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BY FKANCIS N . HvRFiit *
( 191 )
192 CLAYS AXD CLAY TECHNOLOGY [Bull. 169
cement concrete; but when faced with the necessity of While the civil engineer considers that the term '' soil''
predicting the behavior and supporting power of soil includes all materials of the earth's mantle, including
which may contain as much as 25 percent of water, the gravel and sand, as well as the silt and loam, it is true
engineer still tends to delude himself by thinking that that virtually all such materials contain a greater or
he is concerned onlj^ with soil mechanics. less xiercentage of extremely fine particles having the
As stated before, it was not many years ago that engi- special properties of plasticity and mobility that are
neers generally paid very little attention to difEerenees characteristic of the clay minerals. If there is a complete
in soil types. Most railroad and highway engineers absence of the clay fraction, the material finer than a
learned long ago that classified excavation is usually a No. 4 sieve is to all intents and purposes a sand, even
source of trouble and controversy between the contractor though some of the particles are very small. Of course,
and the engineer; and agencies in many statesinclud- most clays possess properties that are not solely attribu-
ing the California Division of Highwaysdo not classify table to small particle size alone. It is not the purpose of
excavation materials. In other words, the contractor is this paper to attempt any discussion of the intimate
paid on the basis of his bid price whether he is moving shape and composition of the clay particles. From the
loose soil or solid rock. In spite of these simplifications, standpoint of the highway engineer who is attempting
engineers began to realize some 25 years ago that mate- to evaluate the behavior of soils as an engineering mate-
rials encountered along the highway routes were not rial, it is sufficient to recognize that when combined with
always giving equally satisfactory performance and one sufficient water most clays are very effective lubricants
of the first factors to receive consideration was compac- and when a sufficient quantity of clay is intermixed with
tion. The California Division of Highways pioneered the coarser granular portion of a soil, lubrication will
in setting up requirements to control the compaction of develop whenever enough water is added. As the ability
soils during construction. of soils to resist deformation depends very largely on
It did not take long to discover that in order to secure the internal friction, wet clay has the effect of reducing
the maximum efficiency with field-compaction equipment, or canceling out the frictional resistance. It may also
careful control of the moisture content was necessary. be pointed out that the so-called cohesive resistance is
However, with the passage of time and increasing study induced almost entirely by the clay fractions, and there-
of the problem, it was evident that thorough compac- fore that clean sands are noncohesive. Again we must
tion alone was not enough to guarantee satisfactory sup- note the important part played by water, as finely ground
port in all types of soils; it also became apparent that dry clay particles exhibit no cohesive properties. If
there was need for some laboratory-test procedure that water is added to a dry soil, the cohesive resistance will
would evaluate the capacity of the soil to sustain loads normally increase with the addition of moisture and in
when in its most vulnerable condition of density and most cases the frictional resistance will not be greatly
moisture content. Dating from Coulomb's time (1736- impaired until a certain amount of moisture is added.
1806, most theoretical discussions on soil mechanics Beyond this point, the friction will diminish but the
recognize that the entire structural strength of soils cohesive resistance may continue to increase up to some
rests upon two distinct properties: namely, internal fric- point of higher moisture content, after which both values
tion and cohesion. The stability of slopes and embank- will diminish as the soil approaches a completely fluid
ments, the pressures against retaining walls, and the state.
ability to sustain vertical loads, all depend upon a com- As the wet clay fraction reduces the internal resist-
bination of these propertiesfriction between the rock ance by lubrication but may increase the resistance by
or soil particles and any cohesive forces which may exist. improving the cohesion, it is necessary to determine
The laws governing the frictional resistance between something of the relative importance of these two prop-
solid particles are probably very complex and it is to erties. From a practical view point, both field and
be doubted whether the nature of this phenomenon is laboratory experience demonstrate that of the two basic
clearly understood, even today; but for practical pur- properties, resistance resulting from friction is greater
poses variations in frictional resistance may be well in magnitude and therefore the most important when
enough defined in the terms used by Amontons, who dealing with typical soils or granular materials. Beds
was one of the first to investigate frictional phenomena. of clean sand, even when wet, have long been known
Amontons' law states that the resistance to sliding be- to furnish excellent foundation support provided a rea-
tween adjacent particles in contact varies with the na- sonable thickness of surfacing material is placed above
ture of the surfaces, directly with the pressure which
them. Crushed stone or gravel with no measurable cohe-
holds the surfaces together, and is independent of the
speed and the apparent area of contact. The common sion is excellent for base course construction and is able
definition of cohesion as used in soil-mechanics texts to withstand virtually any vehicle load if covered with
does not correspond to the dictionary definition; it is relatively thin surfaces having the requisite tensile
generally stated that the cohesive resistance in soils is strength. On the other hand, plastic soils or asphaltic
that part of the resistance which does not vary with mixtures having high cohesive values but little internal
the pressure. This is a rather negative definition, but friction are rarely adequate to sustain vehicle loads.
it agrees with the observed behavior of viscous liquids. It is realized, of course, that if the cohesive or tensile
The internal friction of liquids is virtually independent strength could be made sufficiently high, internal fric-
of the pressure; the resistance developed by a film of tion would not be necessary. Metals are typical sub-
viscous material between two solid bodies varies directly stances having little or no internal friction; in them,
with the area and with the speed of action, but is largely resistance values are almost entirely a result of the
independent of the pressure. cohesive or tensile strength. However, natural soils con-
Part VI C L A Y TF.ciiNOLOCiY i x S O I L MECHANICS 193
taiiiiiig appreciable amounts of Avater are not capable \ tIEAD or n^T/MG MACtiim
^ _ 7
of developing such high cohesive values and therefore
the internal friction is the most important property.
This conclusion is in accord with the observation that
PI3T0HroR APPLYm
an excessive amount of clay is detrimental and soils or LOAD TO ySOMffi
gravel containing high percentages of clay invariably
become unstable and lack supporting power when wet.
Having recognized the generally adverse influence of
clays, it is pertinent to inquire whether there are dif-
ferences in performance which result from the type of
clay, as it is well known that there are nxunerous types
and classes among the clay minerals. While specialists
and experts in clay technology must perforce recognize
many of the variants and peculiarities of clays, the high- FLEXIBLE
way engineer has gone a long way if he recognizes three '^ DIAPHRAGM
main groups: namely, kaolinite, illite, and montniorillo-
nite. Again he is only concerned with their physical prop- Liquid under-imall
erties and it is well known that most clays of the mont- initio/ pressure
morillonite class possess a very high affinity for water,
typically showing considerable expansion or swelling;
when wet they are very effective lubricants. Kaolinite is
at the other end of the scale, having in general a much
lower capacity for water, and retaining a greater in- \ ifUTIN OF TfJT/m
ternal resistance from friction than does bentonite, for ~imHiN[
example. Illite clays appear to be somewhat intermediate. FIGURE 3.
In addition to the particle shape or structural differ-
ences that are characteristic of each of these types of In order to measure the ability of soils and granular
clays, it is also evident that the physical properties may materials to sustain loads, many tests have been devised;
be markedly affected by small additions of water-soluble one employs an instrument called the " stabilometer,"
salts or other organic or inorganic compounds. A knowl- which is used in the laboratory of the California Division
edge of these behavior patterns and the effect of such of Highways. This testing procedure makes it possible
elements on the fluidity and plasticity of clays is, of to prepare soil specimens by introducing sufficient water
course, one of the essential branches of clay technology, to fill the void space, compacting to a state of density
and requires specialized knowledge which the average comparable to that developed in most highway bases and
highway engineer or even a well equipped highway ma- basement soil layers, and then by measuring the resist-
terials department can hardly hope to command. ance to deformation. Basically, the stabilometer is a form
The engineer's interest, however, is primarily involved of plastometer. The test reflects primarily the internal
in the question of the over-all effect of the particular friction or degree. of lubrication; cohesive resistance
clay when the soil becomes wet and the primary question plays a minor part. A compacted sample being tested in
is the effect on the structural stability which, as stated this instrument, is subjected to a vertical load which may
above, really involves the possible reduction of internal be varied at will. For highway purposes it is typically 160
friction. psi. The instrument makes it possible to measure the
lateral pressure transmitted by the specimen (see fig.
3). Figure 2 is a chart showing characteristic curves
EFFECT OF CLAY ON -R" VALUE illustrating loss in stability or internal resistance of a
crushed sandy gravel due to the addition of increments
of plastic clay. This test is used as a basis for calculating
the supporting value of the soil; by use of suitable
formulas it is possible to compute the thickness of cover
courses of bases and pavement which will be necessary
to support vehicle loads of a given magnitude and num-
ber of repetitions. These test precedures have been re-
ported in considerable detail elsewhere and will not be
discussed further here. The stabilometer test and the
elaborate compaction equipment required to produce
specimens that are characteristic of soils in place in the
roadbed mean that this test procedure is virtually re-
stricted to a fairly large, well-equipped laboratory.
It is essential however, that the engineers in charge of
construction should have some ready and convenient
Per Cent Clay means for detecting the presence of excessive amounts
of adverse clay or fine material. In view of the fact that
F i i a i i E 2. the lubricating effect of clay or of any other material is
791001
194 CLAYS AXD CLAY TECHNOLOGY [Bull. 169
FIGURE 4.
does exist, but it is not sharply defined throniihout the of greater t h a n 5 percent when tested in tlie California
scale. The reasons therefor are not difficult to under- bearing ratio procedure will be unsuitable for placing
stand, if it is reeoo-nized t h a t the ability of a mass of in the U])per levels of a road bed. I t appears t h a t the
soil or g r a n n l a r material passing' a Xo. 4 sieve to resist same class of soils could be identified and segregated by
deformation will depend upon the following factors: stipulating t h a t any soils having a sand equivalent less
(1) The amount of lubricant mixed with the sand frac- t h a n 10 should not be placed in the u p p e r layers, as
t i o n ; i.e., asphalt, clay water, etc.; (2) The effectiveness they are also likely to develop excessive expansion when
or efficiency of the Ivibrieating fraction wet bentonite saturated.
is a better Inbricant t h a n kaolinitc, for example; (3) I n conclusion, it maj- be stated that the suitability of
The defrree of rongliuess or i r r e g u l a r i t y of the sand soils for engineci'ing purposes depends largely upon their
grains or rock particles; (4) The a m o u n t of void space ability to remain in place and to s u p p o r t whatever loads
in the sand fraction of the soil; a n d (jt) The amount may be placed upon them either by a i)ermanent engi-
of intermingled coarse rock retained on a No. 4 sieve. neering s t r u c t u r e or by t r a n s i e n t veliicle loads. A study
"We readily perceive t h a t of these five variables the of the properties which distinguish the more satisfac-
sand equivalent determination is p r i m a r i l y an indica- tory from the less satisfactory soils indicates t h a t in the
tion of no. 1. Tt attempts to compensate for no. 2 by ma.jority of cases claj's are d e t r i m e n t a l to stability and
means of the t y p e of solution used. I t cannot indicate t h a t wet clay has the effect o-f a lubricant in diminish-
the variation caused by item 3, a n d as presently per- ing the n a t u r a l resistance due to friction. It is necessary
formed does not make allowance for no. 4, although it t h a t the civil engineer responsible for construction of
seems possible t h a t means for making this correction any form of earth work should he informed not only
may be Avorked out. Allowance for the effects of no. 5 concerning the quantity of clay minerals t h a t are pres-
need to be made if the coarse aggregate exceeds 25 or ent b u t also should know something c-f their n a t u r e and
30 percent of the total. Therefore, in order to evaluate their potential influence on the engineering properties
the combined effect of all factors, some test such as the of the soil.
stabilometer test is necessary. However, experience has
DISCUSSION
shown t h a t one of the principal variables is the amount
D, P. Krynine;
of clay present, and it may readily be determined t h a t
For those inteiestod in permafrost some Russian books trans-
when the sand equivalent value is greater t h a n 30, the lated into English may be recommended. The Stcffcnson Library
clay fraction is not sufficiently large to have much in- translated for the Army Engineers a book by V. F . Zhukov en-
fluence on the resistance value of a n u n t r e a t e d soil. titled Earthrvork for Foundations in Permafrost Zones, Moscow,
Very small amounts of clay m a y be detrimental to 1946. The U. S. Geological Survey translated the book by N. A.
Tsitovitch and M. I. Soumgin entitled Principles of the Mechanics
the performance of bituminous mixtures, especially of Frozen Grounds, Moscow, 1937. Neither translation has been
when the clay exists as a coating on the surfaces of sand printed, however. Russian scientific work on permafrost has been
grains. As the sand equivalent determination furnishes used in engineering practice, but much is still in the experimental
stage.
a ready means for detecting the presence of such fine
materials, a tentative scale of values has been set u p to A still unsolved problem in soil mechanics is the shearing
resistance of clays, both saturated and non-saturated, especially
permit r a p i d testing a n d quick determination in the of the latter. Mineralogists and physicists probably could con-
field. tribute considerably to this study, as practically nothing is known
A comparison of sand equivalent test values with of the behavior of the lattice during the .shear process, particu-
other test results indicates t h a t the majority of soils larly in brittle clays and in clays flowing plastically. A phenome-
non which is well known to the engineers is the difference in
showing high expansion u n d e r soaking m a y be identified shearing resistance of a clay sample as determined by slow and
by means of the sand equivalent. I t has been the general quick shearing tests. Further clarification of the causes of this
practice to consider t h a t any soils showing an expansion difference is needed.