Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2012,114, 2, 419-428.

Perceptual and Motor Skills 2012

USE OF MULTIMODAL IMAGERY WITH PRECOMPETITIVE

ANXIETY AND STRESS OF ELITE TENNIS PLAYERS^

RICARDO WEIGERT COELHO, BIRGIT KELLER, KATL^ MARIA KUCZYNSKI,

EVALDOJOS RIBEIRO JR., MALU CRISTINA DE ARAJO MONTORO LIMA,
DENIS GREBOGGY, AND JOICE MARA FACCO STEFANELLO
Lappes Laboratory of Federal University of Paran State

Summary.The effect of mulfimodal imagery on anxiety and perceived stress

was investigated in 46 male tennis players (16 to 18 yr.; M = 17.0, SD = 0.8). There
were two groups, a mulfimodal imagery group and a control imagery group. The
quasi-experimental design included pre- and post-treatment administrations of the
27-item Compefifive State Anxiety Inventory to assess anxiety and the Perceived
Stress Scale to assess stress. Analysis showed a stafisfically significant multivari-
ate difference between the multimodal imagery and control groups on measures
of cognitive anxiety, self-confidence, and perceived stress. Imagery plays a role in
handling some specific types of anxiety and stress.

Sport is an important part of many athletes' lives, but the search for
physical perfection and a strong desire for success, allied with the econom-
ic and political interests involved, have brought sport to a level that re-
quires participants to expend a great deal of effort and involvement, lead-
ing to anxiety and stress. Perhaps the most frequent concern is whether
athletes can withstand the stress of intense competition. Consistent infor-
mation about methods which may lessen anxiety and stress in their lives
is valuable. One of these methods is imagery, which according to Williams
(1994) is thought of as a mental process which programs the mind to re-
act optimally. It is the use of senses to reconstruct an experience mentally.
The use of imagery as a psychological tool seems effective in pro-
moting self-efficacy (Beauchamp, Bray, & Albinson, 2002), self-confidence
(Carter & Kelly, 1997), as well as improving athletic and learning perfor-
mance (Paivio, 1985; Feltz & Landers, 1993; Gammage, Hall, & Rodgers,
2000; Jones, Bray, Mace, MacRae, & Stockbridge, 2002; Taylor & Shaw,
2002).Imagery is also widely applied as an intervention method in sport
to reduce stress. Jones, et al. (2002) investigated the effect of imagery in-
volving motivational general-mastery (MG-M) on stress and performance
in female rock climbers. They found the Imagery intervention led to low-
er stress and higher confidence than a control situation. Martin, Moritz,
& Hall (1999) proposed that MG-M, which refers to effective coping and
mastery of challenging situations, may be used to modify cognitions and,
'Address correspondence to Ricardo Weigert Coelho, Lappes Laboratory of Federal
University of Paran State, Centro Politcnico, J. Americas, Curifiba, Paran 81531-980,
Brazil or e-mail (coelhoricardo@ufpr.br).

DOI 10.2466/02.05.15.PMS.114.2.419-428 ISSN 0031-5125

420 R. W. COELHO, ET AL.

specifically, may be beneficial in terms of increasing self-efficacy and self-

confidence.
Morris, Spittle, and Watt (2005) pointed out:
Not all imagery has a positive impact; in some cases, imagery can stop fully re-
covered athletes from reproducing their pre-injury form because they repeatedly
image themselves breaking down at the point of maximum effort. What we can
imagine can make us anxious or confident, determine our focus during play, mo-
tivate us to extra effort, or convince us that all is lost" (p. 5).

If this is true, use of a suitable imagery method is crucial to successful

building of self-confidence and control of competitive emotional pressure,
which should lower anxiety and stress. The kinesthetic and visual imag-
ery modalities have received the most attention; few have been concerned
with cognitive and emotional states. Vealey and Greenleaf (2001) suggest-
ed that in re-creating outstanding performance, athletes should be con-
cerned with the emotional state involved in competition. This necessitates
a multimodal approach to ensure the sensory characteristics of sport im-
agery (Watt, Morris, & Andersen, 2004).
The multimodal approach, which underscores seven interactive mo-
dalities in addition to evaluating affect, behavior, and cognition, em-
phasizes the need to take account of sensory responses, mental images,
interpersonal factors, and biological considerations, thus yielding a sev-
en-point perspective in which to operate (behavior, affect, sensation, im-
agery, cognition, interpersonal relationships, and biological factors). The
approach examines the discrete and interactive impact of these seven di-
mensions (Lazarus, 2004) but does not recommend rigid adherence to the
seven interactive modalities. There are cases in which it is clear that a fo-
cused bimodal or even unimodal approach is all that is indicated (Lazarus
& Abramovitz, 2004).
Anxiety and stress are interrelated. Stress, as defined by Selye (1956),
results when situational demands are perceived to exceed available cop-
ing resources. Stressful situations are not sufficient to cause pathological
behavior. Instead, stress creates a potential for event-elicited health risk.
Stress also depends on a transaction between the person and the environ-
ment, assuming that individuals actively interact with their environment
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Stress due to an event is assumed to increase
when appraised as threatening or demanding and when coping resources
are judged as insufficient to address that threat or demand (Cohen, Kar-
mack, & Mermelstein, 1983).
Anxiety is defined here as a component and possibly a result of stress
characterized by a state of conditioned activation in which thoughts and
feelings of worry, concern, and uncertainty dominate (Martens, Vealey, &
Burton, 1990). Anxiety is often divided into dimensions of state (relatively
 IMAGERY, ANXIETY, AND STRESS 421

transient and context-specific) and trait (enduring, general and disposi-

fional; Spielberger, Gorsush, & Lushene, 1970). More complex concepfual
sfrucfures describing how cognition and emotion are interconnected have
been advocated by Hardy (1996), Hardy and Parfitt (1991), and Eysenck
and Calvo (1992).
This point is that improvement in athletes' corvfidence using imag-
ery diminishes anxiefy and sfress, so athletes become less inclined fo per-
ceive themselves as being in a threatening sifuafion. Emotional control is
enhanced by confidence, which lowers anxiefy and sfress. This suggesfs
that imagery can affecf athletes' self-confidence and emphasizes the im-
portance of imagery content in enhancing fhe confrol of anxiefy and stress
(Jones, et al, 2002). The purpose of this sfudy was fo examine fhe effecf of
a mulfimodal intervention, based upon fhe MG-M model of Hall, Mack,
Paivio, and Hausenblas (1998): increasing self-confidence to self-regulate
the athlete's anxiety and stress.
Based on the assumption that self-confidence can diminish the per-
cepfion of threat and consequently lower sfress and anxiefy, it was hypoth-
esized that the mulfimodal imagery treatment group would demonstrate
higher self-confidence and lower anxiety and stress on a post treafmenf
test compared to fhe control group not given such treafmenf.
METHOD
Sample
The proposal for study was submitted fo and approved by fhe eth-
ics committee of the Federal Universify of Paran State, Brazil. The ap-
proach used was a quasi-experimental design in wliich one group of par-
ficipanfs was adminisfered a mulfimodal freafmenf and a confrol group
who was given no freafment (Thomas & Nelson, 2005). Initially, a sample
of 64 male volunteers who were elite Brazilian tennis players was recruit-
ed. The players were involved in regional and national tournaments and
practiced 4 hours per day, 5 days per week during fhe 3-monfh pre-sea-
son. These players were assigned fo either the treatment or control group
using a matching method faking into account skill, practice time, and ex-
perience in elite competition levels.
The first data (pre-test) were collected within 5 to 15 min. before the
warm-up for a firsf-round game during the classification phase of a na-
tional fournamenf. This was selected because fhere was no guarantee of
the participation of all 64 players in fhe playoff games. Affer 9 weeks of
mulfimodal imagery treatment, a second test (post-treatment test) was ad-
minisfered within 5 to 15 min. before fhe warm-up for a firsf-round game
during the classification phase of another national tournament.
Withdrawal of 15 participants decreased and mismatched fhe group.
422 R. W. COELHO, ET AL.

leaving 23 participants in the multimodal imagery group and 26 in the

control group, who ranged in age from 16 to 18 years (M = 17.0, SD = 0.8).
Of the 15 players who withdrew from the study, four had physical injuries,
six cited personal reasons, and five gave no reasons. To keep the balance
between group participants (equal n in treatment and control groups), the
three participants who belonged to the matching pairs of those who with-
drew from the multimodal imagery group were intentionally removed
from control group participants.
Measures
State anxiety.To assess precompetitive anxiety states, the 27-item
Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (Martens, et al, 1990) was given.
This measured their somatic anxiety (physiological arousal), cognitive
anxiety (worry and negative thoughts that are experienced before a com-
petition), and self-confidence (emotional and performance confidence).
The inventory has 27 items, which were categorized as nine items in each
of three subscales: cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence.
All items are rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale using anchors of 1: Not
at all and 4: Very much. Values of internal consistency, ranging from .79 to
.90, and construct validity has also been estimated (Martens, et al, 1990).
In the present study, scores on the three subscales were the dependent
variables.
Perceived stress.Stress was assessed on the Perceived Stress Scale
(Cohen, et al, 1983), using 10 of the 14 items, which has also been validated
by the authors. Magnitude of internal consistency, ranging from .76 to .85,
and construct validity have also been validated for many population seg-
ments. According to Cohen, et al, the short version allows assessment of
perceived stress without any loss of psychometric quality (actually a slight
gain) over the original scale. The questionnaire addresses general feelings
and thoughts, as scores are obtained for negative and positive responses
using a Likert-type scale with anchors of 0: Never and 4: Very often.
Imagery Treatment
All participants were tested on two pre- and post-treatment question-
naires. For tests at both pre- and post-treatment, the players were instruct-
ed to answer items according to how they felt at that moment, that is, be-
fore the competition. They were given no other instruction. The treatment
involved a multimodal intervention (relaxation, imagery involving MG-
M, and a behavior modeling video) conducted three times per week for
25 min. after ordinary technical and physical practice over a period of 9
weeks between the tournaments. The imagery involving MG-M was cho-
sen based upon Moritz, Hall, Martin, and Vadocz's (1996) and Callow and
Hardy's (2001) study conclusions that MG-M imagery was more effective
 IMAGERY, ANXIETY, AND STRESS 423

than cognitive-specific (CS) imagery in enhancing confidence. Imagining

sport-related mastery experience is more important than imagining spe-
cific sports skills. Of the 46 players, 30 attended at least 90% of the multi-
modal imagery or control intervention sessions and all attended at least
75% of the sessions.
During the treatment phase, all the participants met with their coach-
es and the researcher in a quiet place. In the first session, a lecture on imag-
ery technique was delivered to both groups. Then, the players were inten-
tionally chosen and divided into control and multimodal imagery groups,
using a matching method, from two different termis clubs to control the
"Hawthorne Effect." The players of one club received a multimodal imag-
ery intervention and the other a control intervention. The multimodal im-
agery group was trained how to use imagery to promote self-confidence
and positive feedback on their skills performance and then practiced
the technique. They were exposed to multimodal imagery intervention
at each session as follows: after a 10-min. relaxation procedure using a
progressive method of relaxation, the players were directed to visualize
themselves successfully playing a game. They were taught how to gen-
erate positive thoughts regarding their skills, how to overcome negative
thoughts before and during games, and to imagine a positive outcome. In
five of the sessions, a 10-min. videotape featuring professional winning
athletes playing games was shown, with focus on their posture, behavior,
decision-making processes, and body-language strategies. A control type
of imagery intervention was delivered to the other group. This involved
imaging self-perceptions, remembering good moments experienced in the
past, and imagining being on the beach and in the countryside.
Analyses
Levene's test for equality of variance and Box's M were used to test
the homogeneity of variance-covariance matrices (sphericity assumption)
on the groups' scores. Then, 2 (test time) x 2 (group) multivariate analy-
ses of variance (ANOVA) were run to assess the main effects of variable.
Univariate tests were run to clarify the interactions. Statistical significance
was set atp<.05.
RESULTS
Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for perceived stress, cogni-
tive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence for control and multi-
modal imagery groups in the pre- and post-tests.
Individuals were matched on competition level, practice time, and ex-
perience in competition, but the withdrawal of 15 participants caused a vi-
olation of the assumption of homogeneity of variance, so Levene's test for
equality of error variance was conducted for pre-test scores on both scales
424 R.W. COELHO, ETAL.

TABLE 1
MEAN AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR MEASURES OF ANXIETY AND STRESS IN THE STUDY GROUPS

Group Perceived Cognitive Somafic Self-confidence

Stress Anxiety Anxiety
M SD M SD M SD M SD
Pre-treatment
Control 17.43 4.84 21.87 6.64 22.78 7.10 21.30 7.06
Mulfimodal imagery 16.96 6.84 19.96 7.22 21.74 5.65 20.96 7.22
Post-treatment
Control 17.30 5.91 21.87 6.64 23.04 6.06 18.48 6.53
Multmodal imagery 11.35* 4.32 14.48* 5.86 24.39 5.10 25.09* 6.47
*p<.05.

and subscales to assess homogeneity between groups. Levene's test dem-

onstrated no statistically significant main effect between the control and
multimodal imagery groups in terms of perceived stress and cognitive
anxiety, confidence, and somatic anxiety (Table 2).
These findings satisfied the assumption of homogeneity of variance
between groups. The Box M was used to assess the homogeneity of vari-
ance-covariance matrices (sphericity assumption) on the groups' scores.
The results revealed that the variance-covariance matrices in each group
were statistically equivalent (Box M = 31.42, F^^=1.43, p = .10).
A MANOVA for perceived stiess and anxiety subscales showed main
effects between experimental and control groups and pre- and post-tests.
Given the significance of the MANOVA, univariate ANOVAs were run.
These indicated stafistically significant effects between groups (control x
experimental) on perceived stress, cognitive anxiety, and self-confidence,
but not on somatic anxiety. There was a statistically significant effect on pre-
and post-tests on perceived confidence and self-confidence. There were sta-
tistically significant interactions between the groups and pre- and post-tests
for perceived stress, cognitive anxiety, and self-confidence (Table 3).

TABLE 2
LEVENE'STEST OF EOUALITY OF ERROR VARIANCE

Measure Group n ^3.88 P

Perceived Stress Control 23 2.26 .09
Imagery 23
Somafic Anxiety Control 23 2.26 .09
Imagery 23
Self-Confidence Control 23 0.08 .97
Imagery 23
Cognitive Anxiety Control 23 0.90 .45
Imagery 23
 IMAGERY, ANXIETY, AND STRESS 425

TABLE 3
MULTIVARIATE AND FOLLOW-UP ANALYSES OF VARIANCE OF IMAGERY
TREATMENT EFFECTS FOR PERCEIVED STRESS AND ANXIETY MEASURES

Variable MANOVA ANOVA

Perceived Somatic Cognitive Self-
Stress Anxiety Anxiety confidence

Pre-/ Post-tests (T) 4.49t 6.12* 1.34 0.21 4.10*

il' = .O7
Control X Experimen- 13.561 7.69* 0.02 11.82* 4.84*
tal Groups (G) II'= .00
TxG 5.57* 0.91 4.10* 5.97*

*p<.05. tp<.01. |p<.001.

DISCUSSION
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether multimodal im-
agery intervention would affect scores on perceived stress, cognitive anxi-
ety, somatic anxiety, and confidence by tennis athletes. Analysis partially
supports the hypothesis that building athlete's self-confidence using mul-
timodal imagery intervention would lower pre-competitive anxiety and
stress. A positive outcome for the imagery-intervention group was noted
relative to the control participants.
Before addressing any conclusion, some limitations in this study must
be considered. Firstly, imagery ability differs from athlete to athlete. How-
ever, this limitation was controlled by the kind of sample used (elite ath-
letes), which according to Barr and Hall (1992), possess well-developed
imagery ability; they do not differ much in their imagery ability. Second-
ly, the intervention used was multimodal (relaxation, behavior model-
ing video, and MG-M imagery) not imagery only. Thirdly, even the entire
control and experimental groups were from different tennis clubs and no
guarantees are certain that some players from both groups did not have
contact with each other during the intervention phase.
Scores on stress and the two anxiety subscales of cognitive anxiety
and self-confidence indicated that the multimodal imagery intervention
represents a useful tool to build self-confidence and to lower cognitive
anxiety and perceived stress of these tennis athletes. These findings are in
accord with previous study of Callow and Hardy (2001) and Jones, et al
(2002) in the area of sports psychology.
Another important finding is the specificity of the situation must be
considered when using imagery. The psychological benefits conferred by
imagery are specific in nature. Imagery cannot be viewed as a general pro-
cedure and not all imagery intervention is applicable for every situation
426 R. w. COELHO, ETAL.

or psychological demand, as here for somatic anxiefy, fhe player must be

aware of and perceive his physiological response fo anxiety. This is consis-
tent with Martin, et al (1999), who suggested that a prerequisite for the use
of imagery intervention is a greater understanding of fhe aspects a specific
type of imagery may have on various cognitive, affective, and behavioral
responses in sport situations. The mosf important factors relafed to sports
performance are self-confidence, infensity, regulation of arousal, and con-
centration. However, how imporfant each are may differ according fo fhe
specific demands of each sport (Taylor & Shaw,2002).
The results corroborated those of Defrancesco and Burke (1997), who
pointed out that some sports such as tennis, require fine and accurate
movements and are relatively long in duration wifh many shorf bursfs.
This means fhaf building and maintaining self-confidence is a primary
goal for intervenfion in tennis. In fact, imagery interventions can lead to
improvement in athletes' sporf-confidence levels over time (Carter & Kel-
ly, 1997). This finding is also in accord wifh Hanton, Mellalieu, and Hall
(2004), who reported the effecfs of high and low levels of self-confidence
on symptoms associated with competitive anxiety. High self-confidence
increased the intensify of feelings of fotal control over the situation. The
athletes' confidence regarding positive forthcoming performance is re-
sponsible in lowering anxiety.
Present results of fhis sfudy lead fo some useful conclusions. The
study confirms that athletes under compefitive pressure are likely fo be
influenced by tendencies fo perceive themselves in a fhreaferng sifuafion,
leading to anxiety and sfress. When self-confidence is threatened, cop-
ing mechanisms, such as multimodal imagery, used in this sfudy should
be employed. Anofher conclusion is that low self-confidence is associaf-
ed with negative thoughts and increased arixiefy. When self-confidence
is high, anxiefy and sfress are lower, concenfration and focus are main-
tained, and both tenets enhance performance.
Findings indicafe that cognitive sfrategies such as multimodal imag-
ery can build high self-confidence, which protects against fhe debilitating
mental interpretations associated with competitive anxiefy in stressful sit-
uations. However, the athlete's lack of recognition of symptoms of anxiefy
and stress must be considered. Therefore, specific imagery intervention is
recommended to lower somafic anxiefy as a more appropriate interven-
tion for afhletes in developing more facilitative inferprefation of symp-
foms associated with fheir pre-competitive anxiefy and sfress. This mighf
include parf of fhe Hall, et al. (1998) model.
The authors' suggest that, in practice, coaches and psychologists
should be aware of specific demands in sporf (Martin, et al, 1999). They
should understand fhe principles and effectiveness of specific coping be-
haviors or situations before choosing an appropriafe intervenfion. A more
 IMAGERY ANXIETY AND STRESS 427

efficient and specific imagery method for coping with somatic anxiety
should be explored. Such a method would teach players to feel and iden-
tify somatic symptoms of anxiety and stress in order to control them. We
also suggest that it is important for future researches to consider the use
of a direct measure of anxiety and stress, such as salivary cortisol. Present
results indicate that negative perceptions of a threaterng event is a state
of mind which can be controlled by mental practices such as multimodal
imagery.
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Accepted February 16, 2012.

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