Aluminium Voor Constructeurs

2.
Aluminium
m
After iron, aluminium is now the second most widely used metal in the world. This is because
aluminium has a unique combination of attractive properties.
Low weight, high strength, superior malleability, easy machining, excellent corrosion
resistance and good thermal and electrical conductivity are amongst aluminium¶s most
important properties.
Aluminium is also very easy to recycle.

With a density of 2.7 g/cm3, aluminium is approximately one third as dense as steel.

Aluminium alloys commonly have tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa. The range
for alloys used in extrusion is 150 ± 300 MPa.
Unlike most steel grades, aluminium does not become brittle at low temperatures. Instead, its
strength increases.
At high temperatures, aluminium¶s strength decreases. At temperatures continuously above
100°C, strength is affected to the extent that the weakening must be taken into account.

Compared with other metals, aluminium has a relatively large coeffi cient of linear expansion.
This has to be taken into account in some designs.

Aluminium¶s superior malleability is essential for extrusion. With the metal either hot or cold,
this property is also exploited in the rolling of strips and foils, as well as in bending and other
forming operations.

Aluminium is easily worked using most machining methods ± milling, drilling, cutting,
punching, bending, etc. Furthermore, the energy input during machining is low.

Features facilitating easy jointing are often incorporated into profi le design. Fusion welding,
Friction Stir Welding, bonding and taping are also used for jointing.
Aluminium combines low density and high strength. These properties are here bei ng used in the decking of a bridge.
These heat sinks exploit aluminium¶s high thermal conductivity.

Aluminium has superior malleability.
K
Aluminium is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. An aluminium conductor weighs

approximately half as much as a copper conductor having the same conductivity.

Aluminium is a good reflector of both visible light and radiated heat.

K
Tight aluminium boxes can effectively exclude or screen off electromagnetic radiation. The
better the conductivity of a material, the better the shielding qualities.
K
Aluminium reacts with the oxygen in the air to form an extremely thin layer of oxide. Though
it is only some hundredths of a (my)m thick (1 (my)m is one thousandth of a millimetre), this
layer is dense and provides excellent corrosion protection. The layer is self-repairing if
damaged.
Anodising increases the thickness of the oxide layer and thus improves the strength of the
natural corrosion protection. Where aluminium is used outdoors, thicknesses of between 15
and 25 ¥ìm (depending on wear and risk of corrosion) are common.
Aluminium is extremely durable in neutral and slightly acid environments.

In environments characterised by high acidity or high basicity, corrosion is rapid.
Further details are given in chapter 16, "Corrosion".

Aluminium is a non-magnetic (actually paramagnetic) material. To avoid interference of

magnetic fields aluminium is often used in magnet X-ray devices.

After oxygen and silicon, aluminium is the most common element in the Earth¡¯s crust.
Aluminium compounds also occur naturally in our food. For further details,
see chapter 4, "Environmental impact".
! "#
Al Fe Cu Zn Nylon® Delrin®
(Polyamide 6-6) (Polyacetal)
Density, g/cm3 2.7 7.9 8.9 7.1 1.1 1.4
Melting point, °C 658 1540 1083 419 255 175
Thermal capacity, J/kg, °C 900 450 390 390 1680 1470
Thermal conductivity, W/m,°C 230 75 390 110 0.23 0.23
Coeff. of linear expansion, x 10 -6 /°C 24 12 16 26 70-100 80-90
2)
El. conductivity, % I.A.C.S. 60 16 100 30 - -
El. resistance, x 10 -9 ȍm 29 105 17 58 - -
Modulus of elasticity, GPa 70 220 120 93 3 3
Aluminium is easy to work using most machining methods.
Aluminium has excellent resistance in neutral and slightly acid environments.

Weight and strength ± aluminium is approximately one third as dense as steel. Aluminium
alloys have tensile strengths of between 70 and 700 MPa.

3. From bauxite to
metal
There is plenty of raw material for the production of aluminium. In a variety of forms,
aluminium compounds make up a full 8% of the Earth's crust.
$
Bauxite is the main starting point in the production of aluminium. It has been estimated that,
given the present rate of aluminium production, there is enough bauxite to last another 200 to
400 years. This assumes no increase in the use of recycled aluminium and no further
discoveries of bauxite.
Bauxite forms when certain aluminium bearing rocks decompose. Its main constituents are
aluminium oxides, iron and silicon.
The largest and most lucrative bauxite deposits are located around the Equator. Major
producers include Australia, Brazil, Jamaica and Surinam.
% &%' () #
Normally in close proximity to the mine, bauxite is refi ned into alumina.
The next stage, production of aluminium by molten electrolysis of the alumina, is
concentrated in countries with good supplies of electricity.
The production of 1 kg of aluminium requires around 2 kg of alumina.
The production of 2 kg of alumina requires about 4 kg of bauxite.
*
Due to aluminium's chemistry, relatively large amounts of energy (primarily electricity) are
required to reduce alumina to aluminium. Around 47 MJ (approx. 13 kWh) goes into the
molten electrolysis of 1 kg of the metal. However, this investment gives excellent dividends.
The energy expended in aluminium production is often recouped several times over. By
reducing the weight of vehicles, the use of aluminium reduces fuel consumption (see also
chapter 4). Similarly, energy losses in aluminium power lines are comparatively small.

Scrap aluminium is a valuable resource that is set to become even more important. In
principle, all scrapped aluminium can be recycled into a new generation of products.
With appropriate sorting, scrap aluminium can advantageously be recycled to produce the
same sorts of products over and over again. Furthermore, recycling requires only 5% of the
original energy input.
In today's environmental-conscious society, the recycling of used aluminium products is

becoming ever more important and ever more common.
*
+ Aluminium is th eperfect "eco-metal". Very little aluminium is lost in the
remelting process. Increased recovery, dismantling and sorting of spent products has led to
even greater recycling of aluminium.

4.
All industrial activity consumes natural resources and has an impact on the environment. The
aluminium industry is no exception to this. However, using aluminium in preference to other
products often has a positive impact.
Thus, to gain a true assessment of an aluminium product from the environmental point of
view, a life cycle analysis is essential. Several examples are given later
in this chapter.
%
%
- repeatable recycling with maintained quality and high yield. Aluminium collected for
recycling enters an almost never-ending ³eco-circle´. This is because very little metal is lost
in remelting. On average, losses through oxidation during remelting amount to a few per cent
only. Furthermore, the quality of the remelted material is so high that it can be used for the
same product over and over again.
Hence our use of the term ³absolute recycling´ ± repeatability with maintained quality and
high yield.

As mentioned in chapter 3, producing aluminium from bauxite requires comparatively large

amounts of energy. The manufacture of aluminium profi les, on the other hand, requires
relatively little energy.
At the web site of EAA (the European Aluminium Association) you can obtain further
information on profi le manufacturing and a number of other subjects connected with the use
of aluminium and profi les. The address: www.aluminium.org
The remelting works in Sjunnen, Sweden

Ò" *
of extrusion, surface treatment
and machining
Cutting to length is the main source of noise in factories producing aluminium profiles. This
noise has been reduced by screening.
Changing the lubricants used on billet end faces has not only improved the quality of air in
workshops, but also given cleaner profi les that require less post-extrusion cleaning.
A further measure to reduce potentially negative environmental impact is the increased use of
gas nitriding for the hardening of dies. Dies are now stored with residue aluminium on them,
thus minimising the need for cleaning. Similarly, the mineral oil based cooling and cutting fl
uids previously used in the machining of semi-fi nished goods have been replaced by water-
based products. This has reduced the need to use organic degreasing agents.
Sapa no longer uses trichloroethylene for degreasing. The alkaline water solutions used today
produce a semi-stable emulsion containing droplets of grease and oil. Drawing off this
emulsion extends the life of the degreasing bath and gives a product that can be recycled as,
for example, a lubricant for machining operations.
The etching process in anodising has been improved by the use of ³neverdump´ baths. These
consume minimum quantities of chemicals and produce less waste. Used etching baths are
neutralised. This precipitates the aluminium content as a hydroxide, which is then refi ned
into chloride. To an increasing extent, the chloride is being used as a fl ocking agent in water
treatment plants.
Copper and cobalt salts were previously used for dyeing profiles during anodising. Again to
lessen any potentially negative impact on the environment, these have been replaced by tin
salts.
Die cleaning - a closed process producing no waste water.

4.2 !
4.2.1 K
More and more car manufacturers are using aluminium in preference to steel. It is perfectly
possible to replace 182 kg of steel components with 82 kg of aluminium ± 100 kg less strain
on the engine.
If no recycled metals are used, aluminium components require 2,740 MJ more energy to
produce than the steel parts they replace. However, with a typical lifetime
of use, the lighter car will require 640 litres less fuel. This is the equivalent of 23,000 MJ.
Furthermore, when the content of recycled metal reaches 90%, an aluminium component
actually consumes less production energy than its steel counterpart.

Assuming no recycled steel or aluminium is used:

± During the car¶s lifetime, the extra energy used in producing aluminium is recouped a good
eight times over.
± Production of the aluminium components emits 100 kg more CO than is the case for steel.
This higher impact on the environment is made good many
times over during the car¶s lifetime ± the reduced petrol consumption reduces CO emissions
by 1,500 kg.
*
The production of a steel bonnet presents a 60% greater load on the environmetn than
the production of an aluminium bonnet. Total life
cycle analyses underline the energy and environmental
benefits resulting from the use of aluminium. Car
manufacturers make extensive use of such analyses.
In this sector of industry, the Swedish EPS method1)
is the most widely used analytical tool. An example is
given below.
A steel car bonnet is replaced by an aluminium one.

This reduces the weight from 18 to 10 kg. Applying the EPS method, the total load on the
environment presented by the steel bonnet is around 60% greater than the load presented by
the aluminium bonnet.
1) EPS = Environmental Priority Strategies in product design is a practical method for

calculating ³environmental load´. The method takes into account what happens throughout
the manufacture, use and eventual disposal of a product. Calculations are based on the
following formula:
, - . & .#
An environmental load index is a numerical value corresponding to the load on the
environment considered to be presented by a defi ned quantity/amount of a substance, product
or activity.

One of the modern technologies used in the manufacture of car bodies is the Space Frame, a
skeleton of aluminium profi les. Covering the frame with aluminium
sheets gives weight reductions of up to 200 kg per car. This is double the saving cited on the
previous page.
As in other applications, replacing steel with aluminium reduces weight. Here, this leads to
reductions in petrol consumption and emissions. Other plus points
are improved crash-safety, reduced risk of corrosion and decreased environmental load.

Ò'' .
/

Nearly all modern underground railways use carriages with bodies constructed of
longitudinally welded aluminium profiles.
In Japan, analyses of real energy consumption have been carried out on the Chiyoda line. The
analyses compared the line¶s steel-carriaged trains with those having aluminium-bodied
carriages. In the latter, 9,450 kg of steel is replaced by 4,000 kg of aluminium.
Energy consumption in the

production process 1) Aluminium 4,000 x 37.2 2) = 148,800 kWh 3)
Steel 9,450 x 9.5 2) = 89,775 kWh
0 1234'1 5
Energy consumption during

two years of operation Steel carriages 561,200 kWh
Aluminiumcarriages 489,900 kWh
0 6"3)44 5
1) 2)
No recycled Consumption as estimated by Sapa Technology.
3)
metal used 1 kWh = 3.6 MJ.

/
Assuming no use of recycled aluminium or steel, the Chiyoda example shows that, in less
than two years, aluminium carriages represent an "energy saving". Similar rela-life analyses
in Atlanta (USA) and Germany have given figures of 3 and 1.6 years respectively as the times
in which the extra energy used in production is recouped.
When the use of recycled metals is taken into consideration, aluminium carriages are clearly
more "energy-efficient" even than the recycling of steel.

Ò') /
In Austria, there has been a study in 1991 of the environmental aspects of the use of various
materials (aluminium, PVC coated steel, wood and aluminium
clad wood) in window frames. The results obtained using the EPS method are summarised
below.
± Calculated over the entire life cycle of the product, aluminium clad wooden frames present
the lowest load on the environment.
± In the production phase, wooden frames present unquestionably the lowest environmental
load. However, this is more than nullifi ed by the need for regular maintenance/replacement.
± Aluminium frames are far superior to plastic coated steel frames.
± Frames of plastic coated steel present the largest load on the environment.
± The possibility of recycling aluminium with very little energy consumption is a significant
factor in aluminium¶s good performance.
K
The use of aluminium in products such as window frames has clearly demonstrable benefits
for the environment.

4.3
All normal forming and cutting of aluminium has no consequences for human health.
However, if worksite ventilation is inadequate, lengthy periods of gas welding can have an
effect on the respiratory organs. Before undertaking gas welding, current recommendations
and regulations should be studied. Local health and safety bodies are usually able to provide
help here.
Friction Stir Welding (see pages 68 ± 73 of this manual) does not use filler metals or shielding
gases. This avoids the problem outlined above.
%
Aluminium
in the diet:
267
,
3% from food
preparation. All life on Earth is adapted to its presence ± aluminium has always been a natural
part of the environment. The soil contains, on average, 7% aluminium (by weight).
The use of aluminium products, whether untreated or anodised, presents no health hazards. As
an illustration of this, aluminium has been used for decades in kitchen pots and pans. At one
time, aluminium was cited as a possible cause of Alzheimer¶s disease. However, the leading
medical scientists of today consider that there is no such link.
It is also worth mentioning that our normal diet includes aluminium. Food and food additives
account for roughly 97% of our daily intake of approximately 12 mg. The remaining 3%
comes from aluminium products such as kitchen foil and cooking vessels.

5. Aluminium profiles
-
The purpose of this manual is to give its readers an insight into optimum design using
aluminium profi les. Further details and concrete advice are readily available from Sapa.

Whatever the field of operation, it seems that aluminium profiles have something to offer.
The transport industry makes extensive use of aluminium profi les in lorries, buses, cars,
trains, ships, etc. With increasing demand for lighter vehicles that consume less fuel and place
less strain on the environment, the use of profiles is constantly rising. The benefits are clear.
Other sectors of industry have also seen the advantages. Profi les are being used in all types of
design solutions. Examples include machine parts, a wide range of products for everyday
home and offi ce use and equipment used in free time activities. In the electronics industry,
aluminium profi les are used in heat sinks, casings, front plates and so on. The building
industry uses aluminium profi les in, amongst other things, doors, windows, fascias and glass
roofs. The list of sectors and applications is long.
In all sectors, the demand for recyclability is growing

ever stronger. No structural material can be more profi
tably recycled than aluminium. This factor is sure to
acquire increasing significance.
Aluminium profiles will become more common in all

industries. In some respects, the use of aluminium and
extrusion has really only just begun.
*

Profile use

in
line with the
demand for
reduced energy
consumption
and minimum
stress on the
environment. More and more constructors and designers are realising the advantages of
extrusion ± the freedom it gives them to create precisely the shape that solves the problem,
low tooling costs, easy machining, purpose-tailored surface treatment, etc. Furthermore,
extrusion technology continues to develop and new production methods such as Friction Stir
Welding and hydroforming are adding still further to the possibilities opened up by
aluminium profiles.
On top of all this, aluminium has a host of unique structural properties.
Simply put, aluminium profiles facilitate the creation of effi cient designs at competitive
prices ± exactly the right conditions for new products on new markets.
8
3

The electrolysis of alumina to produce aluminium was first achieved in 1886.

This was the major breakthrough that eventually led to the commercial production of
aluminium products.
By the turn of the century, world production of primary aluminium had reached around 5,700
tons. In 2001, highlighting the importance of aluminium
in modern industrial production, the fi gure was approximately 24.5 million tons. To give
some idea of scale, 24.5 million tons is the combined weight of something
over 18 million Volvo S40s.
In Sweden, the fi rst attempts to extrude aluminium were made in the middle of the 1920¶s.
Still in Sweden, it was in 1937 that Metallverken, a company in Finspång, started regular
production of profi les. At the same time, Saab began production of aeroplanes in Linköping.
Over the next few years, and reaching a peak at the end of the Second World War, Saab made
extensive use of aluminium.
Since the late 1940¶s, the consumption of aluminium and aluminium profiles has risen
steadily as shown in the graph below.

6. Extrusion
Extrusion starts with aluminium alloy logs. These are cut into billets, which then go into an
induction furnace for heating to the right extrusion temperature of 450 ± 500°C. Next,
applying considerable pressure, each heated billet is forced through a die, the profile emerging
rather like toothpaste from a tube.
The profile emerges at a speed of 5 ± 50 metres per minute and length is normally between 25
and 45 metres. Cooling in air or water commences immediately the profi le leaves the die.
After cooling, the profile is stretched. This is both to relieve any stress and to give the profile
the desired straightness. At the same time, all functionally important dimensions and surface
quality are checked. The profi le is then cut to a suitable length or to the exact length
requested by the customer.
The final strength of the material is controlled through natural or artificial ageing.
0
Dies are made of tool steel (normally SIS 2242). The die aperture, which corresponds to the
desired cross section of the profi le, is produced by spark erosion. Sapa both makes its own
dies and buys in from independent manufacturers.
Billets are heated to the right temperature in an induction furnace.
*/
There are two main classes of profile ± solid and hollow:

are produced using a flat, disc-shaped die.
/ are produced using a two-part die.
In hollow dies, the mandrel (the part that shapes the cavity in the profi le), is supported on a
bridge. During extrusion, the metal separates around the bridge.
The other part of the die shapes the outer contour of the profile.
Large and medium-sized profi les are pressed through a die with only one aperture. Smaller
profi les can be advantageously pressed through multi-apertured dies ± there may be as many
as 16 apertures.
Die lifetime depends on the shape and desired surface quality of the profile.
The cost of replacement dies is covered in the price of the profile.
Dies for solid profiles .

A hollow die.
Stretching relieves profiles of any stress

A profile emerging onto the cooling table. or twisting.

7. Choosing the

* 9444
is by
far the most
widely used
in extrusion. Pure aluminium is relatively soft. To overcome this, the metal can be alloyed
and/or cold worked. Most of the aluminium reaching the marketplace has been alloyed with at
least one other element.
Sapa uses a long-established international system for identifying aluminium alloys (see the
table below). The first digit in the four-digit alloy code identifies the major alloying element.
The European standard uses the same codes.
The table below gives the broad outline of the systems.
%
% %
None (pure aluminium) 1000 series Not hardenable
Copper 2000 series Hardenable
Manganese 3000 series Not hardenable
Silicon 4000 series Not hardenable
Magnesium 5000 series Not hardenable
Magnesium + silicon 6000 series Hardenable
Zinc 7000 series Hardenable
Other 8000 series
As cold working is the only way to increase the strength of the alloys that cannot be hardened,
most of these go for rolling. In extrusion, on the other hand, hardenable alloys are the most
commonly used.
The 6000 series, which has silicon and magnesium as the alloying elements, is by far the most
widely used in extrusion.
In Sapa¡¯s 7021 alloy, zinc and magnesium are responsible for the hardening effect.
Some alloys use manganese, zirconium or chrome to increase toughness.

Iron, which is found in all commercial aluminium, can have a negative effect on toughness
and fi nish (amongst other things) if present in high quantities.

Apart from 1050A, all Sapa alloys are hardenable. Their final strength is thus determined by
solution heat treatment and ageing (precipitation hardening).
Solution heat treatment is normally carried out during extrusion by carefully controlling the
temperature of the emerging profile. Precipitation hardening, which takes a few hours, occurs
afterwards in special furnaces. In some circumstances, it may be necessary for the customer to
carry out heat treatment. Sapa¡¯s recommendations in these cases are given in the table on
page 25. Natural ageing is the spontaneous hardening of solution treated aluminium at room
temperature (refer to the table on page 25).
K

In cases
of doubt,

for
advice. Amongst the factors affecting the choice of the right alloy for an extruded product are:
¨C Strength, finish, suitability for decorative anodising, corrosion resistance, suitability for
machining and forming, weldability and production costs.
The at-a-glance table on the next page should only be used as a rough guide. In cases of
doubt, contact Sapa for advice and guidance. For example, optimum
cost-effi ciency may sometimes be gained by choosing a comparatively lower strength alloy
with higher extrudability.
Logs being prepared for extrusion.
%

Relative grading: 3 = top mark
! K

$

Sap Sap Sap Sap Sap
Sapa Sapa Sapa
a a a a Sapa a Sapa
6063 6005 1050
606 606 600 608 7021 610 6463
A A A
0 3 5 2 1
Tensile
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 0 1 1
Strenght
Impact
3 3 3 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
strenght
Surface
3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 3 3
finish
Suitable for
decorative 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 2 3 3
anodising
Corrosion
3 3 3 2 2 2 1 3 3 3
resistance
Machinabilit
y:
cutting 1 2 2 2 2 2 3 0 2 2
forming 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3
Weldability 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Price 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 3 3 3

Refer to 15.3, "Anodising".

Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa Sapa
6060 6063 6063A 6005 6005A 6082 7021 1050A 6101 6463

+ 380- 380- 380- 380- 380- 380- 400- 380- 380- (380-
Rapid full 420 420 420 420 420 420 420 450 420 420)
through heating, a) b) c)
followed by
approx. 30 min.
at stated
temper-ature.
Cooling should
be slow and,
down to
250¡ãC,
preferably in a
furnace. After
that, free
cooling.
510 510 530 530 530 535 460 - 530 (510
+ ¡À10 ¡À10 ¡À10 ¡À10 ¡À10 ¡À10 ¡À10 - ¡À10 ¡À10)
Rapid full
through heating,
follo-wed by
15-30 min.
(depending on
wall thinckness) d) e) c)
at stated
temperature.
Forced air-
cooling (fan) if
wall
thickness under
6 mm. Water
cooling where
over 6 mm.
Cooling speed,
1-2¡ãC per sec.
2 2 2 2 2 2 30 - 2 2

+ Occurs
spontaneously
at room
temperature.
Temper T4
achieved in
stated number
of days.
% 175 175 175 175 175 175 f) g) - 175 175

+ Heat to ¡À5 ¡À5 ¡À5 ¡À5 ¡À5 ¡À5 ¡À5 ¡À5
the stated age
hardening
temperature
(¡ãC). Hold
there for
approx. 8 hours.
After that, free
cooling
a) Cool to 220-230 ¡ãC in a furnace. Hold at this temperature for 4-6 hours. After that, free
cooling.
b) Coarse grain structure may form (a coarse-grained structure decreases strenght and gives
a poorer finish after anodising).
c) Sapa 6463 should not be soft annealed and subjected to solution heat treatment. This
lessens the material's suitability for bright anodising.
d) To be cooled quickly (usually in water). When cooling, the material must be moved
quickly from furnace to water (approx. 10 sec.).
e) The cooling rate in the critical range, 400-200¡ãC, should be at least 1¡ãC per sec. It must
not exceed 5¡ãC per sec. Rates above this may cause stress corrosion.
f) Artificial ageing can be 100¡ãC (¡À5¡ãC) for 4 hours + 150¡ãC (¡À5¡ãC) for 8 hours.
g) For maximum strenght, a break of at least 72 hours between solution heat treatment and
artificial ageing is required.
Heat treatment alters alloy properties. The picture above shows temperature control
during solution heat treatment.
K K %

alloy data as per EN-755-2
%

9494 949) 949)% 9441 9441%

European
standards: EN-AW- EN-AW-6063 EN-AW- EN-AW-6005 EN-AW-
numerical 6060 AlMg0.7Si 6063A AlSiMg 6005A
notation AlMgSi AlMg0.7Si(A AlSiMg(A)
chemical )
notation 1)
USA:
Aluminium AA 6060 AA 6063 AA 6063A AA 6005 AA 6005A
Association
SS-EN-
Swedish SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW-
AW-
standards: 6063 6063A 6005 6005A
6060
%
* *Ò'# *9 *Ò'# *9 *99 *Ò'# *9 *9 *9 *9 *9
:'1
Solid Hollo Solid Hollo
profil w profil w
e profile e profile
*

)#
t = wall
thickness,
mm
Yield t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü 5 t ¡Ü 5 t ¡Ü 5 t ¡Ü 5
strenght 25 3 25 10 10 25 10 225 215 225 215
Rp0.2 , 60 150 65 170 200 90 190
MPa, min.
3< 10 < 10 < 10 < 5 < t 5<t 5<t 5<t
t t t t ¡Ü 10 ¡Ü 15 ¡Ü 10 ¡Ü 15
¡Ü ¡Ü ¡Ü ¡Ü 215 200 215 200
25 25 25 25
10 < t 10 < t
140 160 180 180
¡Ü 25 ¡Ü 25
200 200
Ultimate t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü 5 t ¡Ü 5 t ¡Ü 5 t ¡Ü 5
tensile 3 25 10 10 25 10 270 255 270 255
strenght Rm 190 130 215 245 150 230
,
t ¡Ü 3< 10 < 10 < 10 < 5 < t 5<t 5<t 5<t
MPa, min.
25 t t t t ¡Ü 10 ¡Ü 15 ¡Ü 10 ¡Ü 15
120 ¡Ü ¡Ü ¡Ü ¡Ü 260 250 260 250
25 25 25 25
10 < t 10 < t
170 195 225 220
¡Ü 25 ¡Ü 25
250 250
Elongation t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü t ¡Ü
A, % min. 25 25 25 25 25 25 10 25 15 25 15
16 8 14 8 8 12 7 8 8 8 8
10 <
t
¡Ü
25
5

(for
guidence)
Webster B, 5 10 5 12 13 7 13 14 14 14 14
approx.
Vickers, 40 60 45 70 80 50 80 85 85 85 85
approx.
*

at 20¡ã, 190 190 190 190 190 190 190 170 170 170 170
W/m,¡ãC
03 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
kg/dm3
Alloys suitable for
All All applications Certain Where high High-strenght

application - load-bearing strengt is building and
s furniture,decorativ structures, essential, structural
requring e e.g. sailing- e.g. balconies, components,
the trims, etc. This boat masts, doorways, e.g. profiles
highest alloy ladders, etc. ladders, for lorry beds
quality has good sailing- and trains.
finish and properties boat masts. Can be
where in most areas. anodised.
strenght
is no the
crucial
factor,
e.g. picture
frames,
exclusive
furniture.
* +
: As *Ò Hardened and naturally aged
extruded
( Anneale *9 Hardened and artificially aged
d
*99 Hardened and artificially aged
1 The designations must start with EN-AW, e.g. EN-AW-AlMgSi.
)
2 Stated tensile strenght is attained with a minimum of 72 hours natural ageing after
) extrusion.
3 Stated tensile strenght applies to sections with a wall thickness of up to 25 mm.
) For further information, contact Sapa.
4 Sapa 1050A is a non-hardenable alloy - its mechanical properties cannot be improved by
) heat treatment.
%
Alloy data as per EN-755-2
%

Sapa 7021 Sapa 1050A Sapa 6101 Sapa 6463 Sapa 6082

European
standards: EN-AW-7021 EN-AW- EN-AW- EN-AW- EN-AW-6082
numerical AlZn5.5Mg1. 1050A 6101 6463 AlSi1MgMn
notation 5 Al99.5(A) AlMgSi AlMg0.7Si(B
chemical )
notation 1)
USA: AA 1050A AA 6101 AA 6463 AA 6082
Aluminium
Association
SS-EN-AW- SS-EN- SS-EN- SS-EN-AW- SS-EN-AW-
Swedish
7021 AW- AW- 6463 6082
standards:
1050A 6101
%
* *9 :Ò# *9 *Ò *9 *Ò' *9 *9
#
Solid Hollo
profil w
e profile
*

)#
t = wall
thickness,
mm
t 50 t 50 t 50 t t5 t5
Yield 310 20 170 75 160 25 250 250
strenght 110
Rp0.2 , t<5 t<5
MPa, min. 25 25
260 260
Ultimate t 50 t 50 t 50 t t5 t5

tensile 350 60 200 125 195 25 290 290
strenght Rm 205
5<t 5<t
, 25 15
MPa, min. 310 310
Elongation t 50 t 50 t 50 t t5 t5
A, % min. 10 25 8 14 10 25 8 8
14
5<t 5<t
25 15
10 10

(for
guidence)
Webster B, 16 10 7 10 11 15 15
approx.
Vickers, 110 60 50 60 65 95 95
approx.
*

at 20°, 145 235 190 190 190 170 170 170
W/m,°C
03 2.8 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7 2.7
kg/dm3
All alloys: When Good Good Specifically High-strenght
Coefficient choosing conductivit conductivit intended for building
of linear this high- y y chemical and structural
expansion: strenght alloy, (approx. (approx. bright components,
23 x 10-6 Sapa should 60% 55-60% anodising, e.g. trailer profiles
/°C be I.A.C.S. at I.A.C.S. at e.g. for lorries and floor
Modulus of contacted for 20°C) and 20°C) decorative profiles.
elasticity: further low and good trims, unsuitable for
70,000MPa details. mechanical mechanical reflectors, decorative
Modulus of Applications strenght. strenght. etc. anodising.
rigidity: include car Application Application
27,000MPa bumpers and s s
Poisson's motorway - conductor - Tubes for
ratio: 0.33 safety rails, etc. transformer
barriers. stations,
etc.
* +
: As *Ò Hardened and naturally aged
extruded
( Anneale *9 Hardened and artificially aged
d
*99 Hardened and artificially aged
1 The designations must start with EN-AW, e.g. EN-AW-AlMgSi.
)
2 Stated tensile strenght is attained with a minimum of 72 hours natural ageing after
) extrusion.
3 Stated tensile strenght applies to sections with a wall thickness of up to 25 mm. For further
) information, contact Sapa.
4 Sapa 1050A is a non-hardenable alloy - its mechanical properties cannot be improved by
) heat treatment.

8.
with tight tolerances
* /
/
The entire cross section of the desired profile must fit within the bold line .

Sapa can extrude profiles weighing from as little as 4" 5
; to as much as '4 5
; .
<
We continously develop techniques and processes and invest in new production equipment.
It is therefore important to contact Sapa before finally deciding measurements and exact shape
of your profile.

9. design advice
5
When deciding how thick the walls of a profi le should be, strength and optimum cost-
efficiency are two of the main considerations.
Profiles with a uniform wall thickness are the simplest to produce. However, where necessary,
wall thickness within a profile can easily be varied. For example, a profi le¶s bending strength
can be increased by concentrating weight/thickness away from the centre of gravity.
K
To optimise cost-efficiency, a profile's design should always be as production-friendly as

possible. To achieve this, the profile should:
± have a uniform wall thickness
± have simple, soft lines and radiused corners
± be symmetrical
± have a small circumscribing circle
± not have deep, narrow channels.
/ 5

Amongst the factors having an effect on wall thickness are extrusion force and speed, the
choice of alloy, the shape of the profi le, desired surface finish and tolerance specifications.
Circumscribing circle, mm
9.1 . wall thickness

It is often acceptable However, a profile Here, the profile's It is advantage if
to have a large range with uniform wall internal and external internal and external
of wall thicknesses thickness is walls have different walls are of the same
within a single . dimensions. thickness. This
profile. decreases
and improves
.
2""
It is of course perfectly acceptable for a

profile to have walls of defferent thicknesses.
For example, for strength reasons, it may be
best to concentrate weight/thickness away
from the centre of gravity.
9.2 lines
Extrusion cannot K A design may This is easily solved
achieve razor-sharp A radius of sometimes demand by incorporating a
corners. 0.5-1 mm is often sharp internal angles, /
.
sufficient. e.g. a profile to
enclose a box shape.
AS far as possible, Tips should, Following extrusion, Always use
sharp tips should be therefore, also be a profile with large =
avoided. The tip can variations in wall
easily become wavy thickness cools
and uneven. unevenly. This gives
rise to a visible
structural unevenness
that is particularly
marked after
anodising.
9.3 if possible
Solid profiles reduce

and are
often
.
9.4 :/ in hollow profiles

Is it essential for this In many cases,
This hollow profile is By replacing the profile to have two

extremely complex hollow profile on the cavities?
to produce. left with two in a hollow profile
telescoping profiles, makes it easier to
the product is extrude. This
increases die
. stability.
9.5 Profiles with
For profiles with pockets or channels, there is By using large radii at the opening of the
a that the width to height ratio channel, and a full radius at the bottom, the
should be approximately "+) . ratio can be increased to "+Ò .
$= Where channels width is under 2 mm, or

where a profile's design is complex,
permissible channel depth must be
determined on a case-by-case basis.
A profile can be
extruded "open" ...
... and then to

its final shape.
It may be possible to Here, a holder has to

increase radii and enclose a slide.
opening dimensions Redesigning the
without holder on the left
compromising gives a more
functionality.
and improved
functionality.
The solution above gives a /3 Reduced channel depth using a step. The step
and an profile. is during rolling.
9.6 5
The use of cooling fins on profiles greatly increases the heat dissipating area. This can be further increased by
giving the fins a wavy surface.
Where there is forced air-cooling longitudnally along the profile, it is better leave the fins smooth. This helps to
avoid the poroblem of eddy formation
Waviness here increases the area by "4"1

7
An undulation surface increases the heat

dissipation area of fins.
This profile exemplifies technical

development at Sapa:
A large profile with deep channels - yet tight
tolerances are respected and there is a high
quality surface finish.
9.7 0=
Decoration has several advantages:
á Design
á Masking of imperfections
á Protection against damage during handling and machining
0
>
A decorative pattern can make a plain A joint can be

by making it
aluminium surface a part of a fluted design.
The consistent use of a pattern on all a
product's component profiles can help make
it uniquely identifiable. There are endless
possibilities for creating ?

5
!

Where a profile has, Using decoration, the Well designed decoration can also
for example, arms heat zones can be profiles fromhandling and machining damage
and screw ports, completely 5 .
there may be process
induced shadowing
(heat zones) opposite
such features.

9.1 . wall thickness
It is often acceptable However, a profile Here, the profile's It is advantage if

to have a large range with uniform wall internal and external internal and external
of wall thicknesses thickness is walls have different walls are of the same
within a single . dimensions. thickness. This
profile. decreases
and improves
.
2""
It is of course perfectly acceptable for a

profile to have walls of defferent thicknesses.
For example, for strength reasons, it may be
best to concentrate weight/thickness away
from the centre of gravity.

9.2 lines
Extrusion cannot K A design may This is easily solved
achieve razor-sharp A radius of sometimes demand by incorporating a
corners. 0.5-1 mm is often sharp internal angles, /
.
sufficient. e.g. a profile to
enclose a box shape.
AS far as possible, Tips should, Following extrusion, Always use

sharp tips should be therefore, also be a profile with large =
avoided. The tip can variations in wall
easily become wavy thickness cools
and uneven. unevenly. This gives
rise to a visible
structural unevenness
that is particularly
marked after
anodising.
9.3 if possible

Solid profiles reduce
and are
often
.
9.4 :/ in hollow profiles
Is it essential for this In many cases,

This hollow profile is By replacing the profile to have two

extremely complex hollow profile on the cavities?
to produce. left with two in a hollow profile
telescoping profiles, makes it easier to
the product is extrude. This
increases die
. stability.

9.5 Profiles with
For profiles with pockets or channels, there is By using large radii at the opening of the
a that the width to height ratio channel, and a full radius at the bottom, the
should be approximately "+) . ratio can be increased to "+Ò .
$= Where channels width is under 2 mm, or

where a profile's design is complex,
permissible channel depth must be
determined on a case-by-case basis.
A profile can be
extruded "open" ...
... and then to

its final shape.
It may be possible to Here, a holder has to

increase radii and enclose a slide.
opening dimensions Redesigning the
without holder on the left
compromising gives a more
functionality.
and improved
functionality.
The solution above gives a /3 Reduced channel depth using a step. The step
and an profile. is during rolling.
9.6 5
The use of cooling fins on profiles greatly increases the heat dissipating area. This can be
further increased by giving the fins a wavy surface.
Where there is forced air-cooling longitudnally along the profile, it is better leave the fins
smooth. This helps to avoid the poroblem of eddy formation
Waviness here increases the area by "4"1

7
An undulation surface increases the heat

dissipation area of fins.
This profile exemplifies technical

development at Sapa:
A large profile with deep channels - yet tight
tolerances are respected and there is a high
quality surface finish.
9.7 0=
Decoration has several advantages:

á Design
á Masking of imperfections
á Protection against damage during handling and machining
0

A decorative pattern can make a plain A joint can be

by making it
aluminium surface a part of a fluted design.
The consistent use of a pattern on all a
product's component profiles can help make
it uniquely identifiable. There are endless
possibilities for creating ?

5
!

Where a profile has, Using decoration, the Well designed decoration can also
profiles fromhandling and machining damage
for example, arms heat zones can be
and screw ports, completely 5 .
there may be process
induced shadowing
(heat zones) opposite
such features.
10.
10.1 /
Skruvfickan kan gängas på vanligt sätt f> 55 .
Vanligast är att skruvfickan används direkt >

@
5 . Skruvfickan förses då
med knaster som centrerar skruven.
Håldiameter för
@
skruv
5 A@
B55 :

0 3 "#
ST 3,5 (B6) 3,1 0,15 1,5 4,2
ST 4,2 (B8) 3,8 0,15 1,5 5,0
ST 4,8 (B10) 4,2 0,2 1,5 5,8
ST 5,5 (B12) 4,9 0,2 2,0 6,6
ST 6,3 (B14) 5,6 0,2 2,0 7,4
Någon gång vill man skruva genom skruvfickan 5@ 5
. Fickan
förses då med en anliggningsyta enligt figuren.
55 : När konstruktionen kräver grövre skruv (exempelvis M8) kan
skruvfickan slutas. Hålet dimensioneras för gängning eller för gängpressade metrisk skruv.
Genom att placera skruvfickan i ett hörn

>5
. Vid ytterhörn bör man
beakta skruvskallens diameter, så att skallen inte går utanför profilens ytterkanter.
10.2 *5 for
nuts or bolt heads
10.3 B
10.4 Jointing -
"4Ò"
B
10.4.2 Telescoping
"4Ò) B
"4ÒÒ

[saknar bild 270 graders öppning...]
"4Ò1 *B
"4Ò9 K B
"41
/
10.6
10.7
10.8 %
After steel, aluminium is the metal that is most frequently bonded. Though, for example, far
more cars are produced than aeroplanes, the adhesive bonding of aluminium in the aero-
industry has attracted the most detailed research.
Aeroplanes have used bonded joints since the mid 40¶s. Nowadays, the bonding of aluminium
is even used for load-bearing components in aircraft.
Of course, there are many more down-to-earth examples of the use of bonded aluminium
joints. Volvo¶s roof rack rail is just one of these.
Many different adhesives, pretreatments and bonding methods have been developed.
Selecting the right one is not always easy. Nor is it risk-free to simply start bonding without
adequate information.
5/

The intermolecular forces that determine whether bonding is possible exert their pull over a
maximum range of 0.5 nm (one half of a millionth of a millimetre). If the surface is
contaminated or is made up of low strength oxides exceeding this critical ³thickness´, there
will be no attraction between the adhesive and the
aluminium profile.
For good and consistent bonds, the joint surface must be known, reproducible and clean.
The adhesive must wet the entire surface that is to be bonded. To do this, it has to have a
lower surface tension than the material being bonded. Otherwise, the adhesive will form
droplets rather than spread evenly over the surface.
All adhesives wet aluminium. To bond aluminium profiles to another material, the adhesive
must be able to wet this material too. If the other material is a plastic, it can sometimes be
diffi cult to fi nd an adhesive with a lower surface tension.
[bild 58.1] Traditional tongue and groove.

[bild 58.1] Tongue and groove with a channel into which the ³locking hook´ can be
hammered or rolled.
[bild 58.1] A variant of the ³adhesive trap´ and ³locking hook´ method.

Adhesive bonding involves the formation of a plastic or rubber load-carrying element. The
material in the cured adhesive bond is not as strong as the aluminium.
This can be compensated for by designing profi le solutions that provide large contact
surfaces.
Aluminium profiles can be easily worked into a wide range of shapes. Where tongue and
groove type bonded joints are a possibility, they may be the best solution. The illustrations
above give some ideas and guidance on joint design.
Adhesives cope best with shearing forces. Joints subjected to tensional forces are often
unsuitable for high loads. Peeling and cleaving forces concentrate stress on a small part of the
joint and should be avoided whenever possible.
K
Bonded joints distribute stress relatively well. However, very rarely is stress evenly
distributed across the entire surface area of a bonded joint. As a rule, stress is greatest at the
edges of the joint.
The stiffer the chosen adhesive, the greater the concentration of any subsequent stress. This
leads to (sometimes unnecessarily) high stress on the adhesive and the surface that has been
bonded to.
Thus, never choose an adhesive that is stiffer than necessary. Thicker bonded joints also
reduce the concentration of stress at the edges of the joint.
The choice of adhesive is determined by the way in which the adhesive works and what is
required of the bonded joint (filling/sealing, heat resistance, toughness, etc.).
To be able to mould itself to the surface structure of the profi le, the adhesive must have good
liquid properties. It must also harden into a material that can transfer stress in the environment
where it is used. Furthermore, it is important that the adhesive has time to mould itself to the
surface¶s micro-profi le. Fast setting, high-viscosity adhesives rarely permit this. In such
cases, it may be advisable to first apply a low-viscosity primer.
The change from liquid to solid is effected in three different ways.
0
K
K

Solvent The adhesive - Mixing
or water is liquid when - Heating
vaporisation it is hot. - Exposure to moisture
- Illumination (UV or blue light)
- In the abscence of oxygen
- Contact between adhesive
and hardener (without
preliminary mixing).
0
Solvents and water vaporise. Thus, adhesives containing solvents or water are unsuitable
where:
± gap filling is required
± both the materials are unable to let the solvent escape.
Double-sided PSA tape should be regarded as a drying adhesive that never dries.
The material forming the joint is the same as that in the roll. However, if the stress is low,
double-sided structural PSA tape may prove suitable for joining aluminium profiles together.
Double-sided PSA structural tapes formed entirely of the adhesive substance itself are
available in thicknesses from 0.1 to 6 mm.
There are also double-sided PSA tapes that can be heat cured. The tape holds the components
even during curing ± other forms of clamping are unnecessary.
Testing of a simple overlap joint has shown a strength after curing of around 10 N/mm2.
K
Some thermoplastic adhesives have good plasticity when hot. Hot-melt adhesives are the most
widely used. However, the thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives usually set too quickly on
aluminium. This results in poor contact with the aluminium surface. Hot-melt adhesives also
have very low creep and heat strengths. Many thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives become
brittle in cold environments.
Moisture-curing hot-melts are applied at lower temperatures and, compared to thermoplastic
hot-melts, have excellent properties after curing. They are used for, amongst other things,
applying foil coatings to aluminium profiles.
Heat-reactivated adhesive is also used when coating aluminium profiles with foil. An
adhesive solution or a water-based adhesive is applied to the material and left to dry
completely. In the bonding process, so that it wets the opposite surface, the adhesive is heated.
Moisture-curing hot melts and heat-reactivated adhesives can both give strong, durable bonds.
K
Curing adhesives make up the large group of structural adhesives. They cure (often with
negligible contraction) in one of the following ways:
K

Typical of this group are the epoxy and polyurethane adhesives. They have very good gap fi
lling properties. In principle, they can be cast. Modifi ed acrylic adhesives are now also
becoming more common.
There are both stiff and elastic, 2-component, epoxy and polyurethane based adhesives.
Epoxy adhesives with an elongation at fracture of up to 120% are now available. Elastic
epoxy adhesives normally give a bond that is relatively heat-sensitive.
Using epoxy adhesives, higher strength bonds and improved durability are achieved by curing
at elevated temperatures. The curing times are also considerably reduced ± the curing time
halves for each 10°C rise in temperature.
Two-component polyurethane elastomers give ³rubber-like´ joints that remain elastic even at
low minus temperatures (°C).
There are also 2-component silicon adhesives that cure relatively quickly at room
temperature.
K
/
& m #
These types of adhesives are usually referred to as SGA adhesives. They have excellent peel
and impact strengths, but are not particularly suitable where a gap fi lling adhesive is required.
These adhesives have been largely replaced by modifi ed acrylic adhesives, which are mixed
direct from their packaging and can be used to form thick joints.
Acrylic adhesives of this type that adhere to untreated polyolefi nes (e.g. PE and PP) are now
also available.
K

Here, the most common adhesives are the 1-component epoxies. These require heat curing at
a minimum of 100°C. With induction heating of aluminium profiles, curing times of approx.
60 seconds are possible.
The aero-industry makes extensive use of heat-hardening adhesive films. These require at
least 30 minutes to harden at a minimum of 125°C.
One-component polyurethane elastomers can be heat cured at 70°C ± 90°C (in 10 ± 30

minutes).
K
/
Cyanoacrylate adhesives harden very quickly in contact with moisture. A bond between two
aluminium surfaces takes longer to harden than a bond between aluminium and plastic or
rubber materials.
Cyanoacrylate adhesives are best suited for small joint surfaces and thin bonds. Normally,
they have low peel and impact strengths. However, there are ³rubber-filled´ (black)
cyanoacrylate adhesives with good peel and impact properties. Colourless, elastic
cyanoacrylates are also available, but these are not particularly suitable as structural adhesives
for metal.
Cyanoacrylate adhesives may be suitable where, for example, a plastic is to be bonded to an

aluminium profile.
One-component polyurethane elastomers can also be cured by the humidity of the air. This
type of adhesive is used in, for example, the bonding of car windows and, on a large scale, for
aluminium profi les in container and vehicle body manufacturing. Curing is comparatively
slow (hours) and dependant on relative air humidity and joint geometry.
Heat-curing polyurethane elastomers have been mentioned above. There are also polyurethane
elastomers that harden both with moisture and heat. Two-component type polyurethane
elastomer adhesives are also available.
As an alternative to polyurethane elastomers, there are the so-called MS polymers. These also
harden with moisture. Two-component MS polymers are primarily chosen for work
environment considerations.
K
.A

There have long been 1-component acrylate adhesives that cure in tenths of a second when
exposed to UV light (wavelength approx. 350 nm) or blue light (wavelength > 400 nm).
Acrylate adhesives are often limpid and very suitable for bonds between aluminium profi les
and glass (most of them perform less well with transparent plastics).
Epoxy adhesives that harden in UV light have also been developed. There are many types of
these - limpid, fi lled, low-viscosity, hard, elastic, etc. Some of these adhesives can be
irradiated prior to bonding and will then cure relatively quickly.
K

Such adhesives cure on contact with active metal ions. They are normally referred to as
anaerobic adhesives (or ³locking fl uids´). They are not particularly suitable for aluminium.
Aluminium surfaces should be regarded as passive. An activator has to be used in such cases.
This gives a lower strength bond.
Variants of these adhesives that do harden without an activator on aluminium surfaces are
now available.
*
With many adhesives, the practical maximum temperature at which stressed bonded joints can
be used is between 60 and 80°C. The highest heat-resistance (approx. 150 ± 250°C) is
achieved with heat-curing adhesives and heat-curing adhesive films. However, silicon
adhesives can give heat-resistance of around 250°C without heat curing.

Aluminium surface at
x 25,000 magnification
(the red bar is 1 µm).
Bonds to aluminium are as strong and durable as the aluminium oxides with
which the bond is formed. Aluminium that has had no surface treatment has a
large percentage of magnesium in its surface. Aluminium surfaces should normally always be
treated in some way.
Used in a dry environment, an untreated aluminium profi le can give an excellent bond. The
same bond outdoors in a coastal climate may have a far shorter life. Bond lifetime depends on
the synergistic effects of stress, temperature and environment.
Normally, the problem is not the degradation of the adhesive or the failure of adhesion, but
the effects of changes in the underlying aluminium. Any good microscope will show that
there are no completely fl at or even surfaces. Highly viscous (slow fl owing) and fast setting
adhesives will, therefore, most probably only come into limited contact with the surface. This
results in a bond with in-built weak points (air pockets) where the adhesive¶s properties are
not being exploited. In humid environments, this air will eventually be replaced by water.
Where the water is salty, the need for surface treatment is even greater.
Aluminium¶s durability can be improved by, for example, anodising.
$

The basic principles for long-lasting bonds are well fi lled joints and resistant oxides. A large
number of pretreatment processes have been developed for aluminium.
Some of the most common (and some of the more unusual) are presented here. Choice is
determined by the environment where the aluminium is to be used, likely stresses and costs.
Full details of the processes and any risks to the work environment should, of course, be
obtained before starting any form of treatment.
The main purpose of priming prior to the bonding of aluminium is to fill (seal) the surface
when high-viscosity and/or fast setting adhesives are to be used.
Priming becomes more important where the aluminium is to be used in a corrosive
environment and no surface treatment that improves corrosion resistance (e.g. anodising) is
contemplated. Primer also ³impregnates´ and strengthens porous oxides, e.g. after
chromating.
?
It is advisable to draw up a requirement specifi cation for the properties of the final bond and
the use-related aspects of the adhesive. This helps crystallise the demands really being placed
on the adhesive. It also makes it easier to specify exactly what is required to the adhesive
manufacturer.
!
! . &#

Cleaning/ Minimum requirement for For moderately stressed joints
degreasing ensuring a clean and defi ned in dry surroundings.
bonding surface.
Fine grinding/ Removes weak surface layers Highly stressed joints in dry
blast cleaning e.g. oxides. Safer than environments. Unstressed
degreasing. joints in fresh water.
Alkaline Removes weak surface layers Highly stressed joints in dry
pickling e.g. oxides. Safer than environments. Unstressed
degreasing. joints in fresh water.
Boiling water for Gives resistant, but moderately Lightly stressed joints using
5 ± 10 min. strong oxides. flexible adhesives in humid,
after pickling corrosive environments.
Phosphating/ Corrosion resistant, but weak, Lightly stressed joints using elastic
chromating porous oxides. or very low-viscosity adhesives in
corrosive environments.
Hydrochloric acid Quick, can impart a dark-colouring Moderately stressed joints, even
at 20°C for to the aluminium surface. in corrosive surroundings. Relatively
30 seconds uncommon process.
Etching in Thin, strong oxides. Long used Highly stressed joints outdoors.
chrome/ in the American aero-industry. However, cannot withstand strongly
sulphuric acid corrosive environments.
Anodising in Thick very resistant oxide. Lightly stressed joints in corrosive
sulphuric acid environments. Best with elastic
adhesives.
Anodising in Medium-thick, strong oxide. Highly stressed joints, even in
chromic acid Used in the European aero-industry corrosive environments.
since the 40¶s.
Anodising in Porous, very resistant oxide. Is used Optimum pretreatment for highly
phosphoric acid together with low-viscosity primer. stressed joints in corrosive
environments.
Literature Limning av aluminium, Sapa Technology Ð 2001. Readily available publication on
aluminium bonding. Includes examples of adhesives and bonded joints (28 pages). In
Swedish.
Limhandboken, Casco Nobel, Helsingborg Ð 1991, ISBN 91-630 0608-1. Easy-to-read

introduction to bonding (108 pages). In Swedish.
Industrial Adhesives Handbook, Casco Nobel, Helsingborg Ð 1992, ISBN 91-630 1007-0.
Easy-to-read introduc-tion to bonding (108 pages).
Adhesion in Bonded Aluminium Joints for Aircraft Construction, W. Brockman, O-D

Henneman, H. Kollek and C. Matz, International Journal of Adhesion and Adhesives, volume
6, no. 3, July 1986. Discusses the phenomena associated with stressed bonds to aluminium in
corrosive environments (28 pages).
Handbook of Aluminium Technology and Data, J. Dean Minford, Marcel Dekker Inc, New
York, Basel, Hong Kong, ISBN 0-8247 8817-6. Collated findings and data on aluminium
bonding. Contents include 4,686 references (744 pages).
Härdplaster, AFS 1996: 4, Arbetarskyddsstyrelsens Författningssamling, Publication service,

Solna. Regulates the use of hardening plastics and adhesives in Sweden (78 pages). In
Swedish.
10.9 : /
Aluminium is eminently suitable for welding. Although many welding methods are possible
with aluminium, only a few are used in practice.
Refinements in welding machines, equipment and materials have resulted in welding
acquiring increasing importance as a jointing method.
(
When welding aluminium, the metal¶s reaction with oxygen, and the oxide rapidly generated
therein, have to be taken into account. The oxide is strong, has a high melting point (approx.
2,050°C) and can easily cause welding defects. The oxide is heavier than the weld pool and
may form inclusions. Thus, before all welding of aluminium, it is important to remove oxides
from the joint surfaces. This may suitably be done using a stainless steel wire brush.
Thoroughly cleaned, oxide-free joint surfaces are a basic requirement for faultless welded
joints.

The risk of void formation must also be taken into account. The hydrogen contained in
moisture and contaminants on or in the welding materials, work piece or air is highly soluble
in molten aluminium. It loses this solubility almost completely when the metal solidifi es. As
the weld pool sets, the hydrogen forms bubbles that may become trapped and form voids.
/

K /
/

% %
All types of unalloyed
aluminium, e.g. 1050A Al99.5(A) 1050A
Most of the non-hardenable - AlMn1 3103
alloys, e.g
AlMg2.5 5052
AlMg4.5Mn0.7 5083
Certain hardenable 6063 AlMg0.7Si 6063
alloys, e.g.
6063A AlMg0.7Si(A) 6063A
6005 AlSiMg 6005
6005A AlSiMg(A) 6005A
6082 AlSi1MgMn 6082
7021 AlZn5.5Mg1.5 7021
6101 AlMgSi 6101

Nowadays, gas arc welding methods, MIG and TIG in particular, dominate.
Argon (Ar) and helium (He) are used as the shielding gases in the MIG and TIG welding of
aluminium. Argon and helium are inert gases and do not, therefore,
form chemical compounds with other substances.
Where there is a high penetration requirement, e.g. in a fi llet weld or when welding very
thick work pieces, an argon-helium mixture can be used in MIG
welding. The economic threshold for using mixed gases is a material thickness of 10 ± 12
mm.
As welds in aluminium are prone to the formation of oxide inclusions and voids, the shielding
gas must also meet certain purity requirements. The minimum
requirement is 99.5% argon or helium.
Besides playing a part in the electrical processes in the arc, the gas also has the jobs of
protecting the electrode and the weld pool from oxidation and of
cooling the electrode.
< /
As a rule, MIG welding is used for material thicknesses from 1 mm upwards. In special cases,
thicknesses under 1 mm can be welded using a pulsed MIG arc.
Filler metal is added in the form of a wire fed through the welding torch.
MIG welding can be performed in any position and for all joint types.
A higher current density than in TIG welding gives higher welding speeds.
The high welding speed has a positive effect on distortion and shrinkage (narrower heat-
affected zone).
*< /
TIG welding is suitable for material thicknesses down to under 1 mm. In practice, there is an
upper limit of around 10 mm, but edge preparation is then necessary.
Filler metal is normally used and is introduced from the side.
TIG welding can be performed in any position and, when performed correctly, gives the most
fault-free welds.
The welding speed is relatively high, and even higher in mechanical TIG welding.
TIG welding can be recommended where the gap width varies.
/
Robotised MIG welding can be used with advantage in long production runs.
This method noticeably increases productivity and is also advantageous from a work
environment point of view.
The position of the work piece is easy to control. This facilitates welding from the optimum
position and gives good results.
Certain problems may arise with very thin materials and uneven gap widths.

Measured on cost per length, MIG welding is normally cheaper than TIG welding. Equipment
costs are identical.
:
The table below gives recommendations for appropriate fi ller metals. AIMg5 generally gives
the greatest strength. AISi5 is more stable as regards cracking and easier to use when welding
hardenable alloys.
If the welded assembly is to be anodised, Si alloyed fi ller metals cannot be used. When
anodising, the silicon is precipitated and imparts a dark grey, almost black, colour.
In order not to compromise weld quality, filler metals should be stored so that the risk of
oxidation and the formation of other coatings is avoided.
! %
/

K

%

%
1090 Al99.90 Al99.8
1080 Al99.8(A)
A Al99.7(A)
1070
A
105 1050 Al99.5(A) Al99.5 Al99.5
0A A Al99.0 Al99.5 Al99.5
1200 Ti Ti
3103 AlMn1 Al99.5 Al99.5 AlM
Ti Ti n1
AlMn AlMn AlSi
1 1 5
5005 AlMg1(B AlMg AlMg AlM AlMg3
5251 ) 52) 52) g52) AlMg5
5052 AlMg2
5754 AlMg2.5
AlMg3
5083 AlMg4.5 AlMg AlMg AlM AlMg5 AlMg5
Mn0.7 52) 52) g52) AlMg4. AlMg4.5
5Mn Mn
606 6060 AlMgSi AlSi5 AlSi5 AlSi AlMg3 AlMg5 AlSi51)
0 6063 AlMg0.7S 5 AlMg51 AlMg4.5 AlMg3
)
606 6063 i Mn AlMg5
3 A AlMg0.7S
606 6005 i(A)
3A 6005 AlSiMg
600 A AlSiMg(
5 6082 A)
600 AlSi1Mg
5A Mn
608
2
702 7021 AlZn5.5 AlSi5 AlSi5 AlSi AlMg4. AlMg4.5 AlMg4.5 AlMg4.5
1 Mg1.5 5 5Mn Mn Mn Mn
AlMg5 AlMg5 AlSi5 AlMg5
AlMg5
Al99.9 Al99.5 AlM AlMg1( AlMg4.5 AlMgSi AlZn5.5
0 (A) n1 B) Mn0.7 AlMg0.7 Mg1.5
Al99.8 Al99.0 AlMg2 S
(A) AlMg2. AlMg0.7
Al99.7 5 Si(A)
K
(A) AlMg3 AlSiMg

! AlSiMg(
%
A)
AlSi1Mg
$ (A)
AlSi1Mg
Mn
1090 1050A 3103 5005 5083 6060 7021
/
1080A 1200 5251 6063

1070A 5052 6063A
%
5754 6005
6005A
6082
1050A 6060 7021
6063
6063A

6005
6005A
6082
1) Unsuitable where there is to be subsequent anodising.
Less suitable material combinations. However TIG welding with stated filler metal is
2)
possible.

In welding, the heat treatment to which the material is subjected affects the structure locally
around the weld. The illustration is a schematic representation of how strength and hardness
vary with distance from a weld in a hardenable alloy.
With aluminium profiles, it is easy to compensate for decreased joint strength by increasing
the wall thickness locally. Furthermore,
edge preparation can be directly incorporated into the profile¶s design.
!
/
/
Appropriately designed profiles can greatly simplify welding.

Edge preparation, material compensation, in-built fastening, integral root backing and the
minimisation of the number of welds required are all examples of proactive aluminium profile
design.
In many cases, aluminium profi les can be designed in a way that reduces the required number
of welds. Sometimes, welds can also be located in a low stress section of the cross-sectional
area. This will mean fewer welds and improved strength.
Edge preparation
integrated into the
profile design - the
illustration also features
material compensation
for strength reduction in
the weld zone.
Permanent root
backing.
In-built fastener - used

in dry environments.
Number of welds reduced from 12 to 4 - butt

Placing welds in lower stress sections of
welds rather than the weaker fillet welds (which
the cross sectional area. This results in
are also harder to x-ray). Fewer components,
fewer welds, and butt rather than fillet
reduced welding (consequently fewer heat-
welds.
affected zones) and straightening minimsed.

10.10 :
(FSW)
Friction Stir Welding (FSW) exploits aluminium¶s ability to withstand extreme plastic
deformation at temperatures that are high, but not above the melting point. In FSW, the clean
metal surfaces of the profi les that are to be joined are heated by friction generated by a
rotating tool and pressed together at very high pressures. This forms a new, homogeneous
structure.
K / /

3 :
+
á Increased strength.
á Increased leakproofness ± entirely void-

free, impermeable joints of a higher
strength than fusion welded joints.
á Joints that are, in principle, fl ush with the

surface.
A heat sink panel ± using FSW, profiles
á Reduced thermal deformation ± only low have been joined to form a flat, 530 x
thermal stress in the material, hence the flat 1,290 mm panel.
surfaces.
á Increased repeatability ± production has

few variables and these are easily
controlled; the result is tight tolerances.
%

FSW is an established technology. It was developed by The Welding Institute (TWI) in

Cambridge, England. Sapa has actively participated in the process of converting theory and
laboratory experimentation into full-scale production.
Sapa started series production using FSW in 1996. We are now the world leaders in the use of
FSW and can supply FSW joined panels up to 3 metres wide and 14.3 metres long.
Several leading classification societies have, after extensive testing, approved FSW as a
jointing method for demanding uses in railway and marine applications.
The homogeneous crystal
structure in the centre section
A cross-section of a joint ± x 13 magnification.
of an FSW joint ± x 220
magnification.
Using FSW rather than

traditional fusion
welding to join panels
together gives, amongst
much else, increased
flatness and
straightness. Strength is
also increased (see the
Royal Institue of
Technology's tests,
pages 72-73).
The Sapa panel below is

3 x 14.3 metres.
A rotating tool is pressed into the metal and moved along the line of
the joint. No filler metals or shielding gases are used. FSW takes
place at a temperature below the metal's melting point. The results
include very little thermal deformation, hence the flat surface.
The joint is in principle, flush with the surface and the FSW weld is,
to all intents and purposes, completely void-free. The strength
properties are also very good.
* : / m

/
To paint a clearer picture of FSW, we have chosen to compare it with the most commonly
used method of welding ± fusion welding. At the same time, we must stress that, in our
production of added-value aluminium profi les, we often use fusion welding (MIG). The old
does have its place alongside the new.
Fusion welding, MIG for example, uses fi ller metals and shielding gases.
The filler metal and the parent metal are melted and produce a weld bead that has a
solidification structure different from that of the rest of the metal.
In MIG and TIG welding, attention has to be paid to the metal¶s reaction with oxygen. The
oxide rapidly formed in this reaction can cause weld failure.
The oxide is heavier than the weld pool and may form inclusions. There is also a risk of void
formation.
FSW uses no fi ller metals or shielding gases. The joint is formed under the influences of
friction generated heat and extreme plastic deformation.
The material being joined never reaches its melting point, but the profiles weld together in a
way entirely analogous to the extrusion of hollow profiles.
The result is a homogenous and void-free weld with no inclusions.
FSW stands out in having only a few variables. These can be easily controlled to ensure the
same results from one weld to the next.
Fusion welding is a more complicated process. Consequently, results often vary.
< :
To give a fair comparison, the adjacent pictures are of very high quality fusion welds.
Precipitation in a MIG-weld. Precipitation in an FSW weld.

The MIG weld rises above the surface. The FSW weld is, in principle, flush with
Furthermore, its chemical composition the welded material. No filler metals
differs from that of the welded material. are used.
A MIG weld viewed from above. An FSW weld viewed from above.

Experience and extensive testing have shown that an FSW weld is usually stronger than a
fusion weld. The table below shows the standardised values for arc welded butt joints as per
SS-EN 288-4 (see also the tests carried out by the Royal Institute of Technology, pages 72 ±
73).
The values given for FSW joints are based on a large number of measurements and should be
regarded as guideline values.
Since there are, as yet, no standards for FSW joints, the values for fusion welded joints are
used in calculating the strength of standardised designs.
K Rm (W)
%

T=
/
Rm (pm) Ultimate tensile strength, R (w),
/
of the welded test rod normally
% : '# has to satisfy the following:
T4 Natural ageing /
"#
Rm (W) = Rm (pm) x T
0.9 0.9
where Rm (pm) is the prescribed
T4 Artificial ageing 0.7 0.9
minimum ultimate tensile
T5-T6 Natural ageing 0.6 0.7 strength of the parent metal and
T is the joint¶s weld factor.
T5-T6 Artificial ageing 0.7 0.8
1. For example MIG or TIG. 2. Guideline values only.

5
The pictures on the right are of heat sink units based on

solid profiles that are then CNC machined by Sapa. The
machined
interior is closed with a cover, welded in place by
FSW.
Helium leak testing was used to assess leakproofness.
The result was no loss of impermeability owing to weld
failures. FSW joints have also been tested using the
water pressure test.
The results are unambiguous ± FSW gives a joint that
can be used in components with the severest demands
for leakproofness.

The experience Sapa has gained in series production

since 1996 shows:
± Very small variations from joint to joint throughout a
production cycle.
± Very small variations from joint to joint in repeat
customer orders.
This is true of all variables ± the joint¶s structure, its
strength, leakproofness and flatness.
K
The chemical composition of the material in the joint is

identical to that of the original material. Thus, in
principle, corrosion resistance is unaltered.

All 25,000 units passed helium
testing for leakproofness. FSW requires the work piece to be held securely in
place. This means, amongst other things, that repair
welding of finished constructions is rarely possible
with FSW. Repairs can, of course, be carried out using
traditional methods.

: B
K / < *< +
* < *
3 /
FSW welds have higher fatigue strength than MIG and TIG welds. This is the finding
documented by Mats Ericsson, graduate engineer, and Rolf Sandström, professor, (both of the
Institution for Materials Science at Sweden's Royal Institute of Technology) in the December
2001 research report, Influence of Welding Speed on the Fatigue of Friction Stir Welds and
Comparison with MIG and TIG. Test material and test methods
*
This extract from the report gives values for extruded profiles in alloy SS-EN AW 6082
(AlSi1MgMn) Ð temper T6, material thickness 4 mm. The dimensions of the test pieces were
as per SS-EN 284-4. FSW was carried out by Sapa in a plant used for series production. Test
materials welded at two different speeds were included in testing. To the same high quality
standards as those applying in the aero-industry, fusion welding was carried out by CSM
Material Technology. TIG and pulse MIG welding were used. Vickers hardness was
measured with a load of 10 kg. Fatigue testing was carried out with a stress ratio ( min/ max)
of 0.5, the main direction of stress being across the weld.
The graph shows the variations in Vickers hardness across a cross section of an FSW joint
(green) welded at a speed of 1, 400 mm/ min. and across a MIG weld (grey).
K+ In both welds, hardness in the heat-affected zone decreases. This is clearly more
marked in the MIG weld. Hardness is lowest (just under
60 HV) around the centre of the MIG weld. This is because fusion welding involves higher
working temperatures, "foreign" filler metals and a less favourable structure in the weld. More
heat is supplied in TIG welding than MIG welding. Consequently, the HAZ is a little wider.
No significant difference was observed between the HAZs of the two FSW welds carried out
at different speeds.
:
8 *

%
43' %14 (%)
94C'
(MPa) (MPa)
T6, 291 317 11.3 ME, RS 1)
parent
metal
Min. 250 295 6 SS-EN </+ This SEM micrograph
values 755-2 (x 25 magnification) shows the
for fracture surface. Fatigue fracture
profiles developed at
t<5 several points in the root (to the
mm right).
Pulsed 147 221 5.2 ME, RS 1)

MIG
TIG 145 219 5.4 ME, RS 1)
FSW, 150 245 5.7 ME, RS 1)
speed A
2)
FSW, 150 245 5.1 ME, RS 1)

speed B
2)
</+ as above (2.500
magnification) Fatigue striation in
1) Mats Ericsson and Rolf Sandström, averages of the the area close to the root edge.
results in the report in question.
2) Speed A, 700 mm/min. Speed B, 1,400 mm/min.
:

: + Fracture surface through the

fine-grained section of an FSW
weld
(root to the right). Fracture
probably developed close the root.
The graph above shows the results of fatigue tests on

MIG welds (grey), TIG welds (blue) and FSW welds
(green).
K+ The FSW weld shows the best values

throughout. In the study, TIG welds gave considerably
better results than MIG welds. For failure at 500,000
cycles, the stress ranges were: MIG approx. 60 MPa,
TIG approx. 70 MPa, FSW approx. 90 MPa at 700 and
1, 400 mm/ min (a shade higher at 1, 400 mm/ min).

A. Kluken, M. Ranes, Aluminium bridge constructions Ð welding technology and fatigue
properties, Svetsaren, vol 50, no. 3, pages 13 Ð 15, 1995.
P. J. Haagensen, O. T. Midling, M. Ranes, Fatigue performance of friction stir butt welds in a

6000 series aluminium alloy, Computional Mechanics Publications (USA), pages 225 Ð 237,
1995.

12.
?
The surface quality of an extruded aluminium profi le depends on, amongst other things, the
condition of the die, production conditions and choice of alloy.
Sapa has a well proven classifi cation system for evaluating surface quality (fi nish). The six
classes have been devised to satisfy the standard requirements of different product groups.
Always contact Sapa for advice on which class is best suited to a product.
Various types of surface defects are recognised. Stripes, for example, are formed by the
extrusion process itself (when the profile emerges from the die) and are always to be
expected. They occur, to greater or lesser extents, in all surface classes.
Sapa¶s production standards minutely detail the requirements applying to each surface class.
A m
Information on a profile¶s visible surfaces is important. Besides being used in surface

evaluation, surface specifications are also vital in the construction of dies and when preparing
profiles for anodising or painting. Incorrect or incomplete information may increase
production costs.
Profile drawings must obligatorily indicate visible, less visible and invisible surfaces.
[legend ]
Visible surface: - - - - -
Less visible surface: ========
Invisible surface:(no marking)
Less visible surfaces are those which are not normally exposed in the fi nal product. Examples
include the rabbets of door and window frames, the underneaths of table surfaces and the
backs of cabinets.
A profile¶s surface class relates to its visible surfaces. Less visible surfaces are classed one
step lower and invisible surfaces two steps lower (though never higher than surface class 5).
Profiles with no visible surfaces at all are classified as surface class 6.
Any changes in surface class requirement must be clearly stated when ordering. In some
cases, it is impossible to achieve a higher surface class using the specified die. Always contact
Sapa for advice.
/

Even at the design stage, it is possible to reduce the risk of surface defects.
Sharp transitions between thick and thin areas of material may give rise to heat zones. These,
in turn, can affect surface fi nish in a way that is particularly visible after anodising. A large
radius also reduces the risk of surface defects. Consult Sapa for advice on profile design.
Specimen profiles are not representative as regards surfaces and material properties. They
should only be used for checking dimensions, etc.
If possible, the profile¶s area of application should be stated. This information is important not
only when evaluating surface class, but also in all other production phases.
*
Anodising results in a general improvement of surface quality. With chemical or mechanical

treatment (grinding, brushing and/or polishing) before anodising, material supplied as surface
class 2 can be brought up to surface class 1.
Bright anodising emphasises any surface defects. Consequently, it lowers surface class one
step compared to the untreated material as extruded.

5
Where it is important to maintain the decorative finish of products in surface classes 1 ± 5, the
following should be borne in mind:
± When handling aluminium that has not been surface treated, special attention should be paid
to the metal¶s poor scratch resistance. To protect the profile against sweat-initiated corrosion,
gloves should always be worn.
± Aluminium which has not been surface treated is to be stocked dry, preferably indoors, so
that it is not exposed to corrosive forces.
[saknar bild vit handske...]
A/

% 3 Normal

(at eyesight

delivery) in normal
lighting
6060, approx. 0.6 m
1 ! /
? 6063,
? 6463
Radios/TVs, lighting fi xtures, decorative trims,
ornaments.
Max. delivery length, 2.4 m unless otherwise agreed.
This surface class can only be achieved with
material extruded as
surface class 2 and then treated chemically or
mechanically (grinding,
brushing and/or polishing) before finally being
anodised.
Production requires individual handling and
inspection as well as
a large labour input in all phases.
Profiles that have visible surfaces on all sides cannot
be produced in
this surface class (except where the profile is also to
be ground on all sides).
Individual packaging/protection required during
transport.
6060, approx. 1 m
2 ! /
?
? 6063,
Furniture, fittings, radios/TVs, picture frames, 6463
ornamentation and
profiles that are to be brought up to surface class 1.
Max. delivery length, 2.4 m unless otherwise agreed.
Production requires individual handling and
inspection as well as
a large labour input in all phases.
Highest surface class for bright anodising.
Profiles that have visible surfaces on all sides cannot
be produced
in this surface class.
Profiles in this class must, as a rule, be anodised.
Individual packaging/protection required during
transport.
6060, approx. 2 m
3 ! /
? ?
Furniture, light fittings, fridge-freezers, bathroom 6063,
fittings and equipment, 6463
shower cubicles and decorative trims.
As a rule, profiles that have visible surfaces on all
sides cannot be
produced in this surface class.
Profiles in this class are usually anodised.
6060, approx. 3 m
4 ! / ?
? 6063,
Structural systems, facades, windows, doors, 6463
balustrades. Also products
for use in public facilities: Furniture, shop fittings,
showcases, shower
cubicles, machine casings, heat sinks.
Profiles in this surface class are usually
anodised/painted.
6060, approx. 5 m
5 ! / / ? ?
Structural systems, balconies, roofs, doorways, 6063,
awnings, railing posts, 6063A,
sailing boat masts, ladders, goalposts, etc. 6005,
Standard sections in Sapa 6063 alloy, body sections. 6005A,
6082,
6101, 6463
All approx. 8 m
6 ! / ? ?
Load-bearing structures, guide rails, conducting
rails, scaffolding,
components in mechanical systems, brackets,
industrial railings,
fencing posts.
Standard profiles in Sapa 6082 alloy, trailer profiles
for lorries and
floor profiles.
Profiles with no visible surfaces.
Profiles in Sapa 7021 and Sapa 1050A alloys can
only be extruded
to this surface class.

13. * 5 profiles
Why insulated profiles? Because aluminium¶s good thermal conductivity leads heat out and
lets cold in. This can be a problem in, for example, facades, windows and doors designed with
uninsulated profiles. Sapa¶s solution is to connect the internal and the external sections of a
profile via plastic insulation strips.
D
&#
In Sapa¶s solution, rolling is used to join two aluminium profiles via glass fibre reinforced
polyamide strips.
± Insulating strip width is normally 14 ± 30 mm. Sapa keeps the most common widths in
stock (check with Sapa).
± Rolling can be used on lengths from 4.5 ± 7.5 m.
± Degree of insulation depends on strip width and profi le design.
!
The production equipment is purpose-designed. The three steps are:

1. Machining (knurling) of the track to ensure durability.
2. Joining of the aluminium profi les by sliding in the polyamide strips.
3. Rolling ± the aluminium channels are closed around the polyamide strips.
During production, random sampling is used to check the strength of the rolling.
" Knurling of the profi le. ' Joining of the profiles. ) Rolling.

Two insulation strips are always recommended where lack of space does not leave single
insulation as the only possibility. Strength properties and tolerances are considerably better
with two strips.
<

Besides normal design rules, the following also apply:

± To provide the necessary support during rolling, the sides have to be minimum 5 mm and
perpendicular to the plastic strips.
± Regarding the handling of aluminium profiles in the rolling equipment, Z profiles must be
modified so that they do not tilt. The rolling surfaces should be centred and at 90° to the
insulation strips. A certain degree of imbalance can be handled by special supports (contact
Sapa for advice).
± The minimum distance between insulation strips is 16 mm.
± Both insulation strips should normally be of the same width.
Examples of insulated door profiles.
14.
At the design stage, it is possible to create a profile that needs a minimum amount of post-
extrusion machining. However, some form of further processing is often necessary after
extrusion.
Machining aluminium profiles is, comparatively speaking, inexpensive. The metal¶s
malleability means that die costs are, as a rule, highly competitive.
The cutting speeds attainable with aluminium are far higher than those with steel.
Machining can take place both before or after anodising.
The choice is determined by the demands made on the product.
"Protective anodising" is a good way of preventing damage to profiles during machining.

In recent years, machines and equipment for machining aluminium have seen relatively rapid
development. High machining speeds have made it possible to achieve reduced wall
thicknesses and tighter tolerances. This has further increased aluminium¶s competitiveness.
As regards the high-speed machining of aluminium, it is cutting speeds of 3,500 m per minute
and over that are most interesting. At this point, the cutting forces diminish and, with
increased cutting speed, fall to a very low level. This allows feed speeds to be increased. As a
result, machining times are reduced.
Lower cutting forces also reduce burr formation and increase tool service life.
Machines capable of exploiting these higher feed speeds require signifi cantly improved
dynamics, and considerably more efficient control systems, than conventional machines.

In today¶s market, there is a constant demand for ever shorter lead times. Amongst other
things, this has led to the development of the ³product workshop´ concept of production.
The demand for shorter lead times makes it highly desirable to avoid transfers of materials
between independent machining centres and areas of responsibility.
The solution is a concept in which operations are integrated ± there is a single centre of
responsibility and, very often, a single supplier.
E
The size of a product series is often a crucial factor in deciding which production methods are
to be used. Thus, as early as possible, it is vital that an assessment is made of the series sizes
of all the necessary parts.
m /
For Sapa, production scrap is a valuable raw material that can be immediately exploited for
transformation into new profiles. This is an important consideration.

Machining methods are classifi ed by the way in which they give shape to the work piece ±
3 5
and 5 . The following pages examine some
of the methods that are suitable for machining aluminium.
14.1 5
14.1.1 !
;
Cutting using a punch and a die is commonly referred to as punching.

The bottom part of the punch and the upper edges of the die present a cutting profile
corresponding to the contours and cavities of the part to be cut. Usually, the punch is mobile
and the die is fixed.
The punch penetrates the material. Deformation is at first elastic and then plastic.
This is followed by fracture initiation, first at the punch edges and then at the die edges.
Cutting is completed by these fractures propagating through the material and then joining.
14.2 5
Extruded aluminium is easy to cut. Thanks to high cutting speeds, and the high feed speeds
this makes possible, machining costs are low and production rates are high.
If care is not taken, problems such as build-up on the cutting tools, chip blockages, burr
formation and difficulty in meeting tolerances can arise. The right cutting settings and tool
geometry are important.
Broadly speaking, cutting tools for extruded aluminium are characterised by positive cutting
angles and ample space for chips.
PKD tools (tools with diamond inserts) very often give good results. Sapa has, on occasions,
drilled up to 500,000 holes using the same tool. Titanium coated, hard metal blades are a
further example of a class of cutting tool with a long service life.
In long production runs, machining can often be streamlined by, for example, having
automated transport between machines and using a line system.
"Ò'" *
Turning in automatic lathes is only possible with alloys that produce short chips. As a rule, an
alloy should be worked at its highest possible temper. Furthermore, if possible, a hardenable
alloy should be chosen.
With the metal in a soft condition, problems such as build-up on the blade, long chips, chip
blockages, extreme burr formation and diffi culty in meeting tolerances may arise.
It is important to choose the correct cutting settings (e.g. cutting speed and feed) so that,
amongst other things, the chips fall away from the point of cutting.
Cutting fluid (mineral oil or, in some cases, a water-based emulsion) is used to cool the
cutting tool and wash chips away.
Cutting tools are most usually made of hard metals or high-quality high-speed steel. To give
good turning results and surface quality, the cutting tool should have high surface fineness
and a good edge.
In CNC lathes with several tool arms, drilling, tapping and milling can be carried out at the
same time as turning.
"Ò'' 0
Drill bits suitable for extruded aluminium have a tip angle of around 130°, a spiral angle of
approx. 40° and provide ample room for chips.

High-speed steel Hard metal
Cutting speed, v 70-150 m/min. 150 - 1,000 m/min.

Feed, s 0.1 - 0.4 mm/rotation 0.1 - 0.7 mm/rotation
The cutting speed depends on the drill¶s speed (rpm) and the speed at which the bit is fed into
the material. With the right equipment and settings, a 10 mm wide, 30 mm deep hole can be
drilled in 0.3 seconds.
"Ò')
Extruded aluminium can be milled in everything from simple milling machines to high-speed
machines.
High-speed machining makes it possible to achieve very good tolerances, surface finishes and
processing speeds.
Sapa has high-speed machines that operate from 20,000 to 40,000 rpm.
Milling. Cutting to length.
"Ò'' 0
Drill bits suitable for extruded aluminium have a tip angle of around 130°, a spiral angle of
approx. 40° and provide ample room for chips.

High-speed steel Hard metal
Cutting speed, v 70-150 m/min. 150 - 1,000 m/min.

Feed, s 0.1 - 0.4 mm/rotation 0.1 - 0.7 mm/rotation
The cutting speed depends on the drill¶s speed (rpm) and the speed at which the bit is fed into
the material. With the right equipment and settings, a 10 mm wide, 30 mm deep hole can be
drilled in 0.3 seconds.
14.3 ! forming
"Ò)" 0/
Draw bending is the most commonly used bending method. It is suitable for tight radii and
has a high degree of repeatability.
Using an adjustable clamping jaw, the work piece is fixed against a rotating die. The clamping
jaw and the tool are shaped to reproduce the profile¶s cross section.
The work piece rotates with the die. This stretches the material on the outside of the profile
and compresses that on the inside. To prevent scratches and clamping marks on the profile,
the tools are usually made of plastic.
Anodised profiles: Being hard and brittle, the oxide layer forms many fine cracks during
bending. If a high quality surface is required, it is recommended that anodising is left until
after bending.
Draw bending. Roller bending.
"Ò)'
Roller bending is used for forming large radii in the work piece.
The work piece is rolled between two drive rollers and a pressure roller. The shape presented
by the rollers corresponds to the profile¶s cross section. Vertical adjustment of the upper roller
(the pressure roller) alters the radius of the bend.
Thus, in CNC machines, a number of different radii can easily be pressed into a single work
piece.
As rollers are most usually made of steel, lubrication is often required to prevent cutting and
scratching of the profile.
"Ò))
Stretch bending gives very high three-dimensional shape accuracy.

The work piece is fixed between two clamping jaws and then gradually stretched over a
shaping block. The shape presented by the block corresponds to the profile¶s cross-section.
The metal is stretched to its upper elastic limit and spring-back is thus negligible.
As the tooling investment is relatively high, stretch bending is best suited to large series
production.
Stretch bending.
"Ò)Ò !
Press bending (point bending) is suitable for simple bending of large series.
The work piece is formed using compressive force. An upper and a lower die are contoured to
give the work piece the desired shape. Pressure is applied by some form of excentric or
hydraulic press.
Depending on the exterior of the part to be pressed, dies can be steel or plastic.
Press bending.
14.4 *
Cutting and forming methods can both be used to make threads. When cutting using taps, a
chipping angle of 35 ± 40º is recommended. Cutting speed should be 30 ± 40 m/min.
When producing a thread by rolling, the so-called oil groove method is recommended. Speed
should be 40 ± 70 m/min.
The milling of threads gives good results all the way down to, in some cases, M3.
14.5 *
Machining is normally to ISO 2768-1 (middle), but tighter tolerances normally present no
problem.
In high-speed machining, channels and holes can be milled to, for example, H7. This does
away with the need for subsequent reaming.
14.6
Our starting point is an extruded aluminium pipe. Hydroforming allows us to shape it three-
dimensionally in a single operation. The process offers as yet unexplored possibilities.
All, or parts, of a profile¶s cross section can be tailored using hydroforming.
In a single operation, complex parts can be created with very good dimensional accuracy.
In a single hydroforming operation, it is also possible to make local changes such as domes or
holes. By eliminating several machining operations, lead times can be shortened.
Hydroforming of aluminium profiles is a competitive choice at yearly volumes of around
20,000 units upwards.
*
The profile is placed in a die that has an inner geometry exactly replicating the shape of the
finished component. The die is locked securely in position and hydrostatic pressure is then set
up in the pipe (profi le). As the profile is pressed against the die, it takes up the shape of the
die.
* m
Since the end of the 90¶s, along with Volvo and Ford, Sapa has been involved in research
projects on, and prototype production of, vehicle side beams hydroformed from extruded
aluminium profiles.
Today, Sapa has world-leading and unique expertise and experience in the hydroforming of
long aluminium beams.
In the autumn of 2001, Sapa began series deliveries to Volvo.
Simulation, using the FE method,

to study the critical points in the
forming process.
The shaped component.

Note the cross-sectional changes throughout its length
+
:
Cross-
sectional
change so
that the
profile can
fit into a
narrow
passage.
In order to
make a hole
during the
hydroformin
g process, a
punch is
included in
the tooling.
Punching
extends
process time
by a few
seconds
only. The
hole is
precisely
positioned
and no
further
machining is
required..
1. Production starts from an extruded aluminium pipe

2. The pipe then goes through draw bending.
3. The finished component.
The result ± very good dimensional accuracy
and exactly the geometry required by the
product and production.
Compared with traditional steel/plate bodies,

hydroforming gives weight savings of around 50%.
!
3
In discussions, Sapa has contributed advice in respect of a wide range of designs for, amongst
others, the automotive, furniture, electronics and engineering industries. In design discussions,
it has become clear that hydroforming opens the way to unique solutions for a wide range of
design problems. Thus, it would not be easy to here give simple rules for profile design,
dimensions and tolerances. Contact Sapa¶s hydroforming department in Vetlanda, Sweden,
for further details.
"Ò1 *
Machining is normally to ISO 2768-1 (middle), but tighter tolerances normally present no
problem.
In high-speed machining, channels and holes can be milled to, for example, H7.
This does away with the need for subsequent reaming.
Cutting to length, CNC machining (milling, Cutting to length, CNC machining (contour
drilling, threading), anodising, bending, milling, drilling, threading), anodising,
assembly. bending, assembly.
Cutting to length, CNC machining (milling, Cutting, CNC machining (milling, drilling,
drilling, threading), anodising, bending, threading), end brushing, deburring (blasting),
assembly. alkaline washing, assembly.
Cutting to length, draw bending, punching, Cutting to length, stamping, threading (ten
end brushing. threads), end brushing, anodising.
Cutting to length, deburring, CNC machining Cutting to length, end brushing, CNC
(fl at face milling), anodising, CNC machining (milling), punching.
machining (lathe boring), alkaline washing.
Cutting to length, CNC machining (lathe Cutting to length, CNC machining (milling,
boring, flat face milling, drilling), alkaline drilling, threading), end brushing, deburring
washing. (blasting), alkaline washing.
Cutting to length and stamping in a special Cutting to length, stamping, end deburring,
machine, end brushing, alkaline washing. press bending.
Cutting to length, CNC machining (drilling, Cutting to length, CNC machining (milling,
milling, threading), end brushing, deburring threading), end brushing, deburring (blasting),
(blasting), alkaline washing. alkaline washing, white chromating.
Cutting to length, CNC machining (milling, Cutting to length, CNC machining (drilling,
hole cutting), alkaline washing. milling, lathe boring, reaming, threading,
centring), anodising in long lengths.
Turning. Cutting to length, CNC machning (milling,
special latheboring), anodising.
Kapning, CNC-bearbetning (planfräsning), Cutting to length, deburring, CNC machining

slipning, anodisering, CNC-bearbetning (milling), punching, anodising, assembly.
(fräsning, borrning).
Anodising (long lengths), cutting to length, Cutting to length, CNC machining (fl at face
turning, punching. milling) grinding, anodising, CNC machining
(milling, drilling).
Cutting to length, CNC machining, deburring, Anodisning (long lengths), cutting to length,
alkaline washing. punching, threading, countersinking, alkaline
washing.
15.

Even before surface treatment, the appearance and surface quality of extruded aluminium
profiles is perfectly satisfactory for many applications.
Thanks to good corrosion resistance, surface treatment is rarely necessary simply to provide
corrosion protection. However, there are many other reasons for treating the surfaces of
profiles.
Examples of attributes that can be changed by surface treatment include:
á surface structure
á colour
á corrosion resistance
á hardness
á wear resistance
á reflectivity
á electrical insulation.
*
Surfaces do no always need treatment after extrusion. Load-bearing structures and machine
parts are examples of products where the surface quality is satisfactory without any treatment.
15.1 ! design
Lines and extrusion stripes that would be noticeable on visible surfaces can easily be hidden
using decoration. Such patterns or optical effects are an integral part of the profile solution
created at the design stage. Refer also to "Decorate", page 32.
Sailing boat mast - Sapa delivers profiles in 12.4 metre lengths.

Seldén Mast joins these to form 20 Ð 25 metre high masts.
15.2 surface treatment

Grinding is one of the methods used for improving surface quality. The process leaves a fi ne
striation in the direction of grinding. The resultant surface can be "very fi ne", "medium" or
"coarse". Grinding is most commonly used for furnishing and interior design products.
Ground surfaces are often anodised. Grinding before painting can further improve the surface
finish.
!
Polishing smoothes the surface. Quality and gloss are determined by customer specifications.
Polished surfaces normally go on to be anodised. To achieve a high-gloss finish, polishing is
followed by bright anodising.
*
&
#
Tumbling is mainly used for deburring. Determined by the polishing medium used in the
drum, surfaces range all the way from matt to gloss.
Bottle openers - deburred by tumbling,

Deburring by tumbling.
anodised in short lengths and screen printed.
Ground surfaces - A: "very fine", B: "medium", C: "coarse".
15.3 %
*
Anodising, one of the most common surface treatments, is used to (amongst other things):
á maintain a product's "as-new" appearance.

á enhance corrosion resistance.
á create a dirt repellent surface that satisfies stringent hygiene requirements.
á create a decorative surface with durable colour and gloss.
á create a "touch-friendly" surface.
á create function-specifi c surfaces, for example, slip surfaces, abrasion-resistant
surfaces for use in machine parts, etc.
á give surfaces an electrically insulating coating.
á provide a base for the application of adhesives or printing inks.
5 /

%
5
Where surfaces are exposed to severe stress in the form of corrosion or
'1 F
abrasion.
Great or normal stress outdoors (e.g. transport and construction industries).
'4 F Indoors ± great stress arising from the use of chemicals (e.g. the foodstuffs
industry).
"1 F Severe abrasion, indoors and outdoors in dry and clean atmospheres.
"4 F Normal stress indoors.
)1 F Protective anodising before machining, short period of etching.
K /
9494 949) 949)% 9441 9441% 94C' 64'" "414% 9"4" 9Ò9))
Decorative
anodising
(natural coloured,
Hx,
2-stage Hx)1) x x x x x
Protective
anodising
(natural) x x x x x x 2) x x (x)
Using the same anodising process, gloss and shade vary between different
1) alloys.
2) Anodising should be avoided as it contaminates the process bath.
Specifi cally intended for bright anodising (prior protective anodising
3) should be avoided).
*

There are normally four stages in the process: pretreatment, anodising, colouring (where
required) and sealing. The most frequent type of anodising is natural anodising. The
electrolytic process takes place once the metal surface has received the appropriate
mechanical or chemical pretreatment and has been thoroughly cleaned.
The profile is connected to a direct current source and becomes the anode (hence anodising).
An electrolytic cell is formed. Dilute sulphuric acid at room temperature is normally used as
the electrolyte. During electrolysis, the surface of the metal is oxidised. The process continues
until the desired layer thickness (usually 5 - 25 µm) is reached.

The oxide layer contains a large number of pores, approx. 10 11 /cm 2 (i. e. around a hundred
billion). The diameter of the pores is between 120 and 330 Å. To obtain an impermeable
surface, the pores have to be sealed. Sealing is achieved by treating the surface in de-ionised
water at 95 - 98° C. This changes the aluminium oxide into bohemite, the attendant increase
in volume closing the pores. The oxide layer formed in natural anodising is transparent.
Coloured oxide layers are also possible (see pages 104 and 105). Natural anodised profiles are
delivered with matt or semi-matt surfaces.

The anodic oxide layer has good corrosion resistance in most environments. With the proviso
that the surface is cleaned, anodised profiles are virtually maintenance-free. The surface
cleans easily in both water with a little neutral detergent and in white spirits. Although
solvents do not affect aluminium, strong alkaline solutions should be avoided. Resistance to
corrosion, discoloration and abrasion increases with layer thickness. Recommendations for
suitable thicknesses are given in the table on the previous page. As the anodic oxide layer has
poor cold formability, forming should take place before anodising. Cutting and drilling can be
carried out after anodising but the exposed surfaces will, of course, be untreated. Welding is
to be carried out before anodising.
!
Corrosion resistance is very good, especially where pH is between 4 and 9. In contact with
strongly alkaline substances, surfaces can stain and be damaged. Thus, it has to be borne in
mind that aluminium should be protected against lime, cement and gypsum (e. g. on building
sites). Visible surfaces can be protected using tape. The hardness of the oxide layer depends
on the anodising process used. Generally, the layer is harder than glass and as hard as
corundum. The oxide layer is transparent. Whether natural or coloured, its appearance
depends on the viewing angle. At temperatures above 100° C, fi ne cracks form in the oxide
layer. From an aesthetic point of view, this may be an undesirable effect.
The reflectivity of bright etched aluminium is high. The gloss value is 90 units (ISO 7599, 60°
viewing angle). This decreases slightly with anodising. The oxide layer is an electrical
insulator. A sealed, 15 µm oxide layer has a breakdown voltage of 500 Ð 600 V. An anodised
profile can be recycled with no pretreatment. Before remelting, painted profiles must fi rst
have the paint removed.
K

Dyeing Natural anodised, unsealed aluminium can be coloured using organic or inorganic
pigments (dyes). Profiles are sealed after dyeing.

Like the dyeing process, electrolytic colouring is also a separate stage after anodising. Under
the infl uence of an alternating current, pigment is precipitated at the bottom of the oxide
layer's pores. The pigmenting agent is tin salt and the colour scale ranges from champagne to
black. The colours, designated from Hx 10 to Hx 50, are highly resistant to fading. After
colouring, profiles are sealed.
(
The colourfastness of an anodised layer depends on the pigments and colouring technique
used. Dyeing: Some coloured layers have limited outdoor colourfastness. Electrolytic Hx
colouring: Limited choice of colours, very good lightfastness, suitable for outdoor use.
G

See the colour guide on page 118. All colours are delivered with a matt or semi-matt finish.
Refl ector panels emerging from the anodising Combined casings-heat sinks for compact
bath. This profile, produced for Infrarödteknik modules using hybrid technology from
AB, is GD-20-l, semi-matt anodised. Ericsson Components. Protective anodising
before treatment, then BL-20-I, semi-matt
anodising in short lengths.
15.4 !
Painting offers a limitless choice of colours and very good colour matching (repeatability).
Powder coating is now easily the most widespread method of painting aluminium profiles.
$
Since 1994, Sapa Lackering has been certifi ed to the German GSB standards. It is the only
company in Sweden to have this certifi cation. To qualify for certifi cation, our products and
processes must meet stringent requirements. Continued compliance is monitored by inspectors
who make a number of unannounced visits every year.
Besides continous checks during production, we have also undertaken to, amongst other
things, carry out some 15 tests a day in shielded rooms. To ensure traceability, the tests are
archived for 5 years.
!
To ensure the right adhesion for the paint, it is important that pretreatment, paint application
and subsequent curing are all carried out correctly.
As maximum adhesion and durability are prime goals, pretreatment is of crucial importance.
Pretreatment normally comprises degreasing and pickling of the surface, followed by a
chemical treatment.
The chemical treatment (chrome-free or chrome-based) gives good adhesion and effective
corrosion resistance. The chrome-free titanium based process is GSB approved and is now our
standard method. It has undergone extensive testing.
Rinse water from the chromating process is treated in effi cient cleaning plants. The sludge is
drawn off and sent away for appropriate disposal. Pretreatment is the same for both powder
coating and wet painting.
"1Ò" !/
Broadly speaking, there are absolutely no limits to the choice of colour. Besides the RAL and
NCS S colour systems, we also work to customers' own colour definitions. Standard gloss is
77 units (ISO 2813, 60° viewing angle).
Powder coatings are applied and cured without solvents. This gives a good work environment
and has no negative impact on the external environment. In a wet coating plant, half the paint
is lost through evaporation and the waste involved in over-spraying. In Sapa's powder coating
plant, up to 98% of the powder is used. Powder that does not adhere to the product is
recirculated via a reclamation system.
!/
?
The prime qualities of powder coating and powder coats are:
á No risk of running or blistering.

á High repeatability.
á Powder coatings withstand knocks and abrasion far better than wet paint coatings.
á Good formability (e. g. can be formed after coating).
á Suitable for outdoor use
á good resistance to UV and corrosion.
Coating thickness is normally 60 - 140 µm. In some designs, the thickness of the coating has
to be taken into consideration when determining profile dimensions and tolerances.
3 3 0

Sapa works with all the kinds of coatings requested by customers. In addition to the
traditional powder coatings, this includes structural, metallic and clear coatings. Decoral, a
development of powder coating, gives patterned surfaces (see also 15.4.2).
Sapa has a number of powder coating plants, each of them specialising in different products.
We also have a Decoral production unit and one for wet painting. The picture shows a vertical
powder coating line - profiles up to 7 metres long are suspended vertically rather than
horizontally, thereby giving a manifold increase in capacity.
+ Powder coatings are applied via

+ Profiles on their way to the curing
triboelectric (friction) or electrostatic oven (temperature is approx. 180° C). Curing
charging. takes about 15 minutes, the time depending on
Profiles emerging from the powder box. the design of the profile. Both these pictures
are taken from one of our horizontal coating
lines.
"1Ò' 0
% /

The technique: A special composition powder coating is fi rst applied. The pattern is then
transferred to the profile. The original pattern, most usually a photographic image of wood or
stone, is copied onto a film that holds the pigments forming the decorative design.
The depth of penetration is crucial for the results Ð a shallow pattern is subject to
comparatively large stresses. The Decoral technique ensures deep penetration. The result is a
surface with all the properties of a traditional powder coating (see "Powder coating qualities",
page 106).
H
*

Thickness ISO 2360 Min. 60µm on visible surfaces
Adhesion ISO 2409 Cross-cut 0 1)
Buchholz hardness ISO 2815 Min. 80
Erichsen ISO 1520 Min. 3 mm
Bending 2) ISO 1519 Ø 8 mm
Kesternich (SO2 ) ISO 3231 24 cycles < 1 mm
Boiling water Pressure cooker, 1 hour No defects or blisters
Mortar resistance ASTM D 3260 Meets base requirements
Damp resistance DIN 50017, 1,000 hours < 1 mm
Salt spray ISO 9227 < 1 mm
Impact 2) ASTM D 2794 < 22 inch-pounds
All tests carried out on decorated plates and profiles
1) Evaluation is on a scale of 0 - 5 where 0 is best.
2) Test carried out on 1 mm thick, AA 5005 H 24 aluminium alloy plates
The Decoral system has been used in series

production since 1996. This has given us a wealth of
experience regarding how Decoral surfaces work in
practice in, amongst other countries, Italy and
Germany. Extensive testing in laboratories has also
provided comprehensive documentation.
Example patterns - choose from a wide range, or create your own.
0

0
Without being any thicker than normal powder coatings, Decoral can add the look of solid
wood to a profile's durability, "create" marble with the same density as aluminium... When it
comes to patterns and colours, there are no limitations.
"1Ò)
Sapa uses many different types of paint and can, of course, offer water-based paints. Alkyd
paints are often used in wet painting. However, they have low formability and cannot be used
for products that are to be formed after painting. Resistance to solvents and oils is poor.
15.5 Sapa /
The perfect complement to both anodising and powder coating Sapa HM-white is produced
by electrophoresis (Honnystone Method). An anodised and unsealed profile is dipped into a
tank where, using direct current, the paint is applied Ð electrophoretic deposition. The paint
(an acrylic based melamine) is then hardened in an oven at around 180° C. Total coating
thickness is approximately 30 µm.
This method offers a range of advantages:
á A UV-resistant white.
á Very good gloss retention and resistance to chemicals.
á Very good corrosion resistance.
á The coating penetrates into the pores of the anodised surface and sticks there. This
gives very good adhesion.
á The surface is impermeable and dirt-repellent.
á The values for hardness, impact and abrasion resistance are almost identical to those
for powder coatings. However, as regards abrasive wear, it must be borne in mind that
HM-white has a surface thickness of 30 µm compared to powder coating's 60 - 140
µm.
á Surface thickness is the same for the entire surface.
á There is no build-up of coating at the edges. This is perfect for structural profiles that
have to be mated with each other and for snap-fit and telescopic designs.
HM-white coating at approx. x 20,000 A hinge Ð HM-white has a great advantage

magnifi cation. One third of the coating is the here as the coating thickness is even on all
anodic oxide layer, 2/ 3 is the paint itself. This profile surfaces and there is thus no build-up
picture was taken by a scanning electron at the edges.
microscope (SEM).
Pictures above and left: HM-white in use. Right: Coloured profiles emerging from the
process bath.
*
Thickness ISO 2360 30µm
Gloss ISO 1813 (60° viewing) 85 5
Adhesion ISO 2409 Cross-cut 0 1)
Buchholz hardness ISO 2815 < 100
Pencil harness - destructive/abrasive INTA 160 30 5H - 3H
Kesternich (SO2 ) ISO 3231 24 cycles
Salt spray test ISO 3768 1,000 hours
Machu < 0.5 mm
Boiling water BS 4842 5 hours
Mortar resistance ASTM C 207 C, 24 hours No adhesion
1) Evaluation is on a scale of 0 - 5 where 0 is best.
15.6
Screen printing (formerly silk-screen printing) is an ancient printing method. The original
design is reproduced on a transparent fi lm that is then placed on a fine-meshed screen
(usually nylon nowadays). This is then exposed and developed photographically. The screen
is next fitted into a frame. Either manually or automatically, a squeegee is dragged along the
screen to transfer the design onto the printing surface. Initial costs (production of the nylon
screen, etc.) are low - often less than EUR 100.
*
Tampon printing is a technique that makes it possible to use screen printing on both concave
and convex surfaces.

Using screen printing, a profile's surfaces can combine natural anodising and colouring.
Anodising is interrupted when the oxide layer has formed. The profile areas that are not to be
printed are then coated with a special masking ink. After printing, the profile is sealed in the
normal way.
.

A masking technique is also used when parts of a profile are to emerge unanodised from the
anodising process. This preserves the surface's electrical and thermal conductivity (the anodic
oxide layer is insulating).
Screen printing can also be used on
painted and / .
15.7 :
We define a function-specific surface as one where certain function-related properties are of

critical importance.
Whatever you require of your function-specifi c surfaces, have a word with Sapa!
3

Here, the surface roughness (i. e. the R a values, axially and radially) is of the utmost
importance. Sapa can meet even the most severe demands. Cylinder tubes are an example.
Direct from the press, we can deliver tubes where the insides have R a values as low as 0.6
axially and 1. 2 radially. The R a values can, of course, be further improved by machining.
%
These surfaces have to be anodised.
Four height adjustable legs made from telescoping aluminium profiles - slip surfaces direct
from the press (no machining). The product: Control cabinet lift columns from MPI.
15.8 %

for choice of surface treatment
! .
! 0
Patterning. Design purposes. Covering
lines and
extrusion stripes. Increasing
friction
(grip).
K%<K%
.:%K
*%**

Patterning. Design purposes. Marking.

Improved surface quality. Wherever an exclusive
Superior appearance. appearance
at a reasonable price is the
goal.
!
Improved surface finish. Furnishing and interior
Superior appearance. design products.
Finish and gloss as specified
by the
customer.
*
Smoothing of cut edges. Deburring. Primarily deburring.
Matt to gloss
surfaces depending on tumbling
medium.
%(0<<
Very good corrosion protection. The Both indoors and outdoors.
surface A base for application of
retains its ³as-new´ appearance, is adhesives
dirt-repellent or printing inks.
and resistant to mechanical abrasion.
Colour and
gloss resist fading. An electrically
insulating coating.
$

Intense gloss, high reflectivity. Where there are high
demands as
regards surface finish.
K
Huge choice of colours, some of Primarily indoors ± some
K
them with outdoor
very high lightfastness. applications.
Limited choice of colours ± Primarily outdoors.
champagne to black.
Very high lightfastness.
!%<*< Unlimited choice of colours. A range Both indoors and outdoors.
of painting
systems to meet different
requirements. Very good
corrosion resistance.
K*(!(< UV-resistant colour with a more Both indoors and outdoors.
/ durable gloss than
traditional paints. Very good
corrosion resistance.
Coating thickness the same over the
entire surface.
K !<*<
!
Wear-resistant print. Limited choice Design purposes. Logos.

of colours.
!
Wide choice of colours. Limited Design purposes. Logos.
abrasion resistance.
15.9 K
for anodising
G

0

0

&# &#
5- NA-5 - NA-
12,400 A LI-25-I 2,400
25µm 25
LI - 30-I 2,400
$/
Champagne Hx-10 7,500 BO-20-! 2,400

Light
Hx-20 7,500 (x) BO-35-I 2,400 (x)
amber
Amber Hx-30 7,500
Dark amber Hx-40 7,500 (x) $5 SV-50-U 2,400
Black Hx-50 7,500
$

&
GD-20-I 7,800
9Ò9)#
GD-30-I 7,800 Nature NA-5-GI 2,400
GD-30-U 7,800 Gold GD-20-GI 2,400
GD-40-I 7,800 Yellow YW-20-GI 2,400
8/ YW-40-U 2,400 Orange OR-35-GI 2,400
Orange OR-35-I 2,400 Red RD-25-GI 2,400
Red RD-15-I 2,400 Red RC-30-GI 2,400 (x)
cerice
RD-25-U 2,400 Green GN-40-GI 2,400
Red cerice RC-30-I 2,400 Blue BL-20-GI 2,400
Blue
Green GN-40-I 2,400 BG-30-GI 2,400
grey
Blue BL-20-I 2,400 Violet LI-30-GI 2,400
Brown
BL-30-U 2,400 (x) BO-20-GI 2,400 (x)
olive
Blue-grey BG-10-I 2,400 BO-35-GI 2,400 (x)
BG-30-I 2,400 Black SV-50-GI 2,400
(x) Certain restrictions apply to
colours
marked (x) - see below
0'1.3 0)4<3
Sapa's colour Amongst the many factors infl Taken all together, this means
designations uencing the perceived that aluminium is truly a
have three parts: appearance of anodised "living" material. All colours
surfaces are: can be delivered with a matt or
K semi-matt finish. Gloss
á Profile shape finishes are also available. The
á Viewing light and angle table above lists the colours
0 = red 25 = intensity á Surface structure that can be delivered with a
. = outdorr use á Thickness of the gloss finish.
anodising layer
0 = gold 30 = intensity á Choice of alloy.
< = primarily indoor use
The intensity scale runs

from
0 to 50.
16. K
16.1 Aluminium's

Untreated aluminium has very good corrosion resistance in most environments. This is
primarily because aluminium spontaneously forms a thin but effective oxide layer that
prevents further oxidation.
Aluminium oxide is impermeable and, unlike the oxide layers on many other metals, it
adheres strongly to the parent metal. If damaged mechanically, aluminium's oxide layer
repairs itself immediately.
This oxide layer is one of the main reasons for aluminium's good corrosion properties. The
layer is stable in the general pH range 4 ± 9. In strongly acid or alkaline environments,
aluminium normally corrodes relatively rapidly.
K
Between Sapa's most widely used alloys, there is little variation in corrosion resistance.
However, alloys containing more than 0.5% copper generally have poorer resistance.
Therefore, they should not be used unprotected in environments with a high chloride content
(e. g. where there is road salt or near sea water).
16.2 The kinds of corrosion
The most common types of corrosion are:
á galvanic corrosion
á pitting
á crevice corrosion
Stress corrosion, which leads to crack formation, is a more special type of corrosion. It occurs
primarily in high-strength alloys (e. g. AlZnMg alloys) where these are subjected to prolonged
tensile stress in the presence of a corrosive medium.
This type of corrosion does not normally occur in common AlMgSi alloys.
"9'"
Galvanic corrosion may occur where there is both metallic contact and an electrolytic bridge
between different metals.
The least noble metal in the combination becomes the anode and corrodes. The most noble of
the metals becomes the cathode and is protected against corrosion. In most combinations with
other metals, aluminium is the least noble metal. Thus, aluminium presents a greater risk of
galvanic corrosion than most other structural materials. However, the risk is less than is
generally supposed.
In the reverse situation (large cathode, small

A small cathode surface and a large anode
anode), attack can be serious in diffi cult
surface results in negligible corrosion.
environments.

Galvanic corrosion of aluminium occurs:

á ( where there is contact with a more noble metal (or other electron conductor with
a higher chemical potential than aluminium, e. g. graphite).
á , at the same time, there is an electrolyte (with good conductivity) between the
metals.
Galvanic corrosion is often attributable to unsuitable structural design. Galvanic corrosion

does not occur in dry, indoor atmospheres. Nor is the risk great in rural atmospheres.
However, the risk of galvanic corrosion must always be taken into account in environments
with high chloride levels, e. g. areas bordering the sea. Copper, carbon steel and even stainless
steel can here initiate galvanic corrosion.
Problems can also occur where the metallic combination is galvanised steel and aluminium.
The zinc coating of the galvanised steel will, at fi rst, prevent the aluminium being attacked.
However, this protection disappears when the steel surface is exposed after the consumption
of the zinc.
As it has a thicker zinc coating than electroplated material, hot dip galvanised material gives
longer protection. Thus, in combination with aluminium in aggressive environments, hot dip
galvanised material should be used.
Close-up of galvanic corrosion in an aluminium rail

post (25 year's use). The rectangular hollow profile
was held in place by a carbon steel bolt. The contact
surfaces between the steel and the aluminium were
often wet and attack was aggravated by wintertime
salting.
"9'' !

The risk of galvanic corrosion should not be exaggerated Ð corrosion does not occur in dry,
indoor atmospheres and the risk is not great in rural atmospheres.
Electrical insulation Where different metals are used in combination, galvanic corrosion can
be prevented by electrically insulating them from each other. The insulation has to break all
contact between the metals. The illustration shows a solution for bolt joints.
$5

In large constructions, where insulation is diffi cult, an alternative solution is to prevent an

electrolytic bridge forming between the metals. Painting is one way of doing this. Here, it is
often best to coat the cathode surface (i. e. the most noble metal). A further solution is to use
an insulating layer between the metals.
K
Cathodic protection can be gained in two ways. The most common is to mount an anode of a
less noble material in direct metallic contact with the aluminium object to be protected. The
less noble material "sacrifi ces" itself (i. e. corrodes) for the aluminium. It is thus referred to
as a sacrifi cial anode. For the above to work, there also has to be liquid contact between the
surface to be protected and the sacrifi cial anode. Zinc or magnesium anodes are often used
for aluminium. Another way of obtaining cathodic protection is to connect the aluminium
object to the negative pole of an exterior DC voltage source. The illustration below shows the
cathodic protection of an outboard motor.
"9') !
For aluminium, pitting is by far the most common type of corrosion. It occurs only in the
presence of an electrolyte (either water or moisture) containing dissolved salts, usually
chlorides.
The corrosion generally shows itself as extremely small pits that, in the open air, reach a
maximum penetration of a minor fraction of the metal's thickness. Penetration may be greater
in water and soil.
As the products of corrosion often cover the points of attack, visible pits are rarely evident on
aluminium surfaces.
"9'Ò !

Pitting is primarily an aesthetic problem that, practically speaking, never affects strength.
Attack is, of course, more severe on untreated aluminium. Surface treatment (anodising,
painting and coating with HM-white) counteracts pitting.
Cleaning is necessary to maintain the treated surface's attractive appearance and its corrosion
protection. Rinsing with water is often suffi cient. Alkaline detergents should be used with
care. Mild alkaline detergents are now available. These are used in, amongst other areas, the
industrial cleaning of aluminium.
Pitting can be prevented by cathodic protection (see previous page). It is also important to
design profiles so that they dry easily.
%
5 in which water can
collect. Instead, use a shape that

The risk of dirt build-up is reduced with Stagnant water is avoided by

the profile and/ or providing
(min. Ø 8 mm, or 6 x 20 mm, so that
capillary forces do not prevent the water
running off). The ventilation of "closed"
constructions reduces the risk of
condensation.
"9'1 K
Crevice corrosion can occur in narrow, liquid-filled crevices. The likelihood of this type of
corrosion occurring in extruded profiles is small.
However, significant crevice corrosion can occur in

marine atmospheres, or on the exteriors of vehicles.
During transport and storage, water sometimes
collects in the crevices between superjacent
aluminium surfaces and leads to superfi cial corrosion
(" water staining"). The source of this water is rain or
condensation that, through capillary action, is sucked
in between the metal surfaces. Condensation can form when cold material is taken into warm
premises. The difference between night and day temperatures can also create condensation
where aluminium is stored outdoors under tarpaulins that provide a tight seal.
"9'9 !

Preventing crevice corrosion Using sealing compounds or double-sided tapes before joining
two components prevents water from penetrating into the gaps.
In some cases, rivets or screws can be replaced by, or combined with, adhesive bonding. This
counteracts the formation of crevices.
16.3 Aluminium in
The corrosion of metals in the open air depends on the so-called time of wetness and the
composition of the surface electrolytes. The time of wetness refers to the period during which
a metal's surface is suffi ciently wet for corrosion to occur. The time of wetness is normally
considered to be when relative humidity exceeds 80% and, at the same time, the temperature
is above 0° C (e. g. when condensation forms).
In normal rural atmospheres, and in moderately sulphurous atmospheres, aluminium's
durability is excellent.
In highly sulphurous atmospheres, minor pitting may occur. However, generally speaking, the
durability of aluminium is superior to that of carbon steel or galvanised steel.
The presence of salts (particularly chlorides) in the air reduces aluminium's durability, but less
than is the case for most other construction materials.
Maximum pit depth is generally only a fraction of the thickness of the material. Thus, in
marked contrast to carbon steel, strength properties remain practically unchanged.
: / K <

In a range of outdoor atmospheres, the Swedish
Corrosion Institute has carried out field exposure tests
on untreated metals. For plates that had received no
surface treatment, the weight losses after eight year's
exposure are given here. After the eight years, the
average pit depth in the aluminium plates was 70 µm
(0.07 mm). The bar chart shows that aluminium's
weight loss near the sea was: Ð approx. 1/ 100 th that
of carbon steel (Fe). Ð approx. 1/ 10 th that of
galvanised steel (see Zn in the bar chart). The rate of
corrosion decreases rapidly with distance from the
sea. Approximately 1 km from the sea, aluminium
behaves more or less the same as it does in a rural
atmosphere. The corrosion rate of the pits decreases
with time.
The picture shows an untreated sample after 20 years

off the south-west coast of Sweden. UV radiation,
sulphuric acid and nitric acid in combination with
chlorides have not left any deep marks. After 22 years
in a marine atmosphere, examination of an untreated
aluminium sample (alloy AA 6063) showed that
corrosion attack was so limited (max. depth approx.
0.15 mm) that strength was not affected.
16.4 Aluminium in
Soil is not a uniform material. Mineral composition, moisture content, pH, presence of
organic materials and electrical conductivity can all vary widely from site to site. These
differences make it difficult to predict a metal's durability in soil. Furthermore, other factors
(e. g. stray currents from DC voltage sources) can also affect durability.
Aluminium's corrosion properties in soil very much depend on the soil's moisture, resistivity
and pH value. Unfortunately, present knowledge about the corrosiveness of different types of
soils is not comprehensive.
When using aluminium in soil, some form of protective treatment, e. g. a bitumen coating, is
recommended. Corrosion can also be prevented by cathodic protection.
Bitumen coating (here of a fence post and a telephone pole) prevents corrosion.
Aluminium in soil protection is recommended.
16.5 Aluminium in /
A metal's corrosion in water is largely dependent on the composition of the water. For
aluminium, it is the presence of chlorides and heavy metals that has the greatest effect on
durability.
In natural fresh water and drinking water, aluminium may be subject to pitting. However, with
regular drying and cleaning, the risk of harmful attack is small. Pots, pans and other
household equipment can be used for decades without there being any pitting.
The likelihood of harmful attack increases where water is stagnant and the material is wet for
long periods.
!
/ +
á design solutions that reduce the risk of water being trapped

á cathodic protection
á corrosion inhibitors, e. g. used in car radiators.
The rate of pitting in fresh water decreases strongly with time and has been proven to obey the
above formula, where d is maximum pit depth, k a constant determined by the alloy and water
composition and t is time.
The formula indicates, for example, that a doubling of the pit depth that has developed by the
end of the fi rst three years can only be expected after a total of 24 years. In sea water, AlMg
alloys with over 2.5% Mg (and AlMgSi alloys) show particularly good durability.
Copper containing alloys should be avoided. Where they are used, they must be given
effective corrosion protection.
When correct attention has been paid to design, especially as regards use with other materials
(and the risk of galvanic corrosion), aluminium is an excellent material in a marine context.
One example of this is the extensive use of aluminium in many types of ships and boats.
Cathodic protection against corrosion is widely used here.
K /
Aluminium that is only partly submerged in water can corrode directly under the water line
(so-called waterline corrosion). This type of corrosion, which only occurs in stagnant water,
can be prevented by coating the area around the water line.
16.6 Aluminium and 5 building materials
Splashes of damp alkaline building materials, e. g. mortar and concrete, leave superfi cial but
visible stains on aluminium surfaces. As these stains are diffi cult to remove, visible
aluminium surfaces should be protected on, for example, building sites. Other materials also
require the same sort of protection.
Aluminium cast into concrete is similarly attacked. This increases the adhesion between the
materials. Once the concrete has set (dried), there is normally no corrosion. However, where
moisture persists, corrosion may develop. The volume of the products generated by corrosion
can give rise to cracks in the concrete.
This type of corrosion can be effectively prevented by coating the aluminium with bitumen or
a paint that tolerates alkaline environments. As the oxide layer is not stable in strongly
alkaline environments, anodising does not improve durability here.
Provided that the concrete has set, aluminium does not need to be protected in dry, indoor
atmospheres.
16.7 Aluminium and
Aluminium and chemicals Thanks to the protective properties of the natural oxide layer,
aluminium shows good resistance to many chemicals. However, low or high pH values (less
than 4 and more than 9) lead to the oxide layer dissolving and, consequently, rapid corrosion
of the aluminium. Inorganic acids and strong alkaline solutions are thus very corrosive for
aluminium.
Exceptions to the above are concentrated nitric acid and solutions of ammonia. These do not
attack aluminium.
In moderately alkaline water solutions, corrosion can be hindered by using silicates as
inhibitors. Such kinds of inhibitors are normally included in dishwasher detergents.
Most inorganic salts are not markedly corrosive for aluminium. Heavy metal salts form an
exception here. These can give rise to serious galvanic corrosion due to the reduction of heavy
metals (e. g. copper and mercury) on aluminium surfaces. Aluminium has very good
resistance to many organic compounds.
Aluminium equipment is used in the production and storage of many chemicals.
16.8 Aluminium and
Coatings or build-ups of dirt on the metal's surface can reduce durability to a certain extent.
Very often, this is attributable to the surface now being exposed to moisture for considerable
periods. Thus, depending on the degree of contamination, dirty surfaces should be cleaned
once or twice a year.
16.9 Aluminium and
When choosing fasteners for use with aluminium, special attention should be paid to avoiding
galvanic corrosion and crevice corrosion (see sections 16.2.1, 16. 2.2 and 16.2.5).
Galvanic corrosion of aluminium occurs where there is metallic contact with a more noble
metal. It should be pointed out that, indoors and in other dry atmospheres, aluminium can be
in permanent contact with brass and carbon steel with no risk of galvanic corrosion.
The table on page 129 shows some of the most common surface coatings for fasteners. The
evaluation of the surface coatings is based on the findings of fastener and coating suppliers, as
well as the experience of Sapa and its customers (primarily in the building and automotive
industries).
In deciding which fasteners to use, the table should be regarded as an introductory guideline.
As development is rapid, Sapa also recommends that fastener and coating suppliers be
contacted.
The pictures below show the results of an accelerated corrosion test, the Volvo Indoor
Corrosion Test (VICT). The test cycle is 12 weeks. This corresponds to fi ve year's use of a
car in a moderately large town (Gothenburg).
Zinc/ iron-coated steel nut and bolt. The Dacrolit-coated steel nut and bolt. The
fastener is completely rusted. In the fastener has not been attacked. No pits have
aluminium, 0.43 mm deep pits have formed. formed in the aluminium.
At-a-glance guide for

The table below lists some of the most common materials and coatings for fasteners used with
aluminium. It also gives an evaluation of corrosion resistance in different environments.
16.10 K 5

Aluminium has excellent durability.
Aluminium has excellent durability.

Superficial pitting can occur. Nonetheless, durability is
generally superior to that of carbon steel and galvanised steel.
K

!
The design should promote drying, e.g. good drainage.
Avoid having unprotected aluminium in protracted contact

with stagnant water.
Avoid pockets where dirt can collect and keep the material
wet for protracted periods.
Low (under 4) and high (over 9) values should, in principle,
be avoided.
In severe environments, especially those with a high chloride
content, attention must be paid to the risk of galvanic
corrosion. Some form of insulation between aluminium and
more noble metals (e.g. carbon steel, stainless steel, copper)
is recommended.
K &?# In closed, liquid containing systems, inhibitors can often
be used to provide corrosion protection.
3 / In difficult, wet environments, the use of cathodic protection
should be considered.
17. K
When compared with other design solutions, aluminium profiles are almost always
competitive. Though the price per kg is higher than that of, for example, steel, this is
counterbalanced by advantages such as:
very great freedom in creating exactly the shape that solves the design problem and
contributes to the high quality of the end product
á aesthetically pleasing surfaces

á low die costs Ð low machining costs
á low weight combined with high strength
á long lifetime, minimum maintenance
á high recycling value.
The balance sheet comes out in favour of products based on aluminium profiles!
17.1 How you, the

can influence cost-efficiency
Through carefully considered design, designers can infl uence the following cost-affecting
factors: alloy, shape, weight per meter, surface class, tolerances, surface treatment,
machining, recycling.
%
A number of factors have to be taken into consideration when choosing the right alloy for an
extruded product. These include strength requirements, surface quality, suitability for
decorative anodising, corrosion resistance, machining (cutting or plastic), weldability and
costefficiency. High-alloy aluminiums are relatively more expensive and more difficult to
extrude. Thus, alloys with higher than necessary strength should not be chosen. It is
sometimes more cost-efficient to increase dimensions and extrude the profile in a slightly
softer, but more easily extruded, alloy. See also chapter 7, "Choosing the right alloy".

Exploit the potential to create a shape that reduces the need for further machining and simplifi
es the assembly of the final product. Simplify the cross section as much as possible. Refer
back to chapters 9 and 10, "General design advice" and "Jointing".

Carefully considered design can reduce weight per meter. This often lowers costs. See also
chapter 9, "General design advice".

The choice of surface class affects price. The fi ner the surface, the higher the production cost
(greater monitoring of dies, lower extrusion speed, increased handling costs). Surface classes
5 and 6 are the most economical to produce. Think carefully about which surfaces really need
to be classed and marked as visible (refer to chapter 12, "Surface classes").
*
Tight tolerances decrease productivity and, consequently, increase production costs. Thus,
special tolerances should be restricted to the dimensions that are most important for the
profile's functionality. See also chapter 11, "Profile tolerances".

Choosing the right surface treatment has a positive impact on appearance, function and
durability. See also chapter 15, "Surface treatment".

At the design stage, it is important to create a shape that requires a minimum amount of
subsequent machining. Extrusion provides many possibilities for including a number of
functional features (screw ports, tracks, snap-fi t joints, etc.) in the profile solution. Refer to
chapters 9 and 10, "General design advice" and "Jointing". Carefully considered machining
(tolerances, deburring, machining before or after surface treatment, etc.) can also have a
positive impact on the product's final price. See also chapter 14, "Machining".

The recycling of aluminium consumes relatively little power. It must be borne in mind that
bolt joints, and other solutions involving the use of materials other than aluminium, can
complicate recycling. See also chapter 4, "Environmental impact".
17.2 How you, the can influence cost-efficiency
(
Unit price for small volumes is always higher than it is for large volumes. The larger the
ordered volume, the less the unit price is affected by fi xed costs such as tooling-up, machine
adjustments, etc.
!

Where you yourself take charge of machining, a lot of work is involved in inviting and
evaluating tenders. Besides material and machining costs, calculations should also make
provision for:
á inspection of incoming profile material

á warm storage
á production preparation
á tool inspection
á tool storage
á tool installation
á rejects
á production waste
á transport to and from subcontractors
á loading, packing, unpacking, etc.
á dealing with offers and orders
á dealing with invoices.
On top of all that, the cost of tied-up capital also has to be taken into consideration.
B /

With Sapa in charge of machining, you do not have the bother of taking care of rejects and
production waste. You receive a fi xed price for the finished component. Production is
tailored to minimising production waste. Sapa's long experience ensures that there is minimal
rejection.
%
For Sapa, rejects and production waste are a high-grade raw material that can be directly
exploited and put back into production without expensive intermediaries.

Our planning is made easier by the fact that we have control of the entire production chain.
Should anything unexpected occur, e. g. during machining, we can rapidly bring in extra
profiles. Along with reduced transport, this contributes to shorter lead times.

When you choose Sapa as your partner, you only pay: Ð when the finished components are
delivered Ð for the exact number of components supplied. When you yourself take charge of
machining, you have to bear the full capital cost of materials all the way through production.
This includes the costs associated with what becomes scrap and waste.

For you, having Sapa as the single centre of responsibility, means (amongst other things):
á reduced work in connection with tenders

á reduced ordering and organising of transport
á simplifi ed monitoring of deliveries
á simplified quality assurance
á fewer invoices
á minimal work in connection with claims.

You have a single supplier, a single point of contact, one order, one delivery, one invoice and
one telephone number to ring. It really is that simple!
Having Sapa as your partner reduces the burden of administration. It also offers every
possibility for increased profi tability, higher productivity and improved quality.
It is all about coordination - general and specific, large and small, chalk and cheese, strategic
and tactical. Business development, research and development, quality assurance, logistics,
market analyses, materials science, mechanical engineering, assembly, production planning,
product development, profile optimisation, project management, technical development,
technical calculation, monitoring and inspection, training, surface treatment and much, much
more.
17.3 Sapa's
"Sapa shall be the most sought after partner in our industry and shall be the market leader in
the Nordic countries. Our focus is customer service, technical expertise, quality and delivery
dependability."
Are we in a position to help you with expertise, quality and resources? Can we free resources
for your company's core business?
There is a reason for contacting Sapa for open discussions. Many companies have found that
the closer the partnership with Sapa, the sharper the resultant competitive edge.
"C') K
3
3
Colleges, industry organisations, etc. Outside Sapa, a number of institutions are involved in
aluminium-related research, development and knowledge sharing. Many technical and
regional colleges, high schools and private sector training companies run projects that have
the goal of raising understanding of aluminium technology.
Industry organisations such as Skanaluminium, Svenskt Aluminium and Aluminiumriket

support, at many different levels, researchers and lecturers in their aluminium-related
activities.
In all these initiatives, Sapa plays an active role as an institutor and implementor.

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2.

   

These heat sinks exploit aluminium¶s high thermal conductivity.

Aluminium is an excellent conductor of heat and electricity. An aluminium conductor weighs

Aluminium is a good reflector of both visible light and radiated heat.

Aluminium is extremely durable in neutral and slightly acid environments.

Further details are given in chapter 16, "Corrosion".

Aluminium is a non-magnetic (actually paramagnetic) material. To avoid interference of

!         "#   

Aluminium is easy to work using most machining methods.

Aluminium has excellent resistance in neutral and slightly acid environments.

In today's environmental-conscious society, the recycling of used aluminium products is

As mentioned in chapter 3, producing aluminium from bauxite requires comparatively large

The remelting works in Sjunnen, Sweden

Die cleaning - a closed process producing no waste water.

     

Assuming no recycled steel or aluminium is used:

*    

A steel car bonnet is replaced by an aluminium one.

1) EPS = Environmental Priority Strategies in product design is a practical method for

Energy consumption in the

Energy consumption during

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In all sectors, the demand for recyclability is growing

Aluminium profiles will become more common in all

On top of all this, aluminium has a host of unique structural properties.

The electrolysis of alumina to produce aluminium was first achieved in 1886.

Billets are heated to the right temperature in an induction furnace.

*/  

There are two main classes of profile ± solid and hollow:

Dies for solid profiles .

Stretching relieves profiles of any stress

The table below gives the broad outline of the systems.

Some alloys use manganese, zirconium or chrome to increase toughness.

Logs being prepared for extrusion.

! K   

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Refer to 15.3, "Anodising".

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All All applications Certain Where high High-strenght

Ultimate t  50 t  50 t  50 t t5 t5

 5 

To optimise cost-efficiency, a profile's design should always be as production-friendly as

  / 5  

9.1 .  wall thickness

It is of course perfectly acceptable for a

9.2  lines

9.3   if possible

Solid profiles reduce

9.4 :/  in hollow profiles

9.5 Profiles with   

$= Where channels width is under 2 mm, or

... and then  to

It may be possible to Here, a holder has to

Waviness here increases the area by "4"1

An undulation surface increases the heat

This profile exemplifies technical

Decoration has several advantages:

A decorative pattern can make a plain A joint can be 

It is often acceptable However, a profile Here, the profile's It is advantage if

It is of course perfectly acceptable for a

AS far as possible, Tips should, Following extrusion, Always use 

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9.1 . wall thickness

9.2 lines

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9.4 :/ in hollow profiles

9.5 Profiles with

$= Where channels width is under 2 mm, or

... and then to

Waviness here increases the area by "4"1

A decorative pattern can make a plain A joint can be

AS far as possible, Tips should, Following extrusion, Always use

9.3 if possible

9.4 :/ in hollow profiles

$= Where channels width is under 2 mm, or

... and then to

Waviness here increases the area by "4"1

A decorative pattern can make a plain A joint can be

10.1 /

Skruvfickan kan gängas på vanligt sätt f> 55 .

Vanligast är att skruvfickan används direkt >

Genom att placera skruvfickan i ett hörn

5/

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10.9 : /

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á Increased leakproofness ± entirely void-

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á Increased repeatability ± production has

%

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13. * 5 profiles

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14.1 5

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