Dual phase steels

What are Dual Phase Steels (DP Steels) ?

Dual-phase steels (DP steels) consist of ferrite and a dispersed hard martensitic second phase in the form of
islands. Usually they are low-carbon low-alloy materials with 10-40 vol.% hard martensite or martensite-
austenite particles embedded in a ductile ferrite matrix. As they combine high strength and good formability at
low production costs they are widely used for automotive applications. Sometimes the martensite regions tend
to percolate or appear in the form of elongated bands which is not desirable. Increasing the volume fraction of
the hard second phase martensite generally increases the strength but sometimes reduces ductility.

Microstructures and Properties of Dual Phase Steels

Such microstructures enables achieving ultimate tensile strength values in the regime of 400-1200 MPA.
For some alloys also baintic portions are used in DP steel microstructures.
Dual phase stel microstructure can exhibit a number of advantageous properties compared to other
advanced high strength steels. For example the strength of the DP steel microstructure can be designed by the
volume fraction of martensite and the ductility by its dispersion. They do not reveal a pronounced yield point
elongation and show a modest ratio between the ultimate tensile strength and the yield strength low of around.
DP steels undergo high strain hardening especially at the beginning of plastic deformation. Also, they can be
strengthened by static or dynamic strain ageing through the so called bake hardening effect.
DP steels with low carbon content exhibit excellent resistance to fatigue crack propagation at growth rates
close to fatigue threshold.
 International Journal of Plasticity 63 (2014) 198: Microstructures of (a)
DP600 and (b) DP800 grades; see overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431
Which Alloying Elements are used in DP Steels and Why?
The alloying elements used in DP steels have different types of effects
Carbon,used in the range between 0.060.15 wt.% acts as an austenite stabilizer, strengthens the martensite
and determines the phase distribution.
Mn, used between 1.53 wt.% also stabilizes the austenite, is a ferrite solid
solution strengthener and retards ferrite formation. Si promotes ferritic transformation while Cr and Mo, used
up to 0.4 wt%, can retard pearlite and bainite formation. Additionally microalloying elements such as V or Nb
can be used as precipitation strengtheners and to refine the microstructure.

How are Dual Phase Steels Produced ?

DP ferrite plus martensite steels are produced by controlled cooling from the austenite phase (in the case of
hot band products) or from the two-phase ferrite plus austenite phase during an intercritical annealing
treatment step (in the case of continuously annealed cold-rolled and hot-dip coated products) to transform
some austenite to ferrite before a rapid cooling transforms the remaining austenite to martensite.

Strengthening and Formability of Dual Phase Steels

The microstructures of DP steels are typically not good candidates for applications that require high
drawability. They usually exhibit rather poor hole expansion ratio values. This drawback, however, can be
eliminated by adding Ti with the aim of inducing precipitation strengthening in ferrite to reduce the differences
in hardness between the two phases. Alternatively, the martensite - ferrite constituents may be replaced or
aided by introducing also a bainitic phase. This means that depending on the composition and process route,
hot-rolled steels requiring enhanced capability to resist stretching on a blanked edge (as typically measured by
hole expansion capacity) can have a microstructure containing significant quantities of bainite.
In response to the increasing demand for fuel efficiency, CO2 reduction, and occupant safety, it was shown
that grain refinement is an effective tool to strengthen dualphase steels without raising alloying costs or
allowing a decrease in ductility.

What is the effect of grain refinement on deformation and fracture mechanisms in

ferrite/martensite dual-phase steels?
For answering this question we have studied three ferrite/martensite dual-phase steels with varying ferrite grain
size (12.4 m, 2.4 m and 1.2 m) but with nearly the same martensite content (~ 30 vol.%). The materials
were produced by hot deformation and large strain warm deformation at different deformation temperatures,
followed by intercritical annealing. Their mechanical properties were compared, and the bake-hardening
response of the ultrafine grained steel (1.2 m) was investigated. The deformation and fracture mechanisms
were studied based on microstructure observations using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron
backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Grain refinement leads to an increase of both yield strength and tensile
strength, whereas uniform elongation and total elongation are less affected. This can be partly explained by the
increase in the initial strain hardening rate. Moreover, the stress/strain partitioning characteristics between
ferrite and martensite change due to grain refinement, leading to enhanced martensite plasticity and better
interface cohesion. Grain refinement further promotes ductile fracture mechanisms, which is a result of the
improved fracture toughness of martensite.

What is the effect of bake-hardening on deformation and fracture mechanisms in

ferrite/martensite dual-phase steels?
The bake-hardening process induces static strain aging phenomena in the ferrite and tempering phenomena in
the martensite. Carbon atoms in solid solution form Cottrell atmospheres around dislocations and grain
boundaries or precipitate as transition carbides in ferrite and/or martensite. The diffusion of carbon includes a
volume decrease of martensite which reduces the internal stresses in ferrite. The formation of Cottrell
atmospheres around dislocations causes (partial) pinning of these dislocations. In addition to the reduction of
internal stresses, this leads to the reoccurrence of a more distinct yield point and to an increase in the yield
strength. In the present case, no sharp yield point was regenerated after bake-hardening, but the 0.2 % offset
yield strength increases by nearly 100 MPa. The dislocation pinning and release of internal stresses
successfully suppressed the early onset of plastic deformation of ferrite. The strengthening effect of carbon
precipitation is accompanied by a loss in hardness due to the removal of supersaturated carbon in solid
solution. This effect might be the reason for the reduction in tensile strength by 32 MPa after bake-hardening.
Thus, bake-hardening of the UFG DP steel leads to a strong increase in yield strength and little decrease of
tensile strength. Ductility is enhanced in terms of uniform and total elongation. Reduction in area is improved
by 22 % (from 7.3 % to 11.4 %). In summary these effects are attributed to dislocation locking, relaxation of
internal stresses, reduction of supersaturated interstitial carbon content in ferrite and tempering effects in
martensite.

Experimental Characterization of dual phase steels

Advances in various experimental tools and techniques are paving the way toward improved understanding of
(i) crystallographic structure and defects and (ii ) local chemistry in DP steels. With regard to the former, ECCI
combines large field of view and high-resolution defect imaging, for example, to image martensitic
transformationinduced interface GNDs in ferrite (6, 7). EBSD has become a standard microstructure mapping
technique, and multiple approaches are emerging to analyze the vast quantity of data it produces so as to
identify key microstructure correlations. For example, DP steel analysis benefits from standard phase
identification,GND density measurements, and 3D characterization ofmicrostructuremorphology. The resolution
of full-field crystallographic maps can be pushed down to the nanoregime by employing nanobeam diffraction,
which is especially critical for the analysis of sub-EBSD-resolution features, such as interlath austenite films.
With regard to the latter, the local compositional analysis, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), when
carried out under optimized conditionswith plasma cleaning (14), successfully reveals compositional
heterogeneities of even interstitial elements. Wavelength-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDS) provides
higher sensitivity for light elements [e.g., the spatial resolution for C has been demonstrated down to 350
nm]. Combined with EBSD, WDS allows for the classification of bainite, martensite, and ferrite. WDS also
enables the mapping of substitutional elements to unravel prior phase transformations. The most remarkable
advances in compositional mapping have been achieved by APT, which enables not only atomic-resolution
chemical and phase mapping, but also 3D visualization capabilities, which are critical for identifying carbon
segregation sites within martensite islands and at interfaces. Insights from APT are further strengthened upon
direct correlation with crystallographic mapping in transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

Interactions among recrystallization, diffusion, and phase transformation during

processing of dual phase steels
When a cold-rolled ferrite-pearlitemicrostructure is heated to forman austenite-ferrite composite. which
ultimately yields a DP microstructure after quenching, ferrite recovery and recrystallization, ferrite-to-austenite
transformation, and carbon diffusion are relevant mechanisms.
These phenomena can occur consecutively or concurrently, depending on
composition and on the imposed heating temperature, time, and rate. Especially at intermediate heating rates,
complex interactions among the various nucleation, diffusion, growth, and transformation phenomena can
occur. Owing to the nonlinearity of the mechanisms involved, minor changes in these interactions can have a
profound influence on the resulting microstructure. It is essential to quantitatively understand and evaluate the
interdependence and
competition among these metallurgical processes to arrive at a knowledge-based design of optimal process
routes and microstructures.
It was reported that recovery and recrystallization can prevail - depending on exact composition - for annealing
at ferritic temperatures and at (low) intercritical temperatures up to 740C, at which the recrystallization time
decreased with increasing annealing temperature and heating rate. The incubation and recrystallization times
were smaller at the surface than at the center of the sheets, which was explained in terms of the larger
deformation in the near-surface regions and the strong alpha-fiber texture components in the sheet center.
Additionally, at annealing temperatures of 740C, full recrystallization occurred at the surface, and only partial
recrystallization occurred in the center. The volume fraction of recrystallized ferrite increased with increasing
heating rates.
Depending on the Mn and C content, phase transformation starts in most DP steels above 700710C, and
pure austenite prevails above 840860C. The incubation time for phase transformation decreases with
increasing annealing temperature. At austenitic temperatures, new equiaxed ferrite grains with low orientation
gradients and different textures form. At low intercritical temperatures, ferrite and martensite typically exhibit
the same spatial distribution as do ferrite and pearlite in the preceding cold-rolledmaterial.This observation
results from a microstructure memory effect due to pearlite regions undergoing phase transformation before
ferrite (owing to the higher abundance of carbon from the cementite lamellae).

Simulation of dual-phase steel heat treatment

In teh case of dual-phase steel heat treatments it is challenging to separate the individual metallurgical
processes (e.g., recovery, recrystallization, diffusion, and phase transformation) occurring during heat
treatment of DP steels.
Microstructure-based transformation models, such as cellular automata (CA), Monte Carlo (MC), and phase
field methods, provide deeper insights into the mechanisms and morphological complexity associatedwith the
interplay of phase transformations and recrystallization in DP steels.
Rudnizki et al. developed a phase field model to describe the austenite formation from a ferrite-pearlite starting
microstructure during annealing of cold-rolled DP steel. The simulation started from an already recrystallized
microstructure. Hence, the approach did not consider the interaction between recrystallization and phase
transformation. Zhu & Militzer introduced a phase field model for the simulation of the microstructure evolution
during IA of a DP steel. The study focused on the interaction between ferrite recrystallization and austenite
formation, starting from a cold-rolled pearlite-ferrite microstructure for the case of high heating rates.
The austenite-ferrite phase transformation was assumed to occur under conditions in which only carbon
partitions between the phases via long-range diffusion. A solute drag model was implemented to describe the
effect of substitutional alloying elements on the migration of the ferrite-austenite interface during the
transformation. Bos et al. used a 3D CA model to describe the through-process microstructure evolution during
the processing of DP steels. Here, these researchers considered both concurrent ferrite recrystallization and
austenite formation, focusing on the influence of individual transformation processes on the DP microstructure.
Interactions between recrystallization and phase transformation were not addressed. Okuda et al. developed
an MC model to simulate the competition between recrystallization and transformation in
several DP microstructures, although the model lacked detailed thermodynamic criteria for the specific driving
forces associated with either recrystallization or phase transformation. A more comprehensive model was
introduced by Zheng and colleagues, who used a 2D CA model to investigate the competition between ferrite
recrystallization and austenitic transformation during the IA of cold-rolled DP steels. In this model, discrete
microstructural constituents associated with both recrystallization and phase transformation are mapped
through evolving thermodynamic criteria such as the stored deformation energy and the chemical driving force
for transformation as well as kinetic effects such as grain boundary mobility and carbon diffusion.
This comprehensive approach enabled a more quantitative microstructural prediction of material undergoing
recrystallization and/or phase transformation. The model was used to study the influence of initial heating rate
and annealing temperature on subsequent isothermal transformation kinetics and the associated
microstructure evolution. Raabe also studied two types of scenarios for austenite nucleation, namely
nucleation within pearlite, with its high carbon abundance, and nucleation at ferrite-ferrite grain boundaries,
with a lower supply of carbon. The authors also considered the interaction of these scenarios with ferrite
recrystallization.

Interaction between recrystallization and phase transformation during intercritical annealing in a cold-
rolled dual-phase steel: A cellular automaton model
Interaction between recrystallization and phase transformation during intercritical annealing in a cold-rolled
dual-phase steel: A cellular automaton model
Acta Materialia 61 (2013) 5504-5517
Acta-Materialia-2013-recrystallization a[...]
PDF-Dokument [966.7 KB]

Overview of Dual-Phase Steels: Advances in Microstructure-Oriented Processing and

Micromechanically Guided Design
C.C. Tasan, M. Diehl, D. Yan, M. Bechtold, F. Roters, L. Schemmann, C. Zheng, N. Peranio, D. Ponge,M.
Koyama, K. Tsuzaki, and D. Raabe
Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431
Overview of Dual-Phase Steels: Advances in Microstructure-Oriented Processing and Micromechanically
Guided Design
Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. (45) 391-43[...]
PDF-Dokument [4.2 MB]
 Hierarchical presentation of a dual
phase steel microstructure at different scales, reaching from EBSD in conjunction with kernel average measures, electron channeling
contrast imaging (ECCI) and atom probe tomography.
Dual-phase (DP) steel is the flagship of advanced high-strength steels, which
were the first among various candidate alloy systems to find application in
weight-reduced automotive components. On the one hand, this is a metallurgical success story:Lean alloying
and simple thermomechanical treatment enable use of less material to accomplish more performance while
complying with demanding environmental and economic constraints. On the other hand, the enormous
literature onDP steels demonstrates the immense complexity ofmicrostructure physics inmultiphase alloys:
Roughly 50 years after the first reports on ferrite-martensite steels, there are still various open scientific
questions. Fortunately, the last decades witnessed enormous advances in the development of enabling
experimental and simulation techniques, significantly improving the understanding of DP steels. This review
provides a detailed account of these improvements, focusing specifically on (a) microstructure evolution during
processing, (b) experimental characterization of micromechanical behavior, and (c) the simulation of
mechanical behavior,
to highlight the critical unresolved issues and to guide future research efforts.
 Dual phase steel: formed auto
products
Heat Treatment of dual phase steels (DP steels)

Dual Phase Steel Heat

Treatment
 Phase diagram Fe - C
The image shows the heat treatment methods used to obtain a dual phase ferrite-martensite microstructure.
Typically, the final annealing procedure for DP steels consists in holding the material in an austenite-ferrite
(intercritical) regime followed by quenching plus holding at temperatures slightly below the martensite start
temperature, whereby the austenite fraction transforms into martensite. Another method lies in adjusting the
quenching rate from the fully austenitic regime so that most of the undercooled austenite transforms into ferrite
while the rest becomes martensite. The relevant key temperatures where austenite formation starts and ends,
respectively, are alloy dependent: A1 : Eutectoid temperature, minimum temperature of austenite; A3: Lower-
bound temperature for austenite; Ac1: Temperature at which austenite begins to form during heating; Ac3:
Temperature at which transformation of ferrite to austenite is completed during heating; Ar1: Temperature at
which transformation of austenite to ferrite or to ferrite plus cementite is completed during cooling; Ar3:
Temperature at which austenite begins to transform to ferrite during cooling

High resolution in situ mapping of microstrain and microstructure evolution reveals damage resistance
criteria in dual phase steels
Acta Materialia 96 (2015) 399
High resolution in situ mapping of microstrain and microstructure evolution reveals damage resistance criteria
in dual phase steels
D. Yan, C C Tasan, D Raabe
Acta Materialia 96 (2015) 399 Yan Tasan [...]
PDF-Dokument [1.7 MB]
 Acta Materialia 96 (2015) 399
High resolution in situ mapping of microstrain and microstructure evolution reveals damage resistance criteria in dual phase steels D.
Yan, C C Tasan, D Raabe

The drive toward improved combinations of high strength and ductilitymotivates the design of novel
alloys with complex, multi-phase micro-/nano-structures. Many of the recently introduced alloys demonstrate
this microstructural complexity, containing multiple phases of different composition, crystallography,
morphology, dispersion, stability and size.
Examples are ultrafine-grained ferritic-martensitic dual-phase (DP) steel [1],
alpha/gamma transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steel [2], Triplex steel [3], TRIP-maraging
steel [4], beta/alpha two phase titanium alloys [5] and a/X magnesium alloys [6].
Such alloys present a composite-like micro-mechanical response, which in turn enables tuning optimal
combinations of strength and ductility by adjusting the phase fractions as well their individual
properties, interfaces and morphology.
However, incorporating phases of high mechanical contrast promotes the risk of micro-cracking at spots of
high stress and/or strain mismatch. This in turn may cause early mechanical softening, or even catastrophic
failure. Due to these reasons, damage evolution has been intensively studied in recent years
especially in DP steels [713]. Most common damage sites in DP steels are the martensite/ferrite interfaces
(M/F) or martensite island interiors (M) [9]. However, there are different views on exactly how these
mechanisms nucleate and interact with each other. Kang et al. [10] and Avramovic et al. [7] both reported that
the early-stage damage incidents are initiated inside M prior to percolative plastic instability, while other
damage mechanisms are activated following such mesoscale localization phenomena. However, Avramovic et
al. [7] also noted that M/F damage incidents play a more critical role for the overall properties. Maire et al.
observed a more balanced damage activity of M/F and M [11]. Recently, Hoefnagels et al. have carried out an
extensive analysis through quantitative characterization of the influence of the starting microstructure, strain
path and strain level on the resulting damage mechanisms [9]. The obtained experimental and simulation
results were explained in terms of a hypothesis that
proposes that the two mechanisms are intrinsically coupled, i.e., the M/F damage incidents are typically
initiated by M cracking. These contradicting views arise from the insufficient resolution in the analysis of
deformation and damage at the same position, with respect to their strong heterogeneity at microstructure-
scale [8,12,13]. Thus, it is required to introduce novel analysis methods, which make use of advanced high
resolution probing techniques of micro-mechanical processes during deformation.
We systematically study microstructures and micromechanics of multi-phase alloys that undergo
morphological and crystallographic changes upon deformation, corresponding to the associated microstructural
strain fields. The multiple length and time scales involved therein create immense complexity, especially when
microstructural damage mechanisms are also activated. An understanding of the relationship between
microstructure and damage initiation can often not be achieved by post-mortem microstructural
characterization alone. Here, we present a novel multi-probe analysis approach. It couples various scanning
electron microscopy methods to microscopic-digital image correlation (u-DIC), to overcome various
challenges associated with concurrent mapping of the deforming microstructure along with the associated
microstrain fields. For this purpose a contrast- and resolution-optimized l-DIC patterning method and a
selective pattern/microstructure imaging strategy were developed. They jointly enable imaging of
(i) microstructure-independent pattern maps and (ii) pattern-independent microstructure maps. We apply this
approach here to the study of damage nucleation in ferrite/martensite dual-phase (DP) steel. The analyses
provide four specific design guidelines for developing damage-resistant DP steels.

Alloying effects on microstructure formation of dual phase steels

Acta Materialia 95 (2015) 386-398
Alloying effects on microstructure formation of dual phase steels
L. Schemmann, S. Zaefferer, D. Raabe, F. Friedel, D. Mattissen
Acta Materialia 95 (2015) 386 Dual Phase[...]
PDF-Dokument [2.0 MB]

Acta Materialia 95 (2015) 386-

398 Alloying effects on microstructure formation of dual phase steels L. Schemmann, S. Zaefferer, D. Raabe, F. Friedel, D. Mattissen

In dual-phase (DP) steels, inherited microstructures and elemental distributions affect the kinetics
and morphology of phase transformation phenomena and the mechanical properties of the final material. In
order to study the inheritance process, we selected two model materials with the same average DP steel
composition but with different initial microstructures, created by coiling at different temperatures after hot
rolling. These samples were submitted to a DP-steel heat treatment consisting of a short isothermal annealing
in the pure austenite region and a quenching process. The evolution of microstructure,
chemical composition and mechanical properties (hardness) during this treatment was investigated. The initial
samples had a bainiticmartensitic (B + M) microstructure for the material coiled at lower temperature and a
ferriticpearlitic (P + F) microstructure for that coiled at higher temperature. The
P + F microstructure had a much more inhomogeneous distribution of substitutional elements (in particular of
Mn) and of carbon. After complete heat treatment, both materials showed a typical DP microstructure
(martensite islands embedded in ferrite) but the P + F material showed lower hardness compared to
the B + M material. It was found that the inhomogeneous elemental distribution prevailed in the P + F material.
The inheritance process was studied by combining measurements of the elemental distribution by Wavelength-
Dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (WDX), simulations of the evolution of the elemental composition via the
DICTRA (diffusion-controlled reactions) computer programme, dilatometry to observe the
kinetics of phase transformation, and observation and quantification of the microstructures by Electron
Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) measurements. For the P + F material it was found that the ac transformation
during annealing is slowed down in regions of lower Mn content and is therefore not completed. During the
subsequent cooling the incompletely autenitized material does not require ferrite nucleation and the ca
transformation starts at relative high temperatures. For B + M, in contrast, nucleation of ferrite is needed and
the transformation starts at lower temperatures. As a result the B + M mate-
rial develops a higher martensite content as well as a higher density of geometrically necessary dislocations
(GNDs). It is speculated that for the B + M material the ca transformation occurs through a bainitic (i.e. partly
displacive) process while the transformation at higher temperatures in the P + F material proceeds exclusively
in a diffusive way.

Strain localization and damage in dual phase steels investigated by coupled in-situ deformation
experiments and crystal plasticity simulations
Ferriticmartensitic dual phase (DP) steels deform spatially in a highly heterogeneous
manner, i.e. with strong strain and stress partitioning at the micro-scale. Such heterogeneity in local strain
evolution leads in turn to a spatially heterogeneous damage distribution, and thus, plays an important role in
the process of damage inheritance and fracture. To understand and improve DP steels, it is important to
identify connections between the observed strain and damage heterogeneity and the underlying
microstructural parameters, e.g. ferrite grain size, martensite distribution, martensite fraction, etc. In this work
we pursue this aim by conducting in-situ deformation experiments on two different DP steel grades, employing
two different microscopic-digital image correlation (lDIC) techniq
Int Journ Plast 2014 Tasan Roters Diehl [...]
PDF-Dokument [1.9 MB]
 International Journal of
Plasticity 63 (2014) 198: Microstructures of (a) DP600 and (b) DP800 grades; see overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res.
2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

BMW 5 series, DP steel usage; see

overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431
 DP steel usage; see overview
in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

DP steel usage; see overview

in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

Mechanical properties and fracture

surfaces of different UFG DP steels.
 Microstructures of 3 DP steels
including UFG DP.

Dual phase steel processing and alloy

design; see overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431
 Acta Materialia 81 (2014) 386-400;
see overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431
 Use of high strength steels in modern
car concepts
 Steel usage in the Porsche Cayenne
design (courtesy Porsche); see overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

GNDs in dual phase steels; see

overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431
 High resolution orientation mapping of
a 17C-Mn steel with simultaneous EDS record. a) Fit map, b) EDS map, c) inverse pole figure map, parallel rolling direction; see
overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

Tasan et al. Acta Materialia 81 (2014) 386: ICME on DP steels: Integrated experimentalsimulation
analysis of stress and strain partitioning in multiphase alloys
Acta Materialia 81 (2014) 386-400
Integrated experimentalsimulation analysis of stress and strain partitioning in multiphase alloys
C.C. Tasan, M. Diehl, D. Yan, C. Zambaldi, P. Shanthraj, F. Roters, D. Raabe
Tasan et al Acta Materialia vol 91 2014 [...]
PDF-Dokument [3.4 MB]
 Acta Materialia 81 (2014) 386-400
Integrated experimentalsimulation analysis of stress and strain partitioning in multiphase alloys C.C. Tasan, M. Diehl, D. Yan, C.
Zambaldi, P. Shanthraj, F. Roters, D. Raabe; see overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mat

The mechanical response of multiphase alloys, specifically of dual phase steels (DP steels), is governed by
the microscopic strain and stress partitioning behavior among microstructural constituents. However, due
to limitations in the characterization of the partitioning that takes place at the submicron scale, microstructure
optimization of such alloys is typically based on evaluating the averaged response, referring to, for example,
macroscopic stress-strain curves. Here, a novel experimentalnumerical methodology is introduced to
strengthen the integrated understanding of the microstructureand mechanical properties of these alloys,
enabling joint analyses of deformation-induced evolution of the microstructure, and the strain and stress
distribution therein, down to submicron resolution. From the experiments, deformation-induced evolution of
(i) the microstructure, and (ii) the local strain distribution are concurrently captured, employing in situ
secondary electron imaging and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) (for the former), and microscopic-
digital image correlation (for the latter). From the simulations,
local strain as well as stress distributions are revealed, through 2-D full-field crystal plasticity (CP) simulations
conducted with an advanced spectral solver suitable for heterogeneous materials. The simulated model is
designed directly from the initial EBSD measurements, and the phase properties are obtained by additional
inverse CP simulations of nanoindentation experiments carried out on the original microstructure. The
experiments and simulations demonstrate good correlation in the proof-of-principle study conducted here on a
martensiteferrite dual-phase steel, and deviations are discussed in terms of limitations of the techniques
involved. Overall, the presented integrated computational materials engineering approach provides a vast
amount of well-correlated structural and mechanical data that enhance our understanding as well as the design
capabilities of multiphase alloys.

Acta Materialia 81
(2014) 386-400 Integrated experimentalsimulation analysis of stress and strain partitioning in multiphase alloys C.C. Tasan, M.
Diehl, D. Yan, C. Zambaldi, P. Shanthraj, F. Roters, D. Raabe

Lecture on DP steels and utra fine grained DP steels

The formation of ultrafine grained microstructure in a plain C-Mn steel.
Concept
Microstructure and microstructure evolution
Impact tests (Effect of microstructure)
Effect of C
Outline Part I (UFG fer
lecture-Max-Planck-Institute-Japan-ISUGS[...]
PDF-Dokument [8.9 MB]

Orientation gradients and geometrically necessary dislocations in ultrafine grained dualphase steels
studied by 2D and 3D EBSD
Materials Science and Engineering A 527 (2010) 2738-2746
Mater_Science_Engin_A 527 (2010) 2738.pd[...]
PDF-Dokument [2.2 MB]
We study orientation gradients and geometrically necessary dislocations(GNDs) in two ultrafine
grained dualphase steels with different martensiteparticle size and volume fraction (24 vol.% and 38 vol.%).
The steel with higher martensite fraction has a lower elastic limit, a higher yield strength and a higher
tensile strength. These effects are attributed to the higher second phase fraction and the
inhomogeneous transformation strain accommodation in ferrite. The latter assumption is analyzed using
highresolution electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). We quantify orientation gradients, pattern
quality and GND density variations at ferriteferrite and ferritemartensite interfaces. Using 3D EBSD,
additional information is obtained about the effect of grain volume and of martensite distribution on strain
accommodation. Two methods are demonstrated to calculate the GND density from the EBSD data based on
the kernel average misorientation measure and on the dislocation density tensor, respectively. The
overall GND density is shown to increase with increasing total martensite fraction, decreasing grain volume,
and increasing martensite fraction in the vicinity of ferrite.

Mater Sc Engin A 527 (2010) 2738;

Orientation gradients and geometrically necessary dislocations in ultrafine grained dualphase steels; see overview in: Tasan et al:
Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431
 Mater Sc Engin A 527 (2010)
2738; Orientation gradients and geometrically necessary dislocations in ultrafine grained dualphase steels; see overview in: Tasan et
al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

Deformation and fracture mechanisms in fine- and ultrafine-grained ferrite/martensite dual-phase

steels and the effect of aging
Acta Materialia 59 (2011) 658-670
Acta Materialia 59 (2011) 658 UFG dual p[...]
PDF-Dokument [760.4 KB]
Three ferrite/martensite dual-phase steels varying in the ferrite grain size(12.4, 2.4 and 1.2 um) but with the
same martensite content (30 vol.%) were produced by large-strain warm deformation at different deformation
temperatures, followed by intercritical annealing. Their mechanical propertieswere compared, and the
response of the ultrafine-grained steel (1.2 um) to aging at 170C was
investigated. The deformation and fracture mechanisms were studied based
on microstructure observations using scanning electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction.
Grain refinement leads to an increase in both yield strength and tensile strength, whereas uniform
elongation and total elongation are less affected. This can be partly explained by the increase in the initial
strain-hardening rate. Moreover, the stress/strain partitioning characteristics between ferrite and martensite
change due to grain refinement, leading to enhanced martensite plasticity and better interface cohesion. Grain
refinement further promotes ductile fracture mechanisms, which is a result of the improved
fracture toughness of martensite. The aging treatment leads to a strong increase in yield strength and
improves the uniform and total elongation. These effects are attributed to dislocation locking due to the
formation of Cottrell atmospheres and relaxation of internal stresses, as well as to the reduction in
the interstitial carbon content in ferrite and tempering effects in martensite.

Acta Materialia 59 (2011) 658;

Deformation and fracture mechanisms in fine- and ultrafine-grained ferrite/martensite dual-phase steels and the effect of aging

A number of key observation can be extracted form this project. These are:

Three low-carbon dual-phase steels with nearly constant martensite fraction around 30 vol.% martensite and
different ferrite grain sizes (1.2, 2.4 and 12.4 lm) were produced by applying hot deformation and large-strain
warm deformation
at different deformation temperatures, followed by intercritical annealing. Their deformation and
fracture mechanisms were studied based on tensile test data and microstructure observations. The BH
response was investigated for the UFG steel. Grain refinement leads to an increase in both yield strength and
tensile strength following a linear relationship of the HallPetch type. Uniform elongation and total elongation
are hardly affected. The initial strainhardening rate and the reduction in area increase as the grain size
decreases. The increase in the initial strain-hardening rate due to grain refinement is attributed to early
dislocation interactions, the high number of dislocation sources and the back stresses exerted by (i) martensite
islands and (ii) very small ferrite grains below 1 um3. Aging at 170 C (bake-hardening) of the UFG steel leads
to a strong increase in yield strength and a small decrease in tensile strength. Ductility is enhanced in terms of
uniform and total elongation. Reduction in area is improved by 22% (from 15.3% to 37.5%). These effects are
attributed to dislocation locking, relaxation of internal stresses, reduction in supersaturated interstitial
carbon content in ferrite and tempering effects in martensite. Grain refinement leads to plastic constraints in
the ferrite matrix, which is reflected by homogeneous planar slip-band arrays. Strain localization in CG ferrite
is
accomplished by wavy slip bands. The wavy slip mode leads to pronounced lattice rotations and early
formation of a substructure in CG ferrite, whereas the planar slip mode provokes less lattice rotations. The
plastic constraints in FG and UFG ferrite force martensite to deform plastically earlier during tensile
straining, whereas strain localization and subgrain formation are impeded.
The increase in strength at improved ductility due to grain refinement is attributed to the combined effect
of strengthened ferrite and enhanced toughness of martensite. This leads to less severe stress/strain
partitioning and
better interface cohesion. Grain refinement promotes ductile fracture mechanisms. Besides the beneficial
effects of less excess strain in ferrite
and less excess stress in martensite, the formation of martensite cracks and cleavage fracture in ferrite is
suppressed in the FG and UFG steels due to the small size, the more homogeneous distribution and the more
spherical shape of martensite islands.

Microstructure Control during Fabrication of Ultrafine Grained Dual-phase Steel: Characterization and
Effect of Intercritical Annealing Parameters
ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No. 5, pp. 874-883
ISIJ International Vol 52 (2012) 874 ult[...]
PDF-Dokument [514.4 KB]
An ultrafine grained (UFG) ferrite/cementite steel was subjected to intercritical annealing in order to obtain
an UFG ferrite/martensite dual-phase (DP) steel. The intercritical annealing parameters, namely, holding
temperature and time, heating rate, and cooling rate were varied independently by applying
dilatometer experiments. Microstructure characterization was performed using scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) and high-resolution electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). An EBSD data post-
processing routine is proposed that allows precise distinction between the ferrite and the martensite phase.
The sensitivity of the microstructure to the different annealing conditions is identified. As in conventional
DP steels, the martensite fraction and the ferrite grain size increase with intercritical annealing time and
temperature. Furthermore, the variations of the microstructure are explained in terms of the changes in phase
transformation kinetics due to grain refinement and the manganese enrichment in cementite during
warm deformation.
 ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No.
5, pp. 874: Microstructure Control during Fabrication of Ultrafine Grained Dual-phase Steel; see overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev.
Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

Proceedings volume DP steel

Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Steel Science (ISSS 2009)
Oct. 21-24, 2009, Kyoto, Japan: The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan
Effect of Grain Refinement on Strength and Ductility in Dual-Phase Steels
Marion Calcagnotto, Dirk Ponge, Yoshitaka Adachi and Dierk Raabe
ISSS09_Calcagnotto.pdf
PDF-Dokument [2.5 MB]
 Proceedings of the 2nd
International Symposium on Steel Science (ISSS 2009) Oct. 21-24, 2009, Kyoto, Japan: The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan Effect
of Grain Refinement on Strength and Ductility in Dual-Phase Steels, Calcagnotto et al.

Proceedings of the 2nd International

Symposium on Steel Science (ISSS 2009) Oct. 21-24, 2009, Kyoto, Japan: The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan Effect of Grain
Refinement on Strength and Ductility in Dual-Phase Steels, Calcagnotto et al.
 Proceedings of the 2nd International
Symposium on Steel Science (ISSS 2009) Oct. 21-24, 2009, Kyoto, Japan: The Iron and Steel Institute of Japan Effect of Grain
Refinement on Strength and Ductility in Dual-Phase Steels, Calcagnotto et al.

Dual-phase (DP) steels consisting of a soft ferrite matrix and typically 5-30 vol.-% of hard
martensite particles combine high strength with good formability and weldability. Therefore, they are
widely used for automotive applications [1]. Since their development three decades ago, the microstructure-
property relationships have been extensively studied [2]. In view of the increasing demands for occupant safety
and fuel efficiency, furtherstrengthening of DP steels without a loss in ductility is required. Grain refinement
is a promising method to achieve this aim [3-7]. In recent years, a variety of new processing routes has been
developed to produce ultrafine grained (UFG) low carbon steels with a ferrite grain size of 1 m and below
[8]. UFG DP steels have been produced by applying a two-step processing route consisting of 1) a deformation
treatment to produce UFG ferrite and finely dispersed cementite or pearlite and 2) a short intercritical annealing
in the ferrite/austenite two-phase field followed by quenching to transform all austenite into martensite. Grain
refinement in step 1) was achieved by severe plastic deformation [5] or advanced thermomechanical
processing routes [6,7,9]. It was consistently found that yield strength and tensile strength are increased
due to grain refinement, whereas uniform and total elongation are less affected. The strain hardening rate
was found to increase with decreasing grain size [5] which is in contrast to the observation of the very
restricted strain hardening rate in UFG low carbon ferrite/cementite steels [10]. As the number of investigations
is very limited, further research is necessary to understand the mechanical response of DP steels to ferrite
grain sizes close to or below 1 m. The aim of the present study is to shed new light on the deformation and
fracture mechanisms in a CG, FG and an UFG DP steel. In conjunction with tensile data, the microstructure
evolution during deformation and the fracture mechanisms were studied by using SEM and high-resolution
EBSD.
Here in this project large strain warm deformation at different temperatures and subsequent intercritical
annealing has been applied to obtain fine grained (FG, 2.4 m) and ultrafine grained (UFG, 1.2 m)
ferrite/martensite dual-phase (DP)
steels. Their mechanical properties were tested under tensile conditions and compared to a hot deformed
coarse grained (CG, 12.4 m) counterpart. Both yield strength and tensile strength follow a Hall-Petch type
linear relationship,
whereas uniform elongation and total elongation are hardly affected by grain refinement. The initial strain
hardening rate as well as the reduction in area increase with decreasing grain size. The deformation and
fracture behavior of the steels were analyzed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) combined with
electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD). Slip band evolution was studied by multistep tensile tests. The
increase in strength at improved ductility is explained with the enhanced martensite plasticity as a result of
plastic constraints in UFG ferrite and the delayed formation of voids and martensite particle cracks due to the
more homogeneous distribution and more spherical shape of UFG martensite particles.

Effect of grain refinement to 1 um on strength and toughness of dual phase steels

Materials Science and Engineering A 527 (2010) 78327840
Materials Science and Engineering A 527 [...]
PDF-Dokument [687.9 KB]
Large strain warm deformation at different temperatures and subsequent intercritical annealing has
been applied to obtain fine grained (2.4 um) andultrafine grained (1.2 um) ferrite/martensite dual
phase (DP) steels. Their mechanical properties were tested under tensile and impact conditions and
compared to a hot deformed coarse grained (12.4 um) reference material. Both
yield strength and tensile strength follow a Hall-Petch type linear relationship, whereas uniform elongation
and total elongation are hardly affected by grain refinement. The initial strain hardening rate as well as the
postuniform
elongation increase with decreasing grain size. Ductile fracture mechanisms are considerably promoted due
to grain refinement. Grain refinement further lowers the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature and leads
to higher absorbed impact energies. Besides the common correlations with the ferritegrain size,
these phenomena are explained in terms of the martensite particle size, shape and distribution and the
more homogeneous dislocation distribution in ultrafine ferrite grains.
 DP steels: see overview in:
Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

On the Effect of Manganese on Grain Size Stability and Hardenability in Ultrafine-Grained

Ferrite/Martensite Dual-Phase Steels
VOLUME 43A, JANUARY 2012 METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS A, page 37 ff
Metallurgical Transactions A Ultrafine G[...]
PDF-Dokument [1.8 MB]
Two plain carbon steels with varying manganese content (0.87 wt pct and 1.63 wt pct) were refined to
approximately 1 lm by large strain warm deformation and subsequently subjected to intercritical annealing to
produce an ultrafine grained ferrite/martensite dual-phase steel. The influence of the Mn content on
microstructure evolution is studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The Mn distribution in ferrite and
martensite is analyzed by high-resolution
electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) combined with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). The
experimental findings are supported by the calculated phase diagrams, equilibrium phase compositions, and
the estimated diffusion distances using Thermo-Calc (Thermo-Calc Software, McMurray, PA) and Dictra
(Thermo-Calc Software). Mn substantially enhances the grain size stability during intercritical annealing and
the ability of austenite to undergo martensitic
phase transformation. The first observation is explained in terms of the alteration of the phase transformation
temperatures and the grain boundary mobility, while the second is a result of the Mn enrichment in cementite
during large strain warm deformation, which is inherited by the newly formed austenite and increases its
hardenability. The latter is the main reason why the ultrafine-grained material exhibits a hardenability that is
comparable with the hardenability of the coarse-grained reference material.
 On the Effect of Manganese on Grain
Size Stability and Hardenability in Ultrafine-Grained Ferrite/Martensite Dual-Phase Steels; see overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev.
Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

Microstructure and texture evolution in dual-phase steels: Competition between recovery,

recrystallization, and phase transformation
Materials Science and Engineering A 527 (2010) 4161-4168
Materials Science and Engineering A 527 [...]
PDF-Dokument [472.9 KB]
The microstructure and texture evolution of dual-phase steel sheets with a cold reduction of about
50%, annealed at ferritic and intercriticaltemperatures, were analyzed by scanning electron microscopy
and electron backscatter diffraction. The competition
between recrystallization and phasetransformation was of particular interest. The sheets were annealed in
salt bath or were annealed in a MULTIPAS annealing simulator under variation of annealing temperature,
annealing time, and heating rate. For low intercritical temperatures, recrystallization occurred before phase
transformation. The sheets showed a similar through-thickness texture inhomogeneity with a plane-strain
texture with strong alpha-fiber and weak gamma- fiber as cold rolled sheets and a ferriticmartensitic band
structure in the sheet center layers. An inverse correlation between the volume fractions of recrystallized ferrite
and martensite was observed. This interdependence is attributed to a different phase transformation kinetics
for recyrstallized and deformed ferrite and is discussed in terms of deformation strain energy, diffusion, and
number of nucleation sites.

DP steel microstructure; see overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015.
volume 45: pages 391-431

Recrystallization and phase transformation during intercritical annealing in a cold-rolled dual-phase

steel: A cellular automaton model
Acta Materialia 61 (2013) 5504-5517
Acta-Materialia-2013-recrystallization a[...]
PDF-Dokument [966.7 KB]
 Acta Materialia 61 (2013) 5504;
Interaction between recrystallization and phase transformation during intercritical annealing in a cold-rolled dual-phase steel; see
overview in: Tasan et al: Annu. Rev. Mater. Res. 2015. volume 45: pages 391-431

Owing to a favorable combination of high strength and good formability, dual-phase (DP) steels are currently
receiving high interest in the automotive industry for low energy consumption vehicle design through weight
reduction [16]. The microstructure of DP steel is characterized by hard martensite islands dispersed in a soft
and ductile ferrite matrix [7]. To generate DP microstructures, a continuous annealing process that includes
reheating of a cold-rolled ferrite/pearlite microstructure followed by intercritical annealing is implemented to
form an austenite/ ferrite mixture, which after final quenching results in a DP microstructure [8]. During this
process, microstructure formation is determined by a number of interacting metallurgical phenomena, of which
ferrite recrystallization, austenite formation and carbon diffusion are the most important. What makes the
prediction of DP microstructures challenging is the fact that these phenomena may proceed consecutively or
simultaneously, i.e. complex local interactions between the metallurgical diffusion and transformation
phenomena occur. The nonlinear character of the phenomena involved minor changes in these interactions,
and this may have a profound influence on the resulting microstructure. On the other hand, from a
theoretical point of view, it is also an essential challenge to quantitatively understand and evaluate the
interdependence and competition between these two metallurgical processes. In earlier studies, such potential
interactions between recrystallization and phase transformation have been reported to occur for various
intercritically annealed steels on materials that had been initially cold rolled [911]. Yang et al. [9] observed
austenite nucleation both on grain boundaries of unrecrystallized ferrite and at the interfaces between
recrystallized and unrecrystallized grains. This work revealed an influence of ferrite recrystallization on the
formation and distribution of austenite. Huang et al. [10] systematically investigated the effect of the initial
heating rate on austenite formation and ferrite recrystallization
in two steels with chemical compositions that are typically used for DP and transformation-induced plasticity
(TRIP) steels. They suggested that there was a strong interaction between ferrite recrystallization and
austenite formation, which could affect the kinetics of austenite formation as well as its spatial distribution.
Their findings were recently verified by Azizi-Alizamini et al. [11] in a plain low-carbon steel, including a similar
morphology shift from randomly distributed to a banded structure of austenite when increasing the initial
heating rate. Despite these important findings and their potential practical relevance, further investigations of
such interaction phenomena as well as their potential effect on the final microstructure and properties of the
steels annealed in the intercritical region are still required. More specifically, the interaction between the two
metallurgical processes may cause property variations and makes it difficult to identify the relation between
direct thermal processing settings and the final product properties. However, the approach of integrated
microstructural simulation that includes all relevant metallurgical processes is ideally suited to provide the
desired insight for this problem, which hence enables us to conduct quantitative microstructure design for
optimal properties. With the recent development of mesoscale microstructure-based transformation models
[12], e.g. the cellular automaton (CA), the Monte Carlo (MC) and the phase field (PF), simulations can now
provide deeper insight into the mechanism and morphological complexity of both the phase transformation and
recrystallization in steels [13,14]. Numerical modeling is thus emerging as an alternative tool to investigate the
interaction mechanism of recrystallization and phase transformation in DP steels. Recently, Rudnizki et al. [15]
developed a PF model to describe the austenite formation from a ferritepearlite aggregate during the
annealing of a cold-rolled DP steel. However, their simulation started from an already recrystallized
microstructure. Hence, the approach did not consider the interaction between recrystallization and phase
transformation. Bos et al. [16,17] presented an integrated three-dimensional (3-D) CA model to describe the
through-process microstructure evolution during the entire processing of DP steels. In their model, simulation
of concurrent ferrite recrystallization and austenite formation was involved. However, their interest was placed
on the model development [16] and its usage on a study of the influence of individual transformation processes
on the final DP microstructure [17], whereas the interaction between recrystallization and phase transformation
was not addressed. Okuda et al. [18] performed an MC simulation to examine the competition between
recrystallization and transformation in several DP microstructures. However, their model did not involve
detailed thermodynamic
criteria of either recrystallization or phase transformation. In this work, we present a modified two-dimensional
(2-D) CA model to investigate the competition between ferrite recrystallization and austenitic
transformationduring the intercritical annealing of cold-rolled DP steels. In this model, discrete microstructural
constituents either in recrystallization or in phase transformation are depicted through involving relevant
thermodynamic criteria (stored deformation energy, chemical transformation driving force, etc.) and kinetic
effects (grain boundary mobility, carbon diffusion, etc.), so that a detailed microstructural insight into the mutual
interactions between these various metallurgical processes can be obtained. This model also enables us to
study the influence of initial heating rate and annealing temperature on subsequent isothermal transformation
kinetics and the associated microstructure evolution.
More specific, here the concurrent ferrite recrystallization and austenitic transformation during intercritical
annealing of cold-rolled DP steels is investigated by cellular automaton (CA) modeling. The simulations
provide insight into the microstructural phenomena that result from the interaction of primary recrystallization
and phase transformation. We find that the interaction between ferrite recrystallization and aus-tenite formation
affects not only the transformation kinetics but also the morphology and spatial distribution of the austenite.
From this we can interpret experimental data of the observed temperature-dependent hardness and its
dependence on the two metallurgical processes. The influence of the initial heating rate on subsequent
isothermal transformation kinetics and the microstructure evolution is also obtained by the model.

Integrated experimental and simulation analysis of dual phase steel micromechanics

C. Tasan, M. Diehl, D. Yan, C. Zambaldi, M. Koyama, P. Shanthraj, F. Roters, D. Raabe

OPTIMOM Conference, Oxford, UK, September 2014

Ferriticmartensitic dual phase (DP) steels are finding multiple applications in the automotive industry. There
is, therefore, a permanent interest in further optimization of their microstructure aiming at lower energy
consumption in sheet metal forming operations, higher energy absorption during crash loading conditions, etc.
(Rashid, 1981; Llewellyn and Hillis, 1996; Calcagnotto et al., 2012; Bouaziz et al., 2013). Even when presence
of other phases such as retained austenite or bainite are not taken into account, the micromechanical behavior
of the composite-like dual phase microstructure of DP steels is rather complex (Tekoglu and Pardoen, 2010,
Tekog
Raabe et al presentation dual phase stee[...]
PDF-Dokument [11.7 MB]
Experimental and numerical study on geometrically necessary dislocations and non-homogeneous
mechanical properties of the ferrite phase in dual phase steels
Acta Materialia 59 (2011) 4387-4394
Experimental and numerical study on geometrically necessary dislocations and non-homogeneous mechanical
properties of the ferrite phase in dual phase steels
J. Kadkhodapour, S. Schmauder, D. Raabe, S. Ziaei-Rad, U. Weber, M. Calcagnotto
Acta Materialia 59 (2011) 4387-4394 dual[...]
PDF-Dokument [620.1 KB]
Acta Materialia 59 (2011) 4387-4394 Experimental and numerical study on geometrically necessary dislocations and non-
homogeneous mechanical properties of the ferrite phase in dual phase steels J. Kadkhodapour et al.;
Motivation for the development of dual phase steels:
Present day industrial applications of sheet metal forming require materials with high plastic deformation
potential and high strength. This goal is not easy to achieve, because usually an increase in the mechanical
characteristics of the sheet involves a reduction in its workability, in terms of ductility, drawability, and
formability. Despite these considerations, dual phase steels have good formabil-
ity with relatively high strength; in particular they have shown good ductility, continuous yielding followed
by rapid work hardening, a low yield to tensile strain ratio and non-aging behavior at ambient
temperature. Dual phase steels are low carbon micro-alloyed steels, characterized by a ferritic multiphase
structure in which martensite is dispersed. They have a purely ferrite matrix and about 530% martensite
dispersed in patches as a second phase. They behave like composite materials in which the ferrite matrix
ensures good cold formability,
while the martensite is the strengthening element. The correct proportions of the two phases allows a low
yielding stress, a high elongation value and a smooth flowstress curve with a high strain hardening coefficient
[1,2].

Tensile properties of dual phase steels:

Tremendous efforts have been expended on exploring various aspects of dual phase steels. The effect of
the volume fraction (Vm), for example, of the harder phase (martensite) has been investigated by different
authors [37]. Increasing the volume fraction of the harder phase was found to increase the yield and ultimate
strengths of the aggregate. Shen et al. [8] have shown, using a scanning electron microscope equipped with a
tensile straining stage,
that the distribution of strain between the ferrite and martensite phases, as well as among the different grains
of each phase, was observed to be iinhomogeneous. Various studies aimed at a better understanding of the
excellent mechanical properties of dual phase steels [916]. There is broad consensus that the low elastic
limit (defined as the first deviation from Hookes law in the stressstrain curve), the continuous yielding and the
high strain hardening rate are a consequence of the austenite martensite transformation, which involves
volume expansion. In our materials the volume expansion is approximately 2.94% at the martensite start
temperature [9]. The strains produced by transformation result in residual stresses in the surrounding ferrite [9].
These internal stresses are assumed to facilitate plastic flow and, hence, reduce the elastic limit. Furthermore,
the volume change induces plastic deformation of adjacent ferrite grains and, therefore, creates a high density
of unpinned dislocations in the vicinity of martensite [1012], as was qualitatively studied by transmission
electron microscopy (TEM) [1315]. These dislocations are assumed to be (at least partly) mobile during the
early stages of deformation and contribute to work hardening. The heterogeneous distribution of
dislocations is supposed to control continuous yielding in dual phase steels. It is assumed that the deformation
starts in ferrite areas with low dislocation densities and spreads with increasing plastic strain into regions with
higher dislocation densities [16]. At least some of the adjacent ferrite grains have to deform plastically owing to
volume expansion during austenitemartensite transformation. During this deformation, geometrically
necessary dislocations (GNDs) are required to maintain lattice continuity [1719] and statistically
stored dislocations (SSDs) evolve from random trapping processes [18]. After such transformation-induced
deformation residual stresses remain due to inhomogenity of the plastic deformation throughout the grains.
However, it is
still not understood to what extent GNDs, SSDs, and the associated residual stresses contribute to the
yielding behavior of dual phase steels. It is well known that GNDs cause local hardening of the microstructure.
But, to the best of the authors knowledge, no experimental observations of this phenomenon have been
reported in dual phase steels. Various homogenization techniques are used in predicting and quantifying the
tensile mechanical properties and
initial work hardening behavior of various materials of composite microstructure such as dual phase steels
[20 23]. None of these models consider local hardening inside the microstructure.

Grain refinement in dual phase steel

In ultrafine single phase alloys it has been shown that the increase in yield stress is accompanied by a
decrease in the work hardening rate, which is responsible for poor ductility. This effect has been shown for Al-
and Ti-containing ultra-low carbon steel produced by accumulative roll bonding (ARB) [24], in pure titanium [25]
and in low carbon steels [26] produced by equal channel angular press-
ing (ECAP), and in ferritic steels produced by ECAP or ARB [27].
Ultrafine grain (UFG) dual phase steels with a ferrite grain size of around 1 lm have been produced by
applying a two-step processing route consisting of (1) a deformation treatment to produce UFG ferrite and
finely dispersed cementite or pearlite and (2) a short intercritical annealing in the ferrite/austenite two-phase
field followed by quenching to transform all austenite to martensite. Grain refine-
ment in step (1) was achieved by ECAP [28], cold rolling [29] and cold swaging [21]. A single pass processing
route based on deformation-induced ferrite transformation (DIFT) was proposed by Mukherjee et al. [30]. It was
consistently found that yield strength and tensile strength increased on grain refinement, whereas uniform and
total elongation were less affected. The strain harden-
ing rate was found to increase with decreasing grain size [28], which is in contrast to the observation of a
very restricted strain hardening rate in UFG low carbon ferrite/cementite steels [31,32]. As the number of
investigations on this topic is very limited, a better understanding of the mechanical response of dual phase
steels to ferrite grain sizes close to or below 1 lm is required. In contrast to other methods to increase the
strength of steels, grain refinement simultaneously improves the toughness of the material, i.e. its capability to
absorb energy under impact conditions [33,34]. Also, The HallPetch
coefficient of the yield strength is lower than in ferrite/ cementite steels that are refined to 1 lm and below
[33,34]. CG ferrite exhibits wavy and strongly intersecting slip bands without a preferred orientation, while UFG
ferrite
basically shows two sets of nearly planar slip bands which are oriented 40 to the tensile direction [33,34]. In
the case of CG steel the failure process is mainly brittle, which is documented by well-defined facets and
cleavage steps on these facets, and only some small areas consist of dimples. The dominant fracture mode of
FG steel is ductile, although smaller parts of the specimen have
undergone brittle fracture. The UFG steel shows dimples throughout the specimens. This suggests a failure
process of void nucleation and growth and, hence, entirely ductile fracture [33,34].
More specific, here the microstructure of dual phase steels can be compared with a composite composed of a
matrix of ferrite reinforced by small islands
of martensite. This assumption has been used in several attempts to model the mechanical properties of dual
phase steels. However, recent measurements show that the properties of the ferrite phase change with
distance from the martensite grains. These measurements showed that the grains of the ferrite phase are
harder in the vicinity of martensite grains. As a consequence of this local hardening effect, the ferrite phase
has to be considered as an inhomogeneous matrix in modeling dual phase steels. This experiment inspired the
idea that local hardening is caused by geometrically necessary dislocations. The idea is investigated
experimentally and numerically in the present
analysis, which for the first time leads to good agreement with experimental observations of the mechanical
stressstrain behavior.

Hochfeste Sthle mit verbesserter Duktilitt Potentiale fr den Leichtbau High-strength steels with
improved ductility - potentials for lightweight engineering
Keynote Lecture, D. Raabe, Stahldialog, 06. Nov 2014, Congress Center Dsseldorf (CCD), Hochfeste Sthle
mit verbesserter Duktilitt Potentiale fr den Leichtbau
High-strength steels with improved ductility - potentials for lightweight engineering
Lecture Stahltag dual phase steel 2014.p[...]
PDF-Dokument [3.3 MB]

Images of dual phase steels