition of race discrimination through state The study of society, societal relations. Orig-
that the
enforcement} a struggle against all cultural inally called Social Physics, meaning
and which oppose the socialist
social institutions methods of the natural sciences were to be
applied to the study of society. Whereas
and attempt to obstruct its realization. the
society
Marx and Engels held that socialism becomes pattern originally was physics and the first
the inevitable outgrowth of capitalism because sociologists thought that it was possible to find
the evolution of the latter type of society laws of nature in the social realm (Quetelet,
generates problems which can only be solved Comte, Buckle), others turned to biological con-
by a transition to socialism. These problems are siderations. The "organic" conception of society
traced primarily to the fact that the economic (Lilienfeld, Schaeffle) treated society as a com-
relations under capitalism, such as individual plex organism, the evolutionists, Gumplowicz,
ownership of productive technics, private hiring Ratzenhofer, considered the struggle between
and firing in the ligljt of profits and production different ethnic groups the basic factor in the
for a money market, all of which originally evolution of social structures and institutions.
released powerful new productive potentialities, Other sociologists accepted a psychological con-
come to operate, in the course of rime, to pre- ception of society j to them psychological phe-
vent full utilization of productive technics, and nomena (imitation, according to Gabriel Tarde,
to cause periodic crises, unemployment, economic consciousness of kind, according to F. H. Gid-
insecurity and consequent suffering for masses of dings) were the basic elements in social inter-
people. Marx and Engels regarded their doc- relations (see also W. McDougall, Alsworth
trine of transformation of capitalist into
the Ross, etc.). These relations themselves were
socialist society as based upon a scientific ex- made the main object of sociological studies
amination of the laws of development of by G. Simmel, L. Wiese, Howard Becker. A
capitalism and a realistic appreciation of the kind of sociological realism was fostered by the
role of the proletariat, (q.v.) Unlike the Utopian French sociologist, Emile Durkheim, and his
socialism (q.v.) of St. Simon, Fourier, Owen (q.v.) school. They considered society a reality, the
and others, their socialism asserted the necessity group-mind an actual fact, the social phenomena
of mass political organization of the working The new "sociology of knowl-
"choses sociales".
classes for the purpose of gaining political edge", inaugurated by these French sociologists,
power in order to effect the transition from has been further developed by M. Scheler, K.
capitalism, and also foresaw the probability of Mannheim and W. Jerusalem. Recently other
a contest of force in which, they held, the branches of social research have separated some-
working majority would ultimately be vic-
class what from sociology proper: Anthropogeography,
torious. The view taken is that Marx was the dealing with the influences of the physical
first to explain scientifically the nature of environment upon society, demography, social
capitalist exploitation as based upon surplus psychology, etc. Problems of the methodology
value and to predict its necessary con- of the social sciences have also become an
sequences. "These two great discoveries, the important topic of recent studies. W,E.
materialist conception of history and the revela-
Sociology of Law: The
sociology of law is a
tion of the secret of capitalist production by
comparatively infant type of investigation and
means of surplus value we owe to Marx. With
consequently exhibits, to an even greater degree
these discoveries socialism became a science . . ." than most fields of sociology (q.v.), confusion
(Engels: Anti-Dubring, pp. 33-34.) See His- and variety in methods and results. It can be
torical materialism. J.M.S. defined, then, only in terms of its subject
Socinians: Followers of the 1 6th century Italian, matter, which is neither the metaphysical and
humanistic Christians, Socinus (Sozzini), Laelius ethical bases of the law nor law as a separate
and Faustus. They advocated freedom of field of social fact. It is, rather, all aspects of
thought over against the orthodox expressions the law considered in their relation to all other
of Christianity. The Racovian Catechism
(1605) social institutions and processes. M.EM.
states their method and doctrines. In general, Socrates: (c. 470-399 B.C.) Was one of the most
they were anti-Trinitarians (see Trinitarian- influential teachers of philosophy. The son of an
ism), anti-Augustinian (opposing the doctrines Athenian stone cutter, named
Sophroniscus, and
or original sin,
depravity, predestination), anti- of a mid-wife, Socrates learned his father's
Catholic inttitutionalismf their interpretation of
trade, but, in a sense, practised his mother's.
Christianity was that it is a religion of the Plato makes him describe himself as one who
attainment of eternal life, Jesus being the re- assists at the birth of ideas. With the exception
vealer of God, and the Scriptures giving a of two periods of military service, he remained
supernatural revelation which is necessary and in Athens all his life. He claimed to be guided
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 295
by a daimon which warned him against what Somatic Datum: Somatic data are those origi-
wat wrong, and Plato suggests that Socrates nating within the bodily organism (e.g., feelings
enjoyed mystic experiences. Much of his time of muscular tension, fatigue, organic and cir-
was spent in high-minded philosophic discussion culatory sensations, etc.) in contrast to sense
with those he chanced to meet in the public data, which are conditioned by the organs of
places of Athens. The young men enjoyed his outer senses. See Datum , Sense Datum. L.W.
easy methods of discussion and delighted in his Some: It is now recognized that to construe such
frequent quizzing of the Sophists. He was a phrase as, e.g., "some men" as a name of an
eventually charged in the Athenian citizen undetermined [non-empty] part of the class of
court with being irreligious and corrupting the men (thus as a sort of variable) constitutes an
young. Found guilty, he submitted to the court inadequate analysis. In translation into an exact
and drank the poison which ended the life of logical notation the word "some" is usually to
one of the greatest of Athenians. He wrote be represented by an existential quantifier (q.v.).
probably develop the Socratic philosophy far tinguished from paralogism by the intent to de-
beyond the original thought of his master. ceive (Aristotle). G.R.M.
Socrates personifies the Athenian love of reason Sophistic: (Gr. sophistike) The art of specious
and of moderation; he probably taught that reasoning pursued for pay, according to
virtue is knowledge and that knowledge is only Aristotle; thus distinguished from eristic, whose
true when it reaches the of definition. . end is simply victory in disputation. G.R.M.
stage
See: Socratic method. VJ.B. Sophistic! Elenchi: (Gr. sophistikoi elenchoi)
Socratic method: (from Socrates, who is said by
The last of the logical treatises of Aristotle,
dealing with fallacies in argumentation.
Plato and Xenophon to have used this method)
is a way of teaching in which the master pro-
G.R.M.
fesses to impart no information, (for, in the Sophists: (5th Cent. B.C.) Wandering teachers
case of Socrates, he claimed to have none), but
who came to Athens from foreign cities, and
draws forth more and more definite answers sought to popularize knowledge. They filled a
need felt in Greece at this time for a general
by means of pointed questions. The method is
dissemination of that scientific knowledge which
best illustrated in Socrates* questioning of an
had previously been more or less privately culti-
unlearned slave boy in the Meno of Plato. The
vated in learned societies. Nowhere was this need
slave is led, step by step, to a demonstration
more widespread than in Athens where a politi-
of a special case of the Pythagorean theorem.
cal career necessitated an acquaintance with the
Socrates' original use of the method is predicated
on the belief that children are born with knowl-
intellectual attainments of the race. The
Sophists came to Athens to assist young men
edge already in t^eir souls but that they cannot
in achieving political success. Before long, this
recall this knowledge without some help, (theory
brought with it the subordination of purely
of anamnesis). It is also associated with Socratic
theoretical learning to its
Irony, i.e., the profession of ignorance on the practical usefulness,
who may be in fact quite and the Sophists, far from teaching what is most
part of a questioner,
likely to be true, instructed the youth in what
wise. VJ.B.
alone
is most likely to bear political fruit. Thus,
Solipsism: (Lat. solus, -f- ipse, self)
The epistemological eloquent public appeal and the art of rhetoric
(a) Methodological:
soon took the place of pure science and philos-
doctrine which considers the individual self and
it states the only possible or legitimate starting
ophy. In this very desire, however, to persuade
for construction. See and refute, the problem presented itself as to
point philosophical
whether among the various conflicting opinions
Co git o t ergo sum-t Ego-centric predicament,
which the Sophists had taught their pupils to
Subjectivism.
of idealism defend and to oppose, there was anything of
(b) Metaphysical: Subvariety
which maintains that the individual self of the permanent value which could claim the assent
of all men everywhere. This quest of the uni-
solipsistic philosopher is the whole of reality
versal in knowledge and in conduct forms the
and that the external world and other persons
basis of the Socratic Quest. Af.F.
are representations of that self having no inde-
L.W. Sophocracy: (Gr. sophos, wise) Government by
pendent existence.
Soma: One of the three important gods of the the wisest. (Montague). H.H.
Vedic religion, about whom the ninth book of Sorge: (Ger. concern) The most essential structure
the This god is associated of human consciousness and of the world; the
Rig-Veda cente/8.
with the plant growing in northern India which basis of all 'being'. (Heidegger). H.H.
was made into an intoxicating liquor. The Sorites: A
chain of (categorical) syllogisms, the
effects of this drink became associated with conclusion of each forming a premiss of the next
supernatural powers. V.F. traditionally restricted to a chain of syllogisms
Somatic: (Gr. somatikos, from soma, body) in the first figure (all of which, with the possible
exception of the first and last, must then
be
Pertaining to the bodily organism. L.W.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
syllogisms in Barbara). in the U. S. S. R.
la the statement of a sorites all conclusions There are two major points of reference for
except the last are suppressed, and in fact the tracing the path that Soviet philosophy has
sorites may be thought of as a single valid in- taken the successive controversies around the
ference independently of analysis into constituent issues of mechanism and of idealism. The first
syllogisms. According to the order in which the began in the early twenties as a discussion
premisses are arranged, the sorites called is centering on the philosophy of science, and
progressive (if in the analysis into syllogisms eventually spread to phases of philosophy.
all
each new premiss after the first is a major The central issue was whether materialism could
premiss, and each intermediate conclusion serves be identified with mechanism. Those who an-
as a minor premiss for the next syllogism) or swered in the affirmative, among them Timiri-
regressive or Goclenitn (if each new premiss atev, Timinski, Axelrod and Stepanov, were
after the firstminor premiss, and each
is a called mechanistic materialists. Their position
intermediate conclusion a major premiss). A.C. tended to an extreme empiricism which was
Soul: (Gr. psyche) In Aristotle the vital prin- suspicious of generalization and theory, saw
ciple) formal cause, essence, or entelechy
the little if any value Hegel's philosophy, or
in
of a natural organic body. G.RM . in dialectical as distinguished from formal logic,
Soul (Scholastic): With few exceptions (e.g., and even went so far, in some cases, as to deny
Tertullian) already the Fathers were agreed the necessity of philosophy in general, resting
that the soul is a simple spiritual substance. content with the findings of the specific sciences.
Some held that it derived from the souls of It was considered that they tended to deny the
the parents (Traducianiim), others that it is reality of quality, attempting to reduce it
created individually by God (Creationism), the mechanically to quantity, and to interpret evolu-
latter view being generally accepted and made tion as a mere quantitative increase or decrease
an articleof faith. Regarding the union with of limited factors, neglecting the significance
the body, the early Middle-Ages, following
of leaps, breaks and the precipitation of new
St. Augustine, professed a modified Platonic qualities. In opposition to their views, a group
Dualism: the body is a substance in itself to of thinkers, led by Deborin, asserted the neces-
which the soul is added and with which it sity of philosophic generalization and the value
enters a more or less accidental union. With of the dialectical method in Hegel as a neces-
the revival of Aristoteleanism, the hylemorphic sary element in Marxian materialism. In 1929,
theory became general: the soul is the lub- at conference of scientific institutions attended
stantial form of the body, the only origin of by 229 delegates from all parts of the country,
all vital and mental performances, there is no the issues were discussed by both sides. gen- A
other form besides. This strictly Aristotelan- eral lack of satisfaction with the mechanist
Thomistic view has been modified by later position was expressed in the form of a resolu-
Scholastics who assume the existence of a tion at the close of the conference. However,
forma corporeit&iis distinct from the soul. (See the Deborin group was also criticized, not
Form) The soul is simple but not devoid of only by the mechanists, but by many who were
accidents) the "facuities" (q.v.) are its opposed to the mechanists as well. It was felt
proper accidents) every experience adds an acci- by Mitin, Yudin and a group of predominantly
dental form to the soul. Though a substance younger thinkers that neither camp was really
in itself, the soul is naturally ordained towards meeting the obligations of philosophy. While
a body) separated, an "incomplete" sub-
it is they felt there was much that was valuable in
stance. It is created in respect to the body Deborin's criticism of mechanism, it seemed to
it will inform, so that the inheritance of bodily them that he had carried it too far and had
features and of mental characteristics insofar fallen over backward into the camp of the
as they depend on organic functions is safe- idealists. They called his group menshevizing
guarded. As a simple and spiritual substance, that is to say, people who talked like
idealists,
the soul is immortal. It is not the total human the Mensheviks, a pre-revolutionary faction of
the Russian Social Democratic Party. By this
nature, since person is the composite of matter
informed by the soul. Animals and plants was meant that they were unduly abstract, vague
too have souls, the former a sensitive, the and tended to divorce theory from practice.
latter a vegetative soul, which function as the In particular, they seemed to accept Hegelian
principles of life. These souls are perishable} dialectics as such, overlooking the deeper im-
they too are substantial forms. The human soul plications of the materialist reconstruction of
it
contain* all the powers of the two other which Marx insisted upon. Moreover, they had
souls and is the origin of the vegetative and neglected the field of social problems, and con-
sensitive performances in man. R.A. sequently made no significant philosophic con-
Soul-Substance Theory: Theory that the unity tribution to momentous social issues of the
of the individual mind is constituted by a times such as collectivization of the land, aban-
single, permanent, and indivisible spiritual sub- donment of NEP, the possibility of a Five
stance. (See Ego, Pure). The theory is usually Year Plan. At a three day conference in 1930,
combined with a faculty psychology. See the situation was discussed at length, by all
Ftcvlty Psychology. L.W. interested parties. Deborin, Karev and Sten
Soviet philosophy: The contemporary develop- leading the discussion on one side, Mitin and
ment of the philosophy of dialectical materialism Yudin on the other. The sense of the meetings
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 297
was that the criticisms made of the Deborin when
empirical, they assume that perceptual
group were valid. space emerges from the correlation of the spatial
In respect to the field of ethici in gen- features of the different senses. LW.
eral, Soviet philosophers have lately been Space-Time: The four-dimensional continuum
developing the doctrine known as socialist including the three dimensions of space (length,
or proletarian humanism. As distinguished width and height) and one of time) the unity
from "bourgeois humanism", this term of space and time. The concept was first sug-
signifies that system of social institutions and gested by H. Minkowski and immediately after-
personal values designed to insure that there be ward incorporated by A. Einstein into his
no underprivileged group or class de facto ex- (special) theory of relativity. The former con-
cluded from full participation in the v good life tended that nothing can exist or be conceived
conceived in terms of the educational and of as physical apart from space-time; for every
cultural development of the individual and the object must have not only length, width and
full enjoyment of the things of this world. height, but also duration in time. As a result,
Such objectives, it is held, are only possible of a complete description and location of an
attainment in a classless society wheer there object must be given in terms of four coor-
is economic security for all. The view taken dinates. Space-Time is mathematically grounded
is that the freedoms and liberties proclaimed in world-points, or durationless geometrical
by "bourgeois humanism" represented a great points, as the foundation of all four-dimensional
historical advance, but one that was, in general, measurement, and in world-lines, or geometrical
limited in application to the emancipation of lines across the four dimensions. An
cutting
the bourgeoisie (q.v.) from the restrictions of enduring geometrical point thus becomes a
feudalism while retaining and making use, to geometrical line (or possibly a curve) in space-
greater or lesser extent, of slavery, serfdom and time. Space-Time is physically conceived of as
a system of private capitalism involving the a general structure determined
by the relation-
precarious economic existence and cultural dark- ship among world-events, or four-dimensional
ness of large proletarian masses. While it is events. The universe of four dimensions
(the
held that there is an absolute right binding omniverse, as it may be called) includes space
upon all, vaguely expressed in such formulations
with all of its events and objects as well as
as, each for all and all for each, it is asserted time with its changes and motions. As
such,
that in class the and class this four-dimensionaluniverse must be change-
society, position
interest of one class may motivate it to oppose less and motionless, insofar as things move
a genuine application of this right, whereas and change only when taken in abstraction
the class interest of another class may coincide from time, or rather when space and time are
with such an application. It is held that the regarded as separate.
proletariat is in this latter position, for its According to the classical or Newtonian
class interest as well as its moral obligation theory, space-time isseparable in an absolute
is considered to lie in abolishing itself as a way into the two elements, space and time)
proletariat, which is taken to mean, abolishing on the
other hand, according to either the
classes generally. , special or the general theory of relativity, this
Lenin, V. I.: Materialism and Empiric-Criti- separation is not possible in an absolute sense
cism} State and Revolution; Karl Marx; Leo but is relative to a choice of a coordinate system.
Tolstoy at Mirror of the Russian Revolution. A somewhat different, metaphysical, interpre-
(These works, with the exception of State and tation of Space-Time was formed by S. Alex-
Revolution, appear in Lenin: Selected Works, ander and C. L. Morgan. According to their
vol. XL 7.M.S. doctrine of
Emergent Evolution, space-time is
Space: In Aristotle, the container of all objects. the matrix of
the world, out of which have
In the Cambridge Platonists, the sensorium of emerged matter, life, mind, and Deity. The
God. In Kant: the a priori form of intuition of world as we know it has evolved out of the
external phenomena. In modern math., name original space-time. R.B.W.
for certain abstract, invariant groups or sets. Species: A relatively narrow class or better,
See Space-Time. P.P.W. class concept thought of as included (in the
Space, homogeneous: A form of sensibility) sense of class inclusion, c ) within a wider class
an intuition peculiar to man which enables him or class concept the genus* A.C.
to externalize his concepts in relation to one In Scholasticism: 1. In logic: the subdivi-
another^ reveals the objectivity of things) fore- sion of genus, comprising several individuals,
shadows and prepares the way for social life. constituted by the differentia specifica. 2. In
... ontology: the common nature or essence, indi-
Space-perception: (Lat. spatium) The appre- vidualized by some agent. This agent is in
hension of the spatial properties and relations Thorn ism conceived as matter, in Scotism as a
of the concrete objects of
ordinary sense per- form of "thisness" (haecceitas). No agreement
ception in contrast to the conceptual knowledge has been reached on the number of ontological
of the abstract spaces of
physics and mathematics. species some hold that there is an indefinite
\
Theories of space-perception are: a) nativistic,
number, others that the number is limited. 3.
when they endow themind with a primitive In psychology of cognition: (a) regarding
intuition of space which becomes qualitatively sensory cognition: The tenses are affected' by
differentiated through sense experience) the object through the medium) this affection
b)
298 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
results in the species impress*which, however, he evidenced from his earliest writings a strong
is not merely the immutation of the sense organ bias for individualism. See: Evolutionism,
or the nervous apparatus belonging thereto, but Charles Darwin. L.E.D.
pressa which in turn actuates, through informing Cambridge, has written widely on educational
intellect and becomes theory, as In philosophy and theology, he has
it, the passive theory.
the known concept, the species intelligibilis ex- developed a theory of Christian doctrine as
based on religious experience, which it general-
pressa, also called verbum mentis. This "word"
is not of the "inner language", but belongs izes and in terms whose adequacy is
states
to preverbal thought and becomes, when given determined by their capacity to nourish and
verbal form, the "meaning" of the spoken develop that experience (Belief and Practice) }
which refers primarily to the mental
he has also written on sacramental theology,
word,
secondarily to the object. including several essays (chiefly in the sym-
concept and, by this,
R.A. posium Essays, Catholic and Critical) on the
Specificative : (in Schol.) Any concrete thing is Eucharist; here his view is that by the "real
taken specificatively or denominatively when the presence" meant the congeries of opportunities
is
Specious Present: (Lat. speciosus, from species, practice the totality or wholeness of man in
look or apprehend) The psychological or felt whom all polarities, such as mind and emotion,
and
soul, are unified, the sphere with
present is a spread of duration embraced within spirit
the mind's momentary experience. Contrasts centre being the symbol of this attitude. K.F.L.
with the physical present which is an ideal limit Spinozism: The philosophic doctrine of Benedict
or boundary between the past and the future. Spinoza (1632-1677). Described by Hegel as
L.W. the philosophy of Substance. Spinoza denies
the possibility of a plurality of substances, and
Speculative Idealism: Doctrine, founded on the
coherence theory of truth, that Reality comprises reserves the term for absolute reality. Hence
one Self, Mind, or spiritual principle. See Spinozism is sometimes used as equivalent to
Coherence, Internal theory of Relations, Pan- Monism. It is also identified with Pantheism,
Speculum: (Lat. mirror) In ordinary language: In his work, the Ethica, Spinoza's
chief
a mirror. Special meanings in optics, astronomy, teaching expressed in a manner for which
is
surgery, and in ornithology. In medieval phi- geometry supplies the model. This expository
losophy, mind is the speculum of nature and device served various purposes. It may be inter-
God. V.F. preted as a clue to Spinoza's ideal of knowl-
Speech Situation: (1) A situation in which a edge. So understood, it represents the condensed
complete utterance is made by a speaker and and ordered expression, not of 'philosophy*
correctly interpreted, by a hearer to whom it alone, but rather of all knowledge, 'philosophy'
is addressed, as referring to some feature of
and 'science', as an integrated system. In such
the immediate environment. an ideal ordering of ideas, (rational) theology
(2) More generally: the circumstance's attending and metaphysics provide the anchorage for the
any use of speech from which some of the system. On the one hand, the theology-meta-
defining characteristics of a primary speech physics displays the fundamental principles
situation are absent. See Language. M..E. (definitions, postulates, axioms) upon which the
Spencer, Herbert: (1820-1903) was the great anchorage depends, and further displays in de-
English philosopher who devoted a life time to ductive fashion the primary fund of ideas upon
the formulation and execution of a plan to which the inquiries of science, both 'descriptive'
follow the idea of development as a first prin- and 'normative' must proceed. On the other
ciple through all the avenues of human thought. hand, the results of scientific inquiry are
A precursor of Darwin with his famous notion anchored at the other end, by a complementary
of all organic evolution change "from
as a metaphysico-theological development of their
homogeneity from the simple
to heterogenity," significance. Ideally, there obtains, for Spinoza,
to the complex, he nevertheless was greatly both an initial theology and metaphysics a
influenced by the Darwinian hypothesis and em- necessarypreparation for science and a cul-
ployed its arguments in his monumental works minating theology and metaphysics, an inter-
in biology, psychology, sociology and ethics. He pretative absorption of the conclusions of science.
aimed to interpret life, mind and society in The fixity of this theoretical structure is not
terms of matter, motion and force. In politics, to be interpreted as incompatible with the con-
DICTIONARY. OF PHILOSOPHY 299
tinuous movement of discovery. The function of The structural nature of this ideal ordering
philosophy as such, in any age, is that of reflects, of course, the Spinozistic view of the
attempting to effect the theoretical ordering of real. Ultimate reality, as Causa tut and as sub-
the available fund of knowledge. There is stance, is all-inclusive. Causality is immanent
implicit in Spinoza's conception of this function causality, and every determinative being lies
the recognition of the two-fold character of the within the one substantial being. Spinoza's
task of philosophy. The task, on the one hand, doctrine of attributes, infinite and finite modes,
is reflection upon the available fund of insight serve to express both the all-encompassing and
and ideas, upon all the fruits of reflection and systematic nature of the one ultimate reality
inquiry, with the purpose of coherent ordering and to distinguish and to determine the status
and expression of the fund. In this sense, of finite beings within this reality. In its im-
'philosophy' is that which can be displayed in manentism as well as in its rational mysticism,
the geometrical fashion. It is equally the task the doctrine of Spinoza is not improperly re-
of philosophy, however, to prepare for this dis- garded as a Plotinism re-directed by the in-
play and
ordering. Paradoxically, philosophy fluence of Descartes and invigorated by the
must prepare for itself. Philosophy, in this enterprise of modern science. A.G.A.B.
function, is reflection upon the conditions of Main works: Exposition more geometric* of
all the discoverygrounds of
of the Descartes' Principles, 1663} Tract. Theol.-
inquiry,
method, of the proper and indispensable assump- Politicus,1670 (only two books published dur-
tions of inquiry as such, and of the basic ideas ing Spinoza's lifetime); Ethics , demonstrated in
within whose domain inquiry will move. If geometrical order, 1677} Political Treatise,
inquiry is to be undertaken at all, then mind 1677} De intellects emendatione, 1677 (On
must discover within itself, and disclose to it- the Improvement of the Human Mind). Cf.
self, whatever authoritative guidance can be Vloten and Land, 2 vol. edition of Spinoza's
assured for the enterprise. The competence of works.
the mind to know, the determination of the Spir, African: (1837-1890) native of Russia, A
range of that competence, the rational criteria
whose philosophy was influenced by Spinozistic
of truth, the necessities revealed to mind by the and Kantian traditions. The main thesis of his
very reflections of mind these and related philosophy is that sensory experience and reason-
questions define the task of philosophy as pro- ing are basically contradictory, insofar as the
former informs us of constant change, whereas
paedeutic both to philosophy itself and to science.
In this recognition of the two-fold character of the latter is characterized by the a priori prin-
Gospel that God is Spirit and that worship is Kroeger, George H. Howison, and Thomas
.
direct correspondence of Spirit with spirit. Davidson. It engendered the St. Louis Philo-
Spiritualism (4) means the faith that spirits sophical Society (founded in Feb., 1866) and
of the dead communicate with the living the Journal of ^Speculative Philosophy. Cf. D. S.
Louis Movement, and Charles M.
through persons who are "mediums" and Snider, St.
through other forms of manifestation. The word Perry, St. LouisMovement in Philosophy.
is more properly used for this faith. K.F.L.
Spiritism
-R.M.J. State: (Lat. status, Ital. stato* the term intro-
Latin, the ruling
duced by Machiavelli) A political organization
Spiritut rector: Literally in
or master spirit} some sort of subtle natural based upon a common territory and exercising
force in corporeal beings. The alchemists ap- control over the inhabitants of that territory.
Essential for a state the existence Of a
plied the expression to some substance, or dis-
is
tilled product, said to be capable of transmuting government, and in the "legal state", a written
metals into gold, and also to an elixir which or unwritten constitution. By the pure theory
was supposed to prolong life indefinitely. of law (Kelsen), the state is identified with
JJ.R. law. By others (Duguit) considered a mere
(Lat. sponte, of free will) The fiction,devised to conceal the matter of fact
Spontaneity:
supposed ability of the will to act on its own preponderance of particular persons or groups.
initiative (sua sponte) and in independence of The state is sometimes explained as the positive
antecedent conditions. See Free-Will. L.W. or actual organization of the legislative or
Spranger, Eduard: (1882-) Developed Dilthey's judicial powers. (In America also: one of the
commonwealths which form the United States
thought, favoring like him, descriptive instead
of America, Brazil, Mexico). W.E.
explanatory psychology. As leading exponent
of the Verstehungspsychologie, he postulates ideal
State of Nature: The state of man as it would
be if there were no political organization or
types representing ultimate categories of value.
These types of personality represent merely government. The concept was used by many
"schemata of comprehensibility," theoretical philosophers of the seventeenth and eighteenth
H.H. centuries as a criterion of what man's natural
guides or aids in understanding people.
Main works: Grundl. d. Geschichtswiss., condition might be and as to what extent
that condition has been spoiled or corrupted by
1905* Lebensformen, 1914) Die Geistestviss. u.
civilization. It was used as an argument for
d. Schule, 1920) Die wisstnsch. Grundl. d.
man's original rights to liberty and equality
Schulverfassungslehre u. d. Schulpolitik, 1925;
Das deutsche Bildungtideal, 1928}* Volk, Stoat, (Hooker, Locke, Rousseau), but occasionally
1930. also as an argument for the necessity of the
Erwhung,
Stu: (a) state and its right to control all social relations
Partiality) selfishness.
(b) A private name. "Only a particular sub- (Hobbes). W.E.
stance bears the name." (Neo-Mohiim). Statement: See Meaning, Kinds of, 1.
W.T.C. Statistics: The systematic study of quantitative
Stu: (a) Deliberation, thinking, facts, numerical data, comparative materials,
(b) Wish, obtained through description and interpretation
(ci Idea. W.T.C. of group phenomena. 2. The method of using
Ssu chiao: The four things which Confucius and interpreting processes of classification,
taught his pupils, namely, letters, personal con- enumeration, measurement and evaluation of
duct, being one's true self (chung), and good group phenomena. 3. In a restricted sense, the
faith in social relationship (hsin). W.T.C. materials, facts or data referring to group
Stu te: The Four Virtues: phenomena and forming the subject of sys-
(a) Being attentive to the fundamentals, tematic computation and interpretation.
penetrative, beneficial, and unflinching the The Ground of Statistics. Statistics have
virtues of the trigram ch'ien (Heaven, male, developed from a specialized application of the
yang) and therefore ethical ideals of the superior inductive principle which concludes from the
man. characteristics of a large number of parts to
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 301
those of the whole. When we make generaliza- treatment. The purpose of such an inquiry is
tions from empirical data, we are never certain to integrate its results into the general problems
of having expressed adequately the laws con- and schemes of philosophy proper. Cf. Richard
necting all the relevant and efficient factors in von Mises, Statistics, Probability, and Truth.
the case under investigation. Not only have T.G.
we take into account the personal equation
to Stem, William: (1871.1938) Psychologist and
involved and the imperfection of our instru- philosopher who has contributed extensively to
ments of observation and measurement, but also individual psychology (see Individual Psychol-
the complex character of physical, biological, ogy)* child psychology and applied psychology.
psychological and social phenomena which can-
He was an innovator in the field of intelligence
not be subjected to an exhaustive analysis. testing, having suggested the use of intelligence
Statistics reveals precisely definite trends and quotient (I.Q.) obtained by dividing an in-
in these dividual's mental age by his chronological age *
as makes a more consistent use of differences affords the foundation for his pcr-
sofar it
by the problem; (3) tabulation and measure- accumulation of vital power, or nervous energy.
ment of material in a manner satisfying the Kant applied it to vigorous or exciting emotions.
purpose of the problem) (4) clear presentation JJ.R.
of the significant features of tabulated material Stirner, Max: Pen name of Johann Caspar
(by means of charts, diagrams, symbols, graphs, Schmidt (1806-1856) Most extreme and
equations and the like)} (S) selection of mathe- thoroughgoing individualist in the history of
matical methods for application to the material philosophy. In his classic, The Ego and his
obtained; (6) necessary conclusion from the Own, he regards everything except the indi-
facts and (7) general inter- vidual as minor; state and all
figures obtained; family, society
pretation within the limits of the problem and disappear before the individual ,the ego, as the
the procedure used. primary power for life and living. L.E.D.
B) The special methods of treating statistical Stoic School: Founded by Zeno (of Citium, in
data are: collecting, sampling, selecting, tabulat- Cyprus) in the year 308 B.C. in Athens. For
measur- Stoicism virtue alone is the only good and the
ing, classifying, totaling or aggregating,
ing, averaging, relating and correlating, pre-
virtuous man is the one who has attained
senting symbolically. Each one of these meth- happiness through knowledge, as Socrates had
ods uses specialized experimental or mathe- taught. The virtuous man thus finds happiness
matical means in its actual application. in himself and is independent of the external
C) The special methods of interpreting statis- world which he has succeeded in overcoming
cal data already treated are: analyzing, estimat- by mastering himself, his passions and emotions.
ing, describing, comparing, explaining, applying
As for the Stoic conception of the universe as a
and predicting. whole, their doctrine is pantheistic. All things
D) In order to be conclusive, the various and all natural laws follow by a conscious
stages and types of the statistical method must determination from the basic World-Reason,
avoid (1) loose definitions, (2) cross divisions and it is this rational order by which, according
resulting from conflicting interpretations of the
to Stoicism, the wise man seeks to regulate
problem, (3) data which are not simultaneous
his life as his highest duty. M.F.
or subject to similar conditions, (4) conclusions Strato: of Lampsacus, head of the Peripatetic
from poor or incomplete data, (5) prejudices in School of Greek philosophy from 287-269 B.C.
judging, even when there is no corruption of M.F.
evidence. Strauss, David Friedrich: (1808-1874) German
) The philosophy of statistics is concerned philosopher who received wide popularity and
in general with the discussion and evaluation condemnation for his Life of Jesus. He held
of the mathematical principles, methods and that the unity of God and man is not realized
results of this science) and in particular with in Christ but in mankind itself and in its his-
a critical analysis of the fitness of biological, tory. This relation, he believed, was immanent
psychological, educational, economic and socio- and not transcendent. His numerous writings
logical materials, for various types of statistical displayed many currents from Hegelianism and
302 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Darwinism to a
pantheism that approaches Charles Darwin as a premise for his evolu-
atheism and then back to a naturalism that tionary hypothesis of natural selection. There is
clings devoutly to an inward religious ex- constant struggle in a species resultant from
perience. Main works: Das Leben Jesu, 1835; the over production of offspring. This notion
Die Christliche Dogmatik, 1 840 5 Dtr alte u. d. is an outgrowth of the influence of Malthus
neue Glaube, 1872. L.E.D. on Darwin. Darwin does not mean actual or
Stream of Consciousness or Thought: Thought necessary combat at all stages, but requisite
considered a process of continuous change.
as dependence of one upon another and of each
The metaphor of the stream was suggested by upon all factors in the environment leading to
W. James. See The Principles of Psychology, the natural selection of the fittest: See: Evolu-
Vol. 1, ch. IX, entitled "The Stream of tionism, Natural Selection, Charles Darwin,
Thought" especially p. 239. L.W. Herbert Spencer, Thomas Henry Huxley.
Strict implication: As early as 1912, C. I. Lewis L.E.D.
projected a kind of implication
between proposi- Stuff, Neutral: A
reality posited by certain
tions, to be called strict implication,
which philosophers which is neither mental nor phy-
should more nearly accord with the usual mean- sical, but which underlies both. See Neutral
appeared in 1920, and this system, and later continuation of the sciences. H.H.
modified forms of it, have since been extensively Main works: Tonpsychologie, 2 vols., 1883-
investigated. An essential feature is the intro- 90 j Die Anfange der Musik, 1911} Empfindung
duction of modalities through the notation (say) u. Vorstellung, 1918} Gefuhl u. Gefiihlsemp-
M[p], to mean "p is possible" (Lewis uses a findung, 1928} Erkenntnislehre, I, 1939.
diamond instead of M). The strict implication Sturm und Drang: (German, "Storm and
of q by p is then identified with ~M[p
""?], Stress"), a period sweeping the German coun-
whereas the material implication p q given3 is tries about 1770-1785, in which men like
by ~[p '*'?] In 1932 Lewis, along with other Hamann, Herder, the young Goethe, Schiller,
modifications, added a primitive formula (in- Wagner, Christian Schubart, and Friedrich
volving the binding of prepositional variables Maximilian Klinger (from whose play the
by existential quantifiers) which renders defini- movement got its name) advocated, in a flush
tion, The Journal of Symbolic Logic, vol. 4 Suarezianism : A school of philosophy and the-
(1939), pp. 137-154. ology founded by Francisco Suarez, of the
Structuralism: (Lat. structure, a building) The Society of Jesus, Spain, 1548-1617. His philo-
conception of mind in terms of its structure sophic position is, in general, that of Christian
whether this structure be interpreted: (a atom- Aristotelianism. The immediate background of
his to be found
istically. See Psychological Atomism; Structural thought in
is
Albertinism,
Psychology) } or b) configuration ally. (Gestalt Thomism, Scotism and Nominalism.
Psychology). L.W. The Disputationes Metaphysicae (no Eng. trans-
Structural Psychology: A tendency in American lation) forms a complete exposition of Suarez
psychology, represented by .B. Titchener. general metaphysics, psychology, theory of knowl-
(A Textbook (1909-10) which
of Psychology, edge, cosmology and natural theology. Basic is
in opposition to Functional Psychology (see the rejection of the thomistic real distinction
Functional Psychology; Functionalism) adopted between essence and existence in finite things.
as method of psychology the analysis of
the Physical substances are individuated, neither by
mental states into component sensations, images their matter nor their form, but by their total
and feelings; the structure of consciousness is entities. Their components, matter and form,
for structural psychology atomistic. L.W. are individual entities united in the composite
Structural Theories of Mind : See Structuralism. of physical substance by a "mode" (unto)
Struggle For Existence: This is given by which has itself no reality apart from the com-
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 303
posite. Except in the case of the human form A Symposium on Suarez (Five papers and
which is the soul, matter and form in the a good bibliography by American Jesuit schol-
natural order cannot exist in isolation. Acci- ars), Proc. Jesuit Educat. Assoc. t (Chicago,
dental "modes" are used to explain the associa- 1931) pp. 153-214.
tion of accidents with their subjects. Spiritual Jesuit Thinkers of the Renaissance, ed G.
creatures (angels and human souls) are not Smith, S.J., (Milwaukee, 1939). VJ.B.
specific natures as in Thomism, but are indi- Subalternation : See Logic, formal, 4.
viduals, constituted such by their own entities. Subclass: A class a is a subclass of a class o if
The soul is the principle of all vital actions a c b. See Logic , formal, 7.
buted to various "faculties", these faculties are Subconscious Mind: (Lat. sub, under cum
not really distinct from the essence of the soul. together -f- scire to know) A compartment of
In this life the human intellect cannot operate the mind alleged by certain psychologists and
without the aid of images supplied by sense per- philosophers (see Psycho-analysis) to exist below
ception. An intellectual concept of a single the threshold of consciousness. The subconscious,
individual thing may be formed directly and though not directly accessible to introspection
then a universal concept of the common nature (see Introspection), is capable of being tapped
of many sensible things within a class may be by special techniques such as random association,
developed by the intellect through the process dream-analysis, automatic writing, etc. The doc-
of abstraction. The will is the faculty of trine of the subconscious was foreshadowed in
rational appetite} it is free in the ultimate Leibniz's doctrine of petites perceptions (Mona-
choice of its object, which is called a "good." dology, Sections 21, 23) and received philo-
Suarez emphasizes the psychological and moral sophical expression by A. Schopenhauer, The
supremacy of the will. The Suarezian theory World as Will and Idea, and E. von Hartman,
of knowledge is what would be called naive .Philosophy of the Unconscious and has become
realism today. an integral part of Freudian psychology. See
As a free creature, man is responsible for Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, esp. pp.
his freely performed actions. Man knows the 425-35, 483-93. L.W.
basic principles of the Divine Law through the Subcontrary: See Logic, formal, 4.
natural use of his intellect. Thus known, the Subject: (Lat. subjicere to place under)
Divine Law is called the natural moral law. It a) In Epistemology: The subject of knowledge
is immutable. Suarez' ethics provides a rational is the individual knower considered either as a
justification for most of the accepted moral pure ego (see Ego, Pure), a transcendental ego
standards of Christianity. The individual has (see Ego, Transcendental) or an act of aware-
rights and duties in regard to other creatures ness. (See Awareness).
and himself; he has duties toward his Creator. b) In Psychology: The psychological subject
The political theory of Suarez is most noted for is the individual
subjected to observation. Thus
its opposition to the divine right of kings. He the introspective psychologist may either rely
held that a ruler derives his authority imme- on the report of another subject or he may self-
diately from the qpnsent of the people, ultimately introspect, i.e., serve as his own subject. (See
from God. Suarez maintained that there are Introspection). L.W.
several forms of political organizations in which For the use of this word in traditional logic,
social justice may be secured. see Predicate.
Ideas, Vol. 1, Ch. 1. L.W. present in a subject but predicable of it." See
Subjectivism, episcemological : Doctrine con- Categoriae, ch. 5.
tending that every object apprehended is created, b) Physics'. Independence of being emerges
constructed by the apprehender. (Montague). as a fundamental characteristic of substance in
H.H. the analysis of change. Thus we have:
the meaning of independence expressed at in of substances. The attributes of the one sub-
first substance. Under the impact of physical stance are plural and are constitutive. But the
science, the notion of thing and its properties plurality of attributes implies that substance as
tends to dissolve. Substance becomes substratum such cannot be understood by way of any one
as that in which properties and qualities inhere. attribute or by way of several. Accordingly,
The critique of Berkeley expressed the resultant Spinoza declares that substance is also per st,
dilemma: either sub-stratum is property-less and i.e., conceived through itself. The infinite mode
quality-less, and so is nothing at all) or else of an attribute, the all pervasive inner charac-
and specific coherence ter which defines an attribute in distinction
it signifies the systematic
of properties and qualities, and so substance or from another, is Spinoza's adaptation of the
sub-stratum is merely the thing of common Cartesian constitutive essence.
sense. Within science 'first substance* persists The critique of Kant resolves substance into
as the ultimate discrete particle with respect to the apriori category of Inherence-and-sub-
which spatial and temporal coordinates are as- sistence, and so to a necessary synthetic activity
signed. Within empirical philosophical thought of mind upon the data of experience. In the
the element of meaning described as 'inde- dialectic of Hegel, the effort is made to unify
pendence* tends to be resolved into the order the logical meanings of substance as subject
and coherence of experience. and the meaning of absolute independent being
In the rationalistic tradition, Descartes intro- as defined in Spinoza. L.M.H. It A.G.A.B.
duces a distinction between finite and infinite In Scholasticism: The nature of substance
'
ceive an existing thing which requires nothing another being. While accidents are in another,
but itself in order to exist. Strictly speaking, substance is in itself. It is what underlies the
God alone is substance. Created or finke sub- accidents, persists even if these are changing)
stances are independent in the sense that they insofar as its being in itself is considered, it is
need only the concurrence of God in order to spoken of as subsistence (subsistentia), Sub-
exist. "Everything in which there resides im- stances are either material, and as such depen-
Obj. IV). Spinoza brings together medieval Substance Theory of Mind: The conception of
Aristotelian meanings and the Cartesian usage, the individual mind as a permanent, self-
but rejects utterly the notion of finite substance, identical substance. (See Soul-Substance
leaving the* infinite. The former is, in
only Theory). The Substance Theory is distinguished
effect, contradiction in terms, according to
a from the substantive theory by C. W. Morris,
him. Spinoza further replaces the Aristotelian (Six Theories of Mind, Chs. I and V) but the
distinction between substance and accident with distinction is difficult to maintain. L.W.
that between substance and mode. (See Wolfson, "Substantive States": (Lat. substantivus, self-
The Phil, of Spinoza, vol. I, ch. 3). "By existent) Substantive states of mind in contrast
substance, I understand that which is in itself to transitive or relational states are the tem-
and is conceived through itself j in other words, porary resting-places in the flow of the stream
that, conception of which does not need
the of thought. The term was introduced by W.
the conception of another thing from which it James (The Principle* of Psychology, Vol. I,
must be formed." (Ethics, I, Def. III). Sub- pp. 243-8). L.W.
stance is thus ultimate being, self-caused or Substantive Theory of Mind: A diluted form
from itself (a se) y andso absolutely independent of the Substance Theory of mind which asserts
being, owing its being to itself, and eternally that the mind, while not strictly a substance,
self-sustaining. It is in itself (in **), and all possesses a substantial character. See Substance
things are within it. Substance is one and Theory of Mind. L.W.
there can be but one substance ) God is this Substitution, rule of: See logic, formal, 1.
substance. For Descartes, every substance has a Substratum: (Gr. hypokeimenon) That in which
principal attribute, an unchangeable essential an attribute inheres, or of which it is predicated)
nature, without which it can neither be nor substance) subject. In Aristotle's philosophy
be understood. The attribute is thus constitutive hypokeimenon sometimes means matter is under-
of substance, and .the latter is accessible to lying form, sometimes the concrete thing as
mind only through the former. By virtue of possessing attributes, sometimes the logical sub-
having different constitutive essences or attri- ject of predication. G.R.M.
butes,substances are opposed to one another. Subsumption: Noun signifying that the subject
Spinoza, rejecting the idea of finite substance, of a proposition is taken under the predicate.
necessarily rejects the possibility of a plurality Also the inclusion of the species under the
306 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
genus, and the individual under the species.
The Summists: (Lat. Summa, a compendium) A
minor premiss which applies a general law group of writers in the 12th to 14th centuries
stated by the major premiss of a syllogism is who produced compendious, encyclopedic works
called a subsumption. JJ.R. known as Summae. Beginnings of the summa-
Succession and Duration: These concepts are form are to be found in Peter Abaelard's
of 'flowing' time Sic et Non (early 12th C.) and Peter Lom-
inseparable from the idea
in which eevry event endures relatively to a
bard's Libri IV Sententiarum (mid 12th C.).
succession of other events, In Leibniz's view, Theological Summae consisted of collections of
succession was the most important characteristic opinions (sententiae) from earlier authorities,
particularly Patristic, with some attempt sat a
of time defined by him as "the order of suc-
cession." Some thinkers, notably H. Bergson, resolution of the conflicts in such opinions.
thickness; it is a cross-section of the world contra G entiles , and S. Theologiae), are im-
13th C. Summists. There were philo-
in process, or "the immediate present con-
its portant
dition of the world at some epoch." R.B.W. sophical Summae, also, such as the S. Logicae
Summation, Psychic: (Lat. summa, sum) nothing definite being able to be said about the
Fusion or combination of separate states of real, it is, like the apparent, as nothing, in other
mind to form a new whole. See Fusion t Psychic. words, sunya, void. K.F.L.
L.W. Supererogation: (Lat. super, above) and erogare,
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 307
to spend public funds) The act or condition of tha.t God positively decreed the Fall of man ai
doing more than is strictly required by law; a means to the manifestation of His Power of
in Catholic moral terminology, an act of salvation;attributed to Calvinism but opposed
supererorogation consists in doing more than by some "Jnfralapsarian" Calvinists. See: Pre-
one's duty, a practice of special virtue. VJ.B. destination. VJ.B.
Superman: The name given by Nietzsche to Su p'ui "Unadorned simplicity", being the state
what he deems a higher type of humanity, of original nature, ii a state of desire less ness,
viewed as the goal of evolution. H.H. of total absence of knowledge distinctions, of
Supernatural: That which surpasses the active pure instinctivity. (Chuang Tzfi, between 399
and exactive powers of nature or that which and 295 B.C.). H.H.
natural causes can neither avail to produce nor Surrealism : a. Spiritualistic trend of art.
e.g. Venice 1597, 1622). J. Maritain, Petite conscious level, and discover there the true
Logique, Paris, 1933. .and primitive meanings that things have for
Suppositio discreta: The kind of suppositio be- us prior to the forms that we impose on them.
functions correspond to composite physical tioned, from the logical whole to the logical
events, the psycho-physical view of Fechner part.
(q.v.). K.F.L. 2. The logical composition or combination of
Synergism: (Gr. syn., with) and ergein, to separate elements of thought) and also the
work) The theological position that there is result of this process. A
judgment is considered
more than one principle actively working in the as a synthesis when its predicate is accidental
salvation of man) the term became common in or contingent with respect to the subject: ts
the 16th century disputes of Melancthon against the ground of such a synthesis is experience,
the "Monergism" of Luther) Melancthon held synthetic judgments are a posteriori. The
that the Holy Spirit, the Word of God, and the Kantian doctrine of synthetic judgments a priori
human will are three co-operating principles involves a synthesis between two terms, prior
in conversion. VJ.B. to experience and through the agency of the
Synkatathesis: Greek noun derived from syn, forms of our intuition or of our understanding.
together, and katathesis, to put down) hence 3. The logical process of adding some ele-
310 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
mentt to the comprehension of a concept in ments. Also, the complex substance so formed.
order to obtain iU 'logical division* in contra- T.G.
distinction to the 'real division' which breaks
Synthetic Judgment: (Kant. Ger. synthetische
up a composition by analysis. Urfeil) A judgment relating a subject concept
4. The third phase in the dialectical process,
with a not included within
predicate concept
combining the thesis and the antithesis for the the The of such a
subject proper. validity
emergence of a new level of being.
5. In natural philosophy } the process of com- judgment depends on its 'ground'. Kant's cen-
tral question was: "Are synthetic a priori judg-
bining various elements into a new
material
substance. The art of
making or building up a ments possible?" See Kantianism Scientific Em-
,
compound by simpler compounds or by its ele- piricism, See also Meaning^ kinds of, 2. O.F.K.
Ta: General name. "All substances necessarily (e) The Great Ultimate which is identical
call for such a name." (Neo-Mohism). W.T.C. with the Reason (li) of the universe, of the
Taboo or Tabu: Anthropological term of Poly- two (yin and yang) vital forces (ch'i), and of
nesian origin applied to persons or things with the Five Elements (wu hsing). It is the Reason
which contacts are borbidden under severe social of ultimate goodness. "Collectively there is only
and religious penalties. The primitive belief one Great Ultimate, but there is a Great Ulti-
in taboos, affording as it does religious sanc- mate in each thing." (Chu Hsi, 1130-1200).
tions for moral prohibitions, is of great ethical W.T.C.
significance and has even been considered by T'ai ch'u: At the 'great beginning* there was
some to be the origin of morality and ethics. non-being, which had neither being nor name.
L.W. (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.).
Tabula rasa: Literally, a blank tablet. John The great origin, or the beginning of the vital
Locke (1632-1704) held that human knowledge force (ch'i). (Lieh Tzu, third century A.D.).
came by way of experience. The mind is like H.H.
a slate upon which experience records impres- T'ai Ho*: Grand Harmony or Infinite Harmony,
sions. This is a denial of innate, a priori the state and totality of being anterior to, but
(hsiang), which m their turn give rise to the Vacuity as ice is to water. (Chang Heng-ch'u,
Eight Elements (pa kua) and the Eight Ele- 1020-1077). W.T.C.
ments determine all good and evil and the T'ai Hsuan: The Supremely Profound Principle,
great complexity of life." (Ancient Chinese "extending to and covering the myriad things
philosophy). without assuming ahy physical form, which
(b) The Great Ultimate which comes from, created the universe by drawing its support from
but is one with, the Non-Ultimate
originally the Void, embraces the divinities, and deter-
(wu chi). Its movement and tranquillity en- mines the course of events." (Yang Hsiung,
gender the active principle, yang, and the d.18 B.C.). WM\C.
passive principle, yin, respectively (the Two T'ai I: The Great Indeterminate, the state of
Primary Modes), the transformation and the existence before the emergence of the vital force
union of which give rise to the Five Agents (ch'i). (Lieh T,
third century A.D.). W.T.C.
(wu hsing) of Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, and T'ai i: (a) The Great Unit, the Prime Force
Earth, and thereby the determinate things. before appearance of Heaven and Earth.
the
(Chou Lien-hsi, 1017-1073). Also called ta i. (Ancient Confucianism).
The Great Ultimate which is One and
(c) (b) Ultimate Oneness, which involves both
unmoved, and which, when moved, becomes the Being (yu) and Non-Being (wu) (as in Chuang
Omnipotent Creative Principle (shen) which Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.)} or "which
engenders Number, then Form, and finally pervades Heaven and Earth, indeterminate but
corporeality. Being such, the Great Ultimate is simple, existing but uncreated," (As in Huai-
identical with the Mind} it is identical with nan Tzu, d. 122 B.C.).
the Moral Law (tao). (Shao K'ang-chieh, (c) The Lord of Heaven (Huai-nan Tzu).
1011-1077). W.T.C.
(d) The Great Ultimate which is identical T'ai Shih: The Great Beginning, the first ap-
with the One (1), or the Grand Harmony pearance of material form. W.T.C.
(T'ai Ho). (Chang Heng-ch'fl, 1020-1077). T'ai Su: The Great Element, the beginning of
312 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
qualities things. (Liek Tu, third century
of from it was printed its first edition by Bomberg,
A.D.). W.T.C. Venice, 1523-24. #.,,<?.
T'ai yangt The Major Mode of Activity. See Tamaa: (Skr.) One of the three gunas (q.v.)
Tai CM. of the Sankhya (q>v.), representing the principle
T'ai yin: The Major Mode of Passivity. See: of inactivity, sluggishness, and indifference in
(yin)." In the Utter sense as understood both be quiet like purity Lao Tan (Lao Ttfi)
. . .'
in ancient Confucianism and in Neo-Confucian- said, 'Know manhood (active force), and pre-
ism, it is interchangeable with the Great Ulti- serve womanhood (passive force)) become the
mate (T'ai Chi). Shao K'ang-chieh (1011- ravine of the world. Know whiteness (glory))
1077) said that "The Moral Law is the Great endure blackness (disgrace)) become a model of
Ultimate." Chang Hng-ch'u (1022-1077) the world.* Men all seek the first) he alone
identified it with the Grand Harmony (Ta Ho) took the last . . Men all seek for happiness)
.
and said that "from the operation of the vital he alone sought contentment in adaptation . . .
force (ch'i) there is the Way." This means that He regarded the deep as the fundamental)
the Way is the principle of being as well as moderation as the rule . . .
the sum total of the substance and functions "Silent and therefore formless, changing and
of things. To Ch'eng I-ch'uan (1033-1107) therefore impermanent, now dead, now living,
"There is no Way independent of the active equal with Heaven and Earth, moving with the
(yang) principle and the passive (yin) prin- spiritual and the intelligent, disappearing
cile. Yet it is precisely the Way that deter- where ? Suddenly whither? . . . These were
mines the active and passive principles. These some aspects of the system of Tao of the
princiles are the constituents of the vital force ancients. Chuang Chow (Chuang Tzu) heard
(ch'i), which is cororeal. On
the other hand, of them and was delighted ... He had per-
the Waytranscends corporeality." To Chu Hsi sonal communion with the spirit of Heaven
(1130-1200), the Way is "the Reason why and Earth but no sense of pride in his superi-
things are as they are." Tai Tung-yuan (1723- ority to all things. He did not condemn either
1777) understood it to mean "the incessant right or wrong, so he was at ease with the
transformation of the universe," and "the opera- world . .Above he roams with the Creator)
.
tion of things in the world, involving the below he makes friends of those who transcend
constant flow of the vital force (ch'i) and beginning and end and make no distinctions
change, and unceasing production and reproduc- between life and death . ." W.T.C. .
bodiment) to regard accumulation as deficiency; and tradition, for his works of art. L.V.
to dwell quietly and alone with the spiritual and Ta te: Universally recognized moral qualities of
the intelligent) these were some aspects of the man, namely, wisdom (chih), moral character
system of Tao of the ancients . . . They built (je"n), and courage (yung). (Confucianism).
their system upon the principle the eternal Non- W.T.C,
Being and centered it upon the idea of Ultimate Ta t'i: "The part of man which is great."
Unity. Their outward expression was weakness (Mencius). H.H.
and humility. Pure emptiness without injury to Tattva: (Skr.) "Thatness", "whatness", one of
objective things was for them true substance. the principles ranging from abstract factors oi
Kuan Yin said, "Establish nothing in regard conscious life to relations and laws governing
to oneself. Let things be what they are} move natural facts. The Trika (q.v.). knows 36
like water i be tranquil like a mirror) respond t&ttva: which come into play when the universe
like an echo. Pass quickly like the non-existent) "unfolds", i.e., is created by Shiva in an ad
314 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
variously symbol! red by the awakening of his God} in other essays, he declares that grounds
mind or a "shining forth" (see abhdsea). for belief are found in cosmology, in conscience
K.F.L. and in religious experience. As an Anglo-
Tat tvam asi: (Skr.) "That art thou", the sum Catholic, he has given (in volume two of his
and substance of the instruction which &vetaketu Giffords) a learned apologia for this position,
received from his father UddSlaka Aruni, ac- on philosophical grounds. W.N.P.
cording to the Chandogya Upanishad. It hints Te: (a) Virtue} power} character} efficacy The
the identity of the self, atman, with the essence Individual Principle, Tao particularized or in-
of the world as the real, satya. K.F.L. herent in a thing, the "abode of Taoj" through
Ta t'ung: (a) The period of Great Unity and "the obtaining of which" a thing becomes what
Harmony the Confucian Utopia. (Early Con- it is.
fiicianism}K'ang Yu-wei, 1858-1929). (b) Virtue, moral character, "that which ob-
'(b) The Great Unity, Heaven and Earth tains in a person;" "that which Is sufficient in
and all things forming an organic unity. the self without depending on any external
Tauler, Johannes: (1300-1361) was an out- Techne: (Gr. techne) The set of principles, or
standing German mystic and preacher. Born rational method, involved in the production
of an object or the accomplishment of an end;
in Strassburg, he entered the Dominican Order
and did his and theological the knowledge of such principles or method}
philosophical
studies at Cologne, where he was probably art. Techne resembles episteme in implying
influenced by Eckhart. He was most interested knowledge of principles, but differs in that
in the ethical and religious aspects of mysticism, itsaim is making or doing, not disinterested
and, like Eckhart, he concentrated on an understanding. G.R.M.
analytical intuition of his own consciousness TeichmQller, Gustav: (1832-1888) Strongly in-
in his endeavor to grasp the immanent reality fluenced by Leibniz and Lotze and anticipating
of God. Die Predigten Tattlers, ed. F. Vetter, some recent philosophic positions, taught a
(Berlin, 1910) is the most recent edition of thoroughgoing personalism by regarding the
his sermons. V.J.B. "I'', given immediately in experience as a unit,
as the real substance, the world of ideas a
Tautology: As a syntactical term of the preposi-
projection of its determinations (perspectivism).
tional calculus this is defined in the article on
Nature is
appearance, substantiality being
logic,formal (q. v.). Wittgenstein and Ramsey
ascribed to it only in analogy to the "I". Con-
proposed to extend the concept of a tautology to
sciousness and knowledge are clearly separated,
disciplines involving quantifiers, by interpreting
the latter being specific and semiotic. Reality
a quantified expression as a multiple (possibly
is interpreted monadologically. K.F.L.
infinite) conjunction or disjunction; under this
Telegnosis: (Gr. tele, at a distance gnosis,
extension, however, it no longer remains true
that the test of a tautology is effective. knowledge) Knowledge of another mind which
The name law is presumably not mediated by the perception of
of tautology is given to either
of the two related theorems of the
his body nor by any other physical influence by
dually
which communication between minds is or-
prepositional calculus,
[p v p] p, & pp pt s dinarily mediated. See Intersubjective Inter-
or either of the two corresponding dually re- course, Telepathy. L.W.
lated theorems of the algebra of classes, Telegnostic situations: "Cognitive situations in
a **> a a, = a * a =. a.
which a mental event belonging to another
Whitehead and Russell reserve the name prin-
mind is the sole objective constituent." (Broad).
~/i./i.
ciple of tautology for the theorem of the propo-
sitional calculus, [p v p} => Telegram Argument: Argument for the efficacy
p, but use law of
of mind resting on a radical difference of
tautology in the above senses. A. C.
L. Wittgenstein, Tractates Logico-Pbilosophicus, response to two slightly differing stimuli because
New York and London, 1922. F. P. Ramsey, of their difference of meaning. The Telegram
The foundations of mathematics, Proceedings of
theLondon Mathematical Society, ser. 2, vol. 25 Argument is so called because of the illustration
(1926), pp. 338-384; reprinted in his book of of two telegrams: "Our son has been killed"
the same New York and London, 1931.
title, and "Your son has been killed" received by
Taylor, Alfred Edward: Born in 1869, pro- parents whose son is away from home and
fessor of philosophy at St. Andrews and Edin- whose difference of reading depends only on the
burgh, after teaching for many years at Oxford. presence or absence of the letter "Y". See C. D.
Taylor's metaphysics were predominantly Hegel- Broad, The Mind and its Place in Nature,
ian and idealist (as in Elements of Metaphysics) pp. 118 ff.
during his early years } in later years (as in Teleoklin: Adjective meaning, tending toward a
numerous essays in Mind, and his Gifford purpose} used in German by Oskar Kohnstamm,
Lectures Faith of a Moralist) he has become born in 1871. He held that Teleoklise, the
something of a neo-scholastic, although he fol- inclination toward purposive activity, is a charac-
lows no school exclusively. In his Gifford teristic of all life. -JJ.R.
Lectures he argues from moral experience to Teleologieal Argument for God: (Gr. telos,
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 315
end or purpoie) Sometimes referred to at the Academia Telesiana, which he founded at
argument from design. Events, objects, or Naples, stressed empirical methods and Telesio
persons are alleged to reveal a kind of relation- tried to explain all physical phenomena in
ship which suggests a purpose or end toward terms of heat and cold, at expanding and
which they move. Such ends reveal a Fashioner contracting forces in matter. He wrote: De
or Designer who guides and directs toward the Natura rerum juxta propria principia (1570),
fulfillment of their functions. This Architect ed. V. Spampanato, 2 vol. (Modena-Genoa,
is God. Paley (1745-1805) in his Natural 1911-13). VJ.S.
Theology a classic expositor of the argument.
is Telos: (Gr. telos) The end term of a process j
Kant favored the argument, but held that it specifically, in Aristotle, the purpose or final
leaned too heavily upon the cosmological argu- cause. See Aristotelianism. G.R.M.
ment which in turn rested upon the ontological, Temple, William: For many years Archbishop
both of which crumbled when critical analysis of York, Temple (born 1881) has written ex-
is applied. V.F. tensively on the philosophy of religion. In
Teleological ethics: A species of axiological Mtns Creatrix and most recently in Nature
ethics which makes the determination of the Man and God, he has argued for a universe of
Tightness of an action wholly dependent on an levels, culminating in value, and pointing to
estimate of its actual or probable conduciveness God as Supreme Value and hence Ultimate
to some end or of its actual or probable pro- Reality. Recent work on the nature of revela-
ductiveness, directly or indirectly, of the maxi- tion has given him the definition of revelation
mum good. E.g., utilitarianism. W.K.F. as "coincidence of divinely guided event and
Teleological Idealism: Name given by Lotze divinely guided apprehension") in this setting
for his system of semi-monistic personalism.WX. he places (see Christ the Truth) the Incarna-
Teleological Personalism: The doctrine that tion as central and most significant event
God is to be thought of not as First, but as apprehended by the Christian community. He is
Final Cause. Applied to Lotze and Howison. ' a Platonist in tendency, although within recent
R.T.F. years this has been modified by scholasticism,
Teleology: (Gr. telos, end, completion) The and a study of Marxian philosophy. W.N.P.
theory of purpose, ends, goals, final causes, Tension: Since normal mental life oscillates
values, the Good (s.). The opposite of Mech- between two extremes: a plane of action in
anism. As opposed to mechanism, which ex- which sensori-motor functions occur, and a plane
plains the present and the future in terms of of dream, in which we live our imaginative
the past, teleology explains the past and the life, of which memory is a major part, there
present in terms of the future. Teleology as are as many corresponding intermediate planes
such does not imply personal consciousness, as there are degrees of 'attention to life',
volition, or intended purpose (q.v.). adaptation to reality. The mind has a power sui
1. Phyaics, Biology: See Vitalism. generis to produce contractions and expansions
2. Psychology: See Hormic, Instinct, Hedon- of itself. Calling attention to the need of dis-
ism , Voluntarism. tinguishing various heights of tension or 'tones'
3. Epistemology: the view that mind is guided in psychic life, Bergson interprets the life of
or governed by j purposes, values, interests, "in- the universe and the life of human personality
stinct",as well as by "factual", "objective" or in terms of tension. H.H.
logical evidence in its pursuit of truth (see Term : In common English usage the word "term"
Fideism, Voluntarism, Pragmatism, Will-to -be- is syntactical or semantical character, and
in
lieve, Value judgment). means simply a word (or phrase), or a word
4. Metaphysics: The doctrine that reality is associated with its meaning. The phrase "un-
ordered by goals, ends, purposes, values, formal defined term" as used in mathematical postulate
or final causes (q.v.). theory (see mathematics) is perhaps best referred
5. Ethics: The view that the standard of to this common meaning of "term." In tradi-
human life is value, the Good, rather than duty, tional logic, a term is a concept appearing as
law, or formal decorum. W.L. subject or predicate (q. v.). of a categorical
Teleosis : Noun used in German by Ernst Haeckle proposition) also, a word or phrase denot-
(1834-1919) denoting organic improvement or ing such a concept. The word "term" has
perfection. -JJ.R. also employed in a syntactical sense in
been
Telepathy: (Gr. tele, at a distance -|- pathein, various special developments of logistic systems
to experience) The phenomenon of direct com- (q. v.), usually in a way suggested by the
tradi-
munication between two minds separated by a tional usage.
great distance and without the normal operation The mathematical use of the word "term"
of the organs of sense. Telepathy is a sub- appears in such phrases as "the terms of a sum"
variety of telegnosis (see Telegnosis) which (i.e., the separate numbers which are added to
is characterized by its felt directness or imme- form the sum, or the expressions for them),
diacy. L.W. "the terms of a polynomial," "the terms of a
Telesio, Bernardino: (1508-1588) was one of proportion," "the terms of an infinite series," etc.
the fathers of the scientific movement of the Similarly one may speak of "the terms of a
Renaissance. He was born at Cosenza, near logical sum," and the like. A.C.
Naples, studied philosophy and mathematics at Terminitm: See Nominalism.
Padua, and natural science at Rome. The Tertiary Qualities: Those qualities which are
316 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
said to be imparted to objects by the mind. In Semitic thinkers, Christian apologetics, ancient
contrast to primary and secondary qualities and modern metaphysical idealists, and by
which are directed toward the objects (primary natural science philosophers. Transcendency of
being thought of distinctly a part of objects) God removes him from human affairs, renders
tertiary qualities are the subject's reactions to fellowship and communication in Church ways
them. A thing, for example, is said to be ineffectual, yet preserves God's majesty and
good: The good points to the subject's reaction absoluteness such as is postulated by philosophies
rather than to the object itself. V.F. which introduce the concept of God for want
Tertii adjacentis: Latin expression employed to of a terser term for the
ultimate, principal
describe a proposition in which the subject, reality. Like Descartes and Spinoza, they allow
and copula the personal in God to fade and
predicate, are clearly distinguishable. approach the
JJ.R. age-old Indian pantheism evident in much of
Vedic and post-Vedic philosophy in which the
Tertium comparationis : (Lat.) A basis of
comparison. VJ.B. personal pronoun may be the only distinguishing
Tertium non datur: See Excluded middle, law of. mark between metaphysical logic and theology,
Tertium quid: (Lat.) A third something) a similarly as in Hegel. The endowment postu-
term to be discovered in addition to two original lated of God lends character to a theistic
without the necessity of factual connection in templated truth. For Aristotle, pure knowledge
previous experience. C.A.B. as opposed to the practical. An
abstraction from
Theocracy: (Gr. theos, godj kratos, govern- practice. The principle from which practice
ment, power) A view of political organization proceeds. Opposite of: practice. J.K.F.
in which God is sole ruler. All political laws (1) Hypothesis. More loosely: supposition,
come under what is held to be the Divine Will. whatever is problematic, verifiable but not veri-
Church and State become one. Examples: the fied.
development of the Hebrew ideal and Judaism; (2) (As opposed to practice): systematically
Mohammedan politics; Calvinism in Geneva; organized knowledge of relatively high gen-
Puritan New England. V.F. erality. (See "the theory of light").
Theocrasy: (Gr. theos god; krasis a mixture) (3) (As opposed to laws and observations):
a) A mixture of the worship of different explanation. The deduction of the axioms and
gods. theorems of one system from assertions (not
b) The intimate union of the soul with God in necessarily verified) from another system and
of a relatively less problematic and more intel-
contemplation as in NeoPlatonism. V.F.
Theodicy: (Gr. theos, god; dike, justice)
The ligible nature.
technical term for the problem of justifying the (Note: Since criteria of what is 'intelligible*
character of a good, creative and responsible and 'problematic' are subjective and liable to
God in the face of such doubts as arise by the fluctuation, any definition of the term is bound
If God is good, why evil? V.F. to be provisional. It might be advisable to
fact of evil.
Title of Leibniz's essay on evil (Essai de distinguish between laws (general statements in
a system), principles
Theodicee). (axioms), and theories
Theology: (Gr. theos, god; logos, study) Simply (methods for deriving the axioms by means of
stated, theology is a study of the question
of appropriate definitions employing terms from
God and the relation of God to the world of other systems). M.3.
reality. Theology, in the widest sense of the Theosis: The ultimate absorption of the soul into
and God's relation to the world on a dis- content describes a transcendental field as the
interested plane*- of free inquiry. V.F. only real (approximating to Brahman, Nous, and
Theomachy: (Gr. theoi, machein, battle against Pleroma) from which emerge material universes
the gods), a term implying opposition to the in series, with properties revealing that supreme
divine will. K.F.L. Being. Two polarities appear as the first mani-
Theophany: (Gr. theos, God; phaino, to ap- festing stage, consciousness or spirit (Brahma,
pear) The manifestation of God to man by Chaos, Ghost), and matter or energy
Holy
actual appearance. V.F. (Siva,Logos, Father). Simultaneously, life ap-
Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.), the most im-
: pears clothed in matter and spirit, as form or
portant and friend of Aristotle, left
disciple species (Vishnu, Cosmos, Son). In a sense,
voluminous writings of which only fragments life is the direct reflection of the transcendent
are extant; they dealt with many topics of supreme, hence biological thinking has a privi-
philosophy and science (notably, botany) and leged place in Theosophy. Thus, cycles of life
defended his master's philosophy against rival are perceived in body, psyche, soul and spirit.
schools of thought, particularly against Stoics. The lesser of these is reincarnation of im-
Cf. Characters of Theophrastus. R.B.W. personal soul in many personalities. A larger
Theorem: (Gr. theorema, a sight, theory, epoch is "the cycle of necessity", when spirit
theorem) Any proposition which is demonstrated evolves over vast periods. F.K.
in terms of other more basic propositions. Thesis: (Gr. thesis) In Aristotle's logic (1) an
A.C.B. undemonstrated proposition used as a premiss
Theoretical Reason: (Kant. Ger. theoretische in a syllogism, sometimes distinguished from
Vernunft) Reflective thought dealing with cogni- axiom in that it need not be self-evident or
tion, knowledge land science. Contrasted with intrinsically necessary; (2) any proposition con-
practical reason (q.v.) which is concerned with trary to general opinion but capable of being
moral and religious intuitions. See Kantianism. supported by reasoning. See Antithesis, Dialectic^
O.F.K. Synthesis. G.R.M.
Theory: (Gr. theoria, viewing) The hypothetical Thetics: (from Grk. Thetikps) According to
universal aspect of anything. For Plato, a con- Kant the sum total of all affirmations.- AT.K.L.
318 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Theurgy: (Gr. theos, god; ergon, work) The (Tai Tung-yUan, 1723-1777).Pf.r.C.
work of some supernatural agency in
divine, T'ien ti: Heaven and Earth:
the affairs of men, generally by direct interven- (a) as the universe;
tion. V.F. (b) as the origin of life;
^
Thnetopsychite : (Gr.) One who confesses the doc- (c) as the consolation of the pure and impure
trine that the soul dies when the body dies and vital forces (ch'i) respectively}
rises when it is resurrected. K.F.L. (d) as the active or male (yang) and the
Thought-Transference: Equivalent to Teleg- passive or female (yin) phases of the universe,
nosis. See Telegnosis. L.W. respectively. W T.C.
.
Thoreau, Henry David: (1817-1862 One of Timarchy: (Gr.) A type of government charac-
the leading American transcendentalists, of the terized by voluntary or ace 1 amatory rule of
Concord group. He was a thoroughgoing in- worthy and competent men, not aristocrats.
dividualist, most famous for the attempts to be AT.FX.
self-sufficient that he recounts so brilliantly in Time: The general medium in which all events
his diaries, lectures, essays and expositions, such take place in succession or appear to take place
was the famous "Walden". L.E.D. in succession. All specific and finite periods
Tit (a) The Confucian anthropomorphic Lord of time, whether past, present or future, consti-
or Supreme Lord (Shang Ti), almost inter- tute merely parts of the entire and single Time.
changeable with Heaven (T'ien) except that Ti Common-sense interprets Time vaguely as some-
refers to the Lord as the directing and govern- thing moving toward the future or as something
ing power whereas Heaven refers to the Lord in which events point in that direction. But
in the sense of omnipresence and all-inclusive- the many contradictions contained in this notion
ness. have led philosophers to postulate doctrines
(b) The world-honored deities (such as those purporting to eliminate some of the difficulties
of the four directions and the Five Elements). implied in common-sense ideas. The first famous
(c) Mythological sovereigns whose virtues but unresolved controversy arose in Ancient
approximate those of Heaven and Earth. Greece, between Parmenides, who maintained
W.T.C. that change and becoming were irrational illu-
Ti: Also t'i. sions, and Heraclitus, who asserted that there
(a) Respect for elders. See: hsiao. was no permanence and that change charac-
(b) Brotherliness. terized everything without exception. Another
(c) Younger brother. W.T.C. great controversy arose centuries later between
T'i: Generic relationship or part and whole disciples of Newton and Leibniz. According to
relationship, one of the proofs of agreement. Newton, time was independent of, and prior
See:Mo W.T.C.
cht. to, events; in his own words, "absolute time,
Ti chih tse: 'The pattern of the Lord', by which and mathematical time, of itself, and from its
is meant the political and social regulations own nature, flows equably without regard to
instituted by the supreme ruler or emperor on anything external." According to Leibniz, on
high. (Taoism). H.H. the other hand, there can be no time indepen-
T'ien: A material or physical sky, spoken in dent of events: for time is formed by events
opposition ruling or presiding
to earth* a and relations among them, and constitutes the
Heaven, anthropomorphic by nature i a fatalistic universal order of succession. It was this latter
heaven, one equivalent to Nature; an ethical doctrine which eventually gave rise to the doc-
heaven, one having a moral principle and trine of space-time, in which both space and
which is the highest primordial principle of time are regarded as two systems of relations,
the universe. HJi, distinct from a perceptual standpoint, but in-
T'ien chfi: The 'evolution of nature' is the separably bound together in reality. All these
controversies led many thinkers to believe that
change things undergo from one form to an-
the concept of time cannot be fully accounted
other, the beginning and end of whose changes
are like a circle, in which no part is any more for, unless we distinguish between perceptual,
the beginning than another part. (Chuang Tzu, or subjective, time, which is confined to the
between 399 and 295 B.C.). The mind is the perceptually shifting 'now' of the present, and
'natural ruler'. (Hsiin Tzfi, c335-c288 B.C.). conceptual, or objective, time, which includes
H.H. all periods of time and in which the events we
T'ien i: The evolution of nature is the 'boundary call past, present and future can be mutually
and related. See
of nature'. (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 fixedly Becoming, Change,
B.C.). H.H. Duration, Persistence, Space-Time. R.B.W.
T'ien Jen: The heavenly man, one "who is not Time- Arrow: The general direction of change
separated from The Natural." (Taoism).
in time; is supposed to point toward the future.
W.T.C. The concept was suggested by A. S. Eddington.
T'ien Heaven-endowed nature.
li: (a) R.B.W.
(b) The Reason of Heaven the Divine $
Timeless: Having no end in time, pertaining to
Law; the moral principle of Heaven which is no time, or transcending time. R.B.W.
embodies in benevolence, righteousness, pro- Time-perception: The apprehension of the pro-
and wisdom (ssfi tuan) (Chu Hsi, tensive or durational character of the data of
priety,
11300-1200)} the Law of Nature, which is the experience. See Dimensions of Consciousness i
Reason (li) in all things and is impartial. Pro tensity. L. W.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 319
Timoiogy: (Gr. time, esteem, dignity j logos, Transcendent: (L. transcendent: to climb over,
stud/ of) A
term meaning a study of excellence surpass,go beyond) That which is beyond, in
or worth. More particularly, the term refers any of several senses. The opposite of the im-
to a theory of value which holds that value manent (q.v.).
has an intrinsic worth apart from considerations In Scholasticism notions are transcendent
1.
of any particular point of view. Opposed, e.g., which cannot be subsumed under the Aristotelian
to the view that value is relative to an indi- categories.The definitive list of transcendentia
vidual. A
notable expounder of the timological comprises ens, unum, bonum, verum, res t and
view in theory of value is G. E. Moore. V.F. aliquid.
Timon of Phlius: (320-230 B.C.) A sceptic 2. For Kant whatever
is beyond possible ex-
who held that an ultimate knowledge of things perience transcendent, and hence unknowable.
is
logical whole, some general idea, may be used where one would expect transcendent.
broken up into smaller classes, or members, A.C.E.
according to some principle of division, or point Transcendental analytic: The first part of Kant's
of view. JJ.R. Logic} its function is "the dissection of the whole
Trace Theory of Memory: Physiological ex- of our a priori knowledge into the elements of
planation of memory through the conservation the pure cognition of the understanding," (Kritik
of traces in the nervous system. Opposed to d. reinen Vernunft, Part II, div. I, tr. M.
the theory of Mnemic causation. See Mnemic Muller, 2nd ed., pp. 50-1); to be distinguished
Causation. L.W. from (1) Transcendental Aesthetic, which
Traditionalism: In French philosophy of the studies the a priori forms of sensation, and (2)
early nineteenth century, the doctrine that the Transc. Dialectic, which attempts to criticize the
truth particularly religious truth is never dis- illusory and falsifying arguments based on
covered by an individual but is only to be found a priori principles. V.J.B.
in "tradition". was revealed in potentia at
It Transcendental idealism: See Idealism. A.C.E.
a single moment God and has been develop-
by Transcendental Illusion: (Kant. Ger. trans-
ing steadily through history. Since truth is an szendentaler Schein) An illusion resulting from
attribute of ideas, the traditionalist holds that
the tendency of the mind to accept the a priori
ideas are super-individual. They are the prop-
forms of reason, valid only in experience, as
of society and are found embedded in
constituting the nature of ultimate reality. Thus
erty
language which was revealed to primitive man we are led, according to Kant, to think Ideas,
by God at the creation. The main traditionalists such as God, World, and Soul, though we can-
were Joseph de Maistre, the Vicomte de Bonald, not know them. See Kantianism. O.F.AT.
and Bonetty. G.B. Transcendental method: (In Kant) The analy-
Traducianism : The view that the soul (as well sis (a priori forms of intui-
of the conditions
as the body) is generated from the souls of
tion, categories of the understanding, ideals of
parents. A doctrine dating back to Tertullian reason) that make possible human experience
(200 A.D.). The process of natural propagation and knowledge. See Kantianism.
procreates the soul. V.F. Transcendental Ger. trans-
Object: (Kant.
320 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
xendentale Objekt) The pure rational which V whatsoever. They are: Being, Thing, Something,
Kant defines as the general form of object or One, True, Good. While thing (res) and
the object as such. It is not a particular con- being (ens) arc synonymous, the other four
crete object, but the ideal objective correlate of name properties of being which, however, are
pure consciousness as such. It is the object only virtually distinct from the concept to which
which the mind seeks to know in each empirical they apply. R.A.
cognition. See Kantianism. O.F.K. Transfinite induction: A generalization of the
Transcendental Philosophy: 1. Kant's name method of proof by mathematical induction or
for his proposed a priori science of pure science recursion (see recursion, proof by), applicable
("pure reason") which would include both a to a well-ordered class of arbitrary ordinal
detailed analysis of its fundamental
concepts number especially one of ordinal number
and a complete list of all derivative notions. greater than omega (see ordinal in
number)
Such a study would go beyond the purpose and a way similar to that in which mathematical
scope of his Critique of Pure Reason. induction is
applicable to a
well-ordered class
2. Name
given to Kant's philosophy. of ordinalnumber omega. A.C.
Schelling's term for his science of
3. Mind, Transfinite ordinals: See ordinal number.
as opposed to the science of Nature. Transformator: In R. Reininger's philosophy,
4. Transcendentalism (q.v.). W.L. the agent or factor bringing about the change
Transcendental proof: In Kant's Philosophy: from the physical sensation or perception to
Proof by showing that what is proved is a experience as something psychic. K.F.L.
necessary condition without which human ex- "Transitive States": (Lat. transire, to passover)
perience would be impossible and therefore valid W. James* term which designates those
of all phenomena. A.C.E. parts of the stream of thought which effect a
Transcendentalism: Any doctrine giving em- transition from one substantive state to another.
phasis to the transcendent or transcendental See Substantive States. L.W.
(q.V.). Transitivity: A dyadic relation R is transitive
Originally, a convenient synonym for the
1. if, whenever xRy and yRz both hold, xRz also
"transcendental philosophy" (q.v.) of Kant and holds. Important examples of transitive relations
Schelling. are: the relation of or equality j the
identity
2. By
extension, post-Kantian idealism. relation than among whole numbers, or
less
Any idealistic philosophy positing the im-
3.
among rational numbers, or among real num-
manence of the ideal or spiritual in sensuous bers j the relation precedes among instants of
experience. time (as usually taken); the relation of class in-
4. The philosophy
of the Absolute (q.v.), the clusion,
=
( 8Ce i ogiC) j orm al, 7)* the rela-
doctrine of: a) the immanence of the Absolute tions of material implication and material
equiv-
in the finite $ b) the transcendence of the Ab- alence among propositions; the relations of
solute above the finite conceived as illusion or formal and formal equivalence
implication
"unreality". among monadic propositional functions. In the
5. A name, originally pejorative, given to prepositional calculus, the laws of transitivity of
and later adopted by an idealistic movement material implication and material
equivalence
in New England centering around the informal (the conditional and biconditional) are:
and so-called "Transcendental Club," organized IP => *][* =. r] = [p a r ],
at Boston in 1836. An outgrowth of the [p 3
q}[q 55 r] = [p =5 ,].
romantic movement, its chief influences were Similar laws of transitivity may be formulated
Coleridge, Schelling, and Orientalism. While for equality (e.g., in the functional calculus of
it embodied a general attitude rather than a firstorder with equality), class inclusion,
(e.g.,
systematically worked out philosophy, in general in the Zermelo set
theory), formal implication
it opposed Lockean empiricism, materialism, (e.g., in the pure functional calculus of first
rationalism, Calvinism, Deism, Trinitarianism, order), etc. A.C.
and middle-class commercialism. Its metaphysics Transmigration of Souls: See Metempsychosis.
followed that of Kant and post-Kantian ideal- Trans-ordinal laws: Connecting properties of
ism posited the immanance of the divine in aggregates of different orders. Laws connecting
finite existence, and tended towards the characteristics of
pantheism inorganic things with
(Emerson's "Nature", "Oversoul", "The Trans- living things. (Broad). H.H.
cendentalist"). Its doctrine of knowledge was Transpathy: (Lat. trans, across -f pathos, feeling)
idealistic and intuitive. Its ethics embraced As distinct from sympathy is feeling engendered
idealism, individualism, mysticism, reformism, by 'contagion'. In sympathy the function of
and optimism regarding human nature. Theo-
'after-experiencing' is so interwoven with true
logically it was autosoteric, Unitarian, and sympathy that an experienced separation of the
broadly mystical (Theo. Parker's "The Transient two never occurs. In the case of transpathy,
and Permanent in Christianity"). the two functions are distinctly separated from
6. Popularly, a pejorative term for any view each other in experience. Transpathy takes
that is "enthusiastic", "mystical", extravagant, place between emotional states, presupposes no
impractical, ethereal, supernatural, vague, ab- knowledge of the other's joy or sorrow. One
struse, lacking in common sense. W.L. detects afterwards that an emotion which one
Transcendental* (Scholastic): The transcen- finds in oneself derives from
'contagion', which
dentalia are notions which apply to any being took place in an earlier gathering. See Sympathy.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 321
Trinitarianism : a) Referring to a Roman Cath- sentences or symbols which express true mean-
olic order founded in 1198 to redeem Christian ings. (See Truth, semantical.)
captives from Mohammedans. It is customary to distinguish between the
The usual meaning of the term: the doc- nature of truth and the tests for truth. There
b)
trine of the Trinitarians who hold that the are three traditional theories as to the nature
nature of God is one in substance and three in of truth, each finding various expression in
embodiment (Latin: persona)/ Upon the basis the works of different exponents. (1) According
of Platonic realism (q.v.) which makes the to the correspondence theory, a proposition (or
universal fundamental and the particulars real meaning) is true if there is a fact to which it
in terms of the universal, the Christian Trini- corresponds, if it expresses what is the case. For
tarians made philosophically clear their doctrine example, "It is raining here now" is true if it
of one Godhead and three embodiments, Father, is the case that it is raining here nowj otherwise
Son and Holy Spirit: th'ree and yet one. The it is false. The nature of the relation of cor-
doctrine was formulated to make religiously respondence between fact and true proposition
valid the belief in the complete Deity of Jesus is variously described by different writers, or
and of the Holy Spirit (referred to in the New left largely undescribed. Russell in The Prob-
and the Old Testaments) and to avoid the pit- lems of Philosophy speaks of the correspondence
falls of polytheism. Jesus had become the object as consisting of an identity of the constituents
of Christian worship and the revealer of God of the fact and of the proposition.
and thus it was felt necessary to establish (to- (2) According to the coherence theory (see
gether with the H.S.) his real Deity along with H. H. Joachim: Tkt Nature of Tr*tk)> truth
monotheistic belief. A
long controversy over the is systematic coherence. This is more than
322 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
logical consistency. A
proposition is true insofar Truth-Frequency: (Prob.) See Probability, sec.
as it is a necessary constituent of a systematic- D (III).
allycoherent whole. According to some (e.g., Truth-function is either: (1) a junction (q. v.)
Brand Blanshard, The Nature of Truth), this from propositions to propositions such that the
whole must be such that every element in it truth-value of the value of the
is function
necessitates, indeed entails, every other element. uniquely determined by the truth-values alone
Strictly, on this view, truth, in its fullness, of the arguments) or (2) simply a function from
is a characteristic of only the one systematic truth-values to truth-values. A, C.
coherent whole, which is the absolute. It attaches Truth-table method: See logic, formal, and
1,
to propositions as we know them and
to wholes propositional calculus, many-valued.
we know them A C. S. Peirce, On the algebra of logic, American
as only to a degree. proposi-
Journal of Mathematics, vol. 7 (1885). pp. 180-
tion has a degree of truth proportionate to the 202; reprinted in his Collected Papers, vol. 3.
completeness of the systematic coherence of the J. Lukasiewicz, Logika duntwartoiciowa, Przeglad
only those propositions (ideas) whose satisfac- truth or falsehood. This is the primary meaning
tory working has actually verified them} others of the term truth-value, but generalizations have
state that only verifiiability through such con- been considered according to which there are
sequences necessary. In either case, writers
is more than two truth-values see prepositional
differ as to the precise nature of the
verifying calculus, many-valued. A. C.
experiences required. See Pragmatism. C.A.B. Tsa chia: The "Miscellaneous" or "Mixed"
Truth, semantical: Closely connected with the School, which "drew from the Confucians and
name relation (q. v.) is the property of a prepo- the Mohists and harmonized the Logicians and
sitional formula (sentence) that expresses a
it the Legalists," including Shih Tzu (fourth cen-
true proposition (or if it has free variables, that tury B.C.), Lu Pu-wei (290? -235 B.C.), and
it expresses a true proposition for all values of Huai-nan TzQ (d. 122 B.C.). W.T.C.
these variables). As in the case of the name Ts'ai: a) This means that when a man is not
relation, a notation for the concept of truth in good, it is not because he is actually lacking in
this sense often cannot be added, with its natural the basic 'natural powers,' 'natural endowment/
properties, to an
(interpreted) logistic system or 'raw material', whereby to be good. His
without producing contradiction. particular A badness results simply from the fact that he has
system may, however, be made the beginning of not developed the beginnings of Virtue, which
a hierarchy of systems each containing the truth is not the fault of his 'natural powers'.
concept appropriate to the preceding one. (Mencius).
The notion of truth should be kept distinct b) Power. Heaven, Earth, and Man are the
from that of a theorem, the true formulas being three Powers or Forces of Nature. H.H.
in general only some among the theorems (in Tsao hua: (a) Creator, also called tsao wu
view of GSdePs result, Logic , formal, 6). (che).
The first paper of Tar ski cited below is de- (b) Heaven and Earth; the Active or Male
voted to the problem of finding a definition of Cosmic Principle (yang) and the Passive or
semantical truth for a logistic system L, not in Female Cosmic Principle (yin). W.T.C.
L itself but in another system (metasystem) con- Tsao wu (che) : Creator. Also called tsao hua.
taining notations for the formulas of L and for W.T.C.
syntactical relations between them. This is at- Tsao Yen: Nothing is known of this founder
tractive as an alternative to the method of of the Yin Yang School except that he was a
introducing the concept of truth by arbitrarily scholar in the state of Ch'i in the third century
adding a notation for it, with appropriate new B.C., who "inspected closely the rise and fall
primitive formulas, to the metasystem) but in of the passive and active principles and wrote
many important cases it is possible only if the more than one hundred thousand
essays totalling
metasystem is in some essential respect logically words." His works are now lost. W.T.C.
stronger than L. Ts'e yin: The feeling of commiseration.
Tar ski's conceptof truth, obtained thus by a (Mencius). H.H.
syntactical definition, is closely related to Car- Tso wang: 'Sitting in forgetfulness'j that state
nap's concept of analyticity. According to Tar- of absolute freedom, in which the distinctions
ski, they are the same in the case that L is a between others and is forgotten, in which
self
"logical language." See further semiotic 2. lifeand death are equated, in which all things
A.C. have become one. A state of pure experience,
A. Tarski. Der Wabrbeitsbegriff in dtn for- in which one becomes at one with the infinite.
maluierten spracken, Studia Philosophica, vol. 1
(193)), pp. 261-405. A. Tarski, On mndecidable (Chuang Tzu, between 399 and 295 B.C.).
statements in enlarged systems of logic and the H.H.
concept of truth, The Journal of Symbolic Logic, Ts'un hsin: Preserving one's native mind, that
vol.. 4 (1939). 105-112. .R. Carnap. The
Logical Syntax of Language t New York and Lon- is, preserving in one's heart benevolence and
don, 1937. propriety which are natural to man. (Meqciui).
W.T.C.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 323
TVun hiing: Putting the desire* into proper ense that it is the nature of man to be tranquil,
harmony by restraint f the way to achieve 'com- but when man comet into contact with external
plete preservation of one's nature'. (Yang Chfi, things, his nature is moved, and desire* and
c 440-c 360 B.C.). H.H. passions fpllow. (Confucianism). W.T.C.
Ts'un sheng: 'Completeness of living', which is Tung: (a) Mere identity, or sameness, especially
the best, is the enjoyment of life not to excess, in social institutions and standards, which is
a life in which all desires reach a proper inferior to harmony (ho) in -which social dis-
harmony. While advocating restraint of the tinctions and differences are in complete con-
cord.
desires, Yang Chu
(c 440-c 360 B.C.) at the (Confucianism).
same time maintains the fulfillment of these. (b) Agreement, as in "agreement with the
H.H. superiors" (shang t'ung).
Tsung heng: Diplomatists in ancient China. (c) The method of agreement, which includes
W.T.C. identity, generic relationship, co-existence, and
Tu: Steadfastness in quietude, in order to com- partial resemblance. "Identity means two sub-
principle (yin). According to Chou Lien-hsi considering useless all attempt to reach final
1017-1173), "the Great Ultimate (T'ai Chi) essences.. Turro does not admit, however, that
moves, becomes active, and generates the active the psychical series or conscious states may b
principle (yang). When its activity reaches its causally linked to the organic series. His
limit, it becomes tranquil, engendering the formula was: Physiology and Consciousness are
passive principle (yin). When the Great Ulti- phenomena that occur, not in connection, but
mate becomes completely tranquil, it begins to in conjunction. His most important work is
move again. Thus, movement and tranquillity Filosofla Critica, in which he has put side by
alternate and become the occasion of each other, side two antagonistic conceptions of the uni-
giving rise to the distinction of yin and yang, verse, the objective and the subjective concep-
and the Two Primary Modes are thus estab- tions. In it he holds that, at the present crisis
lished." To the entire Neo-Confucian school, of science and philosophy, the business of in-
activity is potential tranquillity (ching). telligence is to realize that science works on
(b) Being moved, being awakened, in the philosophical presuppositions, but that philosophy
324 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
it no better off with itt chaos of endleti con- ent contradiction thereby involved is removed by
tradiction!and countless systems of thought The speaking of the individual marks as tokens, In
taik to be realized ii one of coming together, to contrast with the one type of which they are in-
undo what has been done and get at far as the stances. And word may then be said to be sub-
original primordial concepts with which philo- ject to type-token tmbiiuity. The terminology
sophical inquiry began. /*4,F. can easily be extended to apply to any kind of
Tyehiim: Aterm derived from the Greek, tyche, symbol, e.g. at in speaking of token- and type-
fortune, chance, and employed by Charles San- sentences.
ders Peirce (1839-1914) to express any theory Reference: C. S. Collected
Peirce, Papers t
which regards chance as an objective reality, 4.537. M.B.
operative in the cosmos. Also the hypothesis that Tz'u: (a) Parental love, kindness, or affection,
evolution occurs owing to fortuitous variations.
the ideal Confucian virtue of parents,
JJ.R.
(c) Love, kindness in general. W.T.C.
Types, theory of: See Logic, formtl, 9 6 P*ra-
doxes, logical tRamified theory of types.
Tzu hut: Self-transformation or
spontaneous
transformation without depending 'on any divine
Type-token ambiguity: The words token and
type are used to distinguish between two senses guidance or external agency, but following the
of the word toord. thing's own principle of being, which is Tao.
(Taoism). W.T.C.
marks, more or less resembling
Individual
each other (as "cat" resembles "cat" and Tzu jan: The natural, the natural state, the state
"CAT") may (1) be said to be "the same word" of Tao, spontaneity as against artificiality. (Lao
or (2) so many "different words". The appar- Tzuj Huai-nan Tu, d. 122 B.C.) W.T.C.
u
Ubicatio: (Lat. ubi, where) Whereness, the attacks the concepts of "man", "Society", "Hu-
condition of being located in space. V.J.B. manity", etc. as mire abstractions of the philoso-
Ueberweg, Friedrich: (1826-1871) Is mainly phers, and argues for the "Concrete", "experi-
known for his exhaustive studies in the history ential" facts of the individual living man. On
of philosophy. R.B.W. his doctrine of man as an individual fact onto-
Main works: System d. Logik u. Gesch. d. logically valid, Unamuno roots the second prin-
logischen Lehre, 1857} Grundriss d. Gesch. d. ciple of his philosophy, namely, his theory of
Philosophic, 1863-66. Immortality. Faith in immortality grows out,
Ultimate Value: See: Value, ultimate. not from the realm of reason, but from the realm
Ultramontanism (Lat. ultra,
:
beyond) and mon- of facts which beyond the boundaries of
lie
tanus, pertaining to mountains, i.e., the Alps) reason. In reason as such, that is, as a
fact,
'
Extreme theory of the absolute supremacy of the logical function is absolutely disowned by Una-
Pope, not only in religious but in political muno, as useless and unjustified. The third prin-
matters. V.J.B. ciple of his philosophy is his theory of the Logos
Unamuno y Jugo, Miguel de: Spanish Professor which has to do with man's intuition of the
and writer. Born at Bilbao, Spain, September world and his immediate response in language
29, 1864. Died 1936. First and secondary and action. J.A.F.
education in Bilbao. Philosophical studies and Unanimism : A term invented by Jules Remains
higher learning at the Central University of to mean (I) a belief "in a certain reality of a
Madrid since 1 880. Private instructor in Bilbao, spiritual nature," and (2) a belief that the
1884-1891. Professor of Greek language and human soul can enter into direct, immediate,
literature at the University of Salamanca since and intuitive communication with the universal
1891. President of the University of Salamanca soul. G.B.
and at the same time Professor of the History A
Uncertainty principle: principle of quantum
of the Spanish Language, in 1901. Madariaga mechanics (q.v.), according to which complete
considers him "The most important literary fig- quantitative measurement of certain states and
ure of Spain". *If he does not embody, at least
processes in terms of the usual space-time co-
it may be asserted that Unamuno very well ordinates is impossible. Macroscopically negligi-
symbolizes the character of Spain. His conflict ble, the effect becomes of importance on the
between faith and reason, life and thought, cul- electronic scale. In particular, if simultaneous
ture and civilization, depicts for us a clear pic- measurements of the position and the momen-
ture of the Spanish cultural crisis. Among his most tum of an electron are pressed beyond a certain
important works the following must be mentioned: degree of accuracy, it becomes impossible to in-
Pa* en la Guerra, 1897) De la Ensenanza Su- crease the accuracy of either measurement except
perior en Espana, 1899) En Tomo al Casticismo, at the expense of a decrease in the accuracy of
1902) Amor y Pedagogia, 1902) Vida.de Don the other) more exactly, if a is the uncertainty
Quijote y Sancho, 1905$ Mi Religion y Otros of the measurement of one of the coordinates of
Ensayos, 1910) Soliloquies y Conversaciones, position of the electron, and b is the uncertainty
1912$ Contra Esto y Aquello, 1912) Ensayos, of the measurement of the corresponding com-
7 vols., 1916-1920) Del Sentimiento Trdgico ponent of momentum, the product ab (on prin-
de la Vida en los Homines y en los Pueblos, cannot be less than a certain constant h
ciple)
1914) NieHa> 1914) La Agonia del Cristian- (namely Planck's constant, q.v.). On the basis.
ismo, 1930) etc. that quantities in principle unobservable are not
Unamuno conceives of every individual man to be considered physically real, it is therefore
as an end in himself and not a means. Civilisa-
held quantum theorists that simultaneous
by
tion has an individual responsibility towards of an exact position and an exact
ascription
each man. Man lives in society, but society as momentum to an electron is meaningless. This
such is an abstraction. The concrete fact is the
has been thought to have a bearing on, or to
individual man "of flesh and blood". This doc- limit or modify, the principle of determinism in
trine of man constitutes the first principle of his * A.C.
physics.
entire philosophy. He develop! it throughout C. G. Darwin. The nncertainty principle, Science,
his writings by way of a soliloquy in which he vol. 73 (1931), PP. 633-660.
326 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Unconscioui: According Ed. v. Hartmann
to Christian ministers who are Unitarian in
(q.v.) the united unconscious will and uncon- thought but not in name. The British and
scious idea.-K.F.L. Unitarian Association dates formally to
Foreign
Unconscious Mind : A compartment of the mind 1825. Manchester College, Oxford, was claimed
which lies outside the consciousness existence of Unitarian. Leading theologians were Joseph
which has frequently been challenged. See for Priestly (1733-1804), James Martineau (1805-
example W. James, The Principles of Psychol- 1900), James Drummond and J. E. Carpenter.
ogy, Vol. I, pp. 162ff. See Subconscious Mind. American Unitarianism was given expression in
L.W. King's Chapel, Boston (1785), in a number of
Understanding: (Kant. Ger. Verstand) The fac- associations, in Meadville Theological School
ulty of thinking the object of sensuous intuition} (1844) and Harvard Divinity School (the chief
or the faculty of concepts, judgments and prin- seat of the movement prior to 1878). Channing
ciples. The understanding is the source of con- (1780-1842) and Theodore Parker (1810-1860)
cepts, categories and principles by means of directed the movement into wider liberal chan-
which the manifold of sense is brought into the nels. V.F.
unity of apperception. Kant suggests that un- Unity of Science, Unified Science: See Scien-
derstanding has a common root with sensibility. tific Empiricism IIB.
See Kantianism. O.F.K. Universal: (Lat. universalia, a universal) That
Undistributed middle: In the categorical syl- term which can be applied throughout the
logism (logic, formal, 5), the middle term universe. A possibility of discrete being. Ac-
must appear in at least one of the two premisses cording to Plato, an idea (which see). Accord-
(major and minor) as distributed i.e., as de- ing to Aristotle, that which by its nature is fit
noting the subject of a proposition A or E, or to be predicated of many. For medieval
realists,
the predicate of a proposition E or O. Violation an entity whose being is independent of its
of this rule is the fallacy of undistributed middle. mental apprehension or actual exemplification.
A.C. (See: Realism). For medieval nominalists, a
Uniformity of Nature: what
Principle that general notion or concept having no reality of
happens once in nature will, under a sufficient its own in the realm of
being (see: Nominal-
degree of similarity of circumstances, happen ism). In psychology: a concept. See Concept,
again and as often as the same circumstances General, Possibility. Opposite of: particular.
recur. A.C.S. J.K.F.
Unio myatica: (Lat.) Mystical union; the merg- In Scholasticism: Until the revival of
ing of the individual consciousness, cognitively Aristotelism in the 13th century, uniycrsals
or affectively, with a superior, or supreme con- were considered by most of the Schoolmen as
sciousness. See Mysticism. VJ.B. real "second substances". This medieval Realism
Union: (in Scholasticism) Is often designated (see Reahsm), of those who legebant in re,
from the effect which united parts manifest, as found but little opposition from early Nom-
an essential union by which parts constituting inalists, legentes in voce, like Koscellin. The
the essence of a thing are united, or accidental latter went to the other extreme
by declaring
union by which an accident is united to a sub- universal names to be
nothing but the breath of
stance. H.G. the voice flatus vocis. Extreme realism as
Unipathy: (Ger. Einsfuhlung) Is a form of emo- represented by William of Champeaux, crumbled
tional seems close to the term
identification, under the attacks of Abelard who taught a
"participation" of Levy-Bruhl. There are two modified nominalism, distinguishing, however,
types of unipathy: idiopathic and heteropathic. sharply between the mere word, vox, as a
In the one the alter is absorbed by the ego, and physicalphenomenon, and the meaningful word,
in the other the ego is absorbed by the alter. sermo. His interests being much more in logic
See Sympathy. H.H. than in ontology, he did not arrive at a definite
Unit class: A having one and only one
class solution of the problem. Aquinas summarized
member. Or, to give a definition which does and synthetisized the ideas of his predecessors
not employ the word one, a class a is a unit by stating that the universal had real existence
class if there is an * such that xta and, for all
only as creative idea in God, ante rem, whereas
y, yta implies y=*. A. C. it existed within experienced
reality only in the
Unitarianism : The name for
theologicalthe individual things, in re, and as a mental fact
view which emphasizes the oneness of God in when abstracted from the particulars in the
opposition to the Trinitarian formula (q.v.). human mind, post rem. A view much like this
Although the term is modern, the idea under- had been proposed previously by Avicenna to
lying Unitarianism is old. In Christian theology whom Aquinas seems to be indebted. Later
any expression of the status of Jesus as being Middle-Ages saw a rebirth of nominalistic con-
less than a metaphysical part of Deity is of the ceptions. The new school of Terminists, as
spirit of Unitarianism (e.g., Dynamistic Mon- they called themselves, less crude in its ideas
archianists, AdoptionisU, Socintans, and many than Roscellin, asserted that universals are only
others). Unitarians hold only the highest regard class names. Occam is usually considered as the
for Jesus but refuse to bind that regard to a rnost prominent of the Terminists. To
Aquinas,
Trinitarian metaphysics. In general, their views the universal was still more than a mere name 5
of the things. The universal! are with Occam frage, tendencies to breakdown caste, philosophic
indeed natural signs which the mind cannot dialogues and congresses, celebrated similes, suc-
help forming, whereas the terms are arbitrary, cession of philosophic teachers, among other
signa ad placitum. But the universal is only a things, may be studied in the more archaic,
sign and does not correspond to anything onto- Upanishads. See ayam atema brahma,
classical
logical. R.A. aham brahma asmi, tat tvam asi, net neti.
Universal class : See logic, formal, 7. K.F.L.
Universal proposition: See particular proposi- Upasana: (Skr. sitting near) Worship, reveren-
tion. tial attitude. K.F.L.
Universal quantifier: See quantifier. Upasanakanda (Skr.) That portion of the Veda
:
any given treatment is that class such that all England, as the view that the right act is the
other classes treated are subclasses of it and act which will actually or probably produce at
consequently such that all members of any class least as much intrinsic good, directly or in-
treated are members of it. v. logic, formal, directly, as any other action open to the agent
7, %.C.A.B. in question. On this interpretation, traditional
Universe of discourse: See individual; and utilitarianism is one species of utilitarianism
logic, formal, 7, 8. that which regards pleasure as the good. Ideal
Upadhi: (Skr. substitute, disguise) One of many utilitarianism, on the other hand, holds that
conditions of body and mind obscuring the true other things besides pleasure are good (see
state of man or his self which Indian philos- G. E. Moore, H. Rashdall, J. Laird). In Amer-
ophies try to remove for the attainment of ica utilitarianism is chiefly associated with volun-
moksa (q.v.). K.F.L. or "interest" theories of value, e.g., in
taristic
Upamana: (Skr.) Comparison, a valid source of the pragmatic ethics of James and Dewey, and
knowledge and truth in some Indian philo- in R. B. Perry. See intuitionlsm, deontological
sophical systems. K.F.L. ethics, ideological ethic*. W.K.F.
Upanishad, Upanisad: (Skr.) One of a large Utopia: (Gr. ou-topos, the Land of Nowhere)
number of treatises, more than 100. Thirteen An expression used by Sir Thomas More in his
of the oldest ones (Chindogya, Brhadaranyaka, book "De optimo reipublicae statu deque nova
Aitareya, Taittirlya, Katha, Isa, Mun<Jaka, Kau- insula Utopia," 1516, which in the form of a
fltaki, Kcna, Prasna, Svetaivatara, Mandukya, novel described an ideal state. Plato's Politeia
Maitrl) have the distinction of being the first is the first famous Utopia. Plato, however, had
philosophic compositions, antedating for the several predecessors and followers in this type of
most part the beginnings of Greek philosophy j literature. From the Renaissance on the most
others have been composed comparatively recently. famous Utopias besides Thomas More's book
The mode of imparting knowledge with the Tommaso Campanella: The City of the
were:
pupil sitting (upa-ni-sad) the teacher
opposite Sun, 1612; Francis Bacon, New Atlantis, 1627 \
amid an atmosphere of reverence and secrecy, Cabet, Voyage en Icarie, 1842j Bellamy, Look-
gave these originally mnemonic treatises their ing Backward, 1888. W.E.
name. They are remarkable for ontological, Utopian socialism: Given wide currency by the
metaphysical, and ethical problems, investiga-
.
writings of Marx and Engels, this term signifies
tions into the nature of man's soul or self (see the socialist ideas of thinkers like Owen, St.
atman), God, death, immortality, and a sym- Simon and Fourier who protested against the
bolic interpretation of ritualistic materials and sufferings of the masses under capitalism and
observances. Early examples of universal suf- who saw in social ownership of the means of
328 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
production t remedy which would eliminate un- opposed to it their own "scientific socialism",
employment and tfford economic security to til, See Socialism, Marxian. J.M.S.
but who it the same time felt that socialism
Utttft-Mimimsi : Same as VedSnta (q.v.).
could be attained by persuading the ruling .... .
/, \ . .
positions
to give up voluntarily their privileged
and extensive holdings. Marr and ond or ** & k* rt* wn view <tated aftcr ^
Engels criticized such a conception of method refutation (kfanjana) of the opponent's view
and tactics as Utopian, naive, unhistorical, and (see prvapakfa). AT.F.L.
Vie: (Skr.) Speech, voice, word. In Vcdic (q.v.) vague in L if it is vague in at least one context
philosophy vac and sabda (q.v.) have a similar of L.
rdle as the Logos in Greek philosophy (see Vagueness needs to be distinguished from
e.g. Rigveda 10.125). It appears personified Generality and Ambiguity (q.v.). See also Vague.
(feminine) and close to primeval reality in the References: B. Russell, "Vagueness", Austral-
hierarchy of emanations. K.F.L. asian J. of Phil. I, 88. M. Black, "Vagueness:
analytic and contradictory respectively. If the When used as a very ("to value") our term
c-rules are purely logical in character, the class denotes a certain mental act or attitude of valu-
of analytic sentences coincides with that of valid ing or valuation.
sentences, and the class of contradictory sen- Now value-theory is concerned both with the
tences with that of contravalid sentences. property of value and with the process of valu-
The explicit definition of analyticity (etc.) for ing. About the former it asks various questions.
a particular language of course requires state-
What is its nature?
Is it a quality or a rela-
ment of the c-rules. Actually, in the case of his tion? Is objective or subjective?
it Is it a
"Language II," Carnap prefers to define analytic single property, or is it several properties, value
and contradictory first, and consequence in terms being an ambiguous term? Is its presence in a
of these. thing dependent on or reducible to the fact that
Part of the of the definition of the thing is valued by someone? About the
purpose
latter it also has various questions. Is it a mere
analyticity is to secure that every logical sentence
is either analytic or contradictory. (The cor- feeling or desire? Or does it involve judgment
responding situation with demonstrability and
and cognition? And if so, is this a cognition of
a value already there independently of the act
refutability is impossible in many significant cases
in consequence of Godel's theorem see logic, of valuing or of knowing?
Vedanta (q.v.) and of Vishnuism (q.v.), who sometimes contrasted with "fact" or "existence".
Here the contrast intended is that of the "ought"
interpreted all to be the divine reality with its
threefold aspect of sat-cit-ananda (q.v.) with versus the "is", and the term "value" is used to
world or matter obscuring cit-ananda, the human cover not only the various kinds of goodness,
soul ananda. K.F.L. but also beauty and rightness. And the main
Valuation: The problem is that of the relation of value and
process, act or attitude of assign-
ing value to something, or of estimating its existence. (2) "Value" more nar-
is also used
value. See Value; Evaluation. R.B.W. rowly, being contrasted with rightness. Here
the distinction intended within the "ought"
Value: The contemporary use of the term "value" ""
is
as opposed to the and is between the "good"
and the discipline now known as the theory of
and the "right", with "value" taken as equiva-
value or axiology are relatively recent develop-
ments in philosophy, being largely results of
lent to "goodness". Then the main problem
concerns the relation of value and
certain 19th and 20th century movements. See obligation.
In the sense of value involved in the former
Ethics. "Value" is used both as a noun and as
contrast value-theory will include ethics. In the
a verb. As a noun it is sometimes -abstract,
latter it will not. See
sometimes concrete. As an abstract noun it des- Axiology, Ethics, Obliga-
tion.W.K.F.
ignates the property of value or of being valu-
able. In this sense "value" is often used as Value, contributive : The value an entity has
equivalent to "worth" or "goodness", in which
insofar as its being a constituent of some
case evil is usually referred to as "disvalue". whole gives value to that whole. (G. . Moore).
But it is also used more broadly to cover evil C.A.B.
or badness as well as goodness, just as "tempera- Value, instrumental: The value an entity pos-
ture" is used to cover both heat and cold. Then sesses in virtue of the value of the consequences
evil referred to as negative value
is and good- it produces) an entity's value as means. Some-
ness as positive value. times the term is applied with reference only to
As a concrete noun, singular ("a value") or the actual consequences, sometimes with ref-
plural ("values"), our term refers either to erence to the potential consequences. C.A.B.
things which have this property of value or to Value, intrinsic: Sometimes defined as (a) the
things whihc are valued (see below). value an entity would have even if it were to
There 'Is also a use of the terms "a value" have no consequences. In this sense, an entity's
and "values" which is intermediate between the intrinsic value is equivalent to its total value
two uses so far indicated, and which appears less its instrumental value; it would include
mainly in German writings. Here they refer to its contributive value.
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 331
Sometimes defined as (b) the value an entity, in particular, the real magnitude is known in
would have were it to exist quite alone. In this some cases, but its evaluation tends to be on the
sense, an entity's intrinsic value would be average too large or too small. The average
equivalent to its total value less the sum of its error is the average departure from the true
instrumental and contributive values. C.A.B. magnitude} while the variable error is the de-
Values, Hierarchy of: (in Max Scheler) viation as already defined. T.G.
A scale of values and of personal value-types, Veda, plural Vedas: (Skr. knowledge) Col-
based on "essences" (saint, genius, hero, lead- lectivelythe ancient voluminous, sacred litera-
ing spirit, and virtuoso of the pleasures of ture India (in bulk prior to 1000 B.C.),
of
life, in descending scale). P.A.S. composed of Rigveda (hymns to gods), Sima-
Value, Ultimate: The intrinsic value of an entity veda (priests' chants), Yajurveda (sacrificial
possessing intrinsic value throughout. For ex- formulae), and Atharvaveda (magical chants),
ample, a hedonist might say that a pleasant which among theosophic speculations contain
evening at the opera has intrinsic value and the first philosophic insights. Generally recog-
yet maintain that only the hedonic tone of the nized as authority even in philosophy, extended
evening has ultimate value, because it alone and supplemented later by sutras (q.v.) and
has no constituents which fail to have intrinsic various accessory textbooks on grammar, astron-
value (G. E. Moore). C.A.B. omy, medicine, etc., called Vedangas (Mem-
Variable: A occurring in a mathematical
letter bers of the Veda") and the philosophical
or logistic formula and serving, not as a name treatises, such as the Upanishads (q.v.). K.F.L.
of a particular, but as an ambiguous name of Vedanta: The "end of the Veda" (q.v.), used
any one of a of things
class this class being both in the literal sense and that of final goal,
known as the range of the variable, and the or meaning. Applied to the Upanishads (q.v.)
members of the class as values of the variable. and various systems of thought based upon
Where a formula contains a variable, say x, them. Specifically the doctrine elaborated in the.
as a free variable, the meaning of the formula Brahmasutras of Badarayana, restated, reinter-
is thought of as depending on the meaning of x. preted, and changed by later philosophers,
If the formula contains no other free variables notably Sankara, Ramanuja, Nimbarka, Madh-
than x, then it acquires a particular meaning va, and Vallabha (which see). The central
when x is given a value i.e., when a name of theme is that enunciated in the Upanishads of
some one value of x is substituted for all free the relation between world soul and individual
occurrences of * in the formula or, what comes soul or self. Within the Vedanta, a number of
to the same thing for this purpose, when the solutions were found and taught with varying
free occurrences of x are taken as denoting some success. Sankara supposed God and soul iden-
one value. tical (see advaita), Madhva different (see
Frequently an
(interpreted) logistic system dvatia), R2minuja different yet identical (see
(q. v.) is so constructed that the theorems may visiftadvaita), Vallabha had a theory of ob-
contain free variables. The interpretation of scuration, etc. K.F.L.
such a theorem is that, for any set of values, of Vedantasutras : See Brahmasutras.
the variables which occur as free variables, the Vedantic: Adjective, "belonging to the VedSnta"
indicated proposition is true. I.e., in the in- (q.v.).
terpretation the free variables are treated as if Vedic: (Skr.) Adjective, referring to the Vedas
bound by universal quantifiers (q. v.) initially (q.v.) or the period that generated them, con-
placed. sidered closed about 500 B.C. K.F.L.
A bound variable, or apparent variable, in a Vedic Religion: Or the Religion of the Vedas
given formula, is distinguished from a free vari- (q.v.). It is thoroughly cosmological, in-
able by the fact that the meaning of the formula and ritualistic, priest and sacrifice
spirational
does not depend on giving the variable a par- playing an important role. It started
with belief
ticular value. (The same variable may be al- in different gods, such as Indra, Agni, Surya,
lowed, if desired, to have both bound occur- Vishnu, Ushas, the Maruts, usually interpreted
rences and free occurrences in the same formula, as symbolizing the forces of nature \ but with
and in this case the meaning of the formula the development of Hinduism it deteriorated
depends on giving a value to the variable only into a worship of thousands of gods correspond-
at the places where it is free.) For examples, see
ing to the diversification of function and status
Abstraction, and Logic, formal, 3. in the complex social organism. Accompanying
For the terminology used in connection with there was a pronounced tendency toward magic
functions, see the article function. Cf. also the even in Vedic times, while the more elevated
articles Constant, and Combinatory logic. A.C. thoughts which have found expression in mag-
Variable error: The average departure or de- nificent praises of the one or the other deity
viation from the average between several given finally became crystallizedin the philosophic
values. In successive measurements of magni- thought of the Upanishads (q.v.). There
tudes considered in the natural sciences or in is a distinct break, however, between Vedic cul-
experimental psychology, the observed differ- ture with its free and autochthonous religious
ences are the unavoidable result of a great num- consciousness and the rigidly caste and custom
ber of small causes independent of each other controlled religion as we know it in India to-
and equally likel yto make the measurement too day, as also the religion of bhakti (q.v.).
small or too large. In experimental psychology JC.F.L.
332 DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
Venn diagram: See Eider diagram. ,
best of all possible worlds, these truths can
Verbal : Consisting of pr pertaining to words. Hav- never equal in* certainty the truths of reason,
which depend not on God's will, but on the
ing to do (merely) with the uie and meaning
of words. -v4.C. Principle of Contradiction, which not even God
himself can make to be false. F.L.W.
Verbum mentis: (Lat mental word) The con-
cept) the intra-mental product of the act of Vicious circle: A
vicious circle in proof (drc*-
lus in probando} occurs if pi Is used to prove
intellection. VJ.B.
fo p* to prove ft, . . . , p++ to prove p, and
Veridicity: A property of certain perceptions,
finally p* to prove pi fa fo . . . , p* being
memories and other acts of cognition which, then taken as all proved. This is a form of the
though not in the strictest sense true since
fallacy of petitio principii (q. v.).
truth is an exclusive prop-
usually considered A vicious circle in definition (circuits in
erty of propositions and judgments tend to
definiendo) occurs if Aj is used in defining Aa
form true propositions. Non-veridical cognitions
As in defining At, . . . , An-i In defining An,
including illusions and hallucinations though and finally A in defining Ai. (The simplest
not in themselves false are deceptive and foster
case is that in which =1, Ai being defined in
falsity and error. L.W. terms of There of course, a fallacy if
itself.) is,
Verification: (Ger. Bewahrung) In Husserl:
A], A% . .
} A are then vied as defined abso-
Fulfilment) especially, fulfilment of the sense
lutely. Apparent exceptions, such as definition
of a dozic thesis. D.C. by recursion (q. v.), require special justification,
Verification, Confirmation: Verification: the
1.
e.g., by finding an equivalent form of definition
procedure of finding out whether a sentence (or which is not circular.
proposition) is true or false. 2. A sentence is The term vicious circle fallacy is used by
verifiable (in principle) if a (positive or nega- Whitehead and Russell (1910) for arguments
tive) verification of it is possjble under suitable violating their ramified theory of types (q. v.).
conditions, leaving aside technical difficulties.
Similarly, the name circtdus vitiotus is Applied
3. Many philosophical doctrines (e.g. Scientific by Hermann Weyl (1918) to an argument in-
Empiricism, ?.v.) hold that a verification is volving impredicative definition (q. v.). A. C.
replaced here by the concept of confirmation. Vidya: (Skr.) Knowledge) especially knowledge
A certain hypothesis is said to be confirmed of the real, noumenal. K.F.L.
to a certain degree by a certain amount of Vienna Circle: See Scientific Empiricism I.
evidence. The concept of degree of confirmation Vijnina: (Skr.) Consciousness) the faculty of
is closely connected or perhaps identical apprehension or individualixation of experience,
(Reichenbach) with the statistical concept of and as such perhaps equivalent to aharkkara
probability (?.v.) 4. A sentence is confirm- K.F.L.
able if suitable (possible, not necessarily actual) Vijnana-vada: (Skr.) of con-
Theory (vSda)
experiences could contribute positively or nega- sciousness, specifically consciousness is of
that
tively to its confirmation. 5. Many empiricists the essence of reality) also the Buddhist school
(see e.g. Scientific Empiricism 1C) regard either of subjective idealism otherwise known as
verifiability (e.g. Wittgenstein, the Vienna YogScara (q.v.).- K.F.L.
Circle in its or confirmability as
earlier phase) Virtue: (Gr. arete) In Aristotle's philosophy
a criterion of meaningfulness (in the sense of that state thing which constitutes its
of a
factual meaning, 'see Meaning, Kinds of, 2). peculiar excellence and enables it to perform its
This view leads to a rejection of certain meta- function well) particularly, in man, the activity
physical doctrines (see Anti-metaphysics, 2). of reason and of rationally ordered habits.
R.C. (Lat. virtus) In Roman philosophy, virtue
became associated with and strength of
Veritt de fait (Verite* de raison) : There are virility
two kinds of truth, according to Leibniz, truths character. In the Italian renaissance, e.g.
of fact and truths of reason (or reasoning). Machiavelli, (Ital. virtu), the word means
These two classes of truths are exhaustive, and shrewd prudence. G.R.M.
also, with the single exception of the existence Vifpu: (Skr.) Deity of the Hindu trinity
of God, which has a logically anomalous posi- (see Trimurti). In philosophy, the prin-
tion of being a necessary truth about existence, ciple of conservation, maintenance, or stability,
reason are com- the principle worshipped in Vishnuism (q.v.).
completely exclusive. Truths of
pletely certain and necessary, for their denial
K.F.L.
involves a contradiction and is hence impossible. Visbnuism: (Vifnuism) One of the major
Truths of fact, on the other hand, are not philoiophico- religious groups into which Hindu-
completely certain and necessary. Their denial ism has articulated itself. It glorifies Vishnu
involves no contradiction} they rest upon ex- as the supreme being who creates and maintains
the world periodically by means of his bhuti
perience j and they have, hence, only a limited
inductive certainty. The truth of inductive in- and kriyd iaktis (q.v.) or powers of becoming
ferences which go beyond the evidence of and producing, corresponding to the causae
immediate experience depends upon the Law materialis et efficient. The place of man's soul
of Sufficient Reason, which is the expression in in this development is explained variously, de-
logic of the choice of the best on the part of pending on the relation it maintains to the
God. Since God conceivably could have chosen world-ground conceived in Vishnuite fashion.
another world for realisation, rather than this K.FJL.
DICTIONARY Of PHILOSOPHY 333
Visistadvaitt: (Skr.) "Qualified non-duality", versal character of morals in which he firmly be-
the Vedftntic (q.v.) doctrine of qualified monism lieved. His famous, Candide is illustrative of
advocated by RamJnuja (q.v.) which holds the his keen satire in its blasting of the Leibniiean
Absolute to be personal, world and individual* best of all possible worlds.L.E.D.
to be real and distinct (rift;**), and salvation Main works: Lettrts philosophisest 1734;
attainable only by grace of God earned through Blimints de la philos. de Newton, 1738) Essai
bhakti ( q.v.). K.FX. sur les moeurs et Vetprit des nations (Philo-
Volkelt, Johannes: (1848-1930) Was influenced held that God is absolute will, a will independ-
German idealism since Kant.
by the traditions of ent of the Logos, and that the good will of man
His most imported work consisted in the analysis is free. For Avicebron
(1020-1070), will is
of knowledge which, he contended, had a double indefinable and nature and soul,
stands above
source) for it requires, first of all, empirical matter and form, as the primary category. De-
data, insofar as there can be no real knowledge spite the metaphysical opposition of Duns Scotus
of the external world apart from consciousness, (1265-1308) the realist, and William of Occam
and also logical thinking, insofar as it elaborates (1280-1347) the nominalist, both considered the
the crude material of perception. Consequently, will superior to the intellect. Hume (1711-
knowledge may be described as the product of 1776) maintained that the will is the determin-
rational operations on the material of pure ex- ing factor in human conduct, and Kant (1724-
perience. Thus he arrived at the conclusion that 1804) believed the will to be the source of all
reality "tram-subjective"} that is to say, it
is moral judgment, and the good to be based on
consists neither of mere objects nor of mere data the human will. Schopenhauer (1788-1860)
of consciousness, but is rather a synthesis of both posited the objectified will as the world-sub-
elements of existence. R.B.W. stance, force, or value. James (1842-1910) fol-
vidualitut, 1928.
to believe. See Will, Conation. Opposed to
including transmutation of mercury into gold career as a jurist in Berlin and later taught po-
(also called chin tin), medicine, charms, magic, litical economy at Heidelberg and
Freiburg,
attempts at disappearance and change of bodily Munich. He was founder of the Deutsche
a
form. (Taoist religion). W.T.C. Gesellschaft fur Soziologie and editor of Archiv
Wai wang: Often used as referring to the man fur Sozialtoissenschaft und Sozialpoiitih. Much
the of his scholarly work was devoted to the sociol-
who through his virtues and abilities gains
necessary qualifications of a ruler. (Mencius). ogy of religion. He participated in the Peace
HJJ. Conference at and argued against
Versailles,
27-c. 100 ratification of the but later he became
treaty)
Wang Chung: (Wang Chung-j en,
a member of the committee on the constitution
A.D.) Although strongly Taoistic in his natural-
for the German Republic. The provision in that
ism, was independent in thinking. His violent
constitution for the popular election of the presi-
and rational attack on all erroneous beliefs re-
He dent was inserted largely because of Weber's
sulted in a strong movement of criticism.
pressure. Main works: Gesammel/e Aufsatze .
was a scholar and official of high repute. (Lun
Religionssoziologie (1920)j .
So*iologie u.
Hi*?, partial Eng. by A. Forke, Metteilungen
tr.
being intact and not to injure our material London, 1914-24. Professor of Applied Mathe-
existence with things," erroneously interpreted matics at the Imperial College of Science and
by Mencius as egotism, selfishness, "everyone Technology, London. From 1924 until retire-
for himself." (Yang Chu, c 440 - c 360 B.C.). ment in 1938, Professor of Philosophy aT
W.T.C. Harvard University. Among his most important
Well-ordered: See Ordinal number. philosophical works are the Principia Mathe-
Weltanschauung: (Ger.) The compound term matica, 3 vols. (1910-13) (with Bertrand
means world-view, perspective of life, concep- Russell)} An Enquiry concerning the Principles
tion; of things. of Natural Knowledge (1919)) The Concept of
Wen: (a) Culture: evidences of the Confucian Nature (1920)} Science and the Modern World
Moral Law (tao), such as propriety, music, (1926); Religion in the Making (192$)*
social institutions, governmental systems, educa- Symbolism (1928)) Process and Reality (1929);
tion, etc.} the tradition of the Chou dynasty and Adventures of Ideas (1933). The principle
which Confucius attempted to preserve. of relativity in physics is the key to the under-
(b) Appearance: polish} superficiality. standing of metaphysics. Whitehead opposes the
(c) Letters: literature, one of the four things current philosophy of static substance having
Confucius taught (ssQ chiao). W.T.C. qualities which he holds to be based on the
Wertfrei: (Ger. value-free) Seeing the central simply located material bodies of Newtonian
strength of the scientific attitude in its valua- physics and the "pure sensations" of Hume.
tional neutrality, Max Webe (1864-1920) in- This 17th century philosophy depends upon a
sisted that the deliberate abstention from taking "bifurcation of nature" into two unequal
sides for the value or against the disvalue of a systems of reality on the Cartesian model of
thing scientific scrutiny was essen-
when under mind and matter. The high abstractions of
progress in the social sciences.
tial to H.H. science must not be mistaken for concrete
Wertheimer, Max: (1880-) One of the origina- realities. Instead, Whitehead argues that there
tors along with Koffka and Kohler of Gestalt is only one reality} what appears, whatever is
psychology. The three began their association at given in perception, is real. There is nothing
Frankfort about* 19 12 and later Wertheimer and existing beyond what is present in the experience
Kohler worked together at the University of of subjects, understanding by subject any actual
Berlin. Wertheimer was led to the basic con- entity. There are neither static concepts nor
ception of Gestalt in the course of his investiga- substances in the world} only a network of
tions of apparent movement which seemed to events. All such events are actual^ extensions
indicate that the perception of movement is an or spatio-temporal unities. The philosophy of
integral experience and not the interpretative organism, as Whitehead terms his work, is
combination of static sensations. "Experimental based upon the patterned process of events. All
studien fiber das Sehen von Bewegungen, Zeits- things or events are sensitive to the existence
chrift fur Psychologic, 1912, Vol. 61, pp. 161- of all others} the relations between them con-
265. L.W. sisting in a kind of feeling. Every actual
Wesen: (Ger. being, essence, nature) Designates entity is then a "prehensive occasion", that is,
essential being without which a thing has no it consists of all those active relations with
reality. It has been conceived variously in the other things into which it enters. An actual
history of philosophy, as Ousia or constant be- entity is further determined by "negative pre-
ing by Aristotle; as essentia, real or nominal, hension", the exclusion of all that which it is
or species, by the Schoolmen} as principle of all not. Thus every feeling is a positive prehension;
that which belongs to the possibility of a thing, every abstraction a negative one. Every actual
by Kant} generally as that which is uncondition- entity is lost as an individual when it perishes,
ally necessary in the concept of a thing or is not but is 'preserved through its relations with other
dependent on external, causal, temporal or spe- entities inframework of the world. Also,
the
cial circumstances. Its contrast is that which is whatever has happened must remain an absolute
unwesentlich (defined by Schuppe as that which fact. In this sense, past events have achieved
has relation to or for something else), accidental, "objective immortality". Except for this, the
contingent. K.F.L. actual entities are involved in flux, into which
Wesensachau: (Ger. intuition of essence) In there is the ingression of eternal objects from
Scheler: The immediate grasp of essences. are universals whose selection is necessary to the
P.A.S. actual entities. Thus the actual world is a
Wesenswissen, i.e., Wesensschau (in Max the realm of possibilities. The eternal objects
Scheler) The knowledge of essences
: condi- certain selection of eternal objects. God is the
tioned by the elimination of acts which posit principles of concretion which determines the
reality and by the inclusion of pure devotion where-
selection. "Creativity" it the primal cause
to the qualities of objects as such (this type of by are selected in the advance of
possibilities
knowledge is
opposed to scientific
knowledge, actuality toward novelty. This movement is
which is "outer knowledge," not Wesenstoissen). termed the consequent nature of God. The pure
P.A.S. possibility of the eternal objects themselves is
Whitehead, Alfred North: British philosopher. termed his primordial nature. J.K.F.
Born in 1861. Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- Whole: The term "whole" has been used fre-
which asserts that a whole is more than the sum consequence of the way in which die axioms of
of its parts. that calculus were chosen, but that particular
Fromthe viewpoint of empiricist methodolgy, construction of the theory was carried out with
that whole-part principle, and in most cases also an eye to applications in logical and epistemologi-
the use of the term "whole" is open to various cal analysis, and the calculus of individuals has
objections: In particular, the meanings of the already begun to show its value in these fields.
terms "whole", "part", "sum", and "more" are See Leonard and Goodman, Tht Calculus of
far from clear and change from case to case, Individuals and Its Us*s, The Journal of Sym-
and accordingly, so does the meaning and the bolic Logic, S (1940), pp. 45-55. C.C.H.
validity of the part-whole principle: In many Will: a) In the widest sense, will is synonymous
cases, a whole is simply meant to be an object with conation. See Conation.
of study which has parts (in some one of the b) In the restricted sense, will designates the
many senses of the word), and the part-whole sequence of mental acts eventuating in decision
principle is taken to assert either (1) that for or choice between conflicting conative tendencies.
a complete knowledge of tuch an object or An act of will of the highest type is analyzable
system, not only those parts, but also their into:
mutual relationships have to be known, or (2) (1) The envisaging of alternative courses of
that such an object has properties which can be action, each of which expresses conative ten-
found in none of its parts. In either of these dencies of the subject.
interpretations, the part-whole principle is trivi- (2) Deliberation, consisting in the examina-
ally true in every case, but just for this reason tion and comparison of the alternative courses
itcannot furnish an explanation of any empirical of action with special reference to the dominant
phenomenon such as the specific behavior of a ideals of the self.
developing embryo, taken as a "biological (3) Decision or choice consisting in giving
whole", or of visual gestalten, etc. assent to one of the alternatives and the rejec-
For that explanatory function, empirical laws tion of the rest. L.W.
are needed, and occasionally the part-whole Will (Scholastic): Will the two
is one of
principle is tacitly identified with some specific rational faculties of the human
Only man, soul.
law (or group of laws) governing the phenom- as a rational animal, possesses will. Animals are
enon under consideration. Whatever explanation prompted to action by the sensory appetites and
is achieved in such a case, is obviously due, not in this obey the law of their nature, whereas
to the vague part-whole principle but rather to human will is called free insofar as it deter-
the specific empirical law which is tacitly sup- mines itself towards the line of action it
planted for it) and any empirial law which chooses. Though the objects of will are pre-
might be chosen here, applies to a certain specific sented by the intellect, this' faculty does not
type of phenomena only and cannot pass for a determine will which may still act against the
comprehensive principle governing all kinds of intellect's judgment. The proper object of ra-
wholes. tional will is good in its universal aspect.
According to another interpretation of the Goodness is one of the original ("transcen-
notion of whole and of the part-whole prin- dental") of being) envisioned under
aspects
ciple, a whole is an object whose parts are this aspect,becomes a possible end of will.
it
was his effort later worked out by ing philosopher of the German Enlightenment,
significance
H. Rickert and exponent of an all pervasive rationalism, who
to point out a fundamental distinc-
tion between natural
was professor of mathematics at Halle. He was
and historical science: the
a dry and superficial systematic popularicer of
former aims at establishing general laws and
considers particular facts only insofar as they dogmatic philosophy whose laws have for him
a purely logical and rational foundation. HJf.
are like others. In contrast to this "nomothetic" works
Main works: In German a series of
type of science, history is "idiographic", *.., it on
is interested in the particular as such, but, of
Vtmunftig* Gfdankt (Rational Thoughts)
etc. followed by a
logic, psychologic, ethics,
course, not equally in all particulars, but in
similar series Empirical psychology, etc.
such only as have some significance from the
Woodbridie, Frederick Junes Eu|eoe: (1867-
point of view of value, //.<?.
Main works: Gttchicht* . Naturutitttnscktft, 1940) Was Professor of Philosophy of Columbia
1924 (9th ed.)i History of University and one of the Editors of the Journal
1894) Pralitditn,
of Philosophy. He was an important member of
Modern Philotopky (Eng. tr.).
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY
the realist school. For him consciousness was a called wu t. (The Yin Yang School in the
relation of meaning, a connection of objects, and third and fourth centuries B.C. and the Han
structure was a notion of greater philosophic dynasty, especially Pan Ku, 32-92 A.D., and
value than substance. His beat known works Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.).
are: Philosophy of Hobbit, The Realm of Mind (b) The Five Agents which are the five
and Nature and Mind.L.B.D. vital forces (ch'i) engendered by the trans-
World-event : An event conceived in four dimen- formation of yang, the active cosmic principle,
sions, its duration. See Space-Time. and its union with yin, the passive cosmic
including
&B.W. principle, each with its specific nature. When
World Ground* The source, cause, essence, or
the being of the Great Ultiamte (T'ai Chi) and
the essence of yin and yang come into mysterious
sustaining power within or behind the World.
See Absolut*. W.L. union, determinate being ensues, with the
heavenly principle, yang, constituting the male
World-line: A line conceived in four dimensions}
element and the earthly principle, yin, con-
a line cutting across space-time. See Space-
stituting the female element, giving rise to the
Time.R.B.W.
myriad things. (Chou Lien-hsi, 1017-1073).
World-point: A four-dimensional point} a dura-
(c) The Five Constant Virtues. See: ttiu
tionless geometrical point. See Space-Time.
ch'ang. W.T.C.
R.B.W.
Wu hua: The transformation of things, that is,
World soul: 1. An intelligent, animating, in- the conception that entities should be, and could
dwelling principle of the cosmos, conceived as be, so transformed, spiritually speaking, that
its organizing or integrating cause, or as the
absolute identity may exist between them, espe-
source of its motion) thus posited on the analogy
cially between the self and the non-self, and
of the human soul and body. Such a doctrine,
between man and things. (Chuang Tzfl, between
common among primitive peoples, was taught 399 and 295 B.C.). W.T.C.
by Plato, Stoicism, Neo-Platonism, Renaissance Wu lun: The five human relationships, "those
Platonism, Bruno, etc. between the father and the son, the ruler and
2. This view has affinities with, and has oc-
subordinates, husband and wife, the elder and
casionally developed into, the notion of a World the younger, and friends." Also called the Five
Mind 'or Absolute Mind as posited in Vedantic
Constants (wu ch'ang). "Between father and
and Buddhist idealism, patristic and scholastic
son, there should be affection} between sovereign
Christian theism, objective idealism, and abso-
and ministers, there should be righteousness)
lute idealism. See Idealism, The Absolute.
between husband and wife, attention to their
W.L.
separate functions) between old and young, a
Wrong action: Any action that is not right.
proper order) and between friends, good faith
See: Right action. C.A.B.
(hsin)." (Mencius). W.T.C.
Wu: 'Eternal Non-Being' is that which is op-
Wundt, Wilhelm Max: (1832-1920) German
refers to
posed to being of material objects) physiologist, psychologist and philosopher, who,
the essence of Tao t the first principle. (Lao after studying medicine at Heidelberg and Ber-
T*u). H.H. lin and lecturing at Heidelberg, became Profes-
Wu: Creatures, things j matter j the material sor of Philosophy at Leipzig in 1875 where he
principle i the external world) the non-self j founded the first psychological laboratory in
objects of the senses and desires affairs.
1879. Wundt's psychological method, as ex-
W.T.C.
emplified in his Principles of Physiological Psy-
Wu ch'ang: (a) The Five Constant Virtues of chology, 1873-4, combines exact physical and
ancient Confucianism: righteousness on the part physiological measurement of stimulus and re-
of the mother, brotherliness on the part of the sponse along with an introspective analysis of
elder brother, respect on the part of the young the "internal experience" which supervenes be-
brother, and filial piety on the part of the son. tween stimulus and rsponse) he affirmed an
Also called wu chiao and wu tien. exact parallelism or one-to-one correspondence
of Confucian-
(b) The Five Constant Virtues between the physiological and the psychological
ism from the Han dynasty (206 B.C.-220 A.D.) series. Wundt's psychology on its introspective
on: benevolence (je"n), righteousness (i), pro- side, classified sensations with respect to modal-
priety (li), wisdom (chih), and good faith
duration, extension, etc.) and feel-
ity, intensity,
(hsin). Also called wu hsing and wu t. ings as: (a) pleasant or unpleasant, (b) tense
(c) The Five Human Relationships
of Con- or relaxed, (c) excited or depressed. He ad-
fucianism (wu lun).TF.r.C. vanced but later abandoned on introspective
Wu chi: The Non-Ultimate. See: Tal Chi.
grounds the feeling of innervation (discharge
W.T.C. of nervous energy in initiating muscular move-
Wu chiao: The Five Teachings. See: wu ch'ang. ment). Among psychologists influenced by
Wu hiing: (a) The Five Agents, Elements,
or Wundt are Cattell, Stanley Hall and Titchener.
Powers of Water, Fire, Wood, Metal and Earth, L.W.
the interaction of which gives rise to the multi- Other works: Logik, 1880-3) Ethik, 1886)
plicity of things, and which have their cor- VSlkerpsychologie, 10 vols. (34 ed., 1910-20).
respondence in the five senses, tastes, colors, Wu thin: The Five Origins of Order in the
tones, the five virtues, the five atmospheric con- medieval Confucian interpretation of history,
ditions, the five ancient emperors, etc. Also namely, the beginning of Heaven is rectified
DICTIONARY OF PHILOSOPHY 339
by the depth of the Prime) the government of was to love life or to have death. He did not
the empire 11 rectified by the beginning of rejoice in birth nor resist death. Spontaneously
Heaven^ the position of the princei is rectified he went) spontaneously he came) that was all*
by the government of the empire} and the order He did not forget whence he came} nor did he
of the state ii rectified by the position of the seek whence he would end. He accepted things
princes. (Tung Chung-shu, 177-104 B.C.). gladly, and returned them to nature without
W.T.C. reminiscence.. This is called not to hurt Tao
Wu te: (a) The Five Powers, or the charac- with the human heart, nor to assist heaven with
teristics of the Five Agents or Elements (wu man." (Chuang Tzu, between 399-295 B.C.).
hsing) of the Yin Yang school. "The meaning of 'wu wei* is that there is
(b) The Five Constant Virtues. See: u>u no going in advance of nature. The meaning
cb'ang. W.T.C. of 'wu pu wei' (there is nothing undone) is
Wu tien: The Five Constant Virtues. See: wu that, in following Tao, everything is done. The
meaning of 'wu chin' (no governing) it that
Wu wei:
^
spontaneity, that the state of nature must not be accordance with the mutual fitness of things.*'
interfered with by human efforts, superficial
(Huai-nan Ttu, 122 B.C.). W.T.C.
morality and wisdom. "Tao undertakes no ac- Wu wu: To regard things as things, that ii, to
tivity (wu wei), and yet there is nothing left
undone. If kings and princes would adhere to regard things with objectivity and no attach-
ment or selfishness, on the one hand, and, with
it, all creatures would transform spontaneously."
(Lao Tzu). the conviction that the self and the non-self
"The true man of old did not know what it form an organic unity on the other. W.T.C.
X
Xenophanes of Colophon (c. 570 - c. 480 B.C.) : 1918. Studied and worked under Ortega y
A contemporary of Pythagoras who may have Gasset, Serra Hunter, Cossio, and Morente.
been t student of Anaximander. Usually asso- Main Works: LAS Conditions I* U
ciated with the Milesian school, his studies car- Vtrdai Et*r*a tn Ltibni*, 1921) Rowta* y
ried him into an examination of the phenomena Us Idtas Politics Modtmas, 1923) El Stntido
of nature. He held that all living creatures had d* la Vtrdad, 1927) Dtuartn y tl Idtalismo
an origin, that plants and animals had natural Subjttwiit* Modimo, 1927) Amor y Mttndo,
origins.tf.//. 1940) Introduction a la Ftnomtnolcgla, 1941.
To Xenophanes is due the saying: "The According to Xirau the very essence of phi-
gods of the Ethiopians are dark-skinned and losophic thought (Influence of Husserl and
snub-nosed) the^gods of the Thracians a,re fair Heidegger) opposes the conception of philosophy
and blue-eyed} if oxen could paint, their gods as mere play of ideas or speculation of concepts.
basis of the human body, by the practice of trigram, or kua, symbols) of the Great Ultimate
(T'ai Chi), from the interplay of which all
benevolence, righteousness, and uprightness, and
the obedience of the moral law (tao) so that things are engendered.
the vital forcebe most great and most
may (c) A
system constituted by the Five Agents
strong "to the extent of filling up all between or Elements (wu hsing) of Water, Fire, Wood,
Heaven and Earth." See: hao /an chih ch'i. Metal, and Earth, which in turn constitute the
(Confucianism). Great Ultimate. (Chou Lien-hsi, 1017-1073).
(b) Nourishing life through breath control. (d) The two forces of ch'i, or the vital
means. The Yogasutras (q.v.) teach eight paths: ness nothing but the transformation of
is
Moral restraint (see yama\ self-culture (see Heaven and Earth and the functionings and
niyama), posture (see asana), breath-control capabilities of nature . . . We should not be
(see prjpay***)> control of the senses (see without desires, but we should minimize them.
pratyahara) t concentration (see dharava)* medi- W.T.C.
tation or complete surrender to the object of Yu: "Eternal being" refers to the function of
meditation (see samadhi). See Hathayoga. the metaphysical' principle Tao. It is no mere
K.F.L. zero or nothingness, having as first principle
Yogieira: A MahiyJna (q.v.) Buddhist school brought all things into being. (Lao Tcu,
which puts emphasis on Yoga (q.v.) as well as Taoists). H.H.
acdra, ethical conduct. Believing in subjective Yuan: (a) The beginning. For the One-Prime,
idealism, it is also designated as Vijnina-vJda see: * yuan.
(q.v.). Since we know the world never apart (b) The beginning of number, one.
from the form it has in consciousness, the (c) The beginning of the material principle
latter is an essential to
it. All things exist in or the vital force (ch'i).
consciousness) they cannot be proven to exist (d) The originating power of the Heavenly
otherwise. K.F.L. Element (chien) in the system of the Eight
Yogasutrai: Famous work by Patanjali (q.v.) Elements (pa kua)j "being attentive to the
on which is founded Yoga, one of the great fundamentals the first and the chief quality
systems of Indian philosophy (q.v.). It is of goodness," one of the four virtues (ssu* tS).
essentially a mental discipline in eight stages (e) The great virtue of Heaven and Earth
(see Yoga) for the attainment of spiritual which expresses itself in production and repro-
freedom without neglecting physical and moral duction. W.T.C.
preparation. In philosophic outlook, the sutras Yuan: The method of analogy in argumentation.
(q.v.) and most commentaries on them are See: pien. W.T.C.
allied to the Sahkhya (q.v.), yet not without Yuan ch'i: The primal fluid or the Prime-Force,
having theistic leanings. K.F.L. the product of the cosmos. Its pure and light
Yogfa, Yogini: (Skr.) The man, the woman, portion collected to form Heaven and its im-
practicing Yoga (q-v.) K.F.L. pure and heavy portioji, Earth. (Huai-nan Tzu,
Yoni: (Skr. womb) Source, origin, matrix, first d. 122 B.C.)- W.T.C.
cause. See garbh*. K.F.L. Yung: Courage, one of the universally recognized
Yu: Being, existence, the mother of all things, moral qualities of man (ta te), especially of
which comes from Non-Being (wu). Both man. W.T.C.
the superior
Being and Non-Being are aspects of Tao. Yung: (a) Harmony.
W.T.C. (b) What is common, ordinary, universal.
Yu: Space, or "what extends to different places" To the Confucians this is "the eternal law of
and "covers the four directions." (Neo-Mohism). the universe." See: chung yung. To Chuang
W.T.C. Tzti (between 399 and 295 B.C.) "the common
Yu: Desire, which the Taoists regard as detri- and the ordinary are the natural function of
mental to a good life and the understanding of all which expresses the common nature
things,
Tao, but which the Confucians accept as natural of the whole. Following the common nature
and reasonable if under control. "The nature of the whole, they are at ease. Being at ease,
of man is tranquil, but when it is affected by they are near perfection. This is letting nature
the external world, it begins to have desires . . . take its course, without being conscious of the
When the likes and dislikes are not properly fact. This is Tao. W.T.C.
Zaddik, Joseph Ibn: Judge at Cordova (1080- Zetetie: (Gr. zeteo, to seek) A procedure by
1149). Philosophic work written in Arabic is inquiry. A search (in mathematics) after un-
the Microcosm (Heb. Olam Katon). See Jewish known quantities. A seeker. V.F.
Philosophy. Ziehen, Theodor: (b. 1862) A German thinker
Zarathuttra : A historic personality whose life be- whose main interest lay in the field of physiologi-
came enshrowded in legend. He lived .not later cal psychology. R.B.W.
than the 6th century B.C. in ancient Persia
Zoroastrianism: (from Zoroaster) A life-
(Iran or Bactria) and is credited with establish-
a dualism called after him Zoroastrianism affirming Indo-Iranian religion, also known as
ing
In Also sprack Zarathustra, Nietzsche Mazdaism, Bah Din, Parsiism, and Fire-wor-
(q.v.).
makes him, though dissociated from his doc- ship, established by Zarathustra (q.v.), weakened
trines, the bearer of his message. K.F.L. by the conquests of Alexander the Great, resusci-
tated, then practically extinguished by the ad-
Zendavesta: (from Middle Persian Zend u
vance of Mohammedanism, but still living on in
Avista, "commentary and text") The Com-
the Gabar communities of Persia and the Parsis
mentary, still used today as sacred scripture
of Bombay. It is ethical and dualistic in that
among the Parsis (see Zoroastrianism), on the
the struggle between good and evil is projected
basic text which was composed by the followers
into cosmology and symbolized by a warfare
of Zarathustra (q.v.), but had become unintellig-
K.F.L. between light and darkness which is conceived
ible due to its archaic nature.
Zeno o! Elea: (about 490430 B.C.) Disciple of on the one hand naturalistically and manifest-
ing itself in a deification of the shining heavily
Parmenides) defended the doctrine of his master
that only changeless "Being" is real by indirect bodies, veneration of fire, fear of defilement, and
proofs exposing the logical absurdities involved purificatory rites ,and, on the other, mythologi-
in the opposite view, namely that plurality and cally as the vying for supremacy between Or-
change are reaj. Zeno's famous arguments mazd and Ahriman (q.v.) and their hosts
against the possibility of motion were intended of angels and demons. Man must choose be-
as proofs that motion was full of contradic- tween light and darkness, truth and falsehood,
tions and that it could not therefore serve as a moral right and wrong, and thus gain either
principle for the explanation of all phenomena, eternal bliss or agony. K.F.L.
as the atomists, Heraclitus, Empedodes and
others had taught. Zwingliism: The theological thought of Huld-
M.F.
reich Zwingli (1481-1531), early Protestant
Zeno the (c. 340-265 B.C.) A native of
Stoic:
Reformer of Zurich, Switzerland. His theology
Cyprus and the founder of the Stoic School in was theocentric: God's activity is all-pervading
Athens. His philosophy was built on the prin-
and widely revealed. He was a student of the
ciple that reality ii a rational order in which
Greek N.T. and of humanistic subjects, a friend
nature is controlled by laws of Reason, inter-
of Erasmus. (See Reformation). He followed
preted in the vein of pantheism. Men's lives
are guided by Providence against which it is Augustine's doctrine of man's original sin and
futile to resist and to which wise men willingly sinfulness with some modifications. He antici-