UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY

Class of 2016

o Trapping of particulate matter: mucus-

Histology
Third Shifting Reviewer
Nasopharynx
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Conducting System
Nasal cavity paranasal sinuses
nasopharynx trachea primary bronchi
secondary bronchi terminal bronchioles
Contains mucus-secreting cells and cilia
For cleansing, warming, and conducting of air
secreting glands and cilia
Composed of respiratory epithelium
o Patches of squamous epithelium
increase with age
Lamina propria rich in serous and mucous glands
and large masses of lymphoid tissue called the
adenoids or nasopharyngeal tonsil (part of
Waldeyers Ring)

Gaseous Interchange System Larynx

Transitional airways (respiratory bronchiole)
alveolar duct/ sac alveoli and pulmonary
capillaries
From the terminal bronchioles, there is a series
of transitional airways: respiratory bronchioles
and alveolar ducts
For gas exchange
False Vocal Cord
Upper fold composed of respiratory epithelium
True Vocal Cord
Lower fold composed of stratified squamous
epithelium
Contains the vocalis muscle and vocalis ligament

Nasal Cavity Ventricle

Consists of external vestibule and internal nasal
fossa
Two nasal cavities divided by a cartilaginous
nasal septum
Function enhanced through enlarged surface
area by turbinate system
o Temperature regulation
o Humidity
o Trapping of particulate matter
Olfactory mucosa at the roof of the nasal cavity
which function as receptors for smell
Conchae
o Superior: olfactory epithelium
Mucous secreted by
Bowmans gland; no goblet
cells
Has olfactory hair/ cilia
which are receptor
structures
o Middle and Inferior: respiratory
epithelium
With goblet cells
Nasal Mucosa
Composed of respiratory epithelium:
pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
with goblet cells
Lamina propria is rich in vessels and serous and
mucous glands
o Temperature of inspired air: adjusted
by rich plexus of blood vessels and
serous gland secretions
Narrow cleft between the true and false vocal
cords composed of respiratory epithelium with
seromucous glands
Terminates as a blind-ending saccule
Epiglottis
Stratified squamous non-keratinizing epithelium
Elastic cartilage that presents with degenerative
fatty changes with aging
Trachea
Flexible tube of fibro-elastic tissue and cartilage
which permits expansion, extension, and recoil
Composed of respiratory epithelium with the
following components:
o Tall pseudostratified ciliated columnar
cells (more plentiful in lower trachea)
o Goblet cells
o Serous cells
o Basal cells (neuroendocrine system)
o Basal stem cells
o Thick basement membrane
Lamina Propria consists of loose and highly
vascular connective tissue
Submucosa contains seromucinous glands that
decrease in number at the lower parts; merges
with perichondrium of underlying hyaline
cartilage rings
C-Shaped Hyaline Cartilage Rings
o Support tracheal mucosa and prevent
its collapse

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 1

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Trachealis Muscle Contain few alveoli that start to function for gas
o Join free ends of the rings posteriorly exchange; alveoli increase in number
o Contraction reduces tracheal diameter Divide to form alveolar ducts
and assists in raising intrathoracic
pressure during coughing Alveolar Ducts
With numerous alveoli along their length
Primary Bronchus End in alveolar sacs which open into several
Respiratory epithelium is less tall and contains alveoli
fewer goblet cells Smooth muscle component appear knob-like
Lamina Propria is separated from submucosa by
a layer of smooth muscle (smooth muscle more Alveoli
prominent) Surface Epithelium
Submucosa contains fewer seromucinous glands Type I Pneumocytes (Small Alveolar Cells)
Cartilage exist as flattened plates rather than o About 40% of epithelium
distinct rings o Large, squamous cells
Has Bronchus Associated Lymphoid Tissue o Alveolar lining cells that is part of the
(BALT), component of diffuse MALT thin gaseous diffusion barrier
Type II Pneumocytes (Great Alveolar Cells)
Tertiary (Segmental) Bronchus o About 60% of epithelium
Respiratory epithelium has little o Rounded cells with large nuclei
pseudostratification with greatly diminished (dispersed chromatin and dispersed
goblet cell number nucleoli)
Lamina Propria is thin, elastic, and completely o Lamellar Bodies
encircled by smooth muscle disposed in a spiral Fine vacuoles in cytoplasm
manner that contain phopholipid
Submucosa has sparce seromucinous glands palmityl
Cartilage disposed to few irregular plates and phosphatidylcholine)
does not extend beyond the tertiary bronchi Storage and release site of
MALT are present in the adventitia surfactant
o Functions:
Secrete surfactant (tubular
Bronchiole myelin) which serves to
Ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells reduce surface tension,
o In the terminal and respiratory preventing alveolar collapse
bronchioles, goblet cells are replaced during expiration
by clara cells (tall columnar cells with Surfactant has
apical secretory granules) aqueous
< 1mm in diameter with no cartilage or hypophase and
submucosal gland components lipid monolayer
Smooth muscle and neuroendocrine cells are Retain capacity for cell
present division and can differentiate
to Type I Pneumocytes as
Terminal Part of the Respiratory Tree needed
Terminal Bronchioles
Smallest diameter passages of purely conducting Supporting Tissue
portion of respiratory tree Fine reticular, collagenous and elastic fibers with
Further divide to form respiratory bronchioles occasional fibroblasts
Elastin and septal collagen of the alveolar wall
Respiratory Bronchioles are continuous with those of adjacent alveoli
Ciliated cuboidal epithelium with clara cells (no Alveolar septum
goblet cells) o Composed of 3 laminar structures
o Clara cells are non-ciliated cells that constituted by a central basement
function to produce one component of membrane and 2 very thin cytoplasmic
surfactant, act as stem cells, and layers
detoxify noxious substances o Septa contains small openings called
alveolar pores of Kohn, which allow

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 2

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

movement of air between alveoli and Small Pulmonary Vein

also movement of pathogenic Amount of smooth muscle in tunica media
organisms increases progressively along venous network
With ill-formed elastic laminae
Blood Vessels
Air-Blood Barrier The Visceral Pleura
o Type 1 pneumocyte + fused basement Outer surface lined by a layer of flattened
membrane + capillary endothelium cuboidal mesothelium supported by thin
o Basement membrane of the capillary basement membrane
endothelium is directly applied to Mesothelial cells have plentiful long surface
basement membrane of surface microvilli which trap hyaluronic acid that
epithelium, without interfering enhances the lubrication of the two surfaces
supporting tissue Fibrous supporting tissue consists of collagen
and elastin fibers
Alveolar Wall
Composed mainly of capillaries that form a
basket-like arrangement around each alveolus
Type I pneumocytes are located on the convex
side of the basement membrane
Surface endothelial cells located on the concave
side of the basement membrane
Type II pneumocytes are located at the
branching point of the alveolar septum

Alveolar Macrophage
Found within alveolar spaces and septa
Function in the phagocytosis and removal of
unwanted material that gains access to the air
spaces
After phagocytosing particles:
o Most become trapped in mucus and
coughed up as sputum
o Others stay in septa
o Others gain access to lymphatic system

Pulmonary Vasculature
Large Elastic Pulmonary Artery
Pulmonary trunk, main right and left pulmonary
arteries, major lobar branches
Similar to the aorta with prominent elastic
lamellae as part of the tunica media
Layers are thinner and less substantial than the
aortic counterpart since intravascular pressures
are much lower

Muscular Pulmonary Artery

Transition is at the point where bronchi lose
cartilage plates and become bronchioles
Elastic fibers are disposed into internal and
external elastic laminae
Tunica media is largely composed of smooth
muscle and collagen

Small Pulmonary Arterioles

Tunica media becomes thinner and eventually
becomes discontinous

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 3

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

ORAL TISSUES o Enamel

Functions Hard, transluscent substance
o Mastication composed of parallel enamel
Ingestion, fragmentation, rods of highly calcified
and moistening of food for material cemented together
swallowing by interprismatic calcified
o Speech and facial expression material
o Sensory reception Root
o Breathing o Embedded in the bony alveolar ridge
o Invested by a thin layer of cementum
Oral Mucosa o Cementum
Amorphous calcified tissue
Protective mucous membrane that contains
connected to the bone of the
many sensory receptors
alveolar socket by
Lined by stratified squamous epithelium
periodontal ligament
(keratinized in areas subject to considerable
Generally acellular and
friction)
becomes thicker at the root
Lamina Propria
apex
o In highly mobile areas: connected to
Dentine
underlying muscle by loose
o Composed of calcified organic matrix
submucosal supporting tissue (eg. soft
similar to bone, but is more highly
palate)
mineralized due to inorganic
o In fixed areas: connected to
hydroxyapatite crystals
periosteum of bone by dense fibrous
o Dental Pulp
submucosa (eg. hard palate)
Contained in the central pulp
Submucosa exhibit small salivary glands of both
cavity formed by dentine
serous and mucous types
Resembles primitive
mesenchyme and contains
Lip stellate fibroblasts, reticulin
External surface covered by hairy skin which fibers, fine collagen fibers,
passes through a transition zone to merge with and ground substance
the inner oral mucosa Richly vascularised and
Vermillion Border innervated
o Transition zone which has a thin, o Dental Tubules
lightly keratinized epidermis and richly Radiate to periphery of
vascularised dermis dentine
o Devoid of sweat and sebaceous glands o Odontoblasts
Inner surface composed of thick stratified Tall columnar cells on the
squamous epithelium with numerous accessory surface of the dental papilla
salivary glands in the submucosa Responsible for dentine
Bundles of circumoral skeletal muscle is formation
sandwiched between the internal and external Initiate tooth formation by
surfaces deposition of organic dentine
between odontoblastic and
Palatal Mucosa ameloblastic layers
Thick stratified squamous epithelium supported Dentine formed is pervaded
by tough, densely collagenous lamina propria by odontoblastic processes
Thrown into transverse folds called rugae to dentine tubules
assist in mastication o Ameloblasts
Induces enamel formation by
calcification of dentine
Tooth Structure
matrix
Crown
Periodontal Membrane
o Projects into oral cavity protected by
o Thin fibrous attachment between
enamel covering
tooth root and alveolar bone that
functions as the sling of the tooth
within socket
By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 4
UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

o Permit slight movements of teeth and o Fungiform Papillae

cushioning during chewing Small red and globular
o Sharpeys Fibers Thin, non-keratinized
Run obliquely downwards epithelium which is richly
from alveolar bone to vascularized
cementum o Circumvallate Papillae
o Epithelial Rests of Malassez Largest and least common
Small clumps of epithelial Located immediately
cells scattered throughout anterior to the sulcus
periodontal membrane terminalis
Contain most of the taste
Gingiva buds
Oral mucosa covering the upper part of the o Follicular Papillae
alveolar ridge that forms a tight protective cuff Rudimentary in humans
around the tooth o Von Ebners Glands
Composed of thick stratified squamous Aggregates of serous glands
epithelium that undergoes abrupt transition to a that open into the base of
thin layer of epithelial cells at the tip of the free the circumvallate clefts
gingiva Secrete watery fluid that
Attached Gingiva dissolves food and facilitates
o Protective covering to upper alveolar taste reception
bone Posterior 1/3
Free Gingiva o Smooth stratified squamous
o Cuff around the enamel at the neck of epithelium overlying lymphoid tissue
the tooth termed as the lingual tonsils (part of
Gingival Crevice Waldeyers Ring)
o Potential space between the gingival
cuff (free gingiva) and enamel of the Salivary Glands
crown of the tooth (cemento-enamel Produce 600-1500 ml of saliva daily, which is a
junction) hypotonic watery secretion containing variable
o Crevicular epithelium easily breached amounts of mucus, amylase and lysozyme,
by pathogenic organisms antibodies, and inorganic ions
Salivary Secretory Unit
Tongue o Consists of a terminal branched
Muscular organ covered by oral mucosa tubulo-acinar structure composed
o Body of the tongue consists of exclusively of either serous or mucous
interlacing bundles of skeletal muscle secretory cells
fibers o Terminal secretory units merge to
o Mucous membrane bound to muscle form small intercalated ducts (cuboidal
layer by dense collagenous lamina secretory cells) which drain into larger
propria striated ducts (tall columnar cells)
o Small serous and mucous accessory o Striated ducts
salivary glands are scattered Function to reabsorb and
throughout the muscle and lamina secrete ions which produce
propria hypotonic saliva with less Na
Sulcus Terminalis and Cl and more K and HCO3
o V-shaped groove that demarcated the than plasma
anterior 2/3 from posterior 1/3 Basal cytoplasm appears
striated because of the
Anterior 2/3
presence of basal
o Filiform Papillae
interdigitations of
Most numerous and appear
cytoplasmic processes of
as short bristles
adjacent cells
Dense supporting tissue core
Larger in serous glands than
with a heavily keratinized
in mucous glands
surface projection

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 5

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

o Myoepithelial Cells
Force secretion from acinar
lumen into duct system on
contraction
Located between basal
plasma membranes of
secretory cells and basement
membrane
Minor Salivary Glands
o Secrete continuously under local
control
o Scattered throughout oral mucosa
Major Salivary Glands
o Secrete in response to
parasympathetic activity
o Parotid Gland
Composed mainly of serous
secretory units
Divided into numerous
lobules with supporting
tissue septa that convey
blood vessels, nerves, and
large excretory ducts
Main duct: Stensens
o Sublingual Gland
Composed mainly of mucous
secretory units
Large excretory duct lined by
stratified cuboidal epithelium
is present in tissue septum
As ducts merge to form
major excretory duct, lining
transforms into stratified
squamous epithelium
Contains occasional
adipocytes
Main ducts: Bartholin and
Rivinus
o Submandibular Gland
Composed of a mix of serous
and mucous secretory units
Mixed secretory units are
composed of mucous acini
with serous demilunes
Mucous cell nuclei are
condensed and flattened
Serous cell nuclei are
rounded and centrally-
positioned
Main duct: Whartons

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 6

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT Secretory

Functions to break down food for absorption o Long, closely packed tubular glands
into the body: that are simple or branched
o Ingestion o Found only in the stomach
o Fragmentation Absorptive
o Digestion o Arranged into finger-like projections
o Absorption called cilli which increase the surface
o Elimination area with intervening short glands
called crypts
Structure of the GI Tract o Found in the small intestine
Functional Layers Absorptive/ Protective
Mucosa o Arranged into closely packed, straight
o Epithelium tubular glands and goblet cells
o Lamina Propria specialized for water absorption and
Loose supporting tissue with lubrication
diffuse lymphocytes and o Found in large intestine
plasma cells (except for
stomach) Motility
o Muscularis Mucosa Peristalsis initiated by Interstitial Cells of Cajal
Keeps the mucosal surface (pacemaker cells)
and glands in constant gentle Modulated by ANS
agitation which expels Parasympathetic increases motility while
secretions from glandular sympathetic does the opposite
crypts and enhances contact
of epithelium and food for
absorption Esophagus
Submucosa Strong muscular tube that conveys food from
o Loose collagenous and adipose the oropharynx to the stomach
supporting tissue Thick stratified squamous epithelium
o Contains the larger blood vessels, Lamina propria is narrow and contains scattered
lymphatics, and nerves lymphoid aggregates
o No glands present except in esophagus Submucosa is loose with many elastic fibers and
and duodenum small seromucous glands
o Meissners Plexus Muscularis propria is thick: ICOL
Supply mucosal glands and o Bundles of skeletal muscle
muscularis mucosae predominate in the upper 1/3 of
Muscularis Propria esophagus
o Smooth muscle usually arranged as o Smooth muscle predominate in lower
ICOL. In the stomach, there is an inner 2/3
oblique layer.
o Auerbachs Plexus Gastro-esophageal sphincter
Between the two muscle Physiologic sphincter
layers Factors: diaphragmatic contraction, greater
Supply surrounding smooth intra-abdominal pressure, unidirectional
muscle peristalsis, maintenance of correct anatomical
Adventitia arrangements of the structures
o Outer layer of supporting tissue that Abrupt transition from stratified squamous
conducts the major vessels, nerves, epithelium to tightly packed glandular secretory
and variable adipose tissue mucosa
Muscularis mucosa, submucosa, and muscularis
Mucosal Forms in the GI Tract propria continue uninterrupted
Protective
o Stratified squamous type
o Found in oral cavity, esophagus, and
anal canal

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 7

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
Stomach
Distensible organ responsible for mechanical and
chemical breakdown of food into chime
Tall columnar epithelium
Rugae
Longitudinal folds in the mucosa during non-
distended state
Cardia
Small area of mucus-secreting glands
Cardiac glands are compound tubular in nature
Fundus and Body
Consist of glands that secrete acid-pepsin gastric
juices; branched tubular in nature
Gastric glands
o Simple tubular glands that extend from
level of the muscularis mucosae to
open into the stomach lumen via
gastric pits of foveoli
o 1-7 gastric glands may open into 1
gastric pit
o Surface Mucous Cells
Short surface microvilli
Secrete bicarbonate
o Neck Mucous Cells
At the neck and base of
gastric glands
Have larger secretory
granules and more
polyribosomes than surface
mucous cells
o Parietal (Oxyntic) Cells
At isthmus of gastric glands
Secrete gastric acid and
intrinsic factor
Eosinophilic cytoplasm with
centrally-located nucleus;
feature numerous
mitochondria
Luminal plasma membrane
form canaliculi with
projecting short microvilli
Canaliculi are related to
tubulovesicular system
responsible for secretion of
gastric acid
o Chief Peptic (Zymogenic) Cells
Most common
At base of gastric glands
Secrete pepsin
Basophilic and granular
cytomplasm with basally-
located nuclei; feature
numerous RER
o Neuroendocrine Cells
At base of gastric glands
Secrete serotonin, etc.
o Stem Cells
At neck of gastric glands
Replace all other cell types as
needed
Muscularis Propria
o Inner oblique, middle circular, and
outer longitudinal layers
Mucosa
o Devoid of lymphoid cells
o With tall columnar mucus-secreting
cells that protect epithelium from
auto-digestion
Pylorus
Secrete two types of mucus and gastrin
Gastric Glands
o Coiled/ Convoluted branched tubular
o Lined almost exclusively by mucus-
secreting cells
o G cells that secrete gastrin are mainly
found in the neck of the glands
Gastro-duodenal Junction
Anatomical sphincter
Sharp transition from glandular mucosa to
villous mucosa
Pyloric sphincter is marked by a thickening of the
circular layer of the muscularis
ICOL is continuous from pylorus to duodenum
Duodenum
Main function is to neutralize gastric acid and
pepsin
Simple tall columnar epithelium with striated
cuticular border and goblet cells
Mucosa
o Villi: longest and foliate
o Characteristic villous form interspersed
with short glands known as Crypts of
Lieberkuhn that extend down to
muscularis mucosae
o Goblet cells least numerous among the
three
o Plicae circulares not prominent
Brunners Glands
o Unique feature of the duodenum
o Extensive mass of coiled branched
tubular glands in the submucosa
o Tall columnar cells with mucigen-filled
cytoplasm and basally located nuclei
o Pass through the muscularis mucosae
to open into the crypts between the
villi
By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 8
UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
o Secrete thin alkaline mucus, lysozyme,
and epidermal growth factor
Neuroendocrine Cells
o Secrete secretin and cholecystokinin
which promote pancreatic and bile
secretion
Jejunum
Mucosa
o Villi: intermediate length,
clevate/rounded
o Goblet cells fairly present
o Plicae Circulares most prominent here
Ileum
Mucosa
o Villi: shortest, conical
o Peyers Patches predominate
o Goblet cells most numerous among the
three
o Plicae Circulares fairly prominent in
proximal ileum but absent in distal
parts
Ileocecal Junction
o Abrupt transition from villiform lining
to glandular lining
o Ileocecal valve consists of a thickened
extension of muscularis propria
Intestinal Villi and Crypts
Simple columnar epithelium continuous with the
crypts; Cores of villi are the extensions of lamina
propria
Small lymphatic vessels drain into a single lacteal
at the center of the villus. These lacteals
transport absorbed lipid into the circulatory
system via the thoracic duct
Cell Types
Enterocytes
o Most numerous and main absorptive
cells; Tall columnar cells with surface
microvilli
o Main feature of cytoplasm is numerous
free ribosomes, scattered
mitochondria, and membranous
vesicles containing lipoprotein droplets
o Glycocalyx of microvilli prominent and
acts as site for adsorption of
pancreatic digestive enzymes
o Transcytosis is an important
mechanism for uptake of
macromolecules from gut lumen into
the blood
Involves endocytosis with
transfer to the ECF at base of
enterocyte
Goblet Cels
o Produce mucin for lubrication and
protection of epithelium
Paneth Cells
o At the base of crypts
o Have prominent, eosinophilic apical
granules
o Defensive function: part of innate
immune system; contain defensins,
lysozyme, and phospholipase A
Neuroendocrine Cell
o Regulate GI motility and secretion
Stem Cells
o At the base of crypts; Replenish cell
types
Intraepithelial Lymphocytes
o Mostly T cells for defense
Colon
Muscular layer still follows ICOL pattern but the
longitudinal layer forms bands of teniae coli
except in the rectum
Indistinct cuticular border
Glands
o Consist of absorptive cells and mucus-
secreting goblet cells
o Goblet cells predominate in the base
while columnar absorptive cells
predominate in the luminal surface
Appendix
o Presence of masses of lymphoid tissue
in the mucosa and submucosa,
especially present in the young
o Mucosal glands less closely packed
than in the large intestine
Recto-anal Junction
o Rectal mucosa is same as the rest of
the large bowel except that it has even
more numerous goblet cells
o At the junction, abrupt transition to
stratified squamous epithelium is
observed
o A transition from skin containing
sebaceous glands to large apocrine
sweat glands (peri-anal glands of Gay)
is also seen.
o Columns of Morgagni
Longitudinal folds found
immediately above the anal
valves
o Circumanal Glands
Branched tubular glands that
open at the recto-anal
junction into small pits at the
distal ends of the Columns of
Morgagni
By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 9
UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

ACCESSORY GLANDS OF THE GI SYSTEM Stellate cells of Ito: contains

Liver
Functions
Fat metabolism: oxidation of TAGs, synthesis of
plasma lipoproteins, cholesterol, and
phospholipids
Carbohydrate metabolism: regulation of blood
glucose concentrations
Protein metabolism: synthesis of plasma
proteins, non-essential amino acids,
detoxification of waste products
Storage: glycogen, vitamins, iron
Secretion: bile
Structure
Structural integrity maintained by meshwork of
extracellular matrix in the form of reticulin fibers
(collagen type III), which becomes continuous
with the liver capsule at the periphery
Glissons Capsule
o Capsule composed of collagenous
tissue
o Portal Canal: thickened part of the
Glissons capsule at the angles of the
hepatic lobule that contains the portal
triad
Hepatocytes
o Main functional cell
o Large polyhedral cells with round
nuclei (peripherally dispersed
chromatin and prominent nucleoli)
o >50% of hepatocytes contain twice the
normal complement of chromosomes
within a single nucleus
o Store significant amounts of glycogen
and lipid
o With numerous mitochondria and RER
o Arranged as thin plates separated by
fine vascular sinusoids
Hepatic Sinusoids
o Low-resistance system of vascular
channels that allows blood to come
into contact with hepatocytes
o Lined by flat endothelial lining cells
with flattened nuclei
o Endothelium is discontinuous and
fenestrated, has no basement
membrane, and is separated from the
hepatocytes by the space of Disse
o Cell Types:
Endothelial cells: flat nuclei
and thin fenestrated
cytoplasm
Kupffer cells: plump
phagocytic cells with plump
nuclei
lipid droplets containing
vitamin A; also produces
ECM and collagen; causes
fibrosis during cirrhosis
Hepatic Lobule
o Anatomical unit of the liver
o Hexagonal in shape and centered on a
terminal cenrilobular venule
o Portal tracts are positioned at the
angles of the hexagon
Hepatic Acinus
o Structural unit of the liver
o Berry-shaped and centered on the
portal tract
o Lies between two or more
centrilobular venules
o Divided into three zones:
Zone 1: highest perfusion,
near the portal triad
Zone 2: intermediate
Zone 3: least perfusion, near
the central vein; contain high
levels of esterases and low
levels of oxidative enzymes
Portal Tracts
Branched collagenous network through which
the hepatic artery, portal vein, and bile ducts
pass
Portal Vein
o Largest of the three components of the
portal tract
o Lined by thin endothelial cells
Hepatic Artery
o Thick-walled structures but smaller
than portal vein
Bile Duct
o Bile canaliculi contain ATPase and
alkaline phosphatase; better
demonstrated by silver impregnation
o Bile canaliculi are located within each
plate of hepatocytes drain into canals
of Hering which is lined by simple
cuboidal or columnar epithelium
o Canals of Hering then drain to bile
ductules which merge to form
trabecular ducts intrahepatic duct
right/left hepatic duct common
hepatic duct common bile duct
Limiting Plate
o Layer of hepatocytes immediately
bordering the portal tract
Centrilobular Venules
o Site where hepatic artery and portal
vein drains

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 10

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

Gallbladder
Muscular sac lined by simple columnar
epithelium (basal nuclei) with microvilli
Submucosa is loose and contains many elastin
fibers, blood vessels, and lymphatics, which
drain water reabsorbed from bile during the
concentration process
Muscular layer has oblique, longitudinal, and
transverse orientations but no distinct layers
Rokitansky-Aschoff Bodies
o Normal feature that may be mistaken
for malignant proliferating gland in the
gallbladder

Pancreas
Lobulated gland covered by a thin collagenous
capsule which extends as delicate septa between
the lobules

Exocrine pancreas
Consists of closely packed secretory acini
Acinar Cells
o Each acinus is made up of an irregular
cluster of pyramid-shaped secretory
cells
o Apices of the cells project towards the
central lumen of a minute duct
o With basal nuclei and basophilic
cytoplasm
Centroacinar Cells
o Terminal lining cells of intercalated
ducts
o Located at the centers of the acini
Intercalated Ducts
o Simple low cuboidal epithelium
o Smallest of the tributaries that drain
into intralobular ducts interlobular
ducts

Endocrine pancreas
Forms islets of langerhans most numerous in the
tail of the pancreas
Main secretory products are insulin and
glucagon
Islets of Langerhans
o Composed of up to 3000 secretory
cells supported by fine collagenous
network with fenestrated capillaries
each enclosed by a capsule
o Each islet is supplied by three
arterioles and drained by six venules
o Secretory cells
Alpha cells (25%): glucagon
Beta cells (60%): insulin
Delta cells: somatostatin

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 11

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM o Mammotrophs

Responsible for synthesis and secretion of 20% of cells; increase in
hormones: number during pregnancy
o Protein and glycoprotein molecules Secretes prolactin
o Small peptide molecules o Corticotrophs
o Amino acid derivatives 20% of cells
o Steroids Secretes ACTH split from a
General histological characteristics larger peptide known as pro-
o Composed of islands of secretory cells opiomelanocortin (also gives
of epithelial origin with intervening rise to lipotropins and
supporting tissue rich in vasculature endorphins)
o Cells have prominent nuclei and Sparse secretory granules at
abundant mitochondria, ER, golgi the extreme periphery
bodies, and secretory vesicles o Thyrotrophs
5% of cells
Secretes TSH
Pituitary Gland
Smaller and peripherally-
Bean-shaped gland at the base of the brain
located granules
beneath the third ventricle, seated at the sella
o Gonadotrophs
turcica
5% of cells
Secretion of hormones under the influence of Secrete FSH and LH
hypothalamus Variably-sized granules
Hormones Secreted Pars Intermedia
Hormones that act on non-endocrine tissue Thin zone of tissue lying against posterior
o Growth hormone pituitary
o Prolactin
Derived from Rathkes Pouch
o ADH
Composed of basophilic cells lying between the
o Oxytocin
anterior and posterior hypothalamus
o Melanocyte-stimulating Hormone
Contain secretory granules similar to
Trophic Hormones (modulate other endocrine
corticotrophs, and produces pro-
glands)
opiomelanocortin
o Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
o Adenocorticotrophic Hormone
Posterior Pituitary
o Gonadotrophic Hormone
Also called neurophysis or pars nervosa
o Follicle Stimulating Hormone
Composed of non-myelinated axons whose cell
o Luteinising Hormone
bodies are located in the hypothalamus
o Axons are supported by glial cells
Anterior Pituitary
called pituicytes
Also called adenohypophysis
Secretes stored ADH (supraoptic nucleus) and
Embryological origin: Rathkes pouch
oxytocin (paraventricular nucleus) from
Pars tuberalis
hypothalamus
o Extension of the adenohypophysis that
Neurosecretion
surrounds the neural stalk
o Posterior pituitary secretes hormones
Secretion of hormones controlled by
in response to impulses from the
hypothalamus by way of releasing hormones
hypothalamus
conducted from median hypothalamic eminence
o Neurosecretory granules are passed
to the pituitary portal system (except prolactin
down from hypothalamus and
secretion which is controlled by dopamine)
accumulate in the Herring bodies,
Cell Types
which are disended terminations of
o Somatotrophs
the axons
Most numerous
Secretes growth hormone
With secretory granules of
moderate size

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 12

UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016
Thyroid Gland
Butter-fly shaped gland that lies in the neck
Hormones Secreted
Tri-iodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)
o Iodine-containing hormones
o T3 is the metabolically active form
o Regulates the BMR and influence
growth and maturation
o Secretion dependent on TSH from
anterior pituitary
Calcitonin
o Regulates blood calcium levels in
conjunction with PTH (lowers blood
calcium levels)
o Secretion dependent only on calcium
levels
Thyroid Follicle
Functional unit of the gland
Spheroidal structures composed of a single layer
of cuboidal epithelial cells bounded by basement
membrane
Store thyroglobulin, which is the storage form of
T3 and T4
Lining epithelial cells
o Synthesize glycoprotein component of
thyroglobulin
o Convert iodide to iodine
o Inactive: simple flat or cuboidal
o Active: tall and columnar
Thyroid C Cell
Also called parafollicular cell
Found in thyroid as individual scattered cells in
the follicle lining or as small clumps in the
interstices between follicles
Secrete calcitonin
Parathyroid Gland
Small oval endocrine glands closely associated
with the thyroid gland; most important regulator
of calcium
Regulate serum calcium and phosphate levels
by:
o Increase osteoclastic resorption
o Increase renal tubular reabsorption of
calcium and inhibiting reabsorption of
phosphate ions from filtrate
o Promote absorption of calcium from
the intestines
Secretion is stimulated by decreased blood
calcium levels
Structure
Thin fibrous capsule gives rise to septa that
divide parenchyma into nodules and that carry
vessels and nerves
Glandular Cells
o Arranged as clusters, ribbons, or glands
o Chief/ Principal Cells
Small with round central
nuclei and eosinophilic
cytoplasm
Synthesize and secrete PTH
o Oxyphil Cells
Occur in nodules
With eosinophilic cytoplasm
packed with mitochondria
Do not secrete PTH and
increase in number with age
Adrenal Gland
Small flattened endocrine glands closely applied
to the upper pole of each kidney
Has a dense fibrous capsule that provides
support for the delicate collagenous framework
supporting the secretory cells
A prominent vein is characteristically at the
center of the gland
Supplied by the superior, middle, and inferior
suprarenal arteries
o Cortex is supplied by short cortical
arteries
o Medulla is supplied by long cortical
arteries
o All drain into the central vein
Adrenal Cortex
Secretes steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids,
glucocorticoids, and sex hormones
Secretion controlled by ACTH (glucocorticoids)
and the RAAS (mineralocorticoids)
Characteristics of Steroid Secreting Cells
o Associated with fenestrated capillaries
o Rounded cell nucleus with one or more
nucleoli
o Cytoplasm contains many large lipid
droplets containing cholesterol esters
o Numerous mitochondria and SER
Zona Glomerulosa
o Outermost zone
o Secretory cells arranged in irregular
ovoid clusters separated by fibrous
trabeculae
o Cells have round nuclei and less
cytoplasm (plenty SER and
mitochondria, scanty lipid droplets)
than cells in the next zone
By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 13
UST FACULTY OF MEDICINE AND SURGERY
Class of 2016

o Secretes mineralocorticoids (mainly Diffuse Endocrine System

aldosterone) Scattered system of neuroendocrine cells
Zona Fasciculata particularly important in the respiratory and GI
o Broadest of the three zones tracts
o Secretory cells arranged in parallel
cords disposed at right angles Gastrointestinal Neuroendocrine Cells
separated by strands of collagen Scattered in the mucosa of GI tract and in
o Secretes glucocorticoids (mainly pancreatic and biliary ducts
cortisol) and small amounts of Secrete hormones that regulate and coordinate
androgens GI activity in concert with the ANS (eg. CCK, VIP,
Zona Reticularis NO)
o Thin and innermost layer May be endocrine, paracrine, or neurocrine
o Secretory cells are closely packed and
irregularly arranged in cords separated Respiratory Neuroendocrine Cells
by wide-diameter capillaries Involved in local and autonomically mediated
o Cells are smaller with less cytoplasm regulation of respiratory function
than cells in the previous zone Scattered individually in the epithelium or in
o Secretes small amounts of androgens clumps protruding into the airway
and glucocortocoids
Secrete hormones such as serotonin, bombesin,
and leu-enkephalin
Adrenal Medulla
Secretes catecholamines: adrenaline and
noradrenaline
Secretion directly controlled by sympathetic NS
Chormaffin Cells
o Secretory cells of the adrenal medulla
o Composed of cells occurring in clusters
with granular basophilic cytoplasm
o Those secreting noradrenaline exhibit
a more positive chromaffin reaction
and a wider clear halo around the
dense core granules in the cytoplasm
than those secreting adrenaline

Pineal Gland
Small spherical gland that lies in the midline of
the brain
Synthesizes melatonin that induces rhythmical
changes in the endocrine activity of the
hypothalamus, pituitary, ovaries, and testes in
response to light changes received by the retina
Secretory Cells
o Pinealocytes (Pineal Chief Cells)
Highly modified neurons
Round nuclei with granular
cytoplasm
Granules contain melatonin
and serotonin
o Neuroglial Cells
Similar to astrocytes
Pineal Sand
o Basophilic extracellular bodies
consisting of concentric layers of
calcium and magnesium phosphate in
an organic matrix
o Characteristic of aging pineal gland

By: Sachi Estreller |Section B 14