Punctuation Marks

Quotation Marks
Question Mark

What is punctuation?
Punctuation is a set of conventions or rules. The purpose of these rules is to
enable written text to be read easily and accurately. Written text is divided up
by punctuation marks, which help to make the meaning of the text clear.

Punctuation rules are not always strictly followed. Some rules, for example,
the use of question marks, dont really change. Other rules, for example, the
rules regarding commas, however, can change over time or depending on the
style of the writer.

There are some differences in usage between British English and American
English, which we will point out as we go along. Both are correct, but it is best
to use one form and stick to it.
We are going to look at the following punctuation marks (you can click here):

1. full stop
2. exclamation mark
3. question mark
4. comma
5. colon
6. semi-colon
7. apostrophe
8. quotation marks / inverted commas
9. round brackets
10. square brackets
11. dash
12. hyphen

Full Stop (.)

The full stop is also known as a period in American English.

1. Used to mark the end of a Sentence

Alternatively, a sentence may be closed with an exclamation mark (!) or a

question mark (?).
After any of these three punctuation marks, the next sentence will begin with a
capital letter.

We finished work early on Friday. I wish we could finish work early every
Friday!
2. Abbreviations

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase.

Some examples include:

E.g. (Example)
Etc. (Et cetera And so forth)
Thurs. (Thursday)
Brit. (British)
Dr (Doctor)
If the abbreviation has the first and last letters of a word, in British English the
full stop is not used.

Doctor Dr
Mister Mr
However, it is common in American English to use full stops or periods in this
case.

Doctor Dr.
Mister Mr.
In British English, the full stop or period is often not used when abbreviating
the names of degrees.

Bachelor of Science BSc

Doctorate of Philosophy Ph
However, it is common in American English to use full stops or periods in this
case.

Bachelor of Science B.Sc.

 Doctorate of Philosophy Ph.D.
If the abbreviation is the first part of a word, a full stop should be used.

Wednesday Wed.
January Jan.
Full stops or periods are never used in the following cases:

Symbols or units of measurement: Km, min, hr

Acronyms: UNESCO, NATO, AIDS
Ordinal adjectives: 4th, 8th, 10th

Exclamation Mark (!)

An exclamation mark is used to express a strong emotion, such as surprise,
anger or delight. It is placed at the end of the sentence. If an exclamation
mark is used, it is not necessary to use a full stop as well.

Bernice and Ryan are getting married!

Get out!
It is also used when the writer finds something amusing or ironic.

It rained every day on our honeymoon!

The question mark is used to end an interrogative sentence. An interrogative
sentence is a sentence that asks a direct question.

Have you seen Brian today?

How long ago did you set up the company?
Do not use a question mark for reported questions.

He asked her to go to the shop to get a few beers.

Comma (,)
Commas are primarily used to indicate pauses in speech and they are used to
prevent misunderstanding.

1. Used to separate items in a List

Commas are used to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a

series.
 He bought fish, potatoes and vegetables at the market.
There is no comma between the penultimate item in a list and the and/or,
which is sometimes referred to as the Serial or Oxford comma, unless the
items in the list are long or it is required to prevent ambiguity.
Compare these two sentences:

My estate will be divided in equal shares among my wife, my son, my

daughter, and my cousin.
The presence of the comma signals that the estate will be divided in four
equal shares
Now, without the Oxford comma:

My estate will be divided in equal shares among my wife, my son, my

daughter and my cousin.
In this case, the estate would be divided into three equal shares, with the
daughter and the cousin dividing their share between them.
2. Used between similar adjectives

Commas are always used between adjectives when they follow be and other
linking verbs like look, seem and become.

She was tall, beautiful and elegant.

He looks happy, content and self-assured.
Generally, commas are used between adjectives which come before a noun
and which give similar kinds of information.

It was a difficult, stressful time in my life.

Commas are generally not used between adjectives which come before a
noun and which give different kinds of information.

Who is the new attractive employee?

3. Used to introduce or end a piece of direct speech

Generally, a comma is used between the reporting expression and the piece
of direct speech.
 She said, I cant live without you.
When the reporting expression follows the piece of direct speech, a comma is
used before the closing quotation mark.

She is the best teacher I have ever had, said Nadine.

4. Used after an introductory clause, phrase or word

A comma is used after an introductory clause, phrase or word to separate it

from the rest of the sentence.

If you are ever in Colombia, please come and visit me!

According to Mary, Dee has never been to France.
However, it was the best we could do at the time.
5. Used to separate two independent clauses that are joined by a co-
ordinating conjunction

A comma is used before a co-ordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, yet, nor,
so) between two independent clauses, unless the independent clauses are
very short.

Valerie hates beans and Mike hates fish.

Valerie ordered fish because she hates beans, and Mike ordered beans
because he hates fish.
6. Used to separate non-essential information from the rest of the
sentence

Information which is not essential to the understanding of the sentence can be

separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.

Pamela, Martins cousin, won the lottery last week!

Mexico City, one of the biggest cities in the world, is a melting pot of
cultures.
7. Unusual word order
A word or words that interrupt the normal progression of a sentence are
usually separated by commas.

My uncle, however, was violently opposed to the marriage.

Brian ODriscoll, the Irish Rugby player, bought a house in Spain.
Recommended for you:

Colon (:)
A colon is used to introduce related information.

1. To introduce lists

The course covers many subjects: history of translation, translation theory,

translation technologies, and ethics.

2. To introduce direct speech

Normally, direct speech is introduced by a comma in writing.

Sarah said, I wish you didnt have to go tonight.

However, if a long passage of direct speech is being introduced or if it is
introduced by a name, as in a play, a colon may be used.

Mary: I hate it when we argue. We used to get along so well and now it
seems like we cant agree on anything. Maybe we shouldnt see each
other for a while.
3. To introduce a quotation
 As Gandhi once famously said: Live as if you were to die tomorrow.
Learn as if you were to live forever.
4. Used between two independent clauses when the second clause
explains, illustrates or follows on from the first clause

We didnt go on holiday this year: we dont have any money.

5. Subdivision

A colon can introduce a subdivision of a subject in a heading or title.

Sentences: Interrogative Sentences

6. Opening Salutation of Letters

American English often uses a colon after the opening salutation of a letter.
British English, generally, uses a comma or nothing at all.

American English: Dear Mr. Peters:

British English: Dear Mr Peters
Note: Capital Letters
British English does not normally use a capital letter after a colon, unless the
word would be capitalised in any case or it is the beginning of a quotation.

We ate so many vegetables: broccoli, carrots, cauliflower, and courgette.

American English often uses a capital letter after a colon.

We ate so many vegetables: Broccoli, carrots, cauliflower, and courgette.

Semi-colon (;)
1. Used instead of a full stop between two independent clauses

When two sentences are grammatically independent but are closely linked or
related in meaning, you can use a semi-colon instead of a full stop between
the two sentences. The semi-colon highlights the link or relationship between
the two sentences.

Some people love to go to the gym; others love to exercise outdoors.

The weather has been terrible recently; I hope it improves soon.
A semi-colon can also be used between two independent clauses with a
linking word or phrase.

Andrew loves to party; however, he has calmed down a lot recently.

Mexico is a beautiful and diverse country; in addition, the food is
excellent.
2. Lists

Semi-colons can also be used to separate items in a list, especially when

these are long or grammatically complex.

There are certain conditions that you must meet before you can enter the
University: you must be over eighteen years old; you must have studied
French, English and Mathematics; you must have paid the enrolment fee
in full; you must have given the course administrator a copy of your
passport.

Apostrophe ()
1. Used to show possession
An apostrophe is used to indicate that something belongs to someone.
If the noun is singular, add an apostrophe followed by the letter S.

Harrys car was broken into last weekend!

If the noun is singular and ends in s, add an apostrophe followed the by letter
S.

The bosss wife is starting work here next Monday!

If the noun is plural and ends in s, add an apostrophe.

My three dogs fur was so soft and silky after going to the groomers.
If the noun is plural but doesnt end in s, add an apostrophe followed by the
letter S.

The childrens coats were found behind the sofa.

Note:
Possessive pronouns and determiners do not have apostrophes.
This essay is yours. (Not yours)
The dog has hidden all of its toys. (Not its)

2. Used to show that one or more letters are missing

Apostrophes are used in contractions to show that there is a letter or there are
letters missing.

Its It is or It has
Shed She would or She had
Cant Cannot
Didnt Did not
Quotation Marks/Inverted Commas () ()
Quotation marks are also known as inverted commas in British English.

They can be single: friend or double: friend.

Single quotation marks are more common in British English, and double
quotation marks are more common in American English. However, both are
perfectly acceptable, but it is best to choose one style and to stick to it.
Quotation marks are used to separate a word or group of words from the rest
of the text.

1. Direct speech

Quotation marks are used when direct speech is quoted.

Sinead said, Where were you? We have been waiting for you since
yesterday.
2. Quotations

If a text includes a direct quotation from a person, a book, a report and so on,
the quotation must be enclosed in quotation marks.

One of my favourite quotes of all time is by Einstein Insanity: doing the

same thing over and over again and expecting different results.
If the quotation is very long, usually inverted commas are not used and the
quote is indented on the page.

One of my favourite books of all time is East of Eden by John Steinbeck

and my favourite quote from the book is as follows:
I believe that there is one story in the world, and only one. . . . Humans
are caughtin their lives, in their thoughts, in their hungers and
ambitions, in their avarice and cruelty, and in their kindness and
 generosity tooin a net of good and evil. . . . There is no other story. A
man, after he has brushed off the dust and chips of his life, will have left
only the hard, clean questions: Was it good or was it evil? Have I done
wellor ill?
3. Titles

Titles may be enclosed in inverted commas in handwritten or printed text,

although it is more common in printed text for a title to be written in italics.

Gone With the Wind

The Shawshank Redemption
4. Special use of words

Quotation marks are used to highlight unusual words or words that are being
used in a special way (often in an ironic way) or to distinguish words in a
sentence.
Students of English often have a problem with the pronunciation of words like
would, should and could.

The hadal zone is the deepest part of the ocean, starting at a depth of
6000 meters to the bottom of the ocean.
She said she had never met such intellectuals in her life!
If you need to write a quotation within a quotation, use single quotation marks
inside double quotation marks, or use double quotation marks inside single
quotation marks.

David said, I think that Silence of the Lambs was the last good movie I
watched.
David said, I think that Silence of the Lambs was the last good movie I
watched.
There are many different and contrasting rules on the positioning of other
punctuation marks in relation to quotation marks. However, the basic rule is as
follows:
Put any punctuation marks that are part of the original quote inside the
quotation marks.
 Sarah said, Have you seen Tom?
Punctuation marks which relate to the sentence as a whole are placed outside
the quotation marks.

My favourite film is Silence of the Lambs.

Dash () ()
There are two kinds of dash: an em dash and an en dash. The em dash is
longer than the en dash. Dashes are mostly used in informal writing. Normally,
there is no space before or after the dash.
Em dash ()

Round Brackets or Parentheses ()

Round brackets are also known as parentheses.

1. Numbers and letters in a list

Round brackets are used to enclose numbers or letters in a list.

(1) Apple Crumble; (2) Cheesecake; (3) Carrot cake

(a) Chips; (b) Chicken curry; (c) Steak and kidney pie
2. To separate non-essential information

Round brackets are used to enclose information that is not essential to the
meaning of the sentence.
Round brackets can be used to enclose additional information, a clarification,
a translation, a date, a definition and so on.
If the words enclosed in the round brackets are removed, the rest of the
sentence should still make perfect sense.
 George has visited five countries (Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru and
Ecuador) since the start of the year!
Nelson Mandela was released from prison (11 February 1990) after 27
years imprisonment.
Bake the cake in a preheated oven at 200 degrees Celsius (392 degrees
Fahrenheit).
3. Authors comment

Round brackets are used to enclose a comment made by the author of the
text.

Jhumpa Lahiri (one of my favourite authors of all time) will be signing her
new book in New York this weekend.
If the words enclosed in round brackets form a complete sentence, then the
period, question mark, exclamation mark, or quotation marks should go inside
the round brackets. Otherwise, these punctuation marks should be placed
outside the round brackets.

John had cooked roast beef for dinner. (I dont eat meat.) So, it was an
awkward first date.
The report (enclosed) sets out the firms recommendations for 2016.
Square Brackets []
Square brackets are used to enclose words added by another person,
someone who is not the original author. The additional words will typically be
a comment, a correction, a translation or a reference.

She [Jerry Hall] was married to Mick Jagger for many years.
When quoting something, if the original quote contains a spelling, grammar or
other mistake, this can be highlighted by writing Sic in square brackets after
the mistake. It lets the reader know that this is how the original quote was.

She hit her [Sic] head as she got out of the car.

They can be used in the same way as round brackets, colons, semi-colons
and commas.

1. Used in pairs to identify words in parenthesis (enclosed in brackets)

HarrySandras brotheris coming to dinner tonight.

2. Used to introduce an example or to expand on what has just been
written

I am taking three exams this weekendtranslation theory, specialised

translation and translation technologies.
3. Used to introduce an aside by the writer

Julie walked through the doorshe looked amazing.

4. Used in direct speech to show when someone has been interrupted or
when they suddenly stop speaking mid-sentence.

So, we are going to?

An en dash is used to show sequences. It is used for time periods, instead of
the word to.

January 2013September 2015

1100
AZ
Increasingly, the em dash is being replaced with the en dash with a space
before and after it.

Hyphen (-)
Hyphens should not be confused with dashes. A hyphen is shorter than a
dash. Hyphens are placed between words to link them. There should never be
a space before or after a hyphen.

1. Used to write numbers twenty-one to ninety-nine

Thirty-five
Eighty-four
2. Used to write fractions

One-third
 Two-fifths
3. Used to form compound nouns

Use a dictionary to check if a compound noun is written as two words,

hyphenated or one word. However, recently hyphens have become less
common and an older dictionary may not have the up-to-date usage.

Bottle-opener
Make-up
Sister-in-law
4. Used to form compound adjectives

Generally, a hyphen is used between two or more words that come before a
noun when they act as a single idea that describes the noun they precede.

English-speaking assistant
Ten-page document
Well-known actor
5. Used to form compound verbs

Dry-clean
Ice-skate
Test-drive
6. Used with prefixes

The prefixes anti-, co-, ex-, mid-, non-, pre-, post-, pro-, and self- often take a
hyphen.

Self-assured
Anti-fur
Ex-wife
Prefixes that come before a proper noun should be hyphenated

Un-Canadian
 Anti-Bush