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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Copyright 2017. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received January 27, 2016; provisional acceptance May 27, 2016; revised manuscript received July The authors are grateful for comments and
5, 2016; nal acceptance August 24, 2016. recommendations from Stephen M. Hubbard
DOI:10.1306/08241616014
displays vertical colored bands that correspond to The standard two-dimensional representation of the
resistivity values measured from each pad. The blank image log shows all six pads of well coverage (Figure
vertical strips represent the area of the wellbore with- 5B) and a close-up of the data (Figure 5C).
out tool coverage. Light colors (white to yellow) in Variations in resistivity highlight surfaces and
the image logs indicate high-resistivity features such other sedimentologic features in the image log, with
as hydrocarbon-bearing sands, carbonates, and con- planar surfaces appearing as sinusoids. The inter-
cretions. Conversely, dark colors (brown to black) preter manually places the sinusoid on the image in
distinguish low-resistivity features, which include the interpretation software (Figure 6), and the dip
muds, water-saturated sands, and organic detritus. angle, dip direction, and depth of the surface are
Sedimentary
Facies Association Facies Facies Name Clasts Sand Mud Bed Thickness Basal Contact Structures
FA1 F1 Mud clast breccia Angular and Variable, ne to >10 cm (>4 in.) May be gradation Trough cross-beds
subangular coarse grain size; with F2,
mud clasts moderately to otherwise sharp
>2 mm well sorted
FA1 F2 Sand-rich, high-angle, Rare 90%, ne to coarse 10% Sand 20100 cm May be gradation Trough cross-beds,
variably dipping grain size; (940 in.); with F1, current ripples
stratication moderately to laminated mud otherwise sharp
well sorted <20 cm (8 in.)
FA1 F3a Sand-rich, low-angle, Rare 70%, very ne to 30% Sand <50 cm (<20 Gradational Trough cross-beds,
uniformly dipping medium grain in.); mud <20 cm current ripples
stratication size; moderately (8 in.)
to well sorted
FA1 F3b Mud-rich, low-angle, <70%, very ne to 30% Sand <10 cm (<4 Gradational Current ripples
uniformly dipping medium grain in.); mud <20 cm with rare trough
stratication size; moderately (8 in.) cross-beds
to well sorted
FA1 F4 Mud-rich, at-lying <10%, very ne to 90% Sand <2 cm (<0.8 Gradational Parallel laminated
stratication ne grain size; in.) with current ripples,
moderately to convolute bedding
well sorted and loading
FA2 F5 Bioturbated sandy mud <10%, very ne to 90% Sand 2100 cm Bioturbated Bioturbated with
to sand ne grain size; (0.840 in.); mud oscillation ripples in
moderately well <1 cm (0.4 in.) low-angle wavy
sorted parallel laminations
FA2 F6 Bioturbated to <10%, very ne 90% Sand 2100 cm Bioturbated Oscillation ripples in
laminated muds grain size; well (0.840 in.); mud wavy parallel
sorted <1 cm (0.4 in.) laminations
FA3 F7 Heterolithic >10%, very ne to 90% <10 cm (<4 in.) Sharp HCS in sand, rippled
coarsening-upward ne grain size; ; sand and soft
cycles well sorted sediment
deformation
FA4 F8 Unburrowed, root- <5% 95% <10 m (33 ft) Sharp Pedogenic
bearing mud and coal slickenslides
Bedding type frequencies are (1) dominant, (2) abundant, (3) common, (4) uncommon, (5) rare, and (6) not applicable (N/A).
Abbreviations: BI = bioturbation index; CBB = cut-bankderived breccia; HCS = hummocky cross stratication; PBB = point-barderived breccia. Ichnology abbreviations: Ar =
Arenicolites; As = Asterosoma; Ch = Chondrites; Cs = Cosmorhaphe; Cy = Cylindrichnus; ea = equilibrium adjustment; Gy = Gyrolithes; H = Helminthopsis; fu = fugichnia;
nav = navichnia; Ph = Phycosiphon; Pl = Planolites; Ps = Psilonichnus; Si = Siphonichnus; Sk = Skolithos; Te = Teichnichnus; Th = Thalassinoides; Tr = Trichichnus.
Muddy clasts may be Common: Common: Breccia easily identied CBB: collapse of cut-bank Eroded and
bioturbated disorganized high disorganized high sowing lateral clast deposits. PBB: mobilized host rock
angle (from 0 to angle (from 15 to terminations and unidirectional current deposits.
90) 40) and low-angle unusual dip angles. ow of reworked
disorganized bedload sediment.
Mud BI 02: Pl, Cy, Abundant: Common: Dip of high-angle beds Unidirectional current Two- and three-
nav disorganized high disorganized low indicates paleoow ow of bedload dimensional dunes
angle; uncommon: angle direction. sediment. and trough cross-
ripples stratication in
thalweg or as
transverse bar.
Sand BI 02: Cy, Sk, Uncommon: ripples; Dominant: organized Dip of bounding surfaces Helical ow forms Sand-rich lateral
Si, fu; mud BI 15: rare: disorganized low-angle mottled indicates direction of reactivation (bounding) accretion beds of
Pl, Cy, nav, Th, Te, high angle and and organized low- point-bar accretion. Dip surfaces equivalent to a point bar.
Gy, Sk, Si, Ps disorganized low angle laminated of internal bedding point-bar lateral
angle indicates paleoow accretion surfaces.
direction. Unidirectional current
ow of bedload
sediment.
Sand BI 02: Cy, Sk, Uncommon: ripples; Dominant: organized Dip of bounding surfaces Deposition of mud from Mud-rich lateral
Si, fu; mud BI 15: rare: disorganized low-angle mottled indicates direction of suspension during accretion beds of
Pl, Cy, nav, Th, Te, high angle and and organized low- point-bar accretion. Dip lateral accretion. a point bar.
Gy, Sk, Si, Ps disorganized low angle laminated of internal bedding Unidirectional current
angle indicates paleoow ow of sand and
direction. occulated mud as
bedload sediment.
BI 05: Pl, Ch, nav, Rare: ripples Dominant: horizontal Differentiate point bar Vertical accretion of mud Vertical accretion at
Th, Te, Gy bedding from abandoned from suspension. the top of point
channel deposit. bars or as channel
abandonment.
BI 25: Cy, Pl, Pa, Sk, Rare: ripples Common: horizontal Flat-lying beds indicative Vertical accretion of mud Brackish bay ll.
Di, Si, Gy, Te, Th, Ch bedding of vertical accretion. from suspension.
Oscillatory ow
formation of low-angle
wavy laminations.
BI 45: Ch, As, Co, Pl, Rare: disorganized Common: horizontal Flat-lying beds indicative Vertical accretion of mud Prodelta to distal
Pa, Sk, Tr, Te, He, low angle and bedding of vertical accretion. from suspension in open bay.
Ph, fu, nav, Cy ripples marine conditions.
BI 04: Pl, Te, Si, fu; Uncommon: Common: horizontal Flat-lying beds indicative Oscillatory sediment Storm- and wave-
BI 01: Gy, Ch, Th, disorganized high bedding of vertical accretion. transport with rare dominated delta.
Ar, Sk, nav angle, disorganized unidirectional sediment
low angle, and transport.
ripples
Roots N/A N/A Very dark appearance is Subaerial deposition; Intrachannel
characteristic. Mottled locally vegetated. oodplain, swamp,
unit lacks bedding scroll bar.
structures.
Facies Association 1 core, cover 360 of the wellbore, and are better suited
to recognizing large clasts (see Figure 10B). Dip
Facies 1: Mud Clast Breccia orientations observed in FA1 and in image logs in-
Facies 1 (F1) consists of mud clasts in a sand matrix clude bedding surfaces marked by clasts, reoriented
that varies from clast supported to matrix supported primary bedding within large clasts, and surfaces
(Figures 9A, 10, Table 1). Mud clasts are readily ap- following truncated clast edges.
parent in core where lateral terminations are visible or
where clasts dip at high angles. Large clasts with at-
lying internal laminae spanning the width of the core Facies 1 Interpretation
are challenging to identify; however, image logs have Clasts are intraformationally derived from the ero-
roughly seven times the viewable area of slabbed sion of cohesive mud beds. The angularity of these
soft, unlithied muds is consistent with burial follow- bases of new channels (Brekke and Evoy, 2004;
ing little or no reworking. Two possible depositional Nardin et al., 2013). The PBB interpretation should
settings for mud clast breccia deposition are (1) cut- be made where the bedding orientations of over-
bankderived breccia (CBB) and (2) point-bar lying and underlying organized low-angle bedding
derived breccia (PBB) (Figure 11). exhibit similar dip directions. In this scenario, the
breccia is derived from muddy sediments higher up
Cut-BankDerived Breccia on the point bar. The erosion of heterolithic lateral
The CBB consists of mud clast breccias formed from accretion bedsets caused by elevated discharge is
the collapse of muddy, cohesive cut-bank deposits on a source of clasts for the PBB (e.g., Sisulak and
the outer banks of meander bends. These breccias Dashtgard, 2012; Choi et al., 2013; Jablonski et al.,
overlie the erosional bases of migrating channels (CBB; 2016). The lateral migration of a single channel with
Figure 11) and mark the thalweg position of the associated transient erosional events is a better in-
active channel. Zones of CBB greater than 1 m (3 ft) terpretation in these cases.
thick may be associated with cross-stratied sand of The classication of a breccia as CBB or PBB is
facies 2 or lateral accretion beds of facies 3. It is impossible complicated where disorganized bedding surrounds
to determine from core if a breccia is a CBB marking the the breccia. Therefore, its resolution may require
base of a new channel unless the occurrence lies at the a comparison with bedding in nearby wells.
base of the formation. The only way to determine if
a breccia is a CBB is to compare bedding orientations
Facies 2: Sand-Rich, High-Angle, Variably Dipping
above and below the breccia. In the case where the
Stratication
breccia is bracketed by organized low-angle bedding
Facies 2 (F2) (Table 1) is easily distinguished in image
with different dip directions, the breccia is likely
logs (Figure 12) by sand-dominated intervals of
derived from the cut bank of the migrating channel.
disorganized high-angle bedding and/or low-angle
bedding. Although stratication is locally visible in
Point-BarDerived Breccia core (Figure 9B), oil saturation commonly obscures the
Zones of breccia occurring within lateral accretion sedimentary features in this facies. Stratication is gen-
beds of facies 3 (PBB; Figure 11) might not mark the erally of high angle (>15) and occurs in decimeter-scale
beds. Clay interlaminae and limited burrowing occur deposits (Figure 11). Localized ow directions be-
locally within some sands (Figure 9C). tween bedsets may be highly variable, but dominant
trends emerge when multiple bedsets are present.
The rapid deposition and migration of dune-scale
Facies 2 Interpretation bedforms results in minimal burrowing because or-
Facies 2 may occur at any level in the point bar, re- ganisms cannot easily inhabit and maintain domiciles
ecting small dunes or bars. When found at the base of in high-energy mobile substrates (cf. Dashtgard et al.,
the succession, this facies is interpreted as the deposits 2008; Gingras et al., 2008). Although the bulk of
of dunes and indicates high-energy, nonbar, channel this facies is unburrowed, the localized presence of
burrows likely record pauses in dune migration (Yang and mud-dominated (F3b). Most biogenic structures
et al., 2009; Dashtgard, 2011). in this facies (Figure 9DH) are diminutive, and few
beds contain more than three ichnogenera. The uni-
directional dipping bed contacts observed in image
Facies 3: Low-Angle, Uniformly Dipping Stratication
logs are bounding surfaces (Figure 7C, D) and are the
Low-angle, uniformly dipping stratication is typied
most persistently oriented surfaces in the study, forming
by organized low-angle laminated bedding and or-
bedsets up to 50 m (165 ft) thick (Figure 3A).
ganized low-angle mottled bedding (Figures 1315)
and constitutes the most common facies in the study
area (Table 1). Facies 3 (F3) encompasses a spectrum Facies 3 Interpretation
of lithologies (Table 1) ranging from 100% sand Facies 3 represents lateral accretion of a point bar
(Figure 13B) to 100% mud (Figure 15). Facies 3 is deposited by a migrating channel. These inclined
subdivided into two subfacies: sand-dominated (F3a) surfaces are the master bedding planes of Allen (1963)
and dene inclined heterolithic stratication (IHS) and outcrops by Flach and Mossop (Flach and Mossop,
inclined homolithic stratication (IS) (Thomas et al., 1985). This pattern is also noted by Thomas et al.
1987). In these point bars, the lateral accretion beds (1987) where bounding surfaces atten out down-dip.
maintain consistency in their dip direction (20), but Note that the epsilon cross-bedding prole described
dip angles steepen upward from the base of the unit, above is idealized; the dip angle prole displayed in
reaching their highest dip angles near the midpoint Figure 3A shows the steepest dip angles in the upper
before progressively shallowing to the top of the point third of the interval, well above the midpoint.
bar (Figure 11B). This shallow-to-steep-to-shallow dip Demonstrating the persistence in dip direction and
pattern is the epsilon cross-bedding described by Al- progressive change in dip angle of beds is indispensable
len (1963) and described in McMurray Formation for establishing a lateral accretion interpretation, as
well as conrming that the succession constitutes part and F2, yielding intervals that are indistinguish-
of the same point bar. Conversely, stacked point bars able in cored successions.
show marked changes in dip directions. Discriminating Facies 3b records lower-energy deposition on
stacked point bars based on changes in lithology or pro- the laterally accreted tidaluvial point bars, where
portions of sand to mud beds is not reliable, because the mud content is greater than 70%. Low-intensity
these vary both in vertical prole and from one side of bioturbation with low-diversity suites correspond to
the depositional body to the other. reduced and/or strongly uctuating salinity as well as
Facies 3a is one of the most difcult to rec- heightened sedimentation rates (Pemberton, 1982;
ognize using core alone because it is easily mis- Pemberton and Wightman, 1992; MacEachern and
identied as the cross-stratied sand facies (F2). Gingras, 2007; Hauck et al., 2009). The intensely
Thin laminated mud beds may occur within F3a bioturbated muds are indicative of slow deposition
rates showing that there was time for infauna to in- bedding appear in core (Figure 9I). Image logs exhibit
habit and then churn these sediments. This facies only horizontal bedding (Figure 16), also called
could have been deposited in sheltered positions, on to- horizontal stratication.
pographically higher parts of the tidaluvial point bar
complex, during periods of low or seasonally uc- Facies 4 Interpretation
tuating discharge, and/or where coarser-grained ma- Where F4 directly overlies F3 and is associated with
terial was unavailable (Dalrymple and Choi, 2007; the shallow-to-steep-to-shallow dip pattern of F3, it is
Hubbard et al., 2011; Musial et al., 2012; Sisulak and interpreted as vertical accretion at the top of a point
Dashtgard, 2012). bar (i.e., at-lying beds at the top of the epsilon cross-
stratication; Figure 11B). This type of F4 succession
Facies 4: Mud-Rich, Flat-Lying Stratication is typically only a few meters thick, and the vertical
Facies 4 (F4) consists of variably bioturbated, at- dip architecture displays the gradual change from
lying muds (Table 1). Bioturbation obscures much of lateral accretion bedding with gently decreasing dip
the primary fabric, but remnant laminae and graded angles to vertical accretion.
Figure 17. Facies associations 24 of the McMurray Formation. (A) Root-bearing (r) silty to sandy mudstone with spherulitic siderite (sid)
representing continental deposits (F8). The unit contains common siderite as small nodules. (B) Pervasively bioturbated silty mudstone with rare,
remnant oscillation ripples to parallel lamination (black arrows) (F6). Although trace fossils are diminutive, they are abundant and contain fully
marine elements. The facies shows bioturbation index (BI) 45, with Planolites (P), Phycosiphon (Ph), Chondrites (Ch), Asterosoma (As), and
Cylindrichnus (Cy). (C) Pervasively bioturbated muddy sands of a typical coarsening-upward cycle (F5). The unit displays BI 5 and contains robust
Thalassinoides (Th), Skolithos (Sk), P, and Gyrolithes (Gy). (D) Pervasively bioturbated sand toward the top of a coarsening-upward cycle (F5).
The facies shows rare parallel laminated sand layers (e.g., black arrow) but is dominated by bioturbation. The interval displays BI 4, with Sk,
Rosselia (Ro), Cy, Gy, P, and fugichnia (fu). (E) Mud-dominated heterolithic unit characterized by wavy parallel laminae, interpreted as
microhummocky cross stratication (HCS), and wave ripples, some of which are aggradational and interlaminated with mud (black arrow) (F7).
Syneresis cracks (sy) are common, subtending from the bases of sand layers. These wavy- to lenticular-bedded composite bedsets show BI 01,
with isolated, diminutive P. Unit is characteristic of the basal facies of heterolithic coarsening-upward cycles. (F) Wavy bedded composite bedset
consisting of thin sand beds with wavy parallel laminae (interpreted as micro-HCS) and wave ripples interbedded with mud layers containing
parallel interlaminae of silt, sand, and carbonaceous detritus (F7). Sand-lled sy subtend from the bases of sand layers. The unit shows BI 02,
with isolated P, Arenicolites (Ar), Gy, and fu. The unit occurs in the lower half of a heterolithic coarsening-upward cycle. (G) Sand-dominated,
wavy-bedded interval characterized by wavy parallel laminae (interpreted as HCS) with thin mud layers containing parallel laminae of silt and
sand (F7). Sand beds show BI 01, with rare fu. Mud layers locally contain sy, show BI 01, and contain P and Sk. The unit occurs in the upper half
of a coarsening-upward cycle. (H) Oil-saturated, wavy parallel laminated sand interpreted as stacked swaley cross stratication (SCS) (F7). The
unit is largely unburrowed, with localized zones containing rare fu. Unit occurs near the top of a coarsening-upward cycle.
(Figure 17B, upper half of Figure 18A) to silt poor, Facies 6 Interpretation
laminated, and ssile. Bioturbated intervals display Facies 6 represents deposition in a broad, open bay
diverse trace fossil suites with robust ichnogenera, in- and is interpreted as the distal expression of F5. In
dicating more marine conditions. Laminated muds this succession, mudstones correspond to ooding sur-
contain greater amounts of organic debris and appear faces deposited during regional transgressions of the
visibly darker than the muds in F1F4. Bedding is area. The silty muds exhibit pervasive bioturbation
commonly horizontal, but F6 lithologies charac- and elevated trace fossil diversities (Figure 17B) and con-
teristically have low resistivity values resulting in stitute the most marine expression of the McMurray
poor image log contrast, which limits the level of Formation in the Leismer area. The thin lamina sets
detail discernible on image logs. This facies is as- record incremental emplacement of mud, and the
sociated with F5 and F7. low abundance suite of fully marine ichnogenera is
The Jordan and Pryor (1992) study emphasized heterogeneity at different reservoir scales from modern analogs. Dunes, bedding units, and lobe sheet extents indicate potential continuous mud bed distribution. Strobl et al. (1997)
characterized the lateral extent of heterogeneities of the McMurray Formation at the Underground Test Facility in northeastern Alberta. This study estimated the effect of inclined heterolithic stratication (IHS) on production. A
recent study by Nardin et al. (2013) matched extensive dipmeter log data to McMurray Formation mine faces at the Mildred Lake Mine in northeastern Alberta to determine sand body dimensions, facies distributions, and mud bed
extents. Similar features are correlated for the above three studies and the facies in this study. An estimate of the potential negative effect on steam-assisted gravity drainage reservoir production for each facies ranges from absent to
severe.
Abbreviations: CBB = cut-bankderived breccia; LA = lithofacies association; LF = lithofacies; PBB = point-barderived breccia
sets, the inclined surfaces of F3b can be traced into the such lithological variations are the natural conse-
underlying F3a unit (Mossop and Flach, 1983). Flach quence of these spatially and temporally dynamic
and Mossop (1985) also noted the continuity of processes. Understanding local lithological variations
sandy heterolithic bedding (F3a) merging downdip associated with lateral accretion is vital for mapping
into cross-stratied sand (F2), indicating that deposi- facies trends.
tion of those two facies was contemporaneous as well.
Hence, as image logs make clear, IS (F3b) may pass
progressively through sandy IHS and into cross- Mud-Dominated Facies (Facies 3b and 4)
stratied channel sands. Laterally accreted muds (F3b) and vertically accreted
In most studies, lateral accretion sets are routinely muds (F4) have a similar lithological appearance in
modeled as simple ning-upward successions. By con- core (Figure 9H, I) but display dissimilar bedding
trast, observations in modern IHS point bars, out- styles that are apparent only when analyzed using
crops of the McMurray Formation, and image log image logs. Recognizing the difference between the
data demonstrate that such lateral accretion sets are two mud successions displayed in Figures 15 and 16
characterized by highly variable facies successions is fundamental for mapping of the lateral distribu-
(e.g., Brekke and Evoy, 2004; Choi et al., 2004; tion of these facies.
Hubbard et al., 2011; Sisulak and Dashtgard, 2012;
Johnson and Dashtgard, 2014; Jablonski et al., 2016).
Using simple ning-upward grain size proles to dis- The Effect of Facies on Reservoir Heterogeneity
cern discrete point-bar cycles is unreliable in these
tidaluvial strata (Brekke and Evoy, 2004). Image log Reservoir facies heterogeneity is recognized as the
data demonstrate that lateral accretion bedsets with primary control affecting production (Jordan and
common bounding surface orientations compose part Pryor, 1992), especially where gravity is the reser-
of the same depositional body regardless of erratic or voir drive mechanism (Burton and Wood, 2013). In
unpredictable variations in sand and mud content. particular, Burton and Wood (2013) demonstrated
Factors that may contribute to the alternating litho- that mud bed continuity and frequency varies sig-
logical stacking pattern include uctuations in sedi- nicantly by depositional environment, and hence,
ment supply caused by seasonal and monthly ow recognition of depositional environments is crucial
rates in the river (e.g., Sisulak and Dashtgard, 2012; for mud bed parameterization. Effects of mud beds
Johnson and Dashtgard, 2014), extraordinary ow on reservoir quality are apparent in McMurray For-
conditions (i.e., ood or drought; Choi et al., 2004), mation SAGD production. Early work by Strobl
and sediment availability caused by the erosion of et al. (1997) studied the effects of mudstone layers
upstream host sediment (e.g., Labrecque et al., 2011a; on steam chamber development and oil produc-
Nardin et al., 2013). Image log data sets conrm that tion with an emphasis on mudstone-dominated IHS