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In this work, the techniques of physical modeling for op- cesses or suggesting alternative techniques for improved
timization, control and improvement of metallurgical pro- efficiency.
cesses, such as RH degassing, continuous casting, IR-UT,
etc with special reference to Brazilian steel plants such as Key words: continuous casting, IRUT process, physical
Usiminas, CST, Belgo-Mineira etc. are discussed. Many of modelling, RH degassing.
these have been industry-sponsored projects, involving de-
velopment of physical models of laboratory scale, consid-
C Blackwell Publishing, 2005
ering similarity principles and carrying over the results of
experiments to the industrial unit, for optimizing the pro- Accepted for publication 1 February 2005
During the last 25 years there has been increasing ten- nomena principles, there are basically two difficulties,
dency with respect to application of quantitative meth- the analysis of the problem and the solution of the differ-
ods of modeling for the solution of the problems of de- ential equations with defined boundary conditions. Be-
sign, operation and control of the industrial processes. fore the advent of computers there was great difficulty
As the processes become more complex, models have in this respect and hence models were simplified to get
to be developed for each stage of the process for effec- analytical solutions. However, in the last 1015 years the
tive control of the operation or automation for obtain- developments in the field of computers have been phe-
ing better productivity and quality of products as well nomenal and this problem does not exist any more [1,
as decreasing the production costs. The techniques of 2]. Now there are also available several software based
physical and mathematical modeling of processes are on the several techniques of numerical analysis for the
useful in the development of new processes and tech- resolution of models of transport phenomena in 2 or 3
nologies besides improving the control and efficiency of dimensions. With the use of powerful computers, it has
the existing processes. become possible to decrease the time of computation
The mathematical modeling of a process may involve facilitating the use of very precise and complex models
a system of algebraic or differential equations or appli- for control of processes. This situation should be favored
cation of statistics that represent quantitatively several now by the fall of the hardware prices and availability of
stages of the process and involves, in addition to un- sophisticated software in the market for complex math-
derstanding of the basic principles of the actual pro- ematical models. Artificial intelligence is another field
cess, several knowledge areas such as thermodynamics, where significant developments have taken place. De-
kinetics, transport phenomena, mathematics and com- velopment of software on this basis has been used for
puter science. The degree of sophistication of a model process control. Computer control has been successfully
for simulation of an industrial process depends on tak- applied in the fields of agglomeration, iron making, steel
ing into consideration fundamental principles of mass, making, rolling, foundry etc using such soft wares.
heat and momentum transfer and other related phenom- The physical modeling of a process consists essen-
ena, formulation of the model, practical verification and tially of its representation in a reduced scale in the lab-
improvement of the same. For simulation of a process oratory using the similarity principles and materials
through a mathematical model involving transport phe- at low temperatures in order to analyze the effect of
340
Physical modeling simulations
several variables of the process, facilitating the visual- propriate tracers such as sodium chloride, potassium
ization and measurement of specific aspects in a con- chloride. Plug flow and other considerations can be
venient way and low cost. It is important to point out made depending on the process and RTD curves can
that a modern research methodology and development be obtained suiting well-known techniques adopted ex-
of new processes as well as improvement of the exis- tensively in various investigations [4].
tent processes, require the use of techniques of both In Brazil, the departments of Metallurgical Engineer-
mathematical and physical modeling first in the labo- ing of UFMG and UFOP have maintained a strong inter-
ratory and then in experiments in pilot plants or pro- action with several steel companies, such as USIMINAS,
totypes or a combination of both using the knowhow ACESITA, CST, CSBM. This program not only imparted
obtained in the first stage to achieve the defined ob- continuing education to the several engineers in terms
jectives. For accomplishing the simulation of industrial of masters degree program in several areas of the met-
processes through these techniques a good technical col- allurgy but also carried out research programs of inter-
laboration between those specialized in fundamentals est to the industry with the active cooperation of the
and experts with practical knowledge of the process is university. In this context several research projects have
very essential. This collaboration would greatly influ- been taken up with the sponsorship of the steel industry,
ence the successful development of a realistic model of which were simultaneously masters or doctorate theses
the process. also. This contribution gives details regarding some of
The key point of the physical modeling is the realis- the projects completed successfully of this industry by
tic representation of the process to be analyzed in terms the authors under the university research program in the
of the important variables that influence the same and field of physical modeling over the years. This program
develop a correlation between the dimensionless num- covered several areas such as RH degassing, continuous
bers constituted by these variables derived by apply- casting tundish and mold, blast furnace, agglomeration,
ing similarity principles such as Buckhingham theorem, flux powder injection in melts etc [521].
Rayleighs method of indices etc. and carrying out ex-
periments with the model at ambient temperature vary-
ing different parameters of the process. The correlations Examples of application of physical
developed in this way are valid for the model as well as modelling of processes
the prototype. Similarity between model and prototype Analysis of installation of process RH of usiminas
is not only with respect to geometry, but also dynamic in function of several operational conditions [13]
parameters such as velocity, force, density, concentra- It is well known that the productivity of the process
tion, temperature and thermal aspects [3]. Through anal- degasification with RH process depends on the rate of
ysis of general equations of momentum, heat and mass circulation of the steel, which in turn is determined by
balance, such as the NavierStokes equation one can the number of uplegs, nozzle locations and injection
arrive at the dimensionless numbers important in the rate of gas in it. The circulation rate influences signifi-
process. The experimental results of the physical model cantly descarburization, deoxidation, removal of hydro-
itself can be verified by applying the above balance gen and nitrogen from the melts as well as mixing and
and solving the differential equations, with simplifi- homogenization in the ladle. Hence, optimization of the
cations for unidimensional, bidimensional or tridimen- process can be achieved through a better understanding
sional considerations and other aspects of the process. of the variables that affect this parameter.
Once the geometric and dynamic similarities between During 19781979 USIMINAS installed a RH de-
the model and the prototype are established, in general gassing unit with a capacity of 86 tonnes. With the ob-
the model is constructed in acrylic material assuming jective stated previously, a cold model was built in the
a geometric scale and dynamic similarity principles are scale 1:5.3 considering similarity principles. Through a
established between model and prototype using the di- dimensional analysis it was shown that
mensionless numbers. Hence, various parameters such
b
as liquid and gas fluxes, concentration gradients etc are NF r = C[(NVa )]a (NRe )2 . (1)
determined for use in the cold model experiments. Sub-
sequently, the influence of the variables of the process The parameters C, a and b were determined through
on parameters determining the efficiency of the process experimental work with the physical model, using water
are determined for optimizing the process. Tracer tech- and injecting nitrogen in the upleg (1080 l/min) under
niques are used extensively for concentrationtime (C vacuum; NaCl was the tracer. A saturated solution of
T) diagrams. Conductivity and other measurements are NaCl was injected upleg and the variation of the con-
made continuously for simulating the process with ap- centration in the downleg end was evaluated through
341
Seshadri et al.
Qm 0.279Q p . (4)
Tc = 5.89Q0.33 , (3)
342
Physical modeling simulations
Analysis of flow of steel in indirect casting of steel Physical model for evaluation of mixing time
ingots in USIMINAS through cold modeling [15] during injection of gas through lance in the steel
In the indirect casting of steel ingots, the steel from ladle (project sponsored by COSIPA steel Co. Sao
the ladle flows into the vertical channel and distributes Paulo [16]
the same via horizontal channels for feeding the ingot The process of injection of gas and powders such as
molds. It is essential that the metal is fed in a manner CaSi and lime are used extensively to carry out effi-
minimising the problems generated by the impact of the cient desulphurization, dephosphorization etc, as this
jet of steel on the base plate as well as avoiding high cast- process improves the efficiency of interaction between
ing speed which can sometimes lead to the flow from metal and flux or slag. Injection is normally done
the top of the mold. Hence, the flow has to be optimised through a lance system or porous plug at the bottom
for improving production efficiency and final quality of of the ladle. The gas serves to homogenise the effect, ef-
products with respect to inclusions etc. For simulating ficient mixing, and promotes efficient degasification of
the indirect casting process, a water model was built at the melts, and the fine powder flux serves to improve
a scale of 1:1.887. efficiency of the refining reactions. One of the variables
Applying dimensional analysis to the process it can that is intrinsically linked to the hydrodynamic perfor-
be shown that mance is the efficiency of mixing and this is a function
of lance depth, diameter and design of the lance system
N f r = K (NRe )a (NRh )b . (5) such as 2 exits or 3 exits and the exit angle as well as gas
velocity.
In this equation, the Froude number represents the re- A study of the effect of these variables on time of mix-
lationship among inertial forces defined by the speed of ing was done using a physical model in the laboratory.
the jet in a free fall and the forces opposed to the same, Correlations obtained were extrapolated for the indus-
namely column of liquid in the ingot mold. N Re defines trial installation. Through a dimensional analysis, it can
the relationship between the forces of inertia and viscos- be shown that Froud and Reynold numbers as well as a
ity for flow through the channels. N Rh gives the height proportionality number relating gas and liquid flow are
relationship H/h, which represents the effect of energy important in the process.
contained in the jet starting from the decreasing height The model was built (acrylic ladle) at a scale of 1:5
(H) of metal in the ladle and that of the of the resistance (Fig. 6) using a group of lances for the injection of air
of the liquid column (h) ascending in the ingot mold. For in the water in the ladle and the following variables
the determination of the actual correlation between the are considered: (a) gas flow, (b) lance position (hori-
above dimensional numbers several experiments were zontal and vertical displacement); (c) lance type (two
carried out varying (H) of the level of water in the ladle three holes); (d) type of exit of the lance (horizontal
and (h) of the ingot mold. Through a regression analysis and inclined) and diameter of the lance hole. The time
the following correlation resulted; see Fig. 5 of mixing is defined as the requested time so that the
concentration of the tracer in a certain place reaches
NF r = 0.0812(NRh )0.387 (NRe )0.20 . (6) 95% concentration of the stationary regime after the
343
Seshadri et al.
Qm = 0.32Q p . (9)
The diameter of the hole of the lance in the model (D m ) Fig. 7. Variation of time of mixing with gas flow through Lance (type 3T
was arrived at equalling the modified Froude numbers ( = 7,0mm).
344
Physical modeling simulations
345
Seshadri et al.
Fig. 10. Effect of the nozzle blockage on the circulation rate, without gas Fig. 12. Kinetics of degassing (with and without gas injection through
injection through porous plug as determined for the water model. porous plug). The abscissa axis is for gas injection through the upleg only.
346
Physical modeling simulations
347
Seshadri et al.
Fig. 15. Main features of the flow field, determined by laser sheet visualiza-
tion.
Laser sheet visualization was used for a first appraisal Fig. 16. Relationship between mixing times and gas flow rate determined
of the flow field. Particles of resin (S6H from Goodyear, with physical model for nominal conditions.
specific gravity 1040 kg/m3 ) were dispersed in water. A
plane of light was produced by making a beam impinge
on a glass rod. Then the path of those particles moving
on the plane was recorded by a digital domestic cam-
era (Sony). The movies could then be produced with
a domestic fame grabber (PCVision). Figure 15 shows
a schematic view for the flow observed in the vertical
plane defined as longitudinal axis and the stirring lance.
It makes apparent that the snorkel works for diverging
the main flow, which would otherwise be directed to the
metal surface. This main feature is not present at a regu-
lar ladle and is expected to show remarkable influence. Fig. 17. Optimal positioning of snorkel as function of gas flow rate.
A series of experiments were designed in order to assess
the influence of snorkel (with, without), snorkel depth
of immersion, snorkel diameter, distance between lance relationship between the specific energy of stirring, ,
and bottom of the ladle, and gas flow rate. and the mixing time, .
Preliminary experiments have shown that the gas
blown at the surface would not affect the mixing times = a . n , (13)
very much. Flow phenomena induced by chemical re- which would be specific for each class of reactor as they
actions or splashing due to shear stresses are obviously are defined by different geometry and arrangement of
important but cannot be promptly be simulated with stirring elements. Thus one should be able to evalu-
this kind of experiment. Thus, this work did not take ate the proper values of a and n for each combination
their possible effects into consideration. One can assume of ladle geometry, snorkel geometry, depth of immer-
that the very presence of the snorkel acting as a physical sion, number, shape and location of nozzels for a given
barrier would reduce the influence of the oxygen blast IR-UT.unit. As far as evaluating the specific stirring en-
at steel-free surface (contained inside the snorkel). Two ergy is concerned the present authors have chosen
kinds of representation were used to highlight the effects
of many parameters. One of them shows mixing time as 8, 32 TI 9, 81 H
= TS 1 + ln 1 + Q, (14)
function of gas flow rate, other parameters being kept 22, 4M TS PA
constant (see Figs. 16 and 17). The present experiments where is the specific stirring energy, W/kg; M is the
with the physical model of IR-UT show a strong snorkel mass of liquid, kg; Q is the gas flow rate, STP, dm3 /s;
influence. As shown in Fig. 17, an optimum value of T S is the temperature of steel, K; T I is the temperature
depth of immersion of the snorkel seems to exist. For this of gas, K; is the liquid specific gravity, kg/m; H is the
value, the mixing time is minimum, which is, however, depth of injection, m; P A is the ambient pressure, Pa.
dependent on the gas flow rate. Mixing time curves flat Some relevant equations for gas flow up to 200 lpm
out when the gas flow rate increases, suggesting that for are as follows:
a given specific stirring energy small snorkel positioning 1. Influence of snorkel diameter, 4 cm immersion.
errors should not be significant. That would character-
ize a robust modus operandi. The other [22] employs a ln no = 0.3144 ln + 2.453, (15)
348
Physical modeling simulations
ln 34 = 0.3144 ln + 2.453, (16) Table 4. Predicted mixing times as a function of the distance between the
lance and bottom of the ladle
ln 45 = 0.3144 ln + 2.453, (17) Distance lance to bottom of the ladle [cm] [w/kg]
349
Seshadri et al.
350
Physical modeling simulations
The average values for the transient isothermal (i.e. for Comparison between isothermal and nonisothermal
a hypothetical operation where there would be no tem- data shows a smaller degree of confidence for intermedi-
perature difference between the incoming and outgoing ate strands t 2% estimates. Flow reversal was observed in
ladles) simulations are presented in Table 5 (figures in some nonisothermal experiments and that was charac-
parenthesis are for 95% confidence interval). terized by short circuit at strands 3 and 4, which should
The effects of refilling ratio, throughput, working vol- result in a certain degree of uncertainty of minimum
ume, minimum level during ladle changeover, and ge- residence time at these strands.
ometry were assessed as follows. Minimum residence With respect to the minimum residence time during
times are (much) smaller for transient conditions as com- ladle change-over transient it is necessary to remember
pared with steady-state operations. Minimum residence that in some cases the free stream of steel impinging over
times are smaller for the higher refilling rate and the the slag cover could promote slag emulsification. In this
smaller minimum level of liquid. Transition for the in- case the issue is not inclusion flotation but rather the
ternal strands is sharper than transition for the external dispersing of the emulsion. In that sense larger values
strands. The level of influence varies according to the of minimum residence time are favourable.
strand location and each should be analysed separately. The optimisation of internal design parameters of
Stepwise multiregression resulted in following corre- tundish should lead to maximizing the minimum res-
lations for transient isothermal. idence time; that would improve the efficiency of inclu-
External strands: sion flotation or emulsification dispersion. Minimizing
intermix production would also be a goal.
t2% = 25.70 33.20 f + 11.10VMIN r 2 = 71, (24) The effects of flow obstacles geometry vary according
to the strands, especially in the tee-shaped tundish.
D = 2.45 + 0.383 f + 0.295VMIN r 2 = 51. (25) The transition for internal strands was sharper than
the transition for external strands; the relationships be-
Intermediate strands: tween minimum residence time and minimum level of
t2% = 86.70 29.80 f + 3.24VMIN r 2 = 71, (26) liquid, refilling rate were evaluated.
351
Seshadri et al.
financing institutions such as CNPq and FAPEMIG in 16. Bentes MAG, Seshadri V. In: Proceedings 3rd beneficiation
Brazil. and Agglomeration 1991, Bhubaneswar, India, 93110.
17. Viera UA, Seshadri V. In: Proceedings of the International
Congress on Iron and Steel Technology in Developing
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