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Original paper
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: An intelligent system for colour inspection of biscuit products is proposed. In this system, the state-of-
Received 10 April 2010 the-art classication techniques based on Support Vector Machines (SVM) and Wilks analysis were
Received in revised form 8 September 2010 used to classify biscuits into one of four distinct groups: under-baked, moderately baked, over-baked,
Accepted 17 October 2010
and substantially over-baked. The accuracy of the system was compared with standard discriminant
analysis using both direct and multi-step classications. It was discovered that the radial basis SVM
Keywords:
after Wilks was more precise in classication compared to other classiers. Real-time implementation
Biscuit
was achieved by means of multi-core processor with advanced multiple-buffering and multithreading
Discriminant analysis
Machine vision
algorithms. The system resulted in correct classication rate of more than 96% for stationary and mov-
Multi-core processor ing biscuits at 9 m/min. It was discovered that touching and non-touching biscuits did not signicantly
Image segmentation interfere with accurate assessment of baking. However, image processing of touching biscuits was con-
Support vector machine siderably slower compared to non-touching biscuits, averaging at 36.3 ms and 9.0 ms, respectively. The
decrease in speed was due to the complexity of the watershed-based algorithm used to segment touching
biscuits. This image computing platform can potentially support the requirements of the high-volume
biscuit production.
2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
0168-1699/$ see front matter 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.compag.2010.10.010
148 S. Nashat et al. / Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 75 (2011) 147158
Fig. 1. Example of (a) non-touching and (b) touching biscuits. In both cases, top left is under-baked, top right is moderately baked, bottom left is over-baked and bottom
right is substantially over-baked.
ble cost. Image processing of a dynamically moving target requires baked, over-baked and substantially over-baked. It can be seen in
machine vision with high-data throughput and high-performance Fig. 1 that the colour is not uniformly distributed. This is due to
microprocessors. This problem is further compounded due to the the temperature variation inside the oven, causing colours of bis-
fact that most practical applications require time consuming vision cuits to appear darker in some regions. Therefore, the challenge for
tasks like image transformation and extraction. Fortunately, most image processing software is to use this information as the basis
of these tasks have regular, repetitive computations with pre- for colour inspection.
dictable data dependencies, making them well suited for parallel
paradigm. In order to exploit data-level parallelism in object recog- 2.2. Machine vision system
nition, multi-core processors are more and more used in recent
years to achieve real-time object recognition (Kim et al., 2010). For The hardware used in this study consisted of a HP Worksta-
instance Zhang et al. (2008) revealed that real-time operation over tion XW4600 with quad core CPU 2.5 GHz processor, 2 GB of RAM
30 frame/s for the scale invariant feature transform can be achieved and equipped with a colour frame grabber, an illumination sys-
by parallelising on a multi-core system; Ach et al. (2008) developed tem, cable, a charge-coupled device camera, and conveyor. The
a multi-core processors for real-time detection of trafc signs in frame grabber is of the 32-bit Meteor II type manufactured by
different images by means of the Viola-Jones algorithm; Kyo et al. Matrox Electronic System Limited, Canada. This device is mounted
(2008) present massively parallel single instruction multiple data into the PCI slot of the workstation. A high quality 3-CCD Sony
(SIMD) in the image pre-processing stage of object recognition; and XC-003P camera was used as the image capturing device with a
Zhao et al. (2009) exploited the thread-level and data-level paral- sustainable speed of 25 frames per second, captured at a spatial
lelism of image segmentation technique based on Otsus algorithm. resolution of 640 480 pixels. The camera comes with stan-
Clearly from this review, multi-core technology is well suited to dard C-mount type optical lens connected to a frame grabber
solve some pattern recognition problems and to processing time- via 2-m external BNC cable. The camera was mounted to a test
varying images. In this paper, we will present the in-depth analysis station, which comprised of iron holder xed at the height of
of the multi-core implementation of the SVM-based articial classi- 45.5 cm and at an angle of 90 mounted from horizontal arm. The
er for real-time inspection of stationary as well as moving objects. test station was illuminated using a white, Stocker Yale (USA)
Both isolated and partially occluded biscuits are investigated. The ultra-high-frequency uorescent ring light, model 13 plus high
proposed methods and procedures are applied to inspect biscuit frequency steady light with a maximum oscillating frequency of
samples on a conveyor belt with adjustable speed. 85 kHz. The light bulb was tted with a continuous light inten-
sity control which allowed 10100% intensity adjustment. Standard
2. Materials and methods conveyor belt with adjustable speed was used in this study to sim-
ulate moving object detection. The schematic diagram of biscuit
2.1. Biscuit colour grading inspection system showing all essential elements is depicted in
Fig. 2.
Unlike industrial and manufacturing sectors, to the best of The proposed colour inspection system is divided into two main
authors knowledge, no single standard for colour grading of bis- steps: pre-processing and post-processing. In summary, the pre-
cuits exists. In this industry, the colour standard of biscuits is processing step includes calibration of machine vision and the
determined by the individual company. Colour quality control in image processing part. In this work the machine vision was cali-
most biscuit producers involved human inspectors while some rely brated using four colour samples manufactured by Labsphere Inc.,
on a more objective measurement by using a colorimeter. How- USA. The samples are SCS-RD-010, SCS-GN-010, SCS-BL-010, and
ever, this equipment is not suitable when the sample has colour SCS-YW-010, corresponding to red, green, blue, and yellow colour
variations. Moreover, there are many reasons for considering the standards respectively. The image processing part involves image
problem of touching or partial recognition in biscuit processing. For acquisition and smoothing, RGB to HLS colour transformation, and
instance it is not always possible to keep biscuits from touching or image segmentation. The post-processing step includes dimension-
overlapping on a moving conveyor belt. Example of colour varia- ality reduction of the segmented objects by using Wilks analysis,
tion in biscuits highlighting touched and untouched cases is shown and applying support vector machine to achieve classication.
in Fig. 1. In both cases, the biscuits are categorised into four distinct In this study the image processing was performed using the
groups reecting four degrees of baking: under-baked, moderately Matrox Image Library (MIL) version MIL 9.0 with visual C++ pro-
S. Nashat et al. / Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 75 (2011) 147158 149
BNC Cable
Iron holder
1. Under-baked
2. Moderately baked
3-CCD
3. Over-baked
Camera 4. Substantially over-baked
Illumination Biscuit
system samples 1 2
3 4
Industrial HP Frame
Industrial conveyor Workstation grabber
gramming language incorporated. The parallel-processing is based of the source image was internally generated then the threshold
on Matrox multiple-buffering and multithreading techniques. value was set to a minimum value between the two most statis-
tically important peaks in the histogram, on the assumption that
2.3. Colour space transformation these peaks represent the object and the background. If the his-
togram contains only two peaks, the threshold value was set to
Colour is one of the most important features for biscuits assess- the minimum value between these peaks. If the histogram contains
ment used in this recognition system. The images of biscuits were more than two peaks, then the threshold value was set between the
taken by the CCD camera and represented in the three-dimensional two most prominent peaks. In this way the biscuit images could be
RGB colour space. Unfortunately, the RGB colour space used in com- separated from the background. The area of segmented image was
puter graphics is device dependent, which is designed for specic then calculated in order to distinguish between touching and non-
devices, e.g. cathode-ray tube (CRT) display. Hence, RGB colour has touching biscuits. This could easily be done since the surface area of
no accurate denition for a human observer. Therefore, the effec- each biscuit was relatively constant. It was heuristically discovered
tive way is to transform the RGB information sensed by the machine that the surface area of the biscuit lies in the range between 39,870
vision to the Hue-Lightness-Saturation (HLS) colour space. The HLS and 39,990 pixel square. Therefore, it was possible to distinguish
space was selected since it denes colour not only in the sense of touched from the untouched cases using direct thresholding. If the
perceptual uniformity, but more signicantly, it matches to the way area was smaller than the threshold value, then, the biscuits were
that the human perceives colour (Camastra and Vinciarelli, 2008). considered untouched. In this case, image processing only involved
In this space, only the hue component h was analysed, since this smoothing and the removal of artefacts or noise. This was achieved
attribute directly characterises the colour properties of an object by means of morphological erosion technique. For touched cases,
and thus the degree of doneness of the biscuit. Hence, colour con- image processing required four more additional steps. Sequentially
version process only involved transforming the RGB information to they are (i) edge detection, (ii) watershed transformation, (iii) mor-
a single hue buffer. Indirectly, this helped to compress information phological erosion, and (iv) distance transformation. For the biscuit
for easier colour discrimination and manageable solution. For the 8- image that differs signicantly from the background, the Sobel
bit machine vision, such a transformation is given mathematically operator (Sobel, 1970) was applied to detect the edge of biscuit.
by Gonzalez and Wintz (1987): Then the watershed transformation was implemented to the gradi-
ent image (Vincent and Soille, 1991). The watershed transformation
0.5[(R G) + (R B)] considers the gradient magnitude of an image as a topographic sur-
h=
360 cos 1
(R G)2 (R B)(G B) face. If the objects have well-dened edges, an edge detection will
produce a maximum along the edges of each object. These maxima
255 will dene each object as a catchment basin since they produce
If B G (1)
360 a minimum in each object. A watershed transformation will then
or label the catchment basins, effectively segmenting the image. After
that morphological erosion was applied to smooth the image and
0.5[(R G) + (R B)] 255
h= cos 1
If B < G (2) remove artefacts. Then, watershed and the distance transformation
(R G)2 (R B)(G B) 360 were implemented in order to separate touching objects and reduce
noise due to overlapping. The blob analysis was then used to com-
Eqs. (1) and (2) yield normalised hue values in the interval [0, 255].
pute the centre of gravity of each object. Finally, image cropping
The equation of hue can also be expressed using trigonometry iden-
was applied to the original image in order to obtain the region of
tity, but Eqs. (1) and (2) are easier to visualise and superior in terms
interest. The owchart in Fig. 3 summarises the image processing
of hardware implementation.
sequence of touching and non-touching biscuits.
Grab image
Auto thresholding
Touching
Yes objects
Area > T
Hyperplane
Non-touching No
Edge detection of
original image Fig. 4. SVM uses hyperplane margin to separate positive from negative classes.
objects
Watershed
Morphological vectors (h , y ), where h is the hue and y {+1, 1} indicates the
transformation i i i i
erosion class label. The classication of biscuit samples can be considered
as the task of determining a classication function f : h y using
Morphological i i
training data. Subsequently, the classication function f is used to
erosion ) > 0, the input vector h
classify the unseen test data set. If f (h i i
is assigned to the class yi = +1, otherwise class yi = 1. This tech-
Count number of
Separate touching using nique can be extended to classication involving more than two
objects and calculate
distance transformation groups using SVM algorithm such as the Directed Acyclic Graph
centre of gravity
(Platt et al., 2000). Essentially, this algorithm works by rstly col-
lecting the data from each classier, and secondly, assembling these
Image cropping data to form a graph or a tree comprising of several nodes with each
node representing result from each binary classier. Therefore, it is
theoretically plausible to perform more than 2-class classication
End by expanding and adding more nodes to the tree. The details are
described in Section 2.7.
Fig. 3. Image processing for touching and non-touching biscuits. The threshold For the linearly separable training vectors, the classication
value T was set to 40,000 pixel square. function f has the following form:
) = sgn(w
f (h + b)
Th (3)
criminant powers. Hence, a sequence of operations is needed before i
l
1
l l
3 1
W () = i ,h
yi yj k(h ) (8)
4 2
i j i j
2
i=1 i=1 j=1 Fig. 5. The acyclic graph for 4-group classication via DAG strategy. Here 1 indi-
cates under-baked, 2 moderately baked, 3 over-baked and 4 substantially
Under the constraints: over-baked. The abbreviation vs stands for versus.
Fig. 7. Structure of queuing tasks of the inspection system and with four SVMs threads.
S. Nashat et al. / Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 75 (2011) 147158 153
Fig. 8. Flowchart of a real-time colour inspection system based on multithreading The important element in this colour inspection system is to
technique for parallel processing. locate a hue subset that contains signicant input variables. Refer-
ring to Fig. 10, the hue values of four different groups of biscuit
samples fall in the range from 0 to 59. Hence, altogether there are 60
post-processing like dimensionality reduction and object recogni- variables, which are statistically independent and useful for analy-
tion. Results are assembled by the master thread and displayed on sis. These variables were submitted to Wilks analysis in order to
the monitor screen or written into a text le if necessary. After detect both the insignicant and highly signicant hue variables. In
completion of the image inspection task, the master thread frees the analysis, the F-to-remove and the F-to-enter variables were set
all buffers and the threads. Then, it enters a stand-by mode and to default values of 2.71 and 3.84, respectively. The algorithm iter-
ready to process next image. The owchart in Fig. 8 summarises atively took eight steps to converge, producing a subset containing
154 S. Nashat et al. / Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 75 (2011) 147158
Fig. 9. Segmented biscuits and their centres of gravity corresponding to image in Fig. 1: (a) non-touching biscuits and (b) touching biscuits. Here a(i) and b(i) are edge images
after auto thresholding; b(ii) is the edge image after watershed-based segmentation; a(ii) and b(iii) are the centres of gravity of a(i) and b(ii), respectively.
8 principal hues. This corresponds to a loss of 86.67% in variation. Using these potent variables, the machine vision system was
The 8 principal components produced here were: trained using biscuit samples in the training set. The classication
efciency of the system using 8 principal hues was examined by
hs = (19, 20, 23, 29, 39, 40, 42, 43) (10) studying the Mahalanobis distances, shown canonically in Fig. 11.
S. Nashat et al. / Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 75 (2011) 147158 155
Fig. 10. Hue distributions of four different groups of biscuits averaged over 50 samples for each group category.
Table 1
Real time classication results of independent test samples corresponding to different conveyor speeds using SVM-R classier with Wilks method.
Table 2
Total processing time of non-touching biscuits comparing sequential and parallel processing for different classiers.
No. of samples Processing time (ms) No. of samples Processing time (ms) No. of samples Processing time (ms) No. of samples Processing time (ms)
Functions 1 and 2 in this gure refer to the canonical discrim- separates under-baked and substantially over-baked groups. In
inant functions derived from the canonical correlation analysis contrast, the hyperplane separation is weak for over-baked and
which were used to examine the relationship between the variables moderately baked groups. It can also be seen that these groups
(Morison, 2005). are disjointed and convex, and the hyperplane separation is alge-
This graph clearly demonstrates the formation of four major braically non-linear. It was also observed that the non-linearity
groups. It shows the existence of the hyperplane which strongly increased when independent test samples were used.
Table 3
Total processing time of touching biscuits comparing sequential and parallel processing for different classiers.
No. of samples Processing time (ms) No. of samples Processing time (ms) No. of samples Processing time (ms) No. of samples Processing time (ms)
(iii) 10 m/min. In this inspection, the machine vision system was was recorded by SVM-R at a speed of 10 m/min. This articial classi-
trained and tested using the same samples and illumination set- er has a potential for use in routine inspection of biscuits and other
up as those used in the stationary classication. Here, the biscuit bakery products. This articial classier has a potential to increase
images were acquired continuously from the centre of the eld of inspection speeds beyond human operators when implemented on
view by detecting the centre of each moving sample. a multi-core processor. It is suitable for use in high volume produc-
Table 1, shows the results of the dynamic classication using tion like biscuit processing considered in this example.
independent test samples corresponding to the different conveyor
speeds. Expectedly, it can be seen from this table that there is a
slight decrease in the accuracy compared to stationary inspection. Acknowledgements
The average correct classication attained by the system for mov-
ing samples is consistently higher than 95.5%. There is no signicant This work has been supported by the Universiti Sains Malaysia
change in the accuracy when the speed of the conveyor is varied Research University Grant 814012. The authors also would like to
from 8 m/min to maximum adjustable speed of 10 m/min. Further- acknowledge partial support of this research through the AUN-Seed
more, the same correct classication is observed when the system Net Program 449/USM/2009.
is used to inspect touching biscuits. In addition to accuracy, the
total processing times were also considered. These are tabulated in References
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