Ik FDN MFP

INFORMATION KIT
Information Kit Number: Allied FDN/IK/MFP/01
Subject: Maintenance Fitting Practice
Sub-chapter Level
Subject preference Date
SAFETY PRECAUTION A/C 1 Prepared by
Lecture class
WORKSHOP PRACTICE 1 M. Najib
Tutorial/ Quiz Abd.
TOOLS 1 Rashid
Assignment/ Presentation
ENG DRAWING,DIAGRAM 1
Practical
MAINTENANCE PROC 1
Validation
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS- 1
FERROUS Examination Review by
AIRCRAFT MATERIAL-NON 1 Zulkurnain
FERROUS Assessment
Salim
CORROSION 1
FASTERNERS SCREW THREADS 1
BOLTS,STUDS AND SCREWS 1
LOCKING DEVICES 1
Validate by
AIRCRAFT RIVETS 1
Azrizal
Arshad
Maintenance Fitting Practice
7.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AIRCRAFT AND WORKSHOP
This Training Kit is a property of Allied trainee and used for training purpose only. Not to be sold.
With reference Number: Allied/FDN/IK/MFP/01 Page 2
INTRODUCTION
Most accidents are, in the main, caused by human carelessness and accidents in the work place are among the main
causes of death and disability.
They are, additionally, the cause of a great loss of man-hours and, thus, cost companies (and individuals) large amounts
of money.
All personnel should be aware, not only of the potential for accidents and injury, wherever they work, but also of the
legislation and information that is available in an attempt to prevent accidents actually happening.
While it is incumbent upon companies (in accordance with The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations
1992), to ensure that all personnel receive adequate training in Health and Safety matters, this Module contains a
reminder of some of the general safety precautions which are necessary, when working in the aerospace industry.
The Module continues with further topics, which are concerned with the practices recommended for the safe and
efficient maintenance of aircraft and aerospace components.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
Aviation engineers frequently work in potentially dangerous environments. Virtually every aspect of aircraft maintenance can be potentially hazardous.
It is obvious that engineers must be trained to be aware of these potential dangers so that precautions can be taken to minimise them. Each part of
your training will emphasise particular hazards associated with the subject. In this section we will look at the particular care that should be taken when
working with compressed gasses, electricity oils and chemicals. We shall also consider the safety precautions and procedures relevant to fire in the
workplace.
ELECTRIC SHOCK
This is an obvious occupation hazard for both avionic and mechanical aircraft engineers. Much of the systems and maintenance equipment is
electrically powered. The main dangers associated with use of electricity are:
Electric shock which may be fatal.
Arcing caused by inadequate insulation. This could lead to a fire.
Overheating which again could lead to a fire.
Most of the personal dangers can be prevented by following a few simple rules:
Wear the correct clothing. Personal jewellery, especially rings and metal strapped watches should not be worn as they may get caught in
machinery or act as a conductor.
Ensure all electrical and radio equipment, power tools etc. is properly earthed. All portable electrical equipment should be PAT (Portable
Appliance Test) tested at regular intervals by a trained and qualified PAT test person.
Ensure all test equipment is properly connected.
Ensure that all interlocks and other safety devices are serviceable and not tampered with or over-ridden.
Do not work on equipment that is switched on. Operate or remove the appropriate circuit protection devices (circuit breakers or fuses).
Always switch off power before replacing components.
If using machines that have emergency stop buttons, ensure all personnel know their locations.
Where possible, ensure a second person is present in case of an accident.
COMPRESSED GAS
Compressed gases are in common use in aviation. They are required during normal day to day aircraft maintenance. Nitrogen, Carbon Dioxide and
Oxygen are all usually present on the flight line.
PURPOSE OF THE GASES
Nitrogen is used for aircraft tyre inflation, aircraft hydraulic system accumulators, fuel tank inhibiting and shock strut inflation.
Carbon Dioxide is used in fire extinguishers and for life jacket and other safety equipment inflation bottles.
Oxygen is used for aircraft emergency breathing for aircrew and passengers.
Acetylene is used in gas welding equipment.
GAS CYLINDER IDENTIFICATION
It is vital that a gas cylinder must be positively identified to prevent possible disastrous results of charging a system or component with the wrong gas.
In the past, the accepted practice was to paint the cylinder in a distinctive colour and also to paint the name of the gas on the cylinder in letters of a
contrasting colour. In the UK, gas cylinders are normally supplied by The British Oxygen Company (B.O.C.). The cylinders are colour coded in
accordance with British Standard 381 C, but it is no longer compulsory for the suppliers or users of compressed gases to follow it's requirements. The
only positive method of identifying the contents of a gas cylinder is to read a label on the neck of the cylinder, showing the cylinder contents, the gas
pressure and any special safety requirements. It is compulsory for this label to be attached to the cylinder during transportation of the cylinder. If
colour coding is used, the normal convention in the UK is as follows.
Nitrogen
Colour Light Grey with Black neck
Lettering - Nitrogen in BlacK
Use Charging aircraft accumulators, tyres, shock absorbers,
Oxygen
Colour - Black with White neck
Lettering - Oxygen in White
Use - Aircrew & Passenger breathing
Carbon Dioxide
Colour Black
Lettering - Carbon Dioxide in White
Use - Fire Extinguishers and Safety Equipment
Acetylene
Colour - Maroon
Lettering - Acetylene in White
Use - Gas Welding
Aviation Oils and Fuels
Aviation oils, generally, are a fairly low-risk material when compared with the more volatile, higher distillates of petroleum such as the aviation fuels -
petrol (gasoline) and paraffin (kerosene). Most lubricating oils are flammable, if enough heat is generated but, when the materials are kept away from
excessive heat sources, they are (comparatively) quite benign.
Synthetic lubricating oils, methanol and some hydraulic oils may be harmful or even toxic if their vapours are inhaled. Also, if they come
into contact with the skin or eyes, they can cause injury or blindness. Particular note should be taken of any warnings of dangers to health
that may be contained in the relevant maintenance manuals and the recommended procedures for the handling of these liquids should
always be observed.
Oils and fuels also have an adverse effect on paintwork, adhesives and sealants and, thus, may inhibit corrosion-prevention schemes. Care
should, therefore, be taken not to spill any of these liquids but, if a spillage should occur, it must be cleaned up immediately.
Note: Sweeping up gasoline spillage with a dry broom can cause a build up of static electricity, with the accompanying risk of explosion.
With gasoline and kerosene there is a much greater chance of fire, so more thorough precautions are required. These start with the basic
rules, such as not wearing footwear with nails or studs (to prevent sparks), not carrying matches or cigarette lighters and ensuring that ALL
replenishing equipment is fully serviceable.
Note: All references to refueling, normally, also include the action of de-fueling and both are considered under the common term of
fueling.
During any fueling operation, in a workshop, a hangar or on the flight line, the relevant fire extinguishers must be in place.
Chemical and Physiological Hazards
Many chemical compounds, both liquid and solid, are used in aircraft maintenance and these may need specific precautions. Any precautions can be found
in the relevant maintenance manuals and in the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) leaflets applicable to those materials.
The range of adhesives used for repair and sealing during the maintenance of aircraft is vast. A large number of these produce vapours
which, generally, can be dangerous in any enclosed space, both from the results of inhalation of narcotic fumes and from the fire risk
associated with those which give off volatile, flammable, vapours.
Surface finishes present another area where the various types of material used (etchants, celluloses, acrylics, enamels, polyurethanes etc.),
dictate specific precautions. The solvents used, before the actual painting and afterwards, need safety precautions with regards to
ventilation, reaction with other materials and, most importantly, their possible corrosive, toxic, irritant and addictive effects on personnel.
Some materials have a mildly radioactive property, although they emit little ionising radiation in normal circumstances. These materials are
sometimes referred to as heavy metals and can be found in balance-weights as well as in smoke detectors, luminescent EXIT signs and
instruments.
This radiation differs from that used for non-destructive testing (NDT) procedures, where high levels of radiation are employed, by specially
trained personnel, and which, therefore, require many safety precautions to avoid personal injury. The safety precautions for NDT
procedures will be found within the manuals applicable to their employment.
FIRE PRECAUTIONS
Fire is the product of a chemical reaction in which fuel mixes with oxygen and releases heat and light. Three things are required before a fire can occur:
There must be a Fuel

Oxygen must be present (or air, which contains oxygen)
The temperature must be raised high enough for the fuel and oxygen to combine.
To extinguish a fire, you must either cool it or exclude the oxygen.
Fire is probably the most dangerous of the hazards associated with aircraft maintenance. Aircraft carry large quantities of fuel and other combustible
materials. There is also a large amount of electrical equipment on aircraft, so there is a high risk of fire.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES
Fires are classified into four categories. Extinguishers suited for each classification of fire are marked with the classification letter as shown in the
following table:
Fire Classes Letter Designation
Ordinary combustibles - paper, cloth, wood A
Flammable liquids Fuel, Oil B
Energised electrical equipment C
Combustible metals Brake units D
FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

Fire extinguishing agents should be selected appropriate to the type of fire on which they are effective.
Class A - fires with such fuels as paper, wood or cloth (often called solid fuel), can be extinguished with a water spray. This cools the fuel to a
temperature below that at which it can burn.
Class B - fires are best put out with an extinguisher that excludes the oxygen from the burning fuel. Dry powder agents break down in the presence
of heat to produce carbon dioxide that displaces the oxygen. Carbon Dioxide extinguishers displace the oxygen directly. Foam is also used, which
blankets the fire and excludes the oxygen. Water should not be used because the burning fuel will float on top of the water.
Class C - fires should be treated carefully because of the risk of contact with high voltages. Water should definitely not be used as it will conduct
electricity. Dry powder would be effective, but it is not the best choice as it leaves a sticky residue that makes cleanup difficult. Carbon dioxide is
very effective when sprayed via a non-metallic horn. The best extinguishers are halogenated hydrocarbons or halons.
Class D - fires should never have water sprayed on them as it intensifies the fire and may cause an explosion. Dry powder is the best choice for
extinguishing metal fires.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER IDENTIFICATION

The extinguishers should be clearly marked with the appropriate class letter symbol.
Many extinguishers in current use are colour coded to indicate the type of extinguisher. The old colours are as follows:
Water Gas Red

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Black
Foam Cream
Dry Powder Blue
Fire extinguishers used in workshops and hangars should now be coloured Red. It is however, unlikely that everyone will be using the
new colour cylinders for a long time, so be aware of the old codes. Note the fire extinguishers pictured above use the
colour coding.
Water Gas Fire Extinguishers

These contain water, anti-freeze and a carbon dioxide bottle. When the carbon dioxide gas is released, the water is
ejected through a nozzle so that the temperature of the fire is lowered.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers

CO2 is an inert gas that is stored in a cylinder under pressure. When it is released it
expands and its temperature drops. It blankets the fire and excludes oxygen, so the
fire is extinguished. It is available in various sizes from small hand held units to larger
trolley mounted units. The state of charge is normally determined by weighing the
cylinder and comparing its weight with the weight stamped on the cylinder neck.
This extinguisher is
most suitable for use on flight lines for engine starting, fuelling and general use. May be available complete with various length hoses
and application nozzles for external use on a/c engines.
Dry Powder Extinguishers

Dry powder agents such as bicarbonate of soda, ammonium phosphate and potassium bicarbonate are effective against class B, C and D fires. When
the agent is heated by the fire, carbon dioxide is released which excludes oxygen from the fire. The dry powder is propelled from the cylinder by a
charge of compressed nitrogen. These extinguishers are particularly effective on brake fires, because they do not cool the brakes as would CO2, foam
or water gas.
Foam Fire Extinguishers

Foam extinguishers are particularly effective for liquids such as fuel or oil fires. Two chemicals are stored separately within a cylinder. When these
chemicals are mixed, a large volume of foam under pressure is produced. This foam, when directed onto the burning liquid, blankets the fire and
starves it of oxygen. Should not be used for electrical fires.
Fire Blanket
Stored in a RED cylindrical container. Usually asbestos or some other good insulator. As it's name suggests, it may be used to blanket the flames.
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
The following general precautions should be observed to minimise the risk of fires and their affect:
Smoke only in designated areas.

Observe and obey No Smoking signs on flight lines.

Do not carry matches or any other source of combustion.
Do not wear studded or steel tipped footwear.
All flammable liquids such as paint, dope, hydraulic fluid etc. should be stored in an approved store outside the hangar.
Supervisors should ensure that all reasonable fire safety precautions are taken and all fire apparatus is serviceable.
Personnel engaged in maintenance should be fully conversant with the use and operation of fire protection equipment. They should also know
the action to be taken in the event of a fire i.e. escape routes, fire alarms, position of fire appliances and assembly points.
When fuelling a/c electric's should not be switched on or off.
Aircraft should always be bonded when being worked on.
When fuel tanks are empty there is probably a greater risk of fire than when they are full.
PROCEDURE ON DISCOVERING A FIRE IN THE WORK-PLACE

Shout "Fire" Loudly.
Operate the nearest fire alarm or get someone else to.
Attempt to extinguish the fire with the nearest suitable fire appliance. Do not attempt this if your actions will endanger your own life or
your chance of escape.
Ensure fire brigade is called. Give location of fire i.e. Building and position in building, also type of fire, Fuel or Electrical etc.
Close all doors and windows if possible (Reduce fire spreading)
Proceed to assembly point.
ACTION TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF ENGINE FIRES

Aircraft engines are mostly susceptible to fires on start-up. The following points will minimise the risk of damage due to an engine fire.
Always have a fire extinguisher of the correct type available prior to starting the engine. A CO2 extinguisher should be close to hand for each engine
start.
A safety person should be available, conversant with the operation of the fire appliance and aircraft procedures.
In the event of a fire, the fuel supply and ignition should be turned off before attempting to extinguish the flames.
If possible see if the fire stops after fuel and ignition is cut. If not, apply extinguisher agent via the fire access panels, do not run engines
with cowlings open or removed
ACTION TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF BRAKES FIRES

Brake Fires occur mainly due to overheating after a heavy landing or excess operation of the brakes. They may also be a result of a hydraulic fluid leak
onto a hot brake. A brake unit may not catch fire immediately after an incident. The unit may burst into flames a long time afterward a landing. Care
should be taken approaching a wheel or brake unit. Never approach in the direction of the axle, always approach in line with the tyre i.e. from the
front
or rear of the aircraft. Only attempt to extinguish a brake unit if it is on fire. If it is only overheated it is best left alone to cool. A Dry Powder
extinguisher is the most effective as it does not rapidly cool the unit. If a dry powder extinguisher is not available, a CO2 or Foam extinguisher can be
used by application of the extinguisher agent onto the GROUND near to the unit. This will allow the agent to warm up before coming into contact
with the brake unit.
THE NEED FOR SAFETY

It is fairly obvious from the previous comments that a maintenance engineer needs to be both knowledgeable concerning the safety requirements
and alert when working around aircraft. Various other factors will also have an effect on the level of safety. Human factors such as noise, lighting,
fatigue and work pressures are also relevant.
7.2-WORKSHOP PRACTICE
WORKSHOP PRACTICES
Despite the enormous advances in the mechanisation and computerisation of the engineering industry in general, there remains the requirement for
a high degree of hand skills on the part of technicians who are engaged in the day-to-day maintenance of aircraft and their associated components.
While the majority of aerospace components are manufactured under stringent standards, in factory (and laboratory) conditions, it is necessary to
remove many items of equipment for cleaning, inspection, overhaul and, if needed, repair before they are, subsequently, re-installed in their
appointed locations.
These actions may entail the use of many specialist tools and materials, which are used while following written procedures, while it is quite possible
that some, comparatively simple, repairs may call upon such basic hand skills as the cutting, filing, drilling, riveting and painting of metals or other
materials.
No matter whether there are specialist or basic skills required, all will demand a certain quality of the work practices (and of the work-force) involved.
CARE OF TOOLS
Engineers are responsible for the maintenance of their personal tools, whilst other personnel, in designated Tool Stores, must care for all the
different, specialist tools for which they have the responsibility. It is also the responsibility of engineers to ensure that any tools, or other items of
equipment they use, are not left in an aircraft or associated components.
The care required for different tools can vary. Ordinary hand tools may merely require racking or locating within sturdy tool boxes, with careful, daily,
maintenance restricted to little more than a visual check.
Precision instruments however, require great care both in storage and in use. They may need to be kept in special, soft-lined, boxes within other
storage facilities. Prior to use they should have a zero check or calibration. Some tools require that they have a light coating of machine oil, to
prevent the onset of corrosion.
Each tool (whether it be a hammer or a micrometer), will require some special care, to ensure its optimum performance for, without this care, even
the most expensive tools very quickly become second rate and useless.
CONTROL OF TOOLS
Control of tools is important to good engineering practices and is also vital to flight safety. A variety of systems can be used to control tools but,
whichever system is used, it must allow a 100% check of the tools in use before it can be considered as acceptable.
One form of control is the shadow board and tool tag system, (refer to Fig. 6). Each tool is positioned over its silhouette, on the tool board.
Technicians are issued with identification tokens (numbered tags) which are exchanged for the tool and, usually, a tag is hung above the silhouette, to
be reclaimed, in exchange for the tool, when it is returned to the board. The shadow board/tool tag system works equally well when the tools are held
within a designated Tool Store arrangement.
Shadow Board and Tool Tag Fig. 1
In workshops and bays it is normal for a toolkit to be held by the

department in addition to its engineers holding personal sets of tools.
The tools held by the department are often referred to as special
tools, meaning that they are only for maintenance work on the items
being serviced in that workshop.
A wheel bay, for example, may have sets of special spanners, levers, seal applicators and pre-set torque wrenches, which are used
primarily for the servicing of particular types of aircraft wheels. This dedicated tool kit makes tool control much simpler and safer, with the tools all
being clearly marked as belonging to that specific bay.
No matter where tools are being used, it is the responsibility of each technician to keep track of ALL of the tools used during a particular task. The most
important check of all is the final, End of Work tool check, when all tools must be collected and checked off against personal inventories, ensuring all
borrowed tools (from the Tool Store for example), are returned and any personal tool tags collected.
USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS
Many of the wide variety of materials, used in workshops, require some form of control in their handling. This control can involve:
Safety: relating to such topics as the toxicity, corrosiveness or other health risks associated with the use of certain materials
Management: referring to the storage, use and correct handling of all materials whether they are solid, liquid, or, in some instances, gaseous
Economy: involving such matters as to the using of the correct dosage or proportions when mixing compounds, using only as much material as
required for a specific task and to the keeping in stock of only sufficient materials and thus avoiding lifed items reaching their expiry dates before
being used.
Abrasive papers, solder and brazing materials, wire wool, tyre powder, oil spill powder and so on, all require control of issue and use, though they may
not, normally, require stringent safety precautions.
A huge range of liquids can be used in the workshop situation, some of which are harmless and some of which are extremely toxic. It is vital that the
work-force make themselves aware of the risks involved when dealing with ANY materials, and especially when working within enclosed areas.
Some materials are flammable and must, therefore, be stored outdoors. These include oils, greases, some adhesives, sealing and glazing compounds in
addition to many paints, enamels and epoxy surface finishes, which are stored in metal cabinets and, usually, located (in the Northern hemisphere) on
the North side of a workshop or hangar. This ensures that the cabinet remains in the shade of the building and does not get exposed to the suns hot
rays during the day. It is also important that only the minimum amount of these materials is taken indoors for the work which is being done.
When handling materials that give off fumes, it may be necessary to have the area well ventilated and/or have the operator wearing a mask or some
form of remote breathing apparatus. The finished work may also give off fumes for some time afterwards, so care must be taken to keep it ventilated if
necessary.
Obviously all liquids must only be used for the purpose for which they are designed and never mixed together, unless the two materials are designed to
be mixed, such as with two part epoxy adhesives and sealants.
Many liquids used in workshops and in the hangar have (as mentioned earlier) a fixed life. This date is printed on the container and must be checked
before use, because many materials are unsafe if used beyond their expiry date.
The disposal of liquids is a critical operation, and must only be carried out in accordance with company (and, often, national or international)
regulations.
Liquids must never be disposed of by pouring them into spare or unidentified containers and they must not be allowed to enter the domestic drains
systems.
The working with, and the use of, high pressure gas containers and oxygen systems, was adequately discussed in the Safety Precautions topic.
DIMENSIONS
One of the main tasks an engineer has to perform is to identify if the aircraft conforms to its design specifications. Much of the maintenance work involves
carrying out some form of inspection. This will often involve measuring to check if dimensions are correct.
An engineer will be required to take measurements in a variety of different circumstances, using a variety of measuring devices. The following list gives
some of the situations where a measurement may be made:
Measuring tyre tread depth to ascertain if tread wear is excessive
Checking the up and down movement of a control surface this may involve measurement of an angle or a dimension
Measurement of thickness of brake pads
Determining the dimensions of damage to aircraft structures
Measurement of the overall length of an electrical actuator
Measurement of the volume of fuel during a fuel flow check
Accurate measurement of the dimensions of a hydraulic cylinder
In each of the previous cases a different method of measurement may be used. In the first example, a tyre depth gauge might be used. In the second the
measurement might be carried out with a steel rule or a special tool supplied by the aircraft manufacturer.
Accuracy of Dimensions
As well as using different types of measuring device, the measurements may need to be carried out to a greater degree of accuracy. In all cases it is true
to say the dimension cannot be measured exactly. It is only possible to measure to the accuracy of the measuring device used. As well as this, the
measuring device will not be totally accurate.
The scale of the rule shown is in millimeters, with the smallest sub-division representing 5mm. The line A is between 30mm and 35mm. You should not
estimate the value of A as 33mm (or 34mm). Its value can only be accurately stated as 30mm. If you need to measure more accurately, you need to use a
more accurate measuring device such as a Vernier caliper.
Another way of giving a false indication of the accuracy of a measurement or dimension is to specify too many decimal places in your measurement. For
example, if you measure a dimension of 418 inches with a rule calibrated in eights of an inch, you might be tempted to state the dimension as 4.125 as
this is the decimal value. This implies that you have measured to an accuracy of 0.001 rather than 18" .
ALLOWANCES & TOLERANCE
When components are manufactured, it is impossible for them to be manufactured to exact dimensions. Part of the reason for this is much the same as
we have already stated. The best accuracy we can achieve is dictated by the accuracy of our measuring devices. The ability of a machine to produce
identical parts also comes into play. A cutting tool will wear and so will produce slightly different parts each time. If a part is rolled or extruded, the rollers
or die will not produce the same results each time. It is essential that components are interchangeable so that they may fit together. The parts are
therefore made to a specified limit so that each may be slightly smaller or larger than the stated nominal size. A tolerance is the permitted variation
tolerated and is a measure of the accuracy or standard of workmanship. If for example a part should be 25mm in diameter (nominal size), it may be
considered acceptable if it is within the limits 25.02mm (high limit) and 24.98mm (low limit). The difference between the two limits is the tolerance, in
this case 0.04mm. It is more difficult (and more expensive) to produce items with very small tolerances. We often use the term close tolerance in this
case. Aircraft components are usually manufactured to closer tolerances than in other engineering applications.
The allowance is considered when we have two mating parts such as a shaft and a hole. The shaft is obviously designed to fit into a hole. Each will have a
high and a low limit. The allowance is the difference between the high limit of the shaft and the low limit of the hole.
STANDARDS OF WORKMANSHIP
Whilst the standards of workmanship, during the hand-working of metals and other materials, is controlled by the craftsperson, once machinery is used
in the manufacturing process, then the standards of finish and workmanship depend upon the allowances set by the designer and on the type of
machinery being used.
With hand tools, there are standards of finish, but these depend upon the skill of the craftsperson and, again, on the tools being used. For example, when
filing metal, different grades of files are used, to obtain a comparatively smooth surface finish while other methods, such as abrasive papers, pastes and
polishes, are then used, to provide the final finish.
When sawing, the same procedures apply in that blades with finer teeth will give a better finish to the sawn edges, which may then be further smoothed,
using an appropriate selection of files.
When drilling a hole, the conventional twist drill will only produce a finish of a certain standard. If a finer finish, to the inside of the hole, is required, then
a reamer would be used, to smooth the material inside the hole, so that, if a tight fitting pin is to be fitted through the hole, there will be better surface
contact.
There are a variety of machines that can generate a smooth surface on a piece of metal, the selection between them being decided by
the quality of finish. A lathe can produce an exceptionally smooth surface on a bar or some other rotated shape. If a large area is required to have a
smooth finish, then perhaps, after initial casting or forging, the choice may be of employing either a grinding machine or a milling machine, to .provide the
desired result.
In summary, the quality of the finished article is dependent both on the skill of the craftsperson and the equipment available to complete the task. It does
not matter whether the tools in use are files and emery cloth or an expensive milling machine; the standard of workmanship of the craftsperson can make
a great deal of difference to the finished article.
CALIBRATION OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Requirements within the relevant airworthiness codes, applicable to the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Industry, such as the British Civil Aviation
Requirements (BCARs), Joint Aviation Requirements (JARs), and Air Operators Certificates, prescribe that, where necessary, tools, equipment and, in
particular, test equipment are all calibrated to acceptable standards.
This topic provides an overall picture of the types of requirements and tests required in establishing and maintaining an effective calibration system. It
takes into account factors such as the degree of accuracy required, frequency of use and the reliability of the equipment.
The key factor is the need to establish confidence in the accuracy of the equipment when it is required for use. The required calibration frequency for any
particular piece of test equipment is that which will ensure it is in compliance with the standards applicable to its intended use. In all cases, standards
used are attributed upon the need for ultimate traceability to one of the following:
The standard specified by the equipment manufacturer/design organisation

The appropriate National/International Standards.
General Notes on Calibration

The appropriate standards are used to achieve consistency between measurements made in different locations, possibly using alternate measuring
techniques. The calibration of test equipment is best achieved by the operation of a methodical system of control.
This system should be traceable by an unbroken chain of comparisons, through measurement standards of successively better accuracy up to the
appropriate standard. Where recommendations for calibration standards are not published, or where they are not specified, calibration should be carried
out, in the UK, in accordance with British Standard EN 30012-1: Quality Assurance Requirements for Measuring Equipment.
As an alternative to operating an internal Measurement and Calibration System, an Approved Organisation or an Approved/Licensed Engineer may enter
into a sub-contracting arrangement to use an Appliance Calibration Service. This arrangement does not absolve the contractors of the service from
maintaining standards as if they were carrying out the work themselves.
In all instances, it is the responsibility of the user to be satisfied that the unbroken traceability chain is in place. External organisations, which supply an
external Calibration Service, should be those holding accreditation of the National Accreditation of Measurement and Sampling, (NAMAS).
Procedures
The definition of appliances requiring calibration are those items which are necessary to perform measurements or tests of an aircraft, a system or a
component, to defined limits, as specified in the technical documentation of the Type Certificate holder.
Procedures, controlling regular inspection, servicing and, where appropriate, calibration of such items, are to indicate to the users that the item is within
any inspection time limit. These Next Inspection labels must clearly state when, and, if necessary, where the next calibration is due.
There should be a programme that plans the periodic inspection, service or calibration within the defined time limit, which ensures that the item remains
in calibration. It is common sense to stagger the calibration of items, so that the largest number are available for use at all times. It is also important, that
a register of all items requiring calibration is held, so that cross-checking can be simply carried out. Where a small number of particular items are held,
then contract loan of equipment is permitted.
The intervals at which calibration is required, can vary with the nature of the equipment, the conditions under which it is used and the consequences of
incorrect results. The frequency will be in accordance with the manufacturer or suppliers instructions, unless the organisation can show that a different
interval is warranted in a particular case. This would normally require a system of continuous analysis of calibration results to be established, to support
the variation to the recommended calibration intervals.
Any appliance, the serviceability of which is in doubt, should be removed from service and clearly labelled accordingly. The appliance must not be returned to
service unless the reason for its unserviceability has been eliminated and its continued calibration re-validated. Action must be taken, if an item of equipment is
found, during re-calibration, to have a significant error. This must include re- checking of measurements made prior to finding the fault.
The scope of the records maintained, are dependent upon the standards required and the nature of the equipment. The record system can also provide a valuable
reference in case of dispute or warranty claims. These records can also indicate drift and can help in reassessing calibration intervals.
Calibration records or certificates should, as a minimum, contain the following information for each appliance calibrated:
Identification of equipment
Limits of permissible error
Standard used
Authority under which the document was issued
Results obtained
Any limitation of use of equipment
Uncertainty of measurement
Date when each calibration was conducted
Assigned calibration interval.
Where calibration services are provided by outside organisations, it is acceptable that the accuracy of the equipment is attested by a release document in the
name of the Calibration Company.
Any measurement is affected, to some degree, by the environment in which it is made. The equipment will need to be calibrated, transported and stored under
conditions compatible with the type of equipment, to ensure its accuracy is not impaired.
To provide valid and repeatable test results, the facilities used for calibration must have a controlled environment. It is necessary to control the temperature,
humidity, vibration, dust, cleanliness, electromagnetic interference, lighting and other factors that may affect the standard of the results. If any of these
requirements cannot be met, then compensation corrections must be applied to the calibration standard to ensure continued accuracy.
A measurement Checking Standard can be applied, at the work place, to check the accuracy of an appliance and to ensure its continued correct functioning. The
Checking Standard will be robust and its accuracy will not match that of a full calibration check, but it will give confidence between checks that the equipment is
functioning correctly.
The company Quality System has the responsibility of ensuring the continued accuracy, not only of the items of equipment, but also of the actual testing facilities.
7.3 TOOLS
Servicing of an aircraft, requires the dismantling, cleaning, examination, adjustment and re-assembly of the part in accordance with the maintenance schedule.
Further aspects of the work may require the manufacture of simple components from metal or other materials, the drilling and tapping of holes, removal of
burrs and other operations. A reasonable degree of skill, in the use of hand tools is, therefore, to be expected from all trades-persons. This skill can only be
obtained by practice, but it may be stated, that the more efficient the tool, then the better will be the finished work.
COMMON HAND TOOLS

The best results are always obtained by using the correct tool for the task. Care and maintenance of all tools is very important, since damaged or inefficient
tools can lead to injury of the user or damage to the components. A range of common hand tools is considered in this part of the course.
Engineers Rule
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 24 25 26 27 28
An engineers rule (refer to Fig. 1) is made from high-carbon steel and is graduated in Imperial 9 10 11 29 30
and Metric units. Rules are classified by the length and width of their graduated portion, must 1 2 3 1 0 1 1 12
be kept free from rust and should not be subjected to rough usage. The most common engineers
rule has a length of 300mm (1ft) but rules can be obtained in lengths of up to 1,800mm (6ft). Edge Imperial Scale
View
The increment graduation marks are etched into the rule surface providing a grooved recess.
These grooves enable dividers to be set to a greater accuracy, as the divider points can be felt to
drop in to the recess.
Groov
es
Engineers Rule Fig. 1
Scriber
A scriber (refer to Fig. 2) is used for marking lines on the surface of metals. Scribers are made from high carbon steel and are classified by their length. One end of
the scriber is usually bent at right angles to enable lines to be scribed in difficult places such as through a hole.
All scribed lines, on soft materials, must only be cutting (boundary) lines, and none must be left on the surface of the metal on completion, as they can cause cracks.
Other lines, including bend lines and lines for the position of rivets must be marked with a sharp pencil.
Scriber points must be kept sharp and fine by careful stoning, with an oil stone, rather than an abrasive wheel (grindstone). Using a wheel is likely to generate too
much heat, which will result in the temper being drawn from the steel and the point of the scriber becoming soft and useless.
When not in use (and as with other tools with sharp points), placing pieces of cork, plastic or similar material over their points will protect them.
Key-Seat Rule :
Key-seat rules are used for marking-off lines, parallel to the axis, on the surface of tubes or round bars (refer to Fig. 2). Sometimes referred to as Box Squares, key-
seat rules are usually graduated and are classified by their length.
Scriber and Key Seat Ruler
Fitters Square
The fitters square is used for setting out lines at right angles to an edge or surface, and for checking right angular work for truth. Squares are made,
to very fine limits, of high-carbon steel and are classified by the length of the blade.
The blade and the stock have their opposing edges ground truly parallel with the two limbs set at exactly 90 to each other.
To preserve its accuracy it is essential that it is handled carefully at all times and, when not in use, kept in a protective case or box.
When testing a square for accuracy, it may be checked for truth against an accurately machined right angular test piece such as a V block or master
square. If this is not possible, a test may be carried out (refer to Fig. 3) as follows:
Place the stock against the true edge of a flat surface and scribing a line on the surface, using the outside edge of the blade
Turn the square over and check the outside edge of the blade against the previously scribed line.
If the square is accurate, the blade edge and the scribed line will be in line. In a similar manner, the inside edge of the blade can be tested.
True Edge
Error
Testing a Square Fig. 3
Combination Set
The Combination Set (refer to Fig. 4), consists of a graduated steel rule, which has a machined groove running along the centre of its entire length. The rule can be
slid into three different heads and secured, by a locking screw device, so that the combination of rule and head will enable certain tasks to be accomplished.
The Centre Head is used, with the rule, to locate the centre line of bars or round tubes.
The Square Head has one working surface at 90 and another at 45 to the locked rule. This allows the tool to be used, either in a similar manner to the Fitters Square
(to check the squareness of work), or it may be used for the marking out of mitre joints and bevels.
A spirit level and scriber are, sometimes, accommodated in the base of the Square Head, to permit a check to be done on the horizontal or vertical accuracy of
workpieces.
The Protractor Head also has a spirit level, which rotates with the head, and allows the head to be used, singly, as a clinometer or, in conjunction with the rule, it may
be used to mark out and check angles on workpieces.
Scriber Protractor Head
Spirit Level
Centre
Head Square
Head
Groov
e
Combination Set Fig. 4
Surface Plates and Tables

Surface plates (and surface tables which are larger), while not actually being classed as marking out or measuring tools, are simply blocks of grey cast iron with finely
machined faces which can be used as a standard of flatness. They may also be used to provide a true surface, from which marking out, measuring and testing can
be done.
Surface plates are usually mounted on a bench and, normally, only have three supports, or feet, to ensure steadiness, if the surface of the bench were to be slightly
uneven.
Surface tables are free standing, on the workshop floor, and their sheer weight provides the required steadiness.
The standard of the surface finish varies. The better grades are scraped and the cheaper ones are merely planed. The accuracy of a planned table depends upon the
accuracy of the machine producing it.
Surfaces of grade A standard would only be used in Standards Rooms, grade B surfaces are for inspection work while grade C surface plates and tables would be
found in typical workshops.
Surface plates and tables can be used to test for flatness, providing the standards required are not too high. The surface of the plate is lightly smeared with a mixture
of engineers blue and a few drops of oil. The piece to be tested has to be rubbed lightly on to the surface plate and any high spots will show up as blue spots on the
test piece. These spots will be filed or scraped until the whole surface shows blue.
After use, a light film of oil should be applied to the working surface of the surface plates and tables. They should, then, be protected with a wooden cover, to
prevent the onset of corrosion.
V Blocks
V Blocks are accurately machined, six-sided, rectangular blocks (generally made of cast iron), which may be used, on surface plates and tables, to hold a round bar,
which can then be marked in a variety of ways, to give centres and lines parallel to its side. V blocks are classified by the maximum diameter of the work, which they
can hold.
All opposite sides of the blocks are parallel and all adjacent faces are square to each other. A 90 groove (in the shape of a V) is machined in two (longer) opposite
faces, but the grooves are cut at different depths, to cater for bars of different
The V-cut grooves have a small, square-cut, clearance groove in the bottom of the V. This ensures that any oil, or dirt runs off the sides of the V and does not clog
the bottom of the V, causing an imperfect seating of any bar which were to be placed in the blocks.
V blocks are made in (identified) matching pairs, which must always be used together, so that a block of one pair should not be used with one of another pair.
Some V blocks also have grooves machined along the other two longer, parallel, sides, to locate specially designed clamps, which may be used to securely hold work
while it is being accurately marked out or drilled.
Surface Gauge (Scribing Block)

A Surface Gauge, or Scribing Block (refer to Fig. 5), is another marking out tool, used, on a surface plate or table, in conjunction with a scriber (and, occasionally,
with V blocks), for the marking of lines, which are parallel to a true surface.
The scriber is clamped to a spindle, which can be accurately pivoted, by means of a fine adjustment screw, on the heavy base. The base, which is generally made
from cast iron (or hardened steel) is machined to be as flat as the surface plate on which it slides, but it is also grooved (in a similar manner to the V block) so that
it can be used on round stock when required.
Two friction-fit pins, in the base, may be pushed down, to assist in drawing lines parallel to a true edge.
V Blocks
Scribing Block
Surface Plate
Scribing Block with V Blocks and Surface Plate Fig. 5
Dividers
Dividers are used to set out distances and to scribe arcs and circles. The legs are made of high-carbon steel, the spring made of spring steel and the
adjusting mechanism of mild steel.
Dividers are classified by the length of their legs. The points should be kept sharp and of equal length by stoning only the outside of the legs. If
grinding is used to sharpen the points, it must be done very carefully, as the temper of the points can be drawn, leaving them soft.
The points of dividers should be protected, when not in use, in a similar manner to those of scribers and such tools.
Callipers
Callipers (refer to Fig. 6) are a type of measuring device, typically used to measure diameters and distances or for comparing sizes. The three basic
types of calliper are:
Outside Callipers: Used to measure the outside diameter of an object and

have legs that point inwards
Inside Callipers: Used to measure the inside of a hole and have legs that
point outwards
Odd-Leg Callipers (Hermaphrodite or Jenny Callipers): This tool is really
half callipers and half dividers. It may be used for scribing arcs on metal
surfaces from an edge, for scribing lines parallel to an edge or surface,
(provided accuracy is not of great importance), and for finding the centre
of a round bar.
Hammers
Hammers (refer to Fig. 7) are classified by their weight and type of head. Steel heads are forged and manufactured from high-carbon steel. Most shafts are made
from straight-grained Ash or Hickory and are secured to the head by wedging.
As can be seen from Fig. 7, the main types of engineering hammers are the:
Ball Pein: The flat surface is used for most general-purpose work whilst the ball pein is used primarily for riveting-type operations
Straight Pein: Used for general work, the narrow, straight pein being particularly suitable for use where access to the work is limited
Cross Pein: As for the straight pein, but the axis of the pein is at 90 to that of the shaft
Hide/Copper Face: The rawhide facing enables heavy blows to be delivered without damaging the surface of the work, while the copper face may be used for
heavier types of work than hide faced hammers
Rubber Head and Plastic Face: More modern versions of the Hide Face hammer. Can often have one of each type of face on each end of the head
Claw Hammer (not shown): More commonly used for woodworking. The face is used for hammering nails whilst the claw is used for removing nails
Body Hammer (not shown): Little used in aircraft work, as they are primarily used to remove dents and blemishes from sheet metal. They are also known as
planishing hammers.
The weight of hammer required can be found with experience. Before use, it must be ensured that the head is secure on the shaft. The shaft should be gripped
close to the end opposite the head, as proper control is not possible if it is held close to the head.
Punches
Although punches are not pounding tools, they do allow the force from a hammer blow to be concentrated in the immediate area of the punch tip. This in turn
means that the pressure at the end of the punch is increased compared to a hammer blow without a punch.
Over a period of time, the hammered shank end of a punch, tends to deform into the shape of a mushroom. To reduce the chance of a metal chip flying off and
causing injury, during punching operations, the deformation should be removed and the shank end returned to its original shape by the use of a bench grinder.
Eye or face protection should always be used when using punches of any type. The types of punches, more commonly found in an engineers
toolkit, include:
Centre Punches
Pin Punches
Hollow Punches
Drifts
The first three punches are, usually, constructed from hexagonal (or knurled, round) rods of tempered, cast steel with a length of approximately 127 mm (5 in), a
gripping diameter of approximately 3.175 mm (0.125 in) and a smaller, driving end of the appropriate size.
Centre Punches are relatively sharp-pointed tools, used to make an indentation in metal. The indentation aids in locating the centre of a hole and for starting a drill
which the punch is being used. The
softer the metal, then the larger will be the angle of the punchs point.
When using a centre punch, it must be struck hard enough to give an indentation large enough for a drill bit to start, but not so hard as to distort the metal.
Another form of Centre Punch is the Dot or Prick Punch (also Pricker), which has a finer point and is used to make indentations along a drawn line when the line
is, otherwise, difficult to see. The indentations may also be used, when sawing down to a line, as witness points, to show that the cutting is accurate.
Centre punches should not be used to drive out pins or rivets from their holes.
Pin Punches, as their name implies, are the tools to be used for the removal of pins and rivets from their respective holes. The driving end of a Pin Punch is cut flat,
and its diameter ground to match that of the pin or rivet which is being driven from its hole. Pin Punches may be found with parallel or tapered driving ends.
Hollow Punches are used to punch out bolt (or stud) holes in soft, thin sheets, such as shimming or gasket materials, which are difficult to cut with drills. The
material being cut, should be supported by a wooden block, to avoid damaging the cutting end of the Hollow Punch.
Drifts may be fashioned from aluminium alloy, copper or steel bars (or tubes), and are used for driving out bearings, bushes or shafts from their
respective cages or housings.
Only steel drifts should be used on bearings, due to the possibility of small metal chips, from the softer metals, breaking off and fouling the bearing assemblies.
Metal-Cutting Chisels
Metal-cutting chisels (also called Cold Chisels) are used in conjunction with steel hammers. Chisels are forged, usually using short lengths of hexagonal-sectioned,
high-carbon steel bars, with the cutting edge hardened and tempered.
To prevent flying particles when hammering, the striking end is not hardened and is, therefore, comparatively softer. Periodically, the burr, that forms at the
striking end of the chisel, should (in a similar manner to punches), be removed by filing or grinding.
Alternatively, the chisels may be made of nickel-alloy steel, specially heat-treated, to produce a long-lasting cutting edge.
Chisels are classified by their shape, overall length, cross-section of shank and width of cut. There are four principal shapes of chisels (refer to Fig. 8), in general use.
They are the:
Flat
Cross-Cut
Diamond-Point
Half-Round.
Flat chisels are used for general chipping work, such as parting sheet metal or cutting flat surfaces, preparatory to filing. The cutting edge is formed slightly convex.
Cross-Cut (or Cape) chisels are used to cut narrow, flat-bottomed, grooves, such as keyways in shafts or where it is not practical to use a flat
chisel. These chisels are also used to remove the heads of round-headed rivets during repairs.
Diamond-Point chisels are particularly useful for cutting in corners, cutting small oil grooves and for rectifying an incorrect start when drilling.
Half-Round (and may, also, be called Round) chisels are general-purpose, grooving chisels, which are suitable for cutting half-round, bottomed, grooves. They are
also suitable for rectifying an incorrect start when drilling.
In general, it may be assumed that the softer the metal the more acute should be the cutting angle. Table 5 shows some suggested cutting
angles for use on typical metals, found in aircraft engineering workshops.
High-carbon, steel chisels, should be sharpened by grinding on an abrasive wheel, but nickel-alloy, steel chisels are sharpened by filing. The cutting edge of the
chisel must be kept cool, during grinding, by frequent immersion in water, which will prevent the temper being drawn from the metal.
Bench Vice
The bench vice (refer to Fig. 9) is used to firmly grip the material or item upon which work is being done in a workshop. The body of the vice is provided with
detachable steel jaws. The screw is made with a square or with a buttress thread.
Most types of bench vice have a quick-release mechanism, operated by a small lever. The jaws can then be slid either open or closed until the correct position is
reached. The lever disengages the half nut from the thread to permit the sliding action and it is driven back into engagement by a strong spring. Bench vices are
classified by the length of their jaws.
The height of the top of the vice above the ground is important, and should ideally, be level with the technicians elbow when standing adjacent to the vice. With
the vice at the correct height, work will be less tiring and correct control of the tools, such as files and saws, will be achieved.
The vice must be secured firmly to the bench (with occasional checks of the holding-down nuts), and the screw should be kept clean and lubricated. The jaws must
not be over-tightened as the mechanism may be damaged or the workpiece become distorted.
To protect soft materials from the hardened, serrated, vice jaws, aluminium vice clamps (or clams) can be positioned over the jaws. Other, special holding devices,
such as V blocks (made out of wood to protect tubular items) can be manufactured locally.
Hand Vice
A hand vice (refer to Fig. 10) is classified by its overall length and can be used when splicing cables or holding small objects that are to be shaped or drilled. The
body and screw are made of mild steel, with a wing nut provided for the operation of the hand vice. Small vice clamps can also be used with these vices when
working with soft material.
Hacksaws
The hacksaw, is the most widely-used, metal-cutting, hand saw. Hacksaws are used for parting off, or for cutting materials approximately to size. They are designed
primarily for cutting metal, but may be used on other materials. The saw consists of a mild steel frame, with a suitable handle and a replaceable, serrated blade,
which is made from high-carbon or alloy steel.
Fine-toothed blades have 24 or 32 teeth per inch and are used for cutting thin material. Coarser blades, with 14 or 18 teeth per inch are for thicker material. A rule
of thumb is that at least two teeth must be in contact, with the work being cut, at all times (refer to Fig. 11).
The blade mountings must be set in the most convenient position with the teeth facing away from the handle. This allows the blade to cut on the more efficient,
forward stroke.
Hand pressure should be applied on this forward stroke and relieved on the return stroke. The full length of the blade should be used for each stroke, if at all
possible. This action prolongs the life of the blade, lessens the chance of teeth breaking away from the blade and reduces the chance of the saw jamming during
use.
Saw blades are given an alternate set, during manufacture, which results in the cutting slot (the kerf) being wider than the blade thickness (refer to Fig. 12). This
prevents the blade from jamming, which may result in a bent or broken blade.
Sheet Metal Shears and Snips

Shears are another type of cutting tool used on aircraft sheet metal. Long, straight cuts, across a piece of sheet metal, are made on a guillotine, which may also be
referred to as squaring shears.
The fabrication of smaller parts requires hand cutting, followed with further trimming to the final dimensions. This can be achieved with different types of shears,
known as Tinmans Shears or Aviation Snips. They can vary in length from 175 mm (7 in) up to 300 mm (12 in) and can be straight or curved cutting.
Straight shears (or snips) are primarily for cutting straight or wide radius curves whilst the curved shears are dedicated solely to cutting curves.
Curved shears can be found in symmetrical form, which can be used to cut curves in either direction, or they can be asymmetrical and dedicated to cutting curves
in one direction only. The handles of asymmetrically curved shears are usually colour-coded (red and green), to indicate the intended cutting direction. Left-cutting
shears are coloured red while right-cutting shears are coloured green).
Unlike hacksaws (and files), shears simply part the metal without removing any material. This can, however, cause tiny fractures to occur along the severed lines
and so, for this reason, cuts should be made approximately 0.8 mm (0.03 in) from the marking out line and the metal then filed down to the line.
Files
Files are cutting tools for removing metal from a surface and are made of high- carbon steel. The blade is hardened, whilst the tang (to which, a handle must always
be attached, for safety reasons, before the file is used), is left in a softer, tougher condition and is, therefore, less brittle. Hand files are classified by their:
Length
Shape
Cross-Section
Cut
Grade.
The length of a file is measured from the shoulder to the tip of the blade. Files are available, for special work, in lengths from 75 mm (3 in) to 350
mm (14 in). The most common sizes are 150 mm (6 in), 200 mm (8 in) and 250 mm (10 in).
Files are available in a variety of shapes (refer to Fig. 13), and the most common shapes are those which are:
Parallel
Tapered
Bellied.
The various shapes and the cross-sections of files allow them to be used on a wide range of tasks. The standard file cross-sections (refer to Fig. 14) are:
Hand
Round
Half-Round
Square
Three-Square.
The Hand is the most commonly used section for general filing; and the blade is usually parallel in shape. One edge may be without teeth, to
permit safe working against a finished surface. Such a file is called a Hand Safe Edge (HSE) file.
The Round section is used in association with bellied, parallel and tapered blade shapes, with the bellied being the one most commonly used. These files are
suitable for filing small radii.
Half-Round files are mostly associated with a bellied-shaped blades. Such files are suitable for use on work of irregular shape or for filing large internal radii.
Square files may be bellied, tapered or parallel in shape. They are used for internal work.
Three-Square (or Triangular) files are, usually, of the bellied shape. They are particularly useful for filing internal corners.
The Cut of a file refers to the arrangement of the cutting teeth, on the blade of the file. The pattern, in which the teeth are cut, will depend upon the type of
material to be filed. The common cuts of files (refer to Fig. 15) are the:
Single Cut
Double Cut Dreadnought Rasp.
The Single Cut file has its teeth cut parallel, in a single direction and (for general engineering), usually, at an angle of approximately 60 to the
main axis of the blade. This type of cut is relatively open and the teeth do not clog easily.
Sometimes referred to as Floats, single cut Hand files are, chiefly, used for filing hard metals. Round files and the curved surface of Half-Round files are usually
single cut.
The Double Cut file also has one set of teeth cut at an angle of 60 to the centre line of the file, with another, crossing set, cut at angle of approximately 75. This is
the most widely used type of file for general purposes.
The cut of the Dreadnoughts teeth, make this file especially suitable for heavy cutting on broad, soft metal surfaces. Its use is generally restricted to the larger sizes
of flat files.
The teeth of the Rasp are cut with a punch, while the metal is hot, at the time of manufacture. This type of cut is used for filing very soft materials such as wood
and leather.
Manufacturers will cut files to cater for a wide range of specialised materials, such as encountered when working with aluminium and other non-ferrous alloys.
The Grade of a file refers to the depth and spacing (number of teeth per inch) of the cutting teeth in a similar manner to the size and spacing of the particles
employed on abrasive papers and wheels. The rate of cutting and the finish given to the work is determined, to a large extent, by the grade of the file.
While there are several more grades of files, available from manufacturers, the most common grades (or degrees of coarseness) of the single and double cut files,
found in a typical aerospace technicians toolkit, are the:
Bastard
Second-Cut
Smooth.
The Bastard is a comparatively coarse grade of file and, though the number of teeth per inch varies with each manufacturer, the Bastard file has approximately 30
teeth per inch. It removes metal fairly quickly and is intended, primarily, for roughing out, but may be used for the entire work, if the finish is not important.
The Second-Cut files are finer (40 teeth per inch) and, consequently, give a better surface finish to the work, but are slower cutting.
Smooth files (50 to 60 teeth per inch) enable a good finish to be obtained, but such files cut comparatively slowly. They should, therefore, be used for finishing work
only.
Filing Techniques
Good filing is not just a matter of removing surplus metal. The correct amount of material, at each point on the surface of the workpiece, needs to be removed, so
that the dimensions and tolerances, set by the drawing, will be met.
Proficiency comes with practice. New files should, if possible, be first used on soft metal. This achieves tempering of the cutting teeth and will contribute to a
longer life for the file.
Before starting work, it must be ensured that the workpiece is secure and correctly placed, as both hands are required for filing tasks.
A file must never be used without a handle. The file will not be under full control and the risk of puncturing the wrist or palm is very great.
Files must be handled carefully. File blades, being hard, are also brittle and will break if dropped. After use, all files should be returned to their respective racks or
bandolier-type holdalls, to prevent them knocking together and being damaged.
The length and grade of file, appropriate to the shape (and material) of the workpiece, and to the quality of the desired surface finish, must always be used.
As mentioned previously, the height of the vice is important and platforms may be constructed, to ensure that the elbows of shorter persons are
level with the top of the vice. Any platforms, so constructed, should ensure that a correct stance be attained, by the work-person, in front of the
vice.
It is recommended that the person stand, with feet apart and (depending on whether the person is left- or right-handed), one foot advanced, in a manner similar to
a boxer (or a fencer) taking guard. The body weight should be taken on the balls of the feet but, primarily, over the rearmost foot.
Again depending on the person, the handle of the file is gripped in the appropriate hand, while the palm of the other hand is placed, flat on the back of the file, near
the tip, when the tip of the file is resting on the workpiece.
Using a rocking action, the body weight is transferred over the forward foot while pushing the file forward (and, simultaneously, to the left or right) with the
gripping hand, and exerting equal downward pressure, on the file, with both hands.
The full length of the file should be used for each stroke (which should not be rushed) and, at the completion of the stroke, the action is reversed, excepting that
the downward pressure is relieved on the backstroke, as the file does not cut in the rearward direction.
Obviously, if attempting to file a flat surface, then it must be ensured that the file is kept level during the filing action and that regular checks are made to verify the
accuracy of the dimensions.
During work (and particularly so with non-ferrous metals), the teeth of the file gradually become clogged (pinned) with small particles. If these pinnings are ignored
they will cause scratches to the surface of the workpiece with subsequent loss of surface finish. To this end, pinnings should be regularly removed by the use of a
file card (also called a scratch card) or wire brush.
Chalk, rubbed along the face of the file, before starting the finishing work, will assist in minimising pinning.
Draw-filing, by grasping the file between the fingers and thumbs of both hands, on either side of a workpiece, and rubbing back and forth on the surface, may be
used to rectify any hollows, which may appear on a filed surface, due to incorrect filing action. It may also be used, in conjuction with chalk, applied as previously
described, to assist in creating a finer surface finish.
Hand Brace (Hand Drill)
Whenever it is necessary to cut accurate, circular holes in materials, then, where possible, the material should be securely clamped and the holes cut, using fixed,
power-operated drilling machines. These machines are usually found in workshops and bays, bolted down to the floor (or to benches) and will be discussed in later
topics. Where it is impractical to do the work with fixed machines, then the drilling is done, using either portable power tools or hand- operated drills. Portable,
power-operated tools will also be discussed later.
The Hand Brace, or, as it is more usually called, the Hand Drill (refer to Fig. 16), is, typically, only used to drill holes of up to 6.5 mm, ( in) diameter in thin and
comparatively soft materials. The device shown is similar to those most commonly found in the toolkits of aircraft technicians, though the actual design will depend
upon each manufacturer.
Another hand-operated drill, the Breast Brace, being larger, is designed to hold larger drills than the hand drill and is, normally, used (in workshops etc.) for drilling
holes between 6.5 mm and 12 mm ( and in).
The breast brace has one other advantage over the hand drill, in that two running speeds can be selected, which will more closely match the correct speed,
required by the various sized twist drills being employed.
Twist Drills
While the range of tools, designed to create holes in metals and other materials is vast, the Morse-type (named after its inventor, an American engineer) of Twist
Drill (refer to Fig. 17) is the one most commonly used in aircraft (and in general) engineering.
The shank is the part of the twist drill that is gripped and driven by the chuck of the drilling machine and it is on the shank that the details of the type (grade) and
diameter of the drill can usually be found printed or engraved.
On drills up to 12.5 mm () diameter, the shank is parallel and placed into the jaws of a self-centring chuck. On drills above 12.5 mm the shank is usually tapered
(to a Morse Taper) of 1:20. The tapered shank fits directly into a matching tapered housing in the drilling machine spindle.
The tapered shank usually ends in a tang and this arrangement provides a more positive drive, which is necessary to overcome the higher forces when drilling with
the larger diameter drills.
In order that the drill will cut properly, the point must be ground to the correct shape (refer to Fig. 18)
a clearance angle of 12o to and a web angle of 130, are typical for normal metal cutting, such as aluminium alloys, steels, cast iron and copper.
These can be changed to suit the cutting of different materials such as harder metals, softer metals or plastics
ing angles will cause an

unbalanced rotation that will, in turn, produce an oversized hole.
To achieve the desired cutting and clearance angles (and resulting web angles), a drill grinding attachment may be found attached to a grinding wheel in a
workshop.
Hand grinding/sharpening of drills can be achieved (especially after practice), to an acceptable standard for general work. For the high standard of hole, required to
receive rivets, in the pressurised skins of aircraft, it is common practice to discard drills, which have become blunt and to replace them with new drills.
There are many different grades of metal, used in the manufacture of twist drills, the most common being:
Carbon Steel
High Speed Steel
Cobalt Steel.
Reamers
Reamers are precision-ground tools, which are used to enlarge drilled holes to accurate dimensions and provide a smooth internal finish to accommodate precision-
ground bolts and some special types of rivets. Reamers are manufactured from high-carbon steel or alloy steel and are fluted to provide a series of cutting edges.
They are available, either for use by hand, or for using with a suitable drilling machine. Machine reamers can usually be identified by the Morse tapered shank,
which is inserted directly into the spindle of a drilling machine.
The use of machine reamers is, usually, the prerogative of specialist machinists and not of line- or hangar-based aircraft engineers so that only the hand-operated
reamers will be discussed here.
Hand reamers are rotated, by means of the hand wrench, which locates on the squared portion of the shank. They must always be rotated only in the cutting
direction, even when withdrawing from a hole. The cutting lubricants, used on specific materials, are those which are used for drilling procedures.
Reamers are used for removing only small amounts of material, which, typically, for hand reamers, is approximately 0.2 mm-0.3 mm (0.008 in-0.012 in), so holes
should be drilled with this fact in mind.
Reamers are supplied in protective sleeves, to protect the fine, vulnerable cutting edges, which run along the body of the tool and, to preserve
the sharp edges, they should be kept in their sleeves when not in use.
The three most common types of hand-operated reamers are the:
Hand Parallel Reamer
Hand Expanding Reamer
Hand Taper Reamer.
Hand Parallel Reamers (refer to Fig. 22) are fixed-size, parallel-bodied reamers, possessing either straight or spiral flutes. The straight fluted reamer can be
considered to be the general-purpose reamer, whilst the spiral fluted reamer is used for reaming holes which have keyways or grooves as the spiral flutes smoothly
bridge the edges of the gap in the metal while the reamer rotates.
Internal Screw Thread, Cutting Taps

Taps are used for the hand cutting of internal (female) screw threads of the common types, up to a maximum diameter of approximately 25.4 mm (1.0 in). They are
short, threaded bars of hardened and tempered steel, which are fluted to give cutting edges and the end of the shank is squared, to facilitate turning with a wrench
(refer to Fig. 25). Taps are normally made in sets of three, with the exception of the BA thread tap sets, which have only two taps to a set. A tap set, which all have
the same maximum diameter, normally consists of a:
Taper Tap
Second Tap
Plug Tap
The Taper Tap is used to start the thread cutting process. It is tapered gradually from the point for about two thirds of the threaded length, so that it can enter the
pre-drilled hole easily and assist in the correct alignment of the tap (which is very important) before cutting commences. The last third of its length has fully formed
threads.
The Second (or Intermediate) Tap is used, following the taper tap, to deepen the thread. This tap is tapered for the first two or three threads only and, where it is
possible for the tap to pass the whole length through a hole, it is capable of cutting a fully formed thread. The Intermediate is the tap that is not available in BA
thread tapping sets. The Plug (or Bottoming) Tap has no taper and its purpose is to finish the threads in deep, through holes or to cut threads to the bottom of
blind holes.
Before the thread can be cut, a hole must be drilled in the workpiece. This hole must be of the correct size and the drill that is selected (the tapping drill), must
have the same diameter as the minor diameter of the thread needed to be cut. The correct tapping drill size can be obtained from workshop charts and reference
books.
Unfortunately, because taps are glass hard they are also brittle and can, thus, be easily broken if due care is not given to their use. It is imperative that the taps
location in the drilled hole be constantly confirmed and that its main axis is maintained in proper alignment with the corresponding axis of the hole.
Adequate cutting fluid (as used in the drilling procedure) must be applied, and the arms of the wrench should be of an appropriate length (not too long) so that the
possibility of the tap wobbling in the hole, or excessive turning force being applied to the tap (and especially to the smaller diameter taps), is minimised.
If a tap jams, and snaps off in a hole, its removal can cause serious difficulties
Following the drilling of the correct sized hole, the tapping procedure involves ensuring that the workpiece is securely held (firmly attached to another component
or clamped in a vice) and that the taper tap is attached to the correct sized wrench. Taps, incidentally, may have right or left hand threads.
Applying lubricant as required, the taper tap is inserted into the hole and its correct alignment verified (by use, for example, of an Engineers square), before it is
rotated clockwise (for a right hand thread), slowly and gently, until the initial threads are established.
Once the initial threads are established, the tap must not be rotated continuously, otherwise the cuttings will not break off and the tap will, consequently, jam in
the hole and, if forced, it will shatter.
To this end, the tap, after each full turn, is rotated backwards, approximately to
of a turn, to break the cuttings off. The forward rotation is then continued, with subsequent cutting breaks, until the full thread portion of the tap has cut
sufficient full threads in the hole.
After the preliminary cut, the process is repeated, using the second tap (if not a BA thread), and, if required, repeated again using the plug tap. The thread, and
each end of the hole (where accessible), should be cleaned out if burrs or swarf are present and, with blind holes, the swarf must be cleared out of the hole
regularly to prevent the tap binding at the bottom of the hole.
In the event of a tap breaking in a hole, it may be necessary to resort to specialist procedures (spark erosion for example) for its removal without causing further,
and, possibly, expensive damage, to the component or workpiece.
Screwdrivers
Despite the many shapes and sizes which may be met, it can be stated that screwdrivers may be divided into two main groups, which, basically, are:
Blade Screwdrivers
Cross-Point Screwdrivers.
Blade (or Common) screwdrivers consist of a high carbon or an alloy steel blade, mounted into a wooden or composite handle. The end of the blade is ground to
engage the diagonal slot in the head of the screw. If the blade is of high carbon steel, it will be hardened and tempered.
Screwdrivers in this category are classified by type and by the length of blade, which can be from approximately 35 mm (1.5 in) to 300 mm (12 in) long, although
special screwdrivers can be obtained with blade lengths of 500 mm (20 in).
Some variations may incorporate a reversible ratchet device in the handle while others may also have an Archimedes drive (as in a Pump screwdriver)).
All of these features would form part of the classification of the screwdriver.
The correct engagement of the screwdriver blade in the slotted head of the screw
or bolt is most important (refer to Fig. 27). The most common faults can be seen
in the illustration. The end of the blade should never be ground to a sharp chisel
edge and a blade of the correct thickness and width should always be
chosen.
Screwdrivers of the wrong size can cause serious damage to fasteners,

surrounding aircraft structure and to the persons using them.
Cross-Point Screwdrivers have been designed, by the several manufacturers of the

different types of screw heads (refer to Fig. 28).These screw heads allow
greater torque to be applied to the fasteners but, due to the variations in
design, it is vital that the correct screwdriver be used with each type of screw
head as they are not compatible. The accurate fit of cross-point
screwdrivers into the recess in the respective screw head is essential if damage is to be prevented.
There is also a wide selection of other specialist screwdrivers, which have been made to allow certain tasks to be accomplished. These can include:
Offset (or Cranked) Screwdrivers: which can reach screws with little clearance above their heads (and which may, also, have a blade at one end and a cross-point
at the other)
Reversible Tip Screwdrivers: with hexagonal shanks, that allow the shank of the screwdriver to be reversed in the handle to provide a different tip, with a blade at
one end and a cross-point at the other end of the hexagonal shank
Interchangeable Tip Screwdrivers: which have a selection of socket-like tips, that can be interchanged to suit any particular type of screw head.
Pliers
Pliers are classified by type and overall length and usually made from alloy steel, with an insulated handle. They are designed for gripping, bending or moving small
items that cannot be easily handled with the fingers. Some of the many types, that are available for a variety of purposes, include:
Side-Cutting Pliers: which are the general-purpose type, and are useful for the installation and removal of split pins. They also have a facility for cutting wire
Round-Nosed Pliers: which are useful for putting small radius bends into wire in addition to a variety of other tasks
Flat-Nosed Pliers: which, because the jaws are much thinner, may be used for many small holding and bending tasks, that are not possible with the side- cutting
pliers
Needle-Nosed Pliers: which have finely pointed jaws and can be used in electrical and electronic work, that involves holding small components and thin wires.
Needle-nosed pliers may, sometimes, have the jaws turned at right angles to the handles, to allow the operator to see the work being held
Wire-Locking Pliers: which are used for the specific task of gripping wire, during the wire-locking of components. Due to their integral Archimedes screw, they are
also able to spin and so twist two wires, so that a neat and tight wire-locking is obtained
Circlip Pliers: which may be found in two, basic forms (Internal and External). Both types have pins on the ends of the jaws, which are used to install and remove
circlips from around (and from within) components. The mechanisms are designed so that, squeezing the handles together, either results in the jaw pins coming
together, (Internal), or spreading apart (External).
There are other groups of gripping tools that could, loosely be called pliers, but they usually go under the names of grips or clamps. These include Mole-type Grips:
which can be locked, holding a component, freeing up the operators hand for other work, Pipe Clamps, which can be used for gripping pipe unions, and Slip-Joint
(or Water Pump) Pliers that can have several, different gripping ranges, due to their multi-pivot mechanisms.
Wire Snips (Nippers)

Wire Snips (which are also, often, called Nippers) can be found with straight or diagonal jaws and are both very useful for cutting and stripping wire. They are also
useful for removing split pins.
Care must be used, when cutting with wire snips, as the cut-off pieces (locking wire and split pin legs in particular) can fly off, causing injury or getting lost within
the aircraft structure or engine bays, which could lead to corrosion or to the jamming of vital control systems.
Spanners, Sockets and Wrenches

The commonest spanners are those which are used on the standard hexagonal heads of bolts, nuts, screws and similarly shaped fastening devices.
Other spanners are often referred to as special or non-standard spanners, and are used on different types of screw thread fastenings. Some of these special
spanners have a limited application, whilst others are specifically produced for a particular component, and will only be found in special toolkits applicable to that
component.
Most spanners are manufactured from case-hardened mild steel, hardened and tempered high-carbon steel or alloy-steel, though there are some which are made
from copper alloys, where spark-resistant tools are required.
The size of a spanner, is either marked on the jaw face, or on the shank, in the units of the type of thread system being used on the fastening device.
The units, shown on a particular spanner, however, relate to different parts of the fastening devices (refer to Fig. 29), so a knowledge of the spanner sizing systems
is necessary. The two main sizing systems are those of the:
British Standard Institution (BS) and British Association (BA) Imperial system
American/Unified (Imperial) and the Metric system.
The British Standard system uses Imperial units (fractions of an inch etc.) and embraces two of the three main thread systems, used in British engineering, one of
which is no longer used in aircraft engineering.
The sizing, on BS spanners, relates to the nominal diameter of the nut, bolt or stud, upon
which the spanner is to be used. For example, a spanner marked as
BS indicates that the spanner is used on a " diameter bolt (nut, stud etc.), although the
actual distance across the jaws of this spanner would be 0.820".
Earlier BS spanners can be found with two figures stamped adjacent to each other (e.g. 7/16
BSW 1/2 BSF). The BSW figure relates to the Whitworth thread system, which is not used on
aircraft, due to its tendency to loosen when subjected to vibration. The BSF refers to the
British Standard Fine thread but, to avoid confusion, the older system has now been
brought into line with the BS system, so that a " BS (BSF) spanner can (for general
engineering purposes) also be used on a " Whitworth bolt/nut combination.
British Association (the third British thread system) sizes, also use Imperial measurements,
and, although they are in decimal fractions of an inch, they are represented by a whole number (2BA, 4BA, 6BA and so on) which again relates to the nominal
diameter of the fastening device.
The American Fine and Unified thread systems, also use Imperial measurements. The sizes, stamped on spanners, refer to the dimensions across the spanner jaws
(or across the flats of the hexagon of the fastening device). A spanner marked " A/F, would be used on a bolt with an actual diameter of 5/16".
Metric spanners are marked with a number also denoting the width (millimetres) across the flats, of the hexagon shaped fastener on which it is used.
It is important that the correct procedure is followed to avoid incorrect tools being used to install or remove a nut, bolt, stud or any other fastening device.
In some instances the correct tool size may be quoted in the maintenance manual. This must be strictly followed.
There are so many tool catalogues, crammed with a bewildering range of tools that it is impossible to include so many in these course notes. Some of the more
common spanners and wrenches (in addition to the previously-mentioned tools), which are liable to be found in the average toolkit, of an aircraft maintenance
technician, include such general tools as:
Set (Open-Jaw) Spanners
Ring Spanners
Flare Nut Spanners.
Sockets
Allen Keys
Torque Wrenches.
The Set or Open-Jaw spanners are usually made in double-ended form, to provide two available sizes in one tool.
The open jaws are set at an angle (usually 15) to the axis of the shank, which is a useful feature, because (when replacing nuts and bolts in restricted spaces), by
turning the spanner over, the nut or bolt can be approached from a different angle. They are not, however, totally satisfactory devices, as the jaws only bear against
two of the available six flats of the hexagon. There is always the tendency for the jaws to spring open when force is applied to the spanner.
Ring spanners are preferred to set spanners as they give full enclosure of the hexagonal head of the nut or bolt, each corner of which engages snugly within an
angle in the aperture of the spanner. This aperture is usually bi-hexagonal, to facilitate the use of the spanner when angular movement is restricted.
Ring spanners are usually supplied in double-ended form, to fit nuts and bolts of consecutive sizes. The ends are normally offset but straight (and also cranked)
types of ring spanners can be obtained.
Flare Nut spanners are designed with a gap in the ring, which allows the spanner to be placed over a pipeline or electrical loom, and then to be moved onto the
hexagon of the union nut or plug.
Sockets spanners (but, more commonly, simply referred to as sockets) typically, have a six- or twelve-pointed opening, designed to enclose different sized nuts and
bolt heads in one end, with a square hole, for the standard T bar driver (or an alternative turning device), in the other end.
Socket sets are available in a variety of drive sizes. However, in aircraft maintenance, the " square drive and the 3/8" square drive are the most popular. Other
sizes available are the ", " and 1" square drives.
Sockets are available in both Imperial and Metric sizes (though the drive sizes tend to be quoted in Imperial units) and can be used with several accessories, which
greatly facilitate the use of the sockets and extend the range of their application.
The socket spanners are usually supplied in complete sets, of incremental sizes to suit various tasks. Deep sockets are used where a bolt extends
further through a nut than normal, preventing the use of a standard socket. They are also used to remove spark plugs from piston-type aero
engines.
The main accessories, supplied with socket sets, can (in addition to the standard T bar driver) include:
Ratchet Handles
Drive Bars
Speed Braces
Extension Bars
Universal Joints
Converter/Adapters.
Ratchet handles allow the turning to continue, even if the space does not allow full rotation of the normal T bar driver. Most ratchets are reversible, either by the
use of a selector lever or by the square drive being able to be floated through the mechanism, to be available on both sides of the ratchet handle.
Drive bars are usually produced with long handles and so, should normally be used only to break the stick of a tight nut and not for tightening up. These are also
known as breaker bars or knuckle bars.
Speed braces can have a socket or screwdriver blade snapped onto their ends. They are normally used to turn down nuts or screws, which have many threads
before they tighten-up. Final tightening is completed using either a T bar, a ratchet handle or (more usually) a torque wrench.
Extension bars are used where access for a standard drive handle is restricted. Extension bars are made from forged alloy steel and come in a range of nominal
lengths from 50 mm (2 in) to 1 m (39 in).
Universal joints allow tightening of nuts, bolts and screws where it is not possible to obtain access in a straight line. They function better if the
angle they are working through is not too great.
Converter/Adapters allow sockets from one type of drive to be used with another type. For example, a 3/8" drive socket with a 1/4" drive ratchet would use a step-
up or step-down adapter. Care must be taken, when using larger drive equipment on smaller sockets, that the nuts or screws are not over tightened.
Certain bolts and screws, are sunk (or set) below the surface of a component and are used for locking purposes. These set-bolts and set-screws, have a hexagonal
recess in their heads and the tool used for tightening and loosening these bolts and screws is the Allen Key (also called Allen Wrenches).
Allen Keys are made from hexagonal- ed

in a variety of sizes to locate with the recesses in the various screws and bolts. They are classified (in Metric or Imperial units), by the dimension across the flats of
the hexagon bar from which they are made.
The holding power, of a threaded fastener is greatly increased, when it is placed under an initial tensile load that is greater than the loads to which the fastener is,
normally, subjected. This task is accomplished, by tightening a bolt or nut, to a pre-determined torque or pre-load.
If a fastener is under-torqued, there is danger of the joint being subjected to unnecessary loads, leading to premature failure. When a fastener is over-torqued then
the threads are over stressed and can fail.
A Torque Wrench is a precision tool that governs the amount of force applied to a fastener and allows accurate torque values to be applied consistently. Under
controlled conditions, the amount of force required to turn a fastener is directly related to the tensile stress within the fastener.
The amount of torque is the product of the turning force multiplied by the distance between the centre of the fastener and the point at which the force is applied
(usually the length of the wrench handle). Table 4 shows various units of torque, including Imperial, Metric and SI values.
There are, again, many different designs of torque wrenches, so consideration is given here only to three basic types of torque wrench. They are the:
Deflecting Beam
Torsion Bar
Toggle Type.
The Deflecting Beam torque wrench, has a square drive, on one end of an accurately-ground beam, with a handle, mounted on a pivot, at the other end.
A pointer is attached to the square drive end of the beam, whilst a scale is attached to the beam near the handle. When a force is applied to the handle, the beam
bends and the pointer deflects over the scale. The deflection is directly proportional to the torque applied.
The Torsion Bar torque wrench, uses the principle that a bar accurately deflects in torsion, as well as bending, when a force is applied. The square drive is accurately
ground and has a rack gear on one end.
When the bar is twisted, the rack moves across a pinion gear in a dial indicator, which shows the amount of bar deflection. The dial is calibrated in units of torque.
The Toggle type of torque wrench, is pre-set to the desired torque before it is put on a fastener. When this pre-set torque is reached, a sound (a
click), is heard and the handle releases a few degrees, indicating that the set torque value has been exerted. Once this release occurs, then all
force is removed.
Note; When a castellated nut is being torque loaded, it must, first, be torqued to the lowest value of the given torque range. The torque may then be increased until
the holes are in line, but before the maximum torque value is reached.
COMMON POWER TOOLS

Powered tools have to be treated with respect because they can injure, and in exceptional cases, can cause death if they are incorrectly operated. Before using any
powered machine/tool, personnel must make sure that:
They have been properly trained and are currently authorized to use it
All protective guards and fences are securely in place
No part of the body or clothing can come into contact with moving parts
Protective clothing is fastened and neck ties (if worn) tucked in or removed
All rings and other jewelry are removed
Safety glasses/goggles are worn wherever there is a debris risk
Where necessary, the appropriate fire extinguisher is readily to hand
A safety mat is available to stand on where electrical machinery is used
Machinery is checked for any Warning notices indicating it is unsafe for use.
Possibly the most common method of powering tools is through the use of electricity, which is readily available from the ac mains supply and can also be provided
from portable, dc batteries.
However, because of the fire hazard, associated with the operation of electrically powered tools, and where there is a possibility of flammable
vapours being present, pneumatically powered hand tools are provided for aircraft maintenance tasks, such as drilling, cutting, shaping, screw
driving, riveting, nut running and setting.
As previously mentioned, these pneumatic tools may be operated from a fixed air supply gallery, in a workshop or hangar, or from a mobile air compressor.
Electrically Powered Pillar Drills

Electrically powered, Pillar Drills, are used for heavy-duty drilling tasks, where larger drill sizes and rigid holding-down of the workpiece are required.
Pillar drills also have an advantage in that they are equipped with a method of altering the speed of rotation (rpm) of the chuck to suit the material being drilled and
the size (and type) of the drill being used.
This flexibility is needed to enable drills of all sizes to cut efficiently and safely for different types of materials. If the rpm of the machine were constant, then the
cutting speed of any drill being used would be dependent upon the diameter of the drill. Small drills would cut slowly and larger drills more rapidly.
For example, at a constant rpm, a point, on the circumference of a drill with a diameter of 10 mm, will travel twice as far, and cut at a much faster rate, than a
similar point on a drill, which has a diameter of 5 mm. At this excessive rpm, the larger drill would become very difficult to control and would, almost certainly, be
damaged by over-heating.
The speed of rotation of most fixed drilling machines may be changed, either by means of a gearbox or by a system of coned pulleys.
The work, being drilled, must be clamped in a manner that will prevent any movement during the drilling operation. Failure to observe this precaution may result in
spoilt work, a broken drill and it may also cause serious injuries.
Larger pieces of work are clamped directly to the drilling table of the machine, whereas small items are usually held in a machine vice, which has smooth jaws.
It is essential to ensure that the point of the drill aligns with the centre punch mark and adequate cutting fluid (where required) is applied before drilling starts.
Electrically Powered Hand Drills

These drills are useful in certain locations when work cannot be taken to a fixed, pillar drill and where there is no risk of fire from inflammable materials or vapour.
They are quicker than the hand brace and, when used correctly, can be perfectly safe.
The smaller electric drills have a 6.5 mm (") chuck, whilst other larger drills can be found with chuck sizes up to 13 mm (") and larger. This size classification
simply indicates the largest size of twist drill that the chuck will hold.
Battery powered (cordless), drills offer more freedom than ac powered or pneumatically powered drills, but they should not be used in the vicinity of flammable
vapors as they are not considered to be spark proof.
Pneumatically Powered Hand Drills

The type of pneumatic drill, used for a specific task, depends very much
on the access available. Three typical types of pneumatic hand drills, in
common use, are the:
Straight Drills
Angled Drills
Pistol Grip Drills.
Straight Drills have conventional chucks and keys to accept twist drills
with diameters up to 5 mm (13/64) and have push-button operation.
These drills can be used for all conventional drilling operations where
direct access is possible.
Angled Drills are available for drilling holes in positions where access is not possible with straight types. The most common types of angled drills are the Angled and
Offset Head drills (refer to Fig. 30), both of which will accept twist drills with diameters in sizes up to 4.8 mm (3/16). Each drill size requires its own chuck collet,
which is tightened into place with collet spanners.
Pistol Grip Drills (refer to Fig. 30), have standard chuck and key arrangements, accept twist drills of diameters up to 8 mm (5/16) and have a trigger operation.
All drills may be found with built-in filters, pre-set compressed air pressure- reducing devices and a requirement for lubrication. The air supply is normally via a
quick release, male and female coupling (bayonet type), allowing the tool to be moved from place to place, as the work requires.
Pneumatically Powered Riveting Hammers

The two basic types, into which these hammers may be divided, are:
Short-Stroke: fast-hitting hammers, which produce light blows
Long-Stroke: slower-hitting hammers, which produce heavy blows.
The short-stroke hammers are usually used for 3/32" or 1/8" rivets and their bodies are
made from light-weight, aluminium alloy castings.
The long-stroke hammers may be of either the slow-hitting, reciprocating type, or may be
a one-shot type, that drives the rivet set only one blow at a time, when the trigger is
pulled. These hammers are used to drive the larger rivets and are much heavier than the
fast-hitting hammers.
Different handle styles are provided for both types of hammers (refer to Fig. 31). The Pistol
Grip and Swan Neck are the most popular styles, with the Push Button (Straight) type being
available for special applications where access is not possible for either of the more
popular styles of hammer.
PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Precision Measuring Instruments are provided to measure dimensions to a greater accuracy than can be obtained by the use of a simple
engineers rule.
Where the smallest graduation on a rule is usually either 1 mm or, perhaps, 1/64", precision instruments are available which measure to 0.01 mm or to 0.0001.
The precision instruments mentioned here would normally be found either in a workshop environment or in a clean room, which may be part of a companys
Quality Department.
It should also be noted that, whilst very basic forms of the different instruments are described, in order that the principles of operation be understood, the actual
precision instruments, found in workshops and clean rooms may appear quite different and, in all probability, will possess digital readout facilities.
External Micrometers
An External Micrometer (refer to Fig. 33), as the name implies, is used for
measuring (or testing the level of accuracy of) the external sizes of objects.
The standard (or common) external micrometer consists of an appropriately

shaped frame, to one end of which is attached an internally threaded barrel
(or sleeve).
A partially, externally threaded spindle, located in a hollow, tubular thimble,

is able to be screwed into (or out of) the sleeve by means of rotating the
thimble.
The working tip of the spindle has an accurately machined face, to match
the equally accurately machined face of the anvil. The anvil is located at the
opposite end of the frame and, with the spindle moved sufficiently, the
object to be measured is placed between the faces of the anvil and the
spindle.
The ratchet stop is used to rotate the thimble so that the spindle moves until the object is held between the faces of the spindle and the anvil. To
prevent distortion of the frame and to ensure that the reading is constant when taken by different users of the instrument, the ratchet stop slips (3
clicks!) when sufficient pressure is applied to the object being measured.
The principle of the micrometer is based on the lead of the screw thread. This is the distance the thread moves, either forwards or backwards, during
one complete revolution of the thimble. If the lead is known, together with the number of revolutions, then the total distance the screw moves can be
calculated.
The circumference of the thimble and the length of the barrel are graduated to indicate the measurement of the object that is in
contact with the faces of the anvil and the spindle. The barrel also has a datum (fiducial) line, against which the measurements are
made, from the bevelled end of the thimble as it uncovers the markings on the fiducial line.
The thimble is bevelled so that its graduations are brought close to those on the fiducial line. The bevelling eliminates shadows and also lessens
parallax error when reading the measurement. The body of the micrometer usually has a matt finish, which serves to reduce glare and, thus, aids
accurate readings.
The locking ring (some micrometers have a locking lever) is used to lock the spindle, when the instrument is employed as a fixed (or snap) gauge.
The mechanism of the external micrometer is arranged so that the spindle face can only move between 0 - 25 mm (or 0 1in) from the anvil face and,
thus, the standard micrometer has the capability to measure items which are in this range.
For larger items, the size of the frame is simply increased in successive increments of 25 mm (or 1in). For example, the next size of micrometer would
be able to measure between 25 mm 50 mm (1 in 2 in), the next 50 mm 75 mm (2 in 3 in) and so on. While the frames increase in size to
accommodate the larger items, the spindle movement (of external micrometers)
remains in the range of 0 25 mm (0 1 in).
Both Metric and Imperial micrometers (while their units of measurement are different),
are operated in a similar manner.
The Metric micrometer uses a thread pitch and, thus, a lead, of 0.5 mm (two threads per
millimetre), so that the thimble moves over the barrel a distance of
0.5 mm per revolution. The fiducial line, on the barrel, is marked in increments of
0.5 mm and 1 mm, with numerals at intervals of 5 mm (5, 10, 15, etc.) to 25 mm.
The thimble has a total of 50 markings, so that one thimble division represents
1/50 of 0.5 mm, or 0.01 mm.
When reading a Metric micrometer (refer to Fig. 34) it is, first of all, necessary to decide
on the number of divisions, on the fiducial line, which are exposed by the thimble and to
note the division on the thimble which also coincides with the fiducial line.
The subsequent actions, to arrive at the dimension being measured, are to:
Note the number of main divisions exposed (as shown at A = 8.00 mm)
Note the additional number of sub-divisions (as shown at B = 0.50 mm)

Note the number of divisions on the thimble (as shown at C = 0.28 mm)
Add all the numbers together to provide the total dimension (8.78 mm)
Imperial Micrometers measure in decimals of an inch. Their screw threads have forty threads per inch, giving a lead of 1/40" (0.025"), which is the
length of each sub-division on the fiducial line and represents one revolution of the thimble.
The thimble circumference is, now, divided into only 25 equal divisions, making one division read 1/25 of 1/40, which equals 1/1000 (or 0.001")
movement of the spindle.
Barrel markings are made at each tenth of an inch (1, 2, 3, 4, etc) with four sub- divisions between each main mark.
Again, in a similar manner to the Metric micrometer, when taking a dimension, it is necessary to deduce the number of division, on the fiducial line,
exposed by the thimble. Next note the mark on the thimble which aligns with the fiducial line and follow similar actions to those employed with the
Metric micrometer.
If, for example, nineteen divisions, on the barrel of an Imperial micrometer, were exposed, while the eighth mark on the thimble aligned with the
fiducial line, then the total dimension would consist of:
Four 1/10 divisions (sixteen 1/40 divisions) on the barrel
Three further 1/40 divisions on the barrel (making nineteen in all)
Eight 1/1000 divisions on the thimble
In this example the total dimension would be 0.400 + 0.075 + 0.008 = 0.483.
To ensure the integrity of any dimensions it is imperative that the faces of the spindles and anvils of micrometers are kept scrupulously clean.
Micrometers should be stored in a protective case, preferably with a sachet of desiccant (or VPI paper) and not used in extremes of temperature (the
temperature of a standards room is usually maintained at 20C).
Never store a micrometer with its spindle and anvil in contact. Changes in temperature will cause distortion of the frame, with the obvious
consequences.
Prior to use, the accuracy of a micrometer should be confirmed by doing a check on the zero setting (with the spindle and anvil faces in contact) and a
sample check (using slip gauges or similar, accurate standard test pieces), of measurements within the range of the micrometer.
It is possible to do adjustments with special tools, which are provided with micrometers, but any adjustments should normally, only be done by
qualified personnel, who will then certify that the micrometer is accurate enough, to be used for aerospace work.
Internal Micrometers
Internal micrometers are used for the precision measuring of internal
dimensions, using much the same principles as those used with the external
types.While there are many designs for internal micrometers, to suit particular
tasks, space (and time) dictates that consideration be given here only to the
type more commonly referred to as the Stick micrometer (refer to Fig. 35),
which is found in both Imperial and Metric versions.
An Imperial, Stick micrometer, consists of a micrometer head, with an overall

closed length of only 1, a spacing collar which has a length of " and ten
extension rods. The lengths of the rods increase in increments of one inch, with
the shortest length being and the longest 9 (e.g. , 1, 2 etc.).
The internal micrometer differs from the external type in that the thimble
travel is only half an inch and so, from closed, the micrometer is capable of measuring internal dimensions from 1 up to 2. For dimensions greater
than 2 it is then necessary to close the micrometer and attach the smallest extension rod (), enabling dimensions up to 2 to be measured.
By adding the spacing collar () with the smallest extension rod, measurements up to 3 can be made, then, by removing both collar and rod and
using the next rod (length 1), it is possible to measure dimensions up to 3.
With alternate use of extension rod and rod/collar combinations, the Imperial internal micrometer has a measuring range from 1 to 12.
With Metric internal micrometers, similar principles are used, but the dimensions are, obviously, changed and are not directly related to the
measurements used with the Imperial type. The closed body length is 50 mm, thimble range is 10 mm, the collar length is also 10 mm and the seven
extension rods are provided in a selection of lengths, which allow measurements (in increments of 20 mm), from 50 mm to 210 mm to be made.
Micrometer Depth Gauge

Whilst only used in specialist applications, a micrometer depth gauge is useful when the depth of a groove or
recess needs to be measured with precision.
The device (refer to Fig. 36) has a standard micrometer head (but the scale, on the barrel, is reversed) mounted
onto a precisely ground base. When the spindle of the micrometer is flush with the face of the base, then the
depth gauge reads zero and the thimble is at its maximum distance from the base.
To measure the depth of a recess, the base is placed over the groove and the spindle screwed down until it
contacts the bottom of the groove. The reading on the micrometer head indicates the groove depth.
Vernier Micrometers
Some micrometers (and other precision measuring instruments), have a Vernier scale, which enables the
instrument to measure to a greater accuracy.
The Vernier principle (inventor Pierre Vernier 1580 1637)) utilises two accurately graduated scales. The main scale may be fixed, whilst the other
(the Vernier scale), moves parallel to the main scale (refer to Fig. 37), or, depending on the instrument (such as with micrometers), it could be the
other way round, where the main scale moves while the Vernier scale is stationary.
In the very basic example (refer to Fig. 37) ten divisions on the Vernier scale are made to equal nine divisions on the main scale, so that one Vernier
scale division equals one tenth of nine millimetres (0.9 mm). The difference between one main- scale and one Vernier division is, therefore, 0.1 mm.
When the Vernier scale is moved (to the right in this instance), so that the first of the smaller Vernier divisions is aligned with the first main-scale
division, the zeros will be displaced by exactly one tenth of one millimetre. If this principle is continued until the second division of each scale is
coincident, then the zeros will have moved exactly two tenths of a millimetre apart.
From this it can be seen that, whichever lines on the main and Vernier scales align, then the zero (or datum) marks will be displaced by the small
amount shown on the Vernier scale.
When the Vernier principle is applied to a micrometer (refer to Fig. 38), the Vernier scale is engraved on the barrel and is, therefore, stationary. The
Vernier graduations are scaled, usually, to represent one tenth of those on the thimble, which enables a Vernier micrometer to read dimensions to an
accuracy of one tenth of that of a standard micrometer. Consequently the graduations on the Vernier of a Metric micrometer represent 0.001 mm,
while those on an Imperial micrometer represent 0.0001.
The example shows a Metric micrometer reading, where the graduation on the thimble
scale does not exactly coincide with the datum line on the barrel. The procedure for
reading the dimension is to:
Note the main and sub divisions visible on the barrel (8.5) = 8.500 mm
Note the nearest thimble reading below the datum line (27) = 0.270 mm
Note the Vernier line which aligns with a thimble line (6) = 0.006 mm
Add the readings to provide the total dimension = 8.776 mm.
A similar procedure would be followed with an Imperial micrometer.
Care must be taken that it is the Vernier number, which is added, and not the value of
the main scale (thimble) reading which aligns with the Vernier line. This is a common
fault when reading Verniers.
It may also be found advantageous, to use a magnifying glass, to assist in the reading
of the smaller Vernier scale and in deciding which lines are actually in alignment.
Vernier Calipers
A Vernier Caliper (refer to Fig. 39), is a versatile precision instrument, used to measure both inside
and outside dimensions. In many situations, a Vernier caliper is faster to use than a micrometer but,
possibly, needs greater skill in manipulation in order to obtain the correct feel and to, thus, ensure
accurate readings. Calipers, furthermore, have a working range of up to 150 mm (6 in) as opposed to
the micrometers more limited movement.
The Vernier scales on Imperial instruments are accurate to 0.001 inch, while Metric Verniers have
an accuracy of 0.02 mm.
With some types of caliper, nibs are located at the end of both jaws. The nib size, which is etched
on the jaw, must be added to any internal dimensions that have been measured.
Two target points may also be found on some calipers, one on the beam and one on the sliding jaw.
These are used to set spring dividers accurately, when they are being used in a comparator mode.
The target points are exactly the same distance apart as the reading on the Vernier and main scale.
Vernier Height Gauge

The Vernier Height Gauge (refer to Fig. 40) is similar in
construction to the Vernier calliper, except that an accurately
machined, solid base replaces the fixed jaw and the beam is
mounted perpendicular to the base, which enables the
instrument to be used on a surface plate or table.
The measurements, on the beam, are read in the same manner
as those on the Vernier Calliper and they, usually, have both
metric and Imperial markings on the same face of the beam.
This instrument can be used for various purposes, when used in
conjunction with other suitable attachments. These can include
measuring height, comparing and transferring height dimensions
(for marking-off), and also as a depth gauge.
Vernier Protractor
The Vernier Protractor (refer to Fig. 41) provides greater precision than is possible when
using a standard bevel protractor (or the protractor head of a combination set), and
enables angles to be measured to an accuracy of five minutes of arc.
It consists of a grooved blade, a graduated protractor head and a stock with true edges.
The protractor head can be slid along the length of the blade to any required position and
locked.
The stock rotates about the centre of the protractor and can also be locked in any
position. The angles formed by the edges of the stock, relative to the blade, are indicated
on the protractor by an index mark 0 on the Vernier scale that is attached to the rim of
the stock disc.
This enables both acute and obtuse angles to be measured.
The Vernier scale is formed into twelve equal parts, which are compared to twenty-three
protractor main scale divisions (23), so that one Vernier scale division represents 23/12 =
1 55. The difference between two protractor scale divisions (2), and one Vernier scale
division, (1 55) is, therefore, 5 of arc.
The Vernier scale has each third division numbered 15, 30, 45 and 60, indicating the number of minutes (which make up one degree). There are two
separate scales, reading from the centre 0 to left and right, to match the two protractor scales.
The protractor is read from the zero on the protractor scale to the zero on the Vernier scale. This provides the number of whole degrees. The Vernier
scale is read in the same direction until the coinciding line is met. The number of the coinciding line, (indicating minutes) must be added to the
degrees, read from the protractor scale, to obtain the total value of the angle.
MISCELLANEOUS MEASURING TOOLS

There are a number of specialist measuring tools, which are, usually, only found in selected workshops or in Quality Departments.
These tools are normally used in conjunction with surface plates or tables, which are used to give the measuring operation a standard flat surface to
base the measuring upon.
Gauge Blocks
Gauge Blocks (also known as Slip Gauges), are, simply, precision-ground blocks of metal that are used either alone, or in combination with other
blocks, to give extremely accurate measurements. The blocks are made from high-carbon steel or cemented carbide and are hardened, ground and
lapped so that:
Opposite faces are flat
Opposite faces are parallel
Opposite faces are ,accurately, the stated distance apart.
7.5 ENGINEERING DRAWING, DIAGRAMS AND STANDARDS

The purpose of an engineering drawing is to record and convey the designers requirements to other, interested, people. The drawing must, therefore, include
sufficient information to enable production planning, manufacture, assembly, testing, inspection and subsequent maintenance of the particular component or
assembly to be achieved in the most cost-effective manner.
So that there can be no misrepresentation of drawings, it is essential that the person preparing the drawing and those using the drawing should have a knowledge
of the methods of presentation symbols, terms, and abbreviations, used in the preparation of an engineering drawing.
This section is not intended as a standard for the production of drawings, but should be regarded as a general guide to drawing procedures and interpretation.
The reference for drawing practices, in the United Kingdom, is that produced by the British Standards Institution, (BSI), in their publication BS 308. There are other
standards available, which supplement BS 308, such as the Society of British Aerospace Companies (SBAC) Technical Specification (TS) 88.
Companies, that have design approval from the CAA or the JAA, can modify these standards to suit their own particular drawing requirements. They must, however,
publish their preferred standards of drawing, to obtain the approval of their National Aviation Authority (NAA).
TYPES OF DRAWING
There are four main types of drawings recommended by the BSI, although there are many other types and sub-types of drawing used at different times.
The main drawing types are the:
Single-part: unique parts or assemblies
Collective: parts or assemblies of similar shape, but of different dimensions
Combined: complete assemblies, including all individual parts on a single drawing
Constructional: assembly drawing with sufficient dimensional and other information to describe the component parts of a construction.
A complete set of drawings for an aircraft, and any documents or specifications referenced on the drawings, represents a complete record of the information
required to manufacture and assemble that aircraft. The manner, in which a set of aircraft drawings is arranged, enables any particular component, material,
dimension, procedure or operation to be traced.
Drawings of individual parts contain all the information necessary to enable the parts to be manufactured to design requirements. The material specification,
dimensions and tolerances, machining details and surface finish, and any other treatment required, would all be specified on the drawings.
Sub-Assembly drawings are issued to convey specific information on the assembly of component parts. When the method of assembly involves welding or a similar
process, the drawing will include details of any heat treatment or anti- corrosive treatment that may be necessary. Sub-assembly drawings are sometimes issued in
connection with spares provisioning and also in instances where assembly would be difficult without special tools, jigs or techniques.
Installation drawings are issued to clarify the details of external dimensions and attitudes of components, locations, adjustments, clearances, settings, connections,
adapters and locking methods between components and assemblies.
A main General Arrangement (GA) drawing of the aircraft and GA drawings of main assemblies and systems are also provided. These drawings usually contain
overall profile particulars only, with locations and references of the associated main assembly and installation drawings. They also provide a guide to the
identification of drawing groups used by the particular design organisation.
Main Assembly drawings may also contain profile particulars only, but will include the information required for the assembly of individual parts of sub-assemblies.
The sequence of assembly is given where appropriate but the information contained in single-part or sub-assembly drawings is not repeated. Parts, as such, are
referenced but, in the case of sub-assemblies, only the sub-assembly will be referenced and not its individual parts.
There are a number of other drawings, which are used to display alternative views of a component, or to show where that component appears in a system, while
pictorial diagrams or charts, are used, to show complete or part representations of functional systems such as hydraulic and electrical systems.
METHODS OF DRAWING SOLID OBJECTS

Several methods are employed in representing three-dimensional, solid objects on the flat surface of a sheet of paper (or of other materials, used in producing
engineering drawings). The two common methods, used to depict components, in drawings, are by:
Pictorial Projections
Orthographic Projections.
Pictorial Projections
Pictorial Projections provide a three-dimensional, single image of the object, as if it were being viewed, in perspective, by eye (in a similar manner to a painting or a
photograph).
The main types of pictorial projections (refer to Fig. 1) may be considered as the Perspective Projection, Oblique Projection and Isometric Projection.
A Parallel Perspective Projection is

when one of the principal faces is
parallel to the picture plane.
Oblique Isometric
Pictorial Projections Fig. 1
Plan Side
Vanishing
Point
Front
Parallel Perspective
Projection
Whilst perspective and oblique projections are not normally, used in aircraft engineering drawings, they may sometimes, be used in
Maintenance or Overhaul manuals, to provide initial images of uncomplicated components or to portray a general view of a constructional assembly.
Isometric projections are the types mostly used for sketches and for the majority of images in Maintenance and many other manuals, used in aircraft servicing.
Orthographic Projections
Orthographic Projections are the types mainly used in the production of aircraft (and most other) engineering drawings of components and structures. They are
drawn as if the viewer is infinitely remote from the object and rays (or projectors) lead out from the object so that the projection lines of opposite sides appear to
be parallel.
This method of projection provides a two-dimensional view of only one surface of the object. This means it must have multiple views (usually three, but there can
be as many as six) of the relevant surfaces (drawn on three mutually perpendicular planes) to provide an accurate depiction of the whole object.
There are two conventions, used for orthographic projections (refer to Fig. 2), and they are:
The older First Angle Projection
The more recent Third Angle Projection.
Plan View
Side View
Front View
Plan View Front View Side View
FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
Orthographic Projections Fig. 2

The internationally recognized symbol, of the truncated cone (frustum), is the key as to whether the First or Third Angle projection is being portrayed on a drawing
The First Angle projection is being used when the truncated end of the cone is viewed and the two concentric circles are drawn at the remote end of the cone.
In the same way, the surface of interest (of the object) is drawn remote from that surface in First Angle projections.
Third Angle projections show the surface of interest drawn adjacent to that surface, in the same manner that the two concentric circles are drawn adjacent to the
truncated end of the cone.
Note; It is possible, on some drawings, to find the cone reversed (end for end), but the location of the two concentric circles, relative to the truncated end, will
always provide the information as to how the drawing is to be read.
Sectional Views
When it is necessary to show the internal construction or shape of a part, a sectional view is used. The four main types of sectional views are the:
Revolved Section
Removed Section
Complete Section
Half Section.
If only the shape of a part needs to be shown, it is drawn with either a revolved or with a removed section (refer to Fig. 3). The symbols, used for sectioning,
indicate where the object has been cut or sectioned and also indicate from whichever direction the section is to be viewed.
A-A
A
Revolved Section Removed Section
The Revolved Section view is often used to illustrate simple items with no interior parts. Basically, a revolved section shows how a part is sectioned and revolved to
illustrate it from a different view. The Removed Section view is also used to illustrate simple objects. However, to do this, the object is cut, by a cutting plane line,
and a section is removed to illustrate another angle.
Section (or Hatching) lines help to enhance the clarity of the sectioned view and are, conventionally, drawn at 45 to the axis of the section.
Dissimilar metals, other materials, or adjacent parts of similar materials, within the section, are indicated by the hatching lines being drawn in different directions or
with different spacing between the lines. The usual spacing between hatching lines is, preferably, not less than 4 mm, with the exception of small areas where they
are usually not less than 1 mm apart.
7.20 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
An aircraft has to receive regular maintenance, of varying depths, to remain fully airworthy at all times. This is achieved in most circumstances by making various
checks, at intervals, throughout the life of the aircraft. These intervals can be stated in quantities of flying hours, calendar time or combinations of the two systems.
MAINTENANCE PLANNING
The periods of maintenance can be small or large. The aircraft can be in for a short period of maintenance over-night (or perhaps no longer than two days), whilst,
on a large maintenance period, the aircraft might be in the hangar for a week or two, depending on the type of aircraft.
It is normal to apply what is known as a back-stop to each period for safety.
For example, if the frequency of each maintenance action is every 100 flying hours, then there will probably be a calendar back-stop of one month. This means
that if the aircraft is only flown for 25 hours during one month, then it will have its maintenance done on the last day of that month, regardless if its low hours.
Equally, if the aircraft is intensively flown day-and-night, it might reach its 100 hours after 19 days. It will then receive its maintenance at that time, as a result of its
intensive flying. The decision as to the frequency and depth of this maintenance is controlled by the Type Design Organisation, the organisation which designed
the aircraft.
The maintenance programme contains a list of the most significant items and recommendations as to the maintenance actions, recommended frequencies and
sampling/inspection points. It will also contain a programme that monitors engine critical parts and the inspections to be done on those parts.
All aircraft have a list of critical parts, with which it cannot fly without them being serviceable, or which can be dispensed with, providing other parts can cover for
the missing part.
MODIFICATION PROCEDURES
Modifications are changes made to a particular aircraft, including all its components, engines, propellers, radio apparatus, accessories, instruments, equipment and
their respective installations.
With the exception of modifications which the CAA agree to be of such a minor nature that airworthiness is unaffected, all modifications must be approved in
accordance with the relevant parts of JAR OPS.
The modifications are approved by the CAA or by the Approved Organisation carrying out the modification programme.
Modifications must be such that the design of the aircraft, when modified, complies at least with the requirements which applied when the aircraft was originally
certified.
When a modification is being designed, a decision has to be made as to whether the modification is to be classified as Minor or Major. The installing of a new
type of engine would most definitely be a major modification, whilst changing the type of clips holding cables together would be a minor one. It is somewhere in
the middle when the decision as to the grading of a modification has to be decided by the CAA.
Major Modifications
The organisation sends a form, AD282 to the CAA and, when approved, an approval note is returned to the organisation. This allows the modification to be
embodied.
Minor Modifications
The organisation writes to the CAA, requesting permission to embody the modification and, when approved, the CAA sends a form, AD261 back, to permit
embodiment.
If the organisation has CAA approval, it is permitted to approve its own modifications. All the organisation has to do is to keep full records of the design and
embodiment of the modification.
All modifications are recorded in the aircraft documentation, either inside the Airframe Log Book, if the aircraft weighs less than 2730 kg, or in a separate
Modification Record Book if the aircraft weighs more than 2730 kg.
STORES PROCEDURES
All aircraft and component manufacturing and maintenance establishments will have a stores department, whose object is twofold. Its purpose, firstly, is to ensure
that all materials, parts, components etc. used on aircraft are to the correct specification. The second purpose of the stores is to enable the history of any important
part to be traced back to its original manufacture and its raw materials.
All stores transactions use the same forms throughout the JAA system as well as the USA and Canada. This system ensures that a store in one part of this country
will receive a component from within the UK, all JAA countries or North America on the same form. This is known throughout the JAA system as the JAA Form 1.
Stores that operate within an organisation that is approved by the CAA to operate, with little control or supervision from the CAA, is known as an Approved Stores.
An Approved Store will contain three main departments:

A quarantine store, which accepts items from other companies and checks that they are satisfactory.
A bonded store which takes items from the quarantine store, after approval, and, when requested, issues those components to the servicing technicians.
An office or administration centre, which keeps adequate files and records, to enable cross-checking of any transaction through the store system.
CERTIFICATION AND RELEASE PROCEDURES

Any maintenance done on an aircraft that has a Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A), has to be certified by the technician(s) doing the work. Depending on the
company they work for, the technicians can have either personal certification or approval by their own company.
The legal requirement is quoted as: An aircraft shall not fly unless there is in force a Certificate of Release to Service issued in respect of any overhauls,
modifications, repairs or maintenance to the aircraft or its equipment.
Normally the work is either certified by an approved engineer or, completed by a non-approved engineer and certified by another, approved engineer. This
certification is known as a Certificate of Release to Service.
The wording on the document for signature is to a standard format and certifies that the work has been done in accordance with JAR 145 and that the aircraft is fit
for release back to service.
The certification should also contain particulars of the work done or the inspection completed and the organisation and place at which the work was done. It is also
required that the aircraft type and registration or component type, part and serial number shall be recorded as applicable.
There are a number of minor maintenance operations that do not require certification/ release to service. This can include minor maintenance, done by the pilot,
on a small private aircraft.
Interface with Aircraft Operation

There are many links between aircraft maintenance and the flying done by both commercial and private operations. These links, or interfaces, include the
legislation that dictates how the two operations are to work together. For the larger commercial companies, all the legislation is currently laid down under JAR-
OPS, produced by the JAA as an approximate replacement for the publication CAP 360 which was the method by which commercial flying companies obtained their
Air Operators Certificate.
JAR-OPS controls many facets of commercial flying. This can include how the company maintains its aircraft, (or how it sub-contracts the work elsewhere); how the
documentation and publications record all the information needed for both the engineers and the flight crew and how the quality of the whole operation is kept to
an acceptable standard.
The communication of information between maintenance and flying personnel is normally via a number of different publications such as:
The Technical Log Book (Tech. Log)
The Log Books (Aircraft, Engine and Propeller)
The Modification Records.
The Tech. Log contains all details of the sector by sector flight operations, such as flight times, defects, fuel (on arrival and uplifted), other ground
maintenance and replenishments.
The Log Books are usually kept within the records department, but they are a long term record of not only the total flying hours, but of the life
remaining on engines and propellers and the maintenance checks done on the aircraft.
the Modification Records allow all to see what changes, (modifications), have been embodied to the aircraft. These changes might require different
flight operations or maintenance actions than prior to their embodiment.
Other publications that can be used by both sections include the Minimum Equipment List (MEL) and Configuration Deviation List (CDL). These
publications inform both the crews and the engineers which components and parts can be unserviceable, and yet allow the aircraft to be
dispatched.
There are minor, but no less important, systems in place to allow the same form of communication with smaller, private aircraft. They also have
Log Books and records of modifications but, because of their lower utilisation and private ownership, most work is done during their annual and
three-yearly Certificate of Airworthiness by approved and licensed engineers.
MAINTENANCE INSPECTION/ QUALITY CONTROL AND ASSURANCE
All maintenance done on the aircraft, from the Pre-Departure Inspection (made before every flight); to the heavy Check D inspection (done every
four to six years), is controlled from the Maintenance Schedule. This publication is produced by the aircraft manufacturer, and dictates the depth
and frequency of work at which each inspection is completed.
On light aircraft, the maintenance is normally done in accordance with a Schedule produced by the CAA, called the Light Aircraft Maintenance
Schedule, (LAMS).
This is a simple schedule, common to all private aircraft below 2730kg, which divides the maintenance into 50 and 150 flying hour, annual and tri-
annual inspections.
The personnel who do any of the inspections have to be either licensed by the CAA or approved by their own company, (if the company is itself
approved by the CAA). The types of aircraft being serviced, and their use, will control which type of qualification they require.
If a company has CAA approval under JAR-145, it is permitted to control all of the maintenance it does as well as, in some instances (with the
additional approval under JAR-147), the in house training of its own engineers.
An approved company has to introduce a Quality Assurance Department, to the strict rules laid down in JAR-145. This department controls the
standards of the company from the lowliest worker on the hangar floor to the Accountable Manager, usually the managing director. It is
responsible for all of the engineers and their approvals. It also examines engineers and trainees, prior to their examination by the CAA.
The Quality department also makes audits throughout the company, at intervals, to ensure all the procedures, laid down in the company manuals,
are being followed.
When certain operations are being done on an aircraft, whereby there might be catastrophic consequences to the aircraft if the work was not
done correctly, then a duplicate inspection is required. This involves two engineers; one of whom completes the work while the second (who has
had nothing to do with the task), checks the work and signs that it has been completed correctly.
ADDITIONAL MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES

Apart from the regular maintenance checks, listed in the Maintenance Manual, there are a number of additional maintenance procedures that
are done at irregular intervals.
These could include washing the aircraft, de-icing it in the winter, weighing it after certain operations and painting it when its condition warrants
it. The information and the correct procedures will probably be found in the maintenance manuals. (Under Washing, De-icing, Weighing and
Painting).
Other work done, in addition to the normal regular maintenance, might include an on-going sampling programme or condition monitoring, which
is done during the normal day-to-day operation of the aircraft. These tasks would probably be organised at the request of the local CAA office, to
comply with an airworthiness request from the manufacturer.
CONTROL OF LIFE-LIMITED COMPONENTS

On almost any aircraft, there will be a number of components that have a stated life, usually quoted in flying hours, cycles, calendar time or
operating hours.
The correct terminology for life is Mandatory Life Limitation. The components will have been given a life for various reasons. For example, a
fatigue life on a structural component in flying hours; the landing gear legs due for retirement after 10,000 landings, the batteries due for
replacement after 3 or 4 months and a retirement life on an APU measured in hours running time.
The control of the replacement of components, on completion of their lives, rests with the Technical Control/Records department, which monitors
all of the aircraft documents.
When an item is due for replacement, the work is often synchronized with a scheduled maintenance check, so that the aircraft is out of service
for the minimum amount of time. It is normal, however, for small items such as batteries, to be changed on the flight line, often at the end of the
days flying, with the battery replacement being done at the same time as the daily inspection.
The notification of the correct day for the replacement will be annotated on a document called the Maintenance Statement, which gives all items
due for replacement, in between scheduled maintenance checks. In the front of the Maintenance Manual is a chapter, variously entitled
Retirement Lives; Long Life Items or Fatigue Lives.
This chapter lists the retirement lives of many components and parts with long lives, which can include such items as engine hot-end components,
landing gear legs and major structural items that have retirement lives in the thousands of flying hours/cycles. This list will be monitored by the
Technical Records department, and the aircraft documents will be annotated and the work cards etc., raised when the task is required to be done.
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS FERROUS
Aircraft Materials - Introduction

The development of new space age materials for both aircraft structure and engines has made the vast progress of aviation possible. The basic structure of most
of the earliest flying machines were made of strips of spruce or bamboo, and the lifting surfaces were covered with cotton or linen cloth. After World War I, welded
steel tubing replaced the wooden truss used for the fuselage structure of most of the new aeroplanes. And it was during the 1920s that formed plywood became
used for the primary structure of some of the most streamlined and high-strength aircraft of the time.
The technological developments made during World War II allowed the all-metal, stressed-skin, semi-monocoque structure to replace the fabric-covered truss
structure in the vast majority of aircraft. This technology was standard until the last few decades when resins reinforced with various types of composite materials
have allowed us to build structural shapes that are superior to metals in strength, weight, and rigidity.
Modern aircraft are manufactured from many different types of materials. Those most commonly used are aluminium alloy, titanium alloy, Monel (a nickel alloy),
stainless steel, and chrome-molybdenum steel. Civilian aircraft are constructed primarily from heat-treated aluminium alloys, while military aircraft (fighters) are
constructed primarily from titanium and stainless steel. It is to say that more and more primary structure parts are being made of composites.
Submodules 6.1 to 6.3 will consider the materials used in aeroplane construction, and will look at some of the processes used to adapt these basic materials to air-
craft use.
Metals
The basic classifications of metals for aircraft structure are ferrous and nonferrous. A ferrous metal is one that contains iron, and in this
classification are the various types of steel. Nonferrous metals are classified into lightweight and heavy- weight and include aluminium, magnesium, titanium,
and monel. In aviation industry, titanium with its alloys is considered the heaviest light weight metals (see Figure 5 on page 6).
As an aviation maintenance technician, you must possess a thorough knowledge of metals. However, before you can develop a complete understanding of metals
used in the aviation industry, you must first become familiar with some of the properties metals have.
Properties Of Metals
A given metal can possess several properties. Among these are strength, hardness, malleability, ductility, brittleness, conductivity, expansion, elasticity, tough-
ness, fusibility, and density.
Hardness
The property of a material that enables it to resist penetration, wear or cutting action.
Strength
The ability of a material to withstand forces which tend to deform the metal in any direction, or the ability of a material to resist stress without breaking.
Considering the way a piece of material is loaded, the strength takes a different name:
Tension Strength
Pressure Strength
Shearing Strength
Bend Strength
Tension Strength is the most important one, evaluating material
Thermal Strength
If metal is heated up during loading, it will turn ductile earlier than at ambient temperatures. Because of this phenomenon is necessary to test metals at different
temperatures. A material is considered to be heat resistant if there is not an important loss of strength up to a temperature of 600C.
Elasticity
It is the capability of an object or material to be stretched and to recover its size and shape after its deformation.
The flexibility of spring steel used for the construction of landing gear is a good example of elasticity. Another form of elasticity is demonstrated when aircraft
skins expand and contract when an aircraft is pressurized.
A metals elastic limit is the point beyond which the metal does not return to its original shape after a deforming force is removed. Soft materials such as lead,
copper, and pure aluminium have very low elastic limits, while the elastic limit of hard spring steel is very high.
Figure 3: Simplified Elasticity Layout
Plasticity
The property of a metal which allows it to be reshaped. When a force acts on a lattice structure, the atoms in it will begin to slide from each other. If there is change in
the form of the piece of material, without cracks, when the force stops to act, are we speaking about plasticity.
Figure 4: Simplified Plasticity Layout
Slip Plane
Ductility
The property which allows metal to be drawn into thinner sections without breaking. Ductile metals are preferred for aircraft use because of their ease of
forming and resistance to failure under shock loads. For this reason, aluminium alloys are often used for cowlings, fuselage and wing skins, and formed or extruded
parts such as ribs, spars, and bulkheads.
Malleability
That characteristic of material that allows it to be stretched or shaped by beating with the hammer or passing through rollers without breaking.
Hardness and malleability are generally considered opposite characteristics. To help increase malleability, several metals are annealed, or softened Annealing
In this condition complex shapes can be formed. After forming is complete, the metal is then heat treated to increase its strength. A metal may be fully annealed
when the forming is started, but hammering and shaping can harden it to such an extent that it must be re-annealed before forming is completed.
Toughness
The property of a metal which allows it to be deformed without breaking. Breaking when it is bent or stretched. Hammer faces and wrenches are examples of metal
that must be tough as well as hard to be useful.
Brittleness
The property of a metal to break when, deformed, or hammered. It is the opposite of ductility and malleability. A brittle metal is more apt to break or crack before
it changes shape. Because structural metals are often subjected to shock loads, brittleness is not a desirable property. Cast iron, cast aluminium, and very hard steel
are examples of brittle metals.
Conductivity
The characteristic of a material which makes it possible for it to transmit heat or electrical conduction.
Metals that can carry heat also carry electrons, making them good electrical conductors. Electrical conductivity is the measure of a materials ability to allow elec-
tron flow. A metal conductor can be a wire, an aircraft frame, or an engine. Electrons flow much easier in some metals than they do in others, because of their
molecular structures. The best electrical conductors are gold, silver, copper, and aluminium.
Durability
The property of metal that enables it to withstand force over a period of time. Durability properties are important considering fatigue of metal.
Density
Density is actually the mass-per-unit volume of a material, and throughout the dis- cussion of metals we use the density of a material to compare weight.
The density of some of the more commonly used metals is shown in the table below.
Figure 5 : Metal Classification Considering Density
Ferrous Metals
Any metal that contains iron as its principal constituent is called a ferrous metal. In aircraft structure we are chiefly concerned with steel, which
is iron with a controlled amount of carbon added.
Figure 6: Example of Steel Usage for Airliner
Most of screwings and hinged

joinings
Steel Manufacturing
Iron
Iron is, in its pure form, a fairly soft, malleable, and ductile metal that is easy to form or shape. It is silvery white in colour and is quite heavy, having a density of
7.9g/
cm3. Iron easily combines with oxygen to form iron oxide, which is more commonly known as rust.
Cast iron is seldom used in aircraft construction because of its low strength-to- weight ratio.
When the iron is removed from the furnace, after it has been taken out of ore, it is in a form known as pig iron. It may be re-melted and cast into cast-iron
components, or it may be taken to some of the steel-making furnaces, or converters, to convert the iron into steel.
Unalloyed and Low-Alloyed Steels

Pig iron from the blast furnace is re-melted in a special furnace where oxygen is forced through the molten metal so that oxygen can unite with the carbon and burn
it out. When the carbon is burned out, a controlled amount of carbon is put back in, along with other elements that are needed to get the particular characteristics
we want from steel.
High Alloyed Steels
If a steel alloy contains more than 5% of an alloying agent, it is considered as a high alloyed steel.
High alloyed is the kind of steel we use in aircraft construction. It is made in electric furnaces, which allow much better control of the alloying agents than the gas
fired furnaces.
Alloy Steels Standards

There are different standards, used for civil aviation steel classification. The
most applied ones are listed below:
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)
AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute)
AMS (Aerospace Material Specification)
This standard does not give information about material components. Because
it includes many different material it is often used as a material or-
SAE Classification of Steels
Most of the steel used in aircraft structure is classified according to the SAE
four- digit numbering system that identifies its composition.
Figure 7: SAE Notation
Basic alloying element 1 = Carbon (C) only

Dering system
BS (British Standard)
AFNOR-Air ("Association Francaise de Normalisation")
BMS (Boeing Material Specification)
For example, SAE 4130 steel is a Molybdenum steel that contains approx. 1% Mo and 0.30% carbon. Some of the most commonly used SAE steels are:
1xxx Carbon steel:
Steels containing between 0.10% and 0.30% carbon (SAE 1010 and 1030) are classed as low-carbon steels and are used for making safety wire and certain
secondary structural parts where strength is not critical. This low carbon steel does not have sufficient strength for aircraft structural applications, and its use is
limited to secondary structure where the loads are not high. Steels containing between 0.30% and 0.50% carbon (SAE 1030 and 1050) are medium-carbon steels
and are used for machined and forged parts, especially where surface hardening is needed. Steel containing between 0.50% and 1.05% carbon (SAE 1050 and 1105)
are high-carbon steel and are used where extreme hardness is required. Springs are made of high-carbon steel.
2xxx Nickel steel:

Between 3% and 3.75% nickel may be alloyed with carbon steel to increase its hardness, tensile strength, and elastic limit without appreciably decreasing its
ductility. SAE 2330 steel is used for aircraft bolts, cable terminals, keys, clevises, and pins.
3xxx Nickel-chromium steel:

Nickel gives toughness to steel, and chromium hardens it. Nickel chromium steels such as SAE 3130 and 3250 are used for forged and machined parts where high
strength, ductility, toughness, and shock resistance are needed.
4xxx Chrome-molybdenum steel:

Most aircraft structural steel is a chrome-molybdenum alloy that combines toughness and high strength with ease of welding and machining.
SAE 4130 is one of the most popular alloys, and it is used extensively for welded steel structure such as fuselage frames, landing gear, and engine mounts. Engine
cylinders and other highly stressed parts are often made of SAE 4130 steel.
Heat-treated SAE 4130 steel has an ultimate tensile strength of about four times that of SAE 1025 steel, which makes it an ideal choice for landing gear structures
and engine mounts.
6xxx Chrome-vanadium steel:

Chrome-vanadium steels are used extensively for wrenches and other hand tools where extremely high strength and toughness are essential
AISI Classification of Steels

This Standard is used, in aviation, to classify corrosion resistant steels.
Figure 8: AISI Notation
Corrosion-Resistant (Stainless) Steel

Since the 1940s the term stainless steel, also designated corrosion resistant steel (CRES), has become a household word because of its many
applications in consumer items as well as in aircraft applications, for example fire walls.
The development of stainless steel has made possible many of the outstanding advances in aircraft, gas-turbine engines, and rockets.
The most important characteristics of stainless steels are corrosion resistance, strength, toughness, and resistance to high temperatures. Stainless steels can be
divided into three general groups based on their structures: austenitic, ferritic, martensitic and Precipitation hardenable.
Austenitic
The austenitic steels are chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni) and chromium-nickel-manganese alloys. They can be hardened only by cold working, and heat treatment serves
only to anneal them. They are nonmagnetic in the annealed condition, although some may be slightly magnetic after cold working.
Steels are formed by heating the steel mixture above the critical range and holding to form a structure called austenite. A controlled period of partial cooling is
allowed followed by a rapid quench just above the critical range.
Ferritic
Ferritic steel contains no carbon; they do not respond to heat treatment. They contain a substantial amount of chromium and many have a small amount of
aluminium. They are always magnetic. It is to mention that this kind of CRES is not used in aviation
Martensitic
Martensitic steels are straight chromium alloy that harden intensely if they are allowed to cool rapidly from high temperatures. They differ from the two preceding
groups because they can be hardened by heat treatment.
The most widely used stainless steels for general use are those in the 300 series, called 18-8 because they contain approximately 18 percent chromium and 8 per-
cent nickel. Typical of these types are 301, 302, 321 and 347.
Precipitation Hardenable
The increase of flight speed increased friction with the air and grater heat is developed. Therefore, the need arose for materials that have good
corrosion resistance and great strength at room temperature and at moderately high temperatures to approximately 400C (675K). This led to development of this
kind of Steel. They are alloyed with elements such as copper and aluminum. These elements make precipitation hardening possible.
Handling Peculiarities of CRES

Although stainless steels have many advantages, there are certain disadvantages that must be faced by the fabricator and designer:
Stainless steels are more difficult to cut and form than many materials.
Stainless steels have a much greater expansion coefficient than other steels, and they conduct heat at a lower rate; this makes welding more difficult.
Many of the stainless steels lose their corrosion resistance under high temperatures.
In the use of corrosion resistant steels for aircraft, the technician must assure that the proper type is selected for the part of the aircraft involved.
In most cases a damaged part can be replaced by a factory-made part identified by the part number; however, there are situations where it is preferable to repair a
part by patching or welding. In these cases, the correct type of corrosion-resistant steel (CRES) must be chosen.
In welding CRES, inert-gas arc welding is preferred, because this process causes less deformation due to heat expansion of the metal and it prevents oxidisation. The
expansion of stainless steel due to temperature increases may be more than twice that of ordinary carbon steels.
Because of its toughness, stainless steel is more difficult to cut, form, shear, machine, or drill than ordinary steel. For this reason the technician who is to work
with this material successfully must be experienced in the necessary processes or must be directed by an experienced technician.
Aircraft Materials-Non Ferrous

Much of the metal used on aircraft contains no iron. The term that describes metals which have elements other than iron as their base is non-
ferrous.
Aluminum, copper, titanium, and magnesium are some of the more common nonferrous metals used in aircraft construction and repair.
Pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be used for aircraft construction. However, its strength increases considerably when it is alloyed, or mixed with other
compatible metals. For example, when aluminum is mixed with copper or zinc, the resultant alloy is as strong as steel with only one third the weight.
Furthermore, the corrosion resistance possessed by the aluminum carries over to the newly formed alloy.
Aluminum alloys are classified by their major alloying ingredient. The elements most commonly used for Aluminum alloying are:
Copper
Magnesium
Manganese
Zinc
Based on the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Standards H35.1 and H35.2, there are TWO main classes of aluminum alloys:
Wrought alloys, rolled from an ingot or extruded from customer-specified shapes
Cast alloys, poured as a liquid into a mould and cooled into a solid shape
Most aircraft parts are wrought aluminum alloys.
Wrought aluminum alloys are identified by a four-digit index system. Alloy Series Principal Alloying Elements
1xxx Min 99.00% Aluminum
2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and Silicon
7xxx Zinc
8xxx Other elements
9xxx Unused series
1XXX series
1XXX series is the only exception to the wrought alloy designation system.
The 1st digit indicates the minimum aluminium content is 99%, and there is no major alloying element.
The second digit indicates modifications in impurity limits. If the second digit is zero, there is no special control on individual impurities.
Digits 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively as needed, indicate special control of one or more individual impurities.
The 3rd and fourth digits provide the minimum aluminium percentage above 99%.
Thus, 1030 would indicate 99.30% minimum aluminium without special control on individual impurities. The designations 1130, 1230, 1330, etc. indicate the same purity with
special control on one or more impurities. Likewise, 1100 indicates minimum aluminium content of 99.00% with individual impurity control.
2xxx through 9xxx Series

The major alloying elements are indicated by the first digit, as follows:
2xxx Copper
3xxx Manganese
4xxx Silicon
5xxx Magnesium
6xxx Magnesium and silicon
7xxx Zinc
8xxx other element
9xxx unused series
The second digit indicates alloy modification. If the second digit is zero, it indicates the original alloy. Digit 1 through 9, which are assigned consecutively, indicate alloy modification.
The last two digits have no special significance, serving only to identify the different alloys in the group (number has no significance but is unique)
Aluminium and Alloys Series 1xxx

Pure aluminums
Strain hardenable
High formability, corrosion resistance and electrical conductivity
Electrical, chemical applications
The 1xxx represents the commercially pure aluminium ranging from the baseline 1100(99% min.Al) to relatively pure 1050/1350 (99.5 min Al) and 1175 (99.75% min Al)some like
1350 which is used especially for electrical application, have relatively tight controls on those impurities that might lower electrical conductivity.
The 1xxx series are strain hardenable, but would not be used where strength is a prime consideration. Rather the emphasis would be on those applications where extremely high
corrosion resistance, formability and/or electrical conductivity are required.
Alloys within the 2xxx series utilize copper as the principle alloying agent.when alluminium is mixed with copper,certain metallic changes take place in the resultant alloys grain
structure. For the most part, these changes are beneficial and procedure grater strength.However,a major drawback to aluminium-copper alloys is their susceptibility to
intergranular corrosion when improperly heat treated.
Most aluminium alloy used in aircraft structures is an aluminum-copper alloy,two of the most commonly used in the construction used in the construction of skin and rivets are
2017 and 2014.
Aluminium and its alloys

Pure aluminium lacks sufficient strength to be used for aircraft construction. However, its strength increases when it is alloyed or mixed with other compatible metals.
Aluminium is mixed with copper or zinc, the resultant alloy is as strong as steel with only one third the weight, the corrosion resistance possessed by the aluminium carries over to
the newly formed alloy
Aluminium is one of the most widely used metals in modern aircraft construction. It is vital to the aviation industry because of its high strength-to-weight
ratio and its comparative ease of fabrication.
Aluminium alloys, although strong are easily worked because they are malleable and ductile. They may be rolled into sheets as thin as 0.0017 inch or drawn
into wire 0.004 inch in diameter.
Most aluminium alloy sheet stock used in aircraft construction ranges from 0.016 to 0.096 ich in thickness, some of the larger aircraft use sheet stock which
may be as thick as 0.356 inch.
The 3xxx series alloys have manganese as the principle alloying element, and are generally considered non heat-treatable. The most common variation is
3003, which offers moderate strength and has good
The 4xxx series aluminium is alloyed with silicon, which lowers a metals melting temperature. This results in alloy that works well for welding and brazing.
Magnesium is used to produce the 5xxx series. These alloys possess good welding and corrosion resistance.However,if the metal is exposed to
high tempteratures or excessive cold working,its susceptibility to corrosion increases.
If silicon and magnesium are added to aluminium, the resultant alloy carries a 6xxx series designation. In these alloys, the silicon and magnesium form magnesium
silicide which makes the alloy heat-treatable. Furthermore, the 6xxx series has medium strength with good forming and corrosion resistance properties.
When parts require more strength and little forming, harder aluminium alloys are employed. The 7xxx series aluminium alloys are made harder and stronger by the
addition of zinc. Some widely used forms of aluminium-zinc alloys are 7075 and 7178.
The aluminium-zinc alloy 7075 has a tensile strength of 77 KSI and a bearing strength of 139 KSI. However, the alloy is very hard and is difficult to bend. An even
stronger zinc alloy is 7178 which has a tensile strength of 84 KSI and a bearing strength of 151 KSI. 1KSI = 1 kilopounds / square inch (1 KIP) = 1,000 pound-
force/square inch (PSI) For example, on B737-200 aircraft:
Frames, stringers, keel and floor beams, wing ribs - Aluminium alloy 7075 (Aluminium and zinc) - High mechanical properties and improved stress corrosion
cracking resistance.
Bulkheads, window frames, landing gear beam - Aluminium alloy 7079 (Aluminium and zinc) Tempered to minimise residual heat treatment stresses.
Wing upper skin, spars and beams - Aluminium alloy 7178 (Aluminium, zinc, magnesium and copper) - High compressive strength to weight ratio.
Landing gear beam - Aluminium alloy 7175 (Aluminium, zinc, magnesium and copper) - A very tough, very high tensile strength alloy.
Wing lower skin - Aluminium alloy 7055 (Aluminium, zinc, magnesium and copper) - Superior stress corrosion.
8xxx series used for those alloys with lesser used alloying elements such as Fe, Ni and Li. Each is used for the particular characteristics it provides the alloys:
NON HEAT-TREATABLE ALLOYS

The non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys are usually designated, therefore in the 1000, 3000, 4000, 5000 series. Their properties can be adjusted
by cold work, usually by cold rolling.
Commercially pure aluminium does not benefit from heat treatment since there are no alloying materials in its structure.
By the same token, 3003 is an almost identical metal and, except for a small amount of manganese, does not benefit from being heat-treated. Both of these metals
are lightweight and somewhat corrosion resistant. However, neither has a great deal of strength and, therefore, their use in aircraft is limited to non-structural
components such as fairings and streamlined enclosures that carry little or no load.
Alloy 5052 is perhaps the most important of the non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys. It contains about 2.5
percent magnesium and a small amount of chromium. It is used for welded parts such as gasoline or oil tanks,
and for rigid fluid lines. Its strength is increased by cold working.
Strain Hardening. Both heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable aluminium alloys can be strengthened and
hardened through strain hardening also referred to as cold working or work hardening. This process requires
mechanically working a metal at a temperature below its critical range. Strain hardening alters the grain
structure and hardens the metal. The mechanical working can consist of rolling, drawing, or pressing.
TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Titanium and its alloys are light weight metals with very high strength. Pure titanium weighs 0.163 pounds per cubic inch, which is about 50
percent lighter than stainless steel, yet it is approximately equal in strength to iron. Furthermore, pure titanium is soft and ductile with a density between that of
aluminum and iron. Titanium is a metallic element which, when first discovered, was classified as a rare metal. However, in 1947 its status was changed due to its
importance as a structural metal. In the area of structural metallurgy, it is said that no other structural metal has been studied so extensively or has advanced
aircraft structures so rapidly. In addition to its light weight and high strength, titanium and its alloys have excellent corrosion resistance characteristics, particularly
to the corrosive effects of salt water. However, since the metal is sensitive to both nitrogen and oxygen, it must be converted to titanium dioxide with chlorine gas
and a reducing agent before it can be used.
Titanium is classified as alpha, alpha beta, and beta alloys. These classifications are based on specific chemical bonding within the alloy itself. The specifics of the
chemical composition are not critical to working with the alloy, but certain details should be known about each classification.
Alpha alloys have medium strengths of 120 KSI to 150 KSI and good elevated temperature strength. Because of this, alpha alloys can be welded and used in forgings.
The standard identification number for alpha titanium is 8A1-lMo-1 V-Ti, which is also referred to as Ti-B-i-I. This series of numbers indicates that the alloying
elements and their percentages are 8 percent aluminum, 1 percent molybdenum, and 1 percent vanadium.
Alpha-beta alloys are the most versatile of the titanium alloys. They have medium strength in the annealed condition and much higher strength when heat treated.
While this form of titanium is generally not weldable, it has good forming characteristics.
Beta alloys have medium strength, excellent forming characteristics, and contain large quantities of high-density alloying elements. Because of this, beta titanium
can be heat treated to a very high strength. The grain size of titanium is refined when aluminium is added to the alloy mixture, however, when copper is added to
titanium, a precipitation-hardening alloy is produced. Titanium added to high temperature nickel-cobalt-chromium alloy produces a precipitation-hardening
reaction which provides strength at temperatures up to 1,500F. Because of its high strength-to-weight ratio, titanium is now used extensively in the civilian
aerospace industry. Although once rare on commercial aircraft, modern jet transports now utilize alloys containing 10 to 15 percent titanium in structural areas
NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS

Two commonly used nickel alloys are:
Monel
Inconel
Monel contains about 68% nickel and 29% copper with small amounts of iron and manganese. Monel can be welded and has very good machining characteristics. Certain types of
Monel, especially those containing small percentages of aluminium, are heat-treatable to tensile strengths equivalent to steel. Monel works well in gears and parts that require high
strength and toughness, as well as for parts in exhaust systems that require high strength and corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures. Monel rivets are also available for
aircraft structural applications.
Inconel contain about 80% nickel and 14% chromium with small amounts of iron and other elements.The alloys find frequent use in turbine engines because of their ability to
maintain their strength and corrosion resistance under extremely high temperatures
For example, Inconel can be found in nozzle supports, fan casings, and blades.
Inconel and stainless steel are similar in appearance and are frequently used in the same areas. Differentiating between the two must be done through a chemical
test
COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Neither copper nor its alloys find much use as structural materials in aircraft construction. However, due to its excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, copper is the primary
metal used for electrical wiring.

Of the several alloys that use copper as a base, the following alloys are the primary alloys found on aircraft:
Brass: Brass is a copper alloy containing zinc and small amounts of aluminium, iron, lead, manganese, magnesium, nickel, phosphorous, and tin.
Bronze: Bronze is a copper alloy that contains tin. A true bronze consists of up to 25% tin, and along with brass, is used in bushings, bearings, fuel metering valves, and
valve seats.
Beryllium: Beryllium copper is probably one of the most used copper alloys. It consists of approximately 97% copper, 2% beryllium, and sufficient nickel to increase its
strength. Beryllium is used for diaphragms, precision bearings and bushings, ball cages, and spring washers.
CORROSION FUNDAMENTALS AND IDENTIFICATION

CORROSION
Corrosion is a complex electro-chemical action that causes metals to be transformed into their salts and oxides. These powdery
substances replace the metal and cause severe loss of strength in the structure. While complex in its nature, the actual
mechanics of corrosion are relatively simple and straight forward.
For corrosion to form, three requirements must be met:
An electrical potential difference within the metal requirement for corrosion.
A conductive path between the two areas of potential difference
Some form of electrolyte or fluid covering the two areas.
Corrosion is a natural process, and its prevention almost impossible; but it can be controlled.
The aviation technician must prevent or remove one or more of the requirements for
corrosion. In doing this goes a long way in adding longevity to the structure of the airplane.
Cleanliness of the surface is one of the best ways to control corrosion. When moisture is
held in contact with the metal surface by an accumulation of dirt or grease, corrosion is sure
to start. If the surface can be kept perfectly dry and clean, however, corrosion has little
chance of getting started. The essence of corrosion control is therefore prevention rather
than removal.
Dry Corrosion
At room temperature, most metals carry a thin oxide layer as a result of the reaction of metals with oxygen in the
atmosphere.
Increase of temperature may cause

formation of a heavier layer, or the layer may
detach. Zinc and zinc coatings carry a fairly
protective zinc hydroxide or carbonate layer (zinc
patina) which increases in thickness very
slowly. Aluminum carries a thin, highly
protective oxide layer. Some corrosion takes
place even under completely dry conditions.
Wet Corrosion
Wet corrosion takes place in environments where the relative humidity exceeds 60%. The corrosion
may be uniform destruction of the metal surface or localised destruction (pitting, stress corrosion
cracking). The corrosion can be concentrated adjacent to a more noble metal or at points where
the oxygen supply is limited.
Wet corrosion is an Electro-chemical phenomenon. When two metals are in contact with water
solution containing salts, an electric potential is formed between two different metals or the
surfaces of the same metal with different surface conditions. This causes the dissolution of the less
noble metal. The more noble metal remains protected but the less noble metal corrodes.
Wet corrosion is most efficient in waters containing salts, such as NaCl (e.g. marine conditions), due
to the high conductivity of the solution. Chlorides also may increase the corrosion rate of metals.
Direct Chemical Attack

If an alkaline or acidic liquid comes into contact with metal, the result is a form of corrosion known as Direct Chemical Attack.
It is also fundamentally electrochemical in nature. However, no current flow is detectable, nor are there any definite anodic or cathodic areas. The
theoretical rate of a chemical attack can be affected by the formation of a protective film on the metal
surface, through secondary reactions involving the products of corrosion, and the mechanical removal of protective films, such as by erosion, flexing of
the metal surface, or by temperature changes.
For corrosion to form on a metal there must be an electrode potential difference and an electrolyte. Almost all acids and alkalis react with metals to
form metallic salts (corrosion), though some are more active than others. Sulphuric acid as found in batteries is especially active in corroding aluminium,
while a weak solution of chromic or phosphoric acid is actually used as a surface treatment when preparing a metal for painting.
Ferrous metals are subject to damage from both acids and alkalis, but aluminium is more vulnerable to strong alkaline solutions than to acids. Aluminium
structure, for instance, can be severely corroded if allowed to remain on a concrete floor. Water will leach out enough lime from the cement to form
an alkaline solution that will corrode the aluminium.
Phosphate Ester hydraulic fluids (Skydrol) can cause severs corrosion and embrittlement of titanium alloys at elevated temperatures above 120 C,
probably because of decomposition of the fluid to phosphoric acid.
Electro-Chemical Series
If the anode is smaller than the cathode, the anode will give up electrons more easily and the corrosion will be more rapid.
Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion can take place where dissimilar metal skins are riveted together, or where
aluminum inspection plates are attached to structure with steel screws.
Stress Corrosion
Stresses may come from a fitting that has been pressed into a structural part with an interference fit.
Cracks grow rapidly as the corrosive attack concentrates at the end of the crack, rather than along its
sides as in intergranular corrosion.
A common place for stress corrosion is between rivets in a stressed skin, around pressed-in bushing,
tapered pipe fittings. Careful visual inspection may show up this type of corrosion, but to find the actual
extent of the cracks requires dye penetrant inspection.
Surface Corrosion
Where an area of unprotected metal is exposed to an atmosphere containing battery
fumes, exhaust gases, or industrial contaminants, there will be a rather uniform
attack over the entire surface area. This dulling of the surface is caused by microscopic
amounts of the metal being converted into corrosion salts. If these deposits are not
removed and the surface protected against further action, there will develop such a
rough surface that corrosion pits will form.
Surface corrosion can go undetected until it breaks through the metal, when it is too
late to save the affected parts.
Pitting Corrosion
A logical progression from uniform surface corrosion, if left untreated, is called pitting. Pits form
as localized anodic areas.
Corrosive action may continue until an appreciable percentage of the metal thickness is converted
into salts which may. In extreme cases, eat completely through the metal. Pitting corrosion may be detected
by the appearance of clumps of white powder on the surface.
FASTERNERS
AIRCRAFT FASTENING DEVICES
SCREW THREAD
Aircraft hardware is the term used to describe various types of fasteners and miscellaneous small items used in the manufacture and repair of aircraft. The safe and efficient operation
of any aircraft is greatly dependent upon the correct selection and use of aircraft hardware.
Vibration is always present during aircraft operation. Consequently there must be provision for safe tying or locking of fasteners to prevent them from vibrating loose in flight, and
anyone involved in aircraft maintenance must be familiar with the methods used.
Aircraft hardware standards
There are various standards used for hardware specifications in the aircraft industry. The most common standards you will encounter are:
1. AN (Air Force-Navy)
2. NAS (National Aircraft Standard)
3. MS (Military Standard)
4. NSA (NATO STANDARD AGENCY)
5. BAC (BOEING AIRCRAFT CORPORATION)
6. FON (FOKKER)
7. AMS (AERONAUTICAL MATERIALS SPECIFICATION)
Standard hardware, which is available from aviation suppliers, is identified by a specification number. Special fasteners must be replaced with those having the same part number
and not with similar looking standard hardware. Often the difference between a standard and a special part is the material used to manufacture it or the closer tolerance in its
manufacture or it may be a more critical inspection of the part. AN fasteners can be replaced by NAS and MS equivalent fasteners. NAS and MS standard hardware must not be
replaced by AN standard hardware.
BOLTS AND SCREWS

Various types of fastening devices allow quick dismantling of aircraft parts that must be taken apart and put back together at frequent intervals. Riveting or welding these parts each
time they are serviced would soon weaken or ruin the joint. Furthermore, some joints require greater tensile strength and stiffness than rivets can provide. Bolts and screws are two
types of fastening devices which give the required security of attachment and rigidity. Generally, bolts are used when great strength is required, and screws are used where strength
is not the deciding factor.
Bolts and screws are similar in many ways. They are both used for fastening or holding, and each has a head on one end and a screw thread on
the other. Regardless of these similarities, there are several distinct differences between the two types of fasteners. The threaded end of a bolt
is always blunt, while that of a screw may be either blunt or pointed.
The threaded end of a bolt usually has a nut secured to it to complete the assembly. The threaded end of a screw may fit into a female receptacle, or it may fit directly
into the material being secured. A bolt has a fairly short thread section and a comparatively long grip length or unthreaded portion; whereas a screw has a longer
threaded section and may have a clearly defined grip length. A bolt assembly is generally tightened by turning the nut on the bolt: the head of the bolt may or may
not be designed for turning. A screw is always tightened by turning its head.
When it becomes necessary to replace aircraft fasteners, a duplicate of the original fastener should always be used.
CLASSIFICATION OF THREADS
Aircraft bolts, screws and nuts are threaded in either the: American Standard
ANC (AMERICAN NATIONAL COARSE)
ANF (AMERICAN NATIONAL FINE)
AMERICAN STANDARD UNIFIED COURSE (UNC)
AMERICAN STANDARD UNIFIED FINE (UNF)
The difference between the American National series and the American Standard Unified series is the American National series has more threads per inch than the
American Standard Unified series
EXAMPLE
On a one inch diameter bolt, the NF thread specifies 14 threads per inch ( 1-14NF), while the UNF thread specities 12 of threads per inch (1-12 UNF). Both thread
types are designated by the number of times the threads rotate (number of turns) around a 1-inch length of given diameter bolt or screw.
Threads are also designated by class of fit from one to five. The class of thread indicates the Tolerance allowed in manufacturing.
Class 1: thread is a loose fit

Class 2: thread is a free fit
Class 3: thread is a medium fit
Class 4: thread is a close fit
Class 5: thread is a tight fit
A Class 1 fit allows you to turn the nut all the way down using only fingers. Wing nut are a good example of Class 1 fit. A Class 4 and 5 fit requires a wrench to turn a
nut down from start to finish.
Aircraft bolts are usually fine threaded with a Class 3 fit. Whereas screws are typically a Class 2 or 3 fit.
Bolts and nuts are also produced with right-hand and left-hand threads. A right-hand thread tightens when turn clockwise, a left- hand thread tightens when turned
counter clockwise.
BOLTS, STUDS AND SCREWS
THREADED FASTERNER IN AIRCRAFT

Threaded fasteners allow parts to be fastened together with all of the strength unthreaded fasteners provide. However, unlike rivets, threaded fasteners may be
disassembled and reassembled an almost infinite number of times.
THREAD TYPE AND FITS
Most bolts used in aircraft structures are either general-purpose, internal-wrenching, or close tolerance AN, NAS, or MS bolts. Aircraft bolts, screws, and nuts are
threaded in either the American National Coarse (NC), the American National Fine (NF), the American Standard Unified Coarse (UNC), or the American Standard
Unified Fine (UNF) series. In addition to being identified as either coarse or fine, threads are also designated by class of fit from one to five:
Class 1: thread is a loose fit
Class 2: thread is a free fit
Class 3: thread is a medium fit
Class 4: thread is a close fit
Class 5: thread is a tight fit
A class 1 fit allows you to turn the nut all the way down using only your fingers. Wing nuts are good example of a class 1 fit.A class 4 and 5 fit requires a wrench to
turn a nut down from start to finish. Aircraft bolts are usually fine threaded with class 3 fit, whereas screws are typically a class 2 or 3 fit.
DESIGNATION CODES
An aircraft bolt is given a part code indicating its diameter in 1/16 inch increments and its length in 1/8 inch increments. For bolts that are longer
than 7/8 inch, the code changes. For example, a 1-inch bolt is identified by a -10 representing 1 inch and no fraction. In other words, there are no -8 or -9 lengths. Dash numbers go
from -7 to -10, from -17 to -20, and from -27 to - 30. Therefore, a bolt that is 1 inches long identified by a -14,A bolt with the code AN5-22 identifies an Air Force Navy bolt that is
5/16 inch in diameter and 2 inches long.
Threaded aircraft bolts inch in diameter and smaller are dimensioned in screw sizes rather than 1/8-inch increment.
The AN3 bolt is the exception to this rule. These machine screw sizes range from 0-12. A number 10 fastener has diameter of approximately 3/16 inch and a number 5 fastener has a
1/8 inch diameter.
STANDARD AIRCRAFT BOLTS

A bolt is designed to hold two or more items together. Bolts that are typically used for air frame structural applications have hex heads and range
in size from AN3 to AN2O.
Bolts are identified by their diameter and length. A diameter represents the shank diameter while the length represents the distance from the bottom of the head
to the end of the bolt.
A bolts grip length is the length of the unthreaded portion as shown. If the grip length is slightly longer than this thickness, washers must be added to ensure that
the nut can provide the proper amount of pressure when it is tightened. If the grip length is substantially less than the thickness of the materials the bolts threads
will extend into the material, resulting in a weaker joint.
When joining two pieces of material, their combined thickness determines the correct length of bolt to use.
The diameter of a bolt is indicated by the number immediately following the prefix
such as AN. The dash number of standard bolts indicates length in 1/8 of an inch
increment
AN3-6A:
AN= (AIR FORCE NAVY)
3= (DIAMETER IN 1/16 INCH)
6= (LENGTH IN 1/8 INCH)
A= (NOT DRILLED FOR SPLIT PIN)
NO LETTER=DRILLED FOR SPLIT PIN
CLEVIS BOLTS: AN21 TO AN36

To be loaded in shear only. For example, a control cable must be attached to a control horn with a bolt that is loose enough to allow the cable to
pivot freely as the control surface moves, but not so loose that excess play exists. For these applications a clevis bolt is used.
The AN21 through AN36 clevis bolt has a domed head that is typically slotted or recessed to accept a screwdriver. A unique feature of a clevis bolt is that only a
short portion of the shank is threaded, and there is a small notch between the threads and the shank. This results in a long grip length which increases the bolts
shear strength and allows the bolt to rotate more freely in its hole.
The diameter of a clevis bolt is given in 1/16 inch increments. The length of a clevis bolt is more critical than that of the other types of bolt and, therefore, it is also
measured in 1/16 inch increments with a dash number indicating the length. For example ,an AN29-20 identifies a 9/16 inch diameter clevis bolt that is 20/16 (1
)inches long.
EYEBOLTS (AN42 THROUGH AN49)

These bolts are used in applications where external tension loads are to be applied. The head of this bolt is specially designed for the attachment
of turnbuckle, clevis, or a cable shackle.The threaded shank may not be drilled for safetying.
DRILLED-HEAD ENGINE BOLTS:AN73 TO AN81

AN73 through AN81 bolts are hex-headed nickel steel bolts that are similar in appreance to the AN3 through AN20 series .However, unlike standard drilled bolts,
head engine bolts have a thicker head that is drilled with a small hole in each of the flats and in the centre of the head. As with most bolts, the diameter of drilled
head engine bolts are 1/16 increments while bolts lengths 1/8 inch increments .The diameter is indicated by the second number following the AN designation while
the bolt length is indicated by the dash number .For example, a drilled head engine bolt designated as AN746 has a diameter of inch and a length of inch
CLOSE TOLERANCE BOLTS: AN173 to AN186
Close tolerance bolts are designated AN173 to AN186 and are ground to a tolerance of +0.0000.0005 inch. This is
much tighter then standard AN3 through AN14 bolts which are manufactured with a tolerance of +0.000 0.0025, or
AN16 through AN2O bolts which are manufactured with a tolerance of +0.000 0.0055 inch. Close tolerance bolts
must be used in areas that are subject to pounding loads or in a structure that is required to be both riveted and bolted.
Close tolerance bolts carry a triangle mark on their heads and are ground to a much tighter tolerance than standard
bolts
INTERNAL WRENCHING BOLTS (MS20004 TO MS20024)

MS20004 through MS20024 internal wrenching bolts are high-strength steel bolts used primarily in
areas that are subjected to high tensile loads. A six-sided hole is machined into the center of their
heads to accept an Allen wrench of the proper size.
These bolts have a radius between the head and shank and, when installed in steel parts, the hole
must be counter bored to accommodate this radius. When an internal wrenching bolt is installed in an
aluminum alloy structure, a MS20002C washer mist he used under the head to provide the needed
bearing area.
The strength of interim wrenching bolts is much higher than that of a standard steel AN bolt and, for
this reason, an AN bolt must never be substituted for an internal wrenching type.
PRECISION AIRFRAME BOLTS

NAS: National Aerospace Standards (Aerospace Industries Association)
Developed and updated by the National Aerospace Standards Committee Aerospace Standards include many standards on precision fasteners as well as other
aerospace hardware.
Even Dash number indicate the standard issue length in 1/8 inch Increments.
Grip length is measured from under the head end of the thread.
Odd dash number is a special application bolt= grip length 1/16 inch longer than even number used where a standard MS bolt is either too long or to short
The basic NAS number identifies the part. The suffix letters and dash
numbers separate different sizes, plating material, drilling
specifications, etc. It is necessary to refer to a specific NAS page in the
Standards book for the legend.
MS: Military Standard

All aircraft bolts, except AN bolts, are measured by their grip length, not by their overall length. Standard issue bolts have even dash
numbers, in most applications these bolts will do but where the grip length is critical and a (standard) grip is either too long or too
short a ODD Dash number bolt is available.
Aircraft bolts must be fitted correctly, just any length bolt will not do. The load must be on the shank and not on the thread. Tensile
strength of 160,000 psi to 180,000 and a shear strength of 95,000 psi to 108,000 depending on the type of bolt
STANDARD AIRFRAME BOLTS: NATO Standardization Agency

The European NSA bolts should not be confused with the American NAS Bolt. Always refer to the aircraft illustrated parts catalogue when purchasing fasteners, often bolts may
look the same but they are not.NSA Specification is a FOUR-digit number identifying the type of bolt eg NSA5022
The first Dash numbers is the diameter in 1/16 inch eg 4,The second dash number is the grip length in 1/16 inch eg -22
Example: NSA5022-4-22 is a 1/4 x 1 3/8 Hex head bolt
NOTE: To prevent dangerous cross use between metric and imperial sizes, all western aerospace bolts are manufactured to imperial specifications.
SELF-LOCKING NUTS
Self-locking nuts, or lock nuts, employ a locking device in their design to keep them from coming loose. The two
general types of self-locking nuts used in aviation are the fiber, or nylon type (Low Temperature), and the all metal
type.
A self-locking nut must be screwed onto a bolt until all of the chamfer on the bolts end protrudes through the
insert. If the bolt is not chamfered, at least one thread but not more than three threads should protrude through the
nut. If more than three threads are exposed, you risk the danger of bottoming out the nut and under torqueing
the assembly, thus creating a stress point that could fail. If more than three threads are exposed, either replace the
bolt with one of the correct length or install a washer.
A self-locking nuts dash number specifies both diameter and number of threads per inch. For example, a -524
represents a self-locking nut that fits a 5/16-inch fine thread bolt with 24 threads per inch.
LOW-TEMPERATURE SELF-LOCKING NUTS

Nylon self-locking nuts should not be used in any location where the temperature could exceed
250F. However, you may use them on engines in those locations specified by the engine
manufacturer.
AN365 self-locking nuts are used on bolts and machine screws and are held in position by a nylon
insert above the threads. This insert has a hole slightly smaller than the thread diameter on which it
fits. The nuts Class 3 fit allows it to run down on a bolts threads easily until the bolt enters the
insert.
AN364 nuts resemble the AN365 self-locking nut, but they are thin and are approved only for shear
loads, not to be used in tension. AN364 nuts are typically made to be used on clevis bolts that do
not have drilled shanks.
METAL SELF-LOCKING NUTS

In applications where temperatures exceed 250F, all-metal lock nuts, such as the
AN363, are used. Some of these nuts have a portion of their end slot ted and the
slots swaged together. This gives the end of the nut a slightly smaller diameter than
its body allowing the threads to grip the bolt. Others have the end of the nut
squeezed into a slightly oval shape, and as the bolt screws up through the threads it
must make the hole round, creating a gripping action.
STANDARD NUTS
AN310 CASTLE NUT
These fine-thread nuts are designed to fit on a standard airframe bolt
with a Class 3 fit, and are used when the bolt is subjected to either
shear or tensile loads. The size of a nut is indicated in the part code by
a dash number which denotes the size of the bolt it fits. For example,
an AN31O-6 nut fits an AN6 bolt which has a diameter of 3/8 inch.
Castle nuts are available in cadmium-plated nickel steel, corrosion-
resistant steel, and2024 aluminum alloy. Unless specified, a castle nut
is made of cadmium-plated nickel steel. A corrosion resistant nut, on
the other hand, is identified by the letter C inserted before the dash
number in the part code. Aluminum alloy nuts are identified by the
letter U. For example, the part code AN31OD-6 identifies an
aluminum alloy nut that has an inside diameter of 6/16 (3/8) inch
AN320 SHEAR CASTLE NUT

The AN320 shear castle nut is made of the same material and has the
same type of thread as a AN31O nut. However, shear castle nuts are
much thinner than standard castle nuts and therefore, are used only for shear loads on clevis bolts. An AN320-6 nut is a shear castle nut that is used on an AN26
clevis bolt. An aluminum alloy (2024) nut is identified as an AN320 fl6.
AN315 PLAIN NUT

The AN315 plain nut has no castellation and, therefore, cannot be held in place using a cotter pin. Since these fine-thread nuts have no locking provisions, a spring-
type lock washer must be used in combination with the nut. The lock washer applies a spring force to prevent the nut from shaking loose. AN315 nuts are used with
either tensile or shear loads and are made of either nickel steel, corrosion-resistant steel, and aluminum alloy. The type of material used is indicated in the
designation code in the same way it is for bolts. In other words, the absence of an additional letter identifies nickel steel, whereas the letter C preceding the dash
number identifies corrosion resistant steel, and a U identifies 2024 aluminum alloy. Furthermore, plain nuts are made with both right and left-hand threads. For
example, an AN315-7R is a nickel steel nut with right hand threads that fits an AN7 bolt. An AN315C-4L, on the other hand, is a 1/4-inch diameter corrosion-
resistant steel plain nut with left-hand Threads.
STANDARD AIRFRAME BOLTS
Aircraft bolts are available in cadmium-plated nickel steel, corrosion resistant steel, and in 2024 aluminum alloy. Unless specified, a bolt is made of cadmium-plated
nickel steel. A corrosion resistant bolt, on the other hand, is identified by the letter C inserted between the diameter and length designations. Aluminum alloy
bolts are identified by the letters DD. For example, a bolt that is 1/4 inch in diameter, 3/4-inch-long, and made of cadmium-plated nickel steel is identified by the
code AN4-6. However, if the same bolt is made of corrosion resistant steel it carries the code AN4C6, whereas an aluminum alloy bolt would be AN4DD6.
In addition to the designation code, most aircraft bolts have a marking on their head identifying what the bolt is made of and, in many cases, the manufacturer. For
example, AN standard steel bolts are marked with either a raised dash or asterisk in the center of its manufactured head, corrosion-resistant steel is marked by a
single dash, and AN aluminum alloy bolts are marked with two raised dashes.
The FAA forbids the use of aluminum alloy bolts and alloy steel bolts smaller than AN3 on structural components. Furthermore, since repeated tightening and
loosening of aluminum alloy bolts eventually ruins their threads, they are not used in areas where they must be removed and installed frequently. Aluminum alloy
nuts can be used with cadmium-plated steel bolts loaded in shear, but only on land aircraft, not be used on seaplanes.
When hardware was first standardized, almost all nuts were locked onto a bolt with a cotter pin and, therefore, all bolts had holes drilled near the end of their
shank to accommodate a cotter pin. However, when self-locking nuts became popular, many standards AN bolts were made without a drilled shank. To help you
identify whether or not a bolt has a hole drilled through it, the letter A is used in the part code.
WASHER
PLAIN WASHERS
All AN washers are in the 900 series. AN960 plain washer provides a smooth surface between a nut and the material being clamped These washers are made of cadmium-plated
steel, commercial brass (B), corrosion-resistant steel (C), and 2024 aluminium alloy (D). They are available in sizes that range from those that fit a number two machine screw to
those that fit a one-inch bolt.
If a thin washer is needed, a light series washer that is one-half the thickness of a regular washer is available. An example of where a light series washer should be used is if the
castellations of an AN31O nut do not line up with a cotter pin hole
when the nut is properly torqued. In this situation a light series washer can be substituted for the regular washer to align the holes. A light series washer is identified by the letter
1 added to the code. For example, the code ANO6OL identifies a light series washer.
When working with wood or composite structures, washers with a large surface area are used to spread the fastener load over a wider area. These large area washers carry the
code of AN970 and are all made of cadmium-plated steel with inside diameters from 3116 to 1/2 inch.
LOCK WASHERS
In some instances, it is not convenient to use self-locking nuts or cotter pins on bolts. For these applications, a lock washer is often used between the nut and joint surface if the
joint is not
structurally critical. Lock washers are made of steel and are twisted so that when a nut is tightened against it, the spring action of the washer creates a strong friction force between
the bolt threads and those in the nut.
Two types of lock washers are used in aircraft construction. The most common is the AN935 split lockwasher. These washers are available in sizes that fit from a number four
machine screw to a 1/2 inch bolt. The second type of lock washer is the thinner AN936 shakeproof lock washer which is available with both internal and external teeth.
SPECIAL WASHERS
Some high-strength internal wrenching bolts have a radius between their shaft and the underside of the bolt head. To provide a tight mating surface, MS20002C
countersunk washers are used under the heads of internal wrenching bolts. These washers have a countersunk edge to accommodate the radius on the bolt head.
Countersunk washers are made of heat-treated steel and are cadmium plated.
Finishing washers are often used in aircraft interiors to secure upholstery and trim. These washers have a countersunk face to accommodate flush screws. Finishing
washers bear against a large area to avoid damaging fragile interior components.
In many instances, keyed washers can be used as a safety device. Keyed washers have small keys or protrusions to engage slots cut into bolts or panels.
LOCKING DEVICES
SAFETYING and LOCKING MEDIUMS

Vibration is always present during aircraft operation. Consequently there must be provision for safetying or locking all fasteners to prevent them vibrating loose in
flight.
There are various methods of safetying and locking. The most widely used methods are safety wire, split pins, lock washer, circlips and special nuts such as self
locking nuts ,pal nuts and jam nuts
LOCK WASHERS
In some instance it is not convenient to use self locking nuts or split pins on
bolts. For these application, a lock washer is often used between the nut
and joint surface if the joint is not structurally critical. Lock washer are
made of steel and are twisted so that when a nut is tightened against it, the
spring action of the washer creates a strong friction force between the bolt
threads and those in the nut.
The AN935 lock washer may be used between the nut and the surface if the
joint is not structurally critical. The AN936 shake proof washer is thinner
TAB WASHERS
Often used for locking hex head fastener. A tab must not bent more than once. You can re-use multiple tab washers after removing the used tab, dressing sharp
edges and carefully inspecting the remaining tabs for cracks or scoring.
LOCKWIRE
Because aircraft vibrate, there must be some provision for safetying or locking all fasteners to keep them from vibrating loose. Self-locking nuts are used for the
vast majority of applications in modern aircraft construction, but there are still places where lock wire or split pins are needed. For example, drilled-head bolts are
often used in vibration-prone areas and are safety wired together.
Lock wiring is a means of securing hardware and components and is a safety method employed in aircraft maintenance procedures.
The type of lock wire most commonly used is made of stainless steel.
When installing lock wire, the wire should pull the bolt head in the direction of tightening and should be twisted evenly to the next bolt. After the end of the wire is
passed through the head of the second bolt it is again twisted, this time for about three or four turns. Once this is done, the excess is cut off and the ends of the
wire are bent back where they cannot cut anyone who passes their hand over the bolts.
Lock wiring is often used in critical areas, where inspection intervals may be
infrequent.
LOCK WIRING METHODS - HAND
Double twist is the most commonly used method as shown above.

When performing by hand pull firmly. Start the twist in close to the fasterner, hold ends about 90 degrees apart and
twist in clockwise direction (for RH threads).
In areas where a number of bolts must be safetied, such as a propeller, you may safety wire the bolts in group in three
.If more than three bolts are safetied together it is difficult to get the safety wire tight enough to be effective.
Single wire method is used on screws, bolts and nuts in a closely-spaced or closed geometrical pattern such as a
triangle, square, rectangle or circle. May also be used on electrical systems and on parts that are difficult to reach.
LOCK WIRING METHODS - WIRE TWISTERS

Wire Twisters make lock wiring easy but they can damage the lockwire therefore, they must be used with
care. They can twist wire in one direction only when the knob is pulled. To twist in the other direction, lock the
pliers and rotate manually
LOCKING PLATES
The locking plates are usually secured to an adjacent part of the structure by a screw.
Locking plates may be used repeatedly, provided they remain a good fit around the hexagon
of the nut or bolt.
Pal nuts are used with plain nuts to lock them in place
Commonly used to lock piston engine cylinder base nuts
Used in many aircraft applications
Made from light pressed alloy steel
SPLIT PINS
Castellated nuts are locked onto drilled bolts by passing a split pin through the hole and nut castellations and then spreading the ends of the split pin. They are
made of either cadmiumplated carbon steel or corrosion-resistant steel.
There are two methods of securing split pins that are generally acceptable. In the preferred method, one leg of the split pin is bent up over the end of the bolt, and
the other leg is bent down over one of the flats of the nut. With the second method, the split pin is rotated 90 degrees and the legs wrapped around the
castellation.It is important to note that nut should never be over torqued to make the hole in the bolt align with the castellation.If the castellation in the nut fail to
align with the drilled bolt hole,add washer under the nut until a split pin can be inserted
AIRCRAFT RIVETS
RIVET SPECIFICATION AND STANDARD
Specifications and standards for aircraft hardware are generally identified by the organization originating them. Some of the most common are:
AMS - Aeronautical Material Specifications
AN - Air Force-Navy
AND - Air Force-Navy Design
AS - Aeronautical Standard
ASA - American Standards Association
American Society for Testing and Materials
Military Standard
Naval Aircraft Factory
National Aerospace Standard
Society of Automotive Engineers
A rivet is any type of fastener that obtains its clamping action by having
one of its ends mechanically upset.
When an MS20470-AD4-4 rivet is required, specifications have already
been written for it and are available to both the aircraft
manufacturer and rivet producer. These specifications stipulate the
material to be used as well as the rivet dimensions. By using these
specifications and calling for standard hardware, aircraft
manufacturers are able to build reproducible aircraft at an economical
cost.
Solid Shank Rivets

The solid shank rivet has been used since sheet metal was first utilized in aircraft, and remains the single most
commonly used aircraft fastener today. Unlike other types of fasteners, rivets change in dimension to fit the size of a
hole. When a rivet is driven, its cross sectional area increases along with its bearing and shearing strengths. Solid shank
rivets are available in a variety of materials, head designs, and sizes to accommodate different applications.
Before driven, a rivet should extend beyond the base material at least 1.5 times the rivets diameter. Once driven, the
rivet shank expands to fill the hole and the bucktail expands to 1.5 times its original diameter. Once the bucktail
expands to the appropriate diameter it should extend beyond the base material by at least one half the original rivets
diameter.
Rivet Codes
Rivets are given part codes that indicate their size, head style, and alloy material. Two systems are in use
today, the Air Force - Navy, or AN system, and the Military Standards 20 system, or MS2O. While there are
minor differences between the two systems, both use the same
method for describing rivets.
The first part denotes numbering system.

Second part describes head style (For examples, 470 is universal head
and 426 is countersunk).
Third part is a one or two digit letter code representing rivet alloy
material.
Next is the shank diameter indicated in 1/32 inch increments. Finally
the length indicated in 1/16 inch increments
The length of a universal head (AN470) rivet is measured from the bottom of the manufactured head to the end
of the shank. However, the length of a countersunk rivet (AN426) is measured from the top of the manufactured
head to the end of the shank.
Rivets Head Design

As mentioned, solid shank rivets are available in two standard head styles,
universal and counter-sunk, or flush. The AN470 universal head rivet now replaces
all previous protruding head styles such as AN430 round, AN442 flat, AN455
brazier, and AN456 modified brazier.
Joints utilizing countersunk rivets generally lack the strength of protruding head
rivet joints. One reason is that a portion of the material being riveted is cut away to
allow for the countersunk head., Another reason is that, when riveted, the gusset
may not make direct contact with the rivet head if the rivet hole was not
countersunk or dimpled correctly.
AN426 countersunk rivets were developed to streamline airfoils and permit a smooth flow over an aircrafts
wings or control surfaces. However, before a countersunk rivet can be installed, the metal must be
countersunk or dimpled. Countersinking is a process in which the metal in the top sheet is cut away in the
shape of the rivet head.
On the other hand, dimpling is a process that mechanically dents the sheets being joined to accommodate
the rivet head. Sheet thickness and rivet size determine which method is best suited for a particular
application.
Joints utilizing countersunk rivets generally lack the strength of protruding head
rivet joints. One reason is that a portion of the material being riveted is cut away to
allow for the countersunk head., Another reason is that, when riveted, the gusset
may not make direct contact with the rivet head if the rivet hole was not
countersunk or dimpled correctly, dimpled correctly, resulting in the rivet not
expanding to fill the entire hole. To ensure head-to-gunset contact, it is
recommended that countersunk heads be installed with the manufactured head
protruding above the skins surface about .005 to .007 of an inch. This ensures that
the gunset makes direct contact with the rivet head.
To provide a smooth finish after the rivet is driven ,the protruding rivet head is removed using microshaver .This rotary cutter shaves the rivet head flush with the
skin ,leaving an aerodynamically clean surface.
Figure A- if the rivet head is allowed to protrude above the metal all of the gunsets energy hits the head resulting in a stronger joint
Figure B-if a countersunk rivet is set with the rivet head flush with the metals surface someof the gunsets driving is lost
Rivet Alloys
Most aircraft rivets are made of aluminums alloy. The type of alloy is identified by a letter in the
rivet code and by a mark on the rivet head itself.
1100 Aluminium (A)

Rivets made of pure aluminium have no identifying marks on their manufactured head, and are
designated by the letter A in the rivet code. Since this type of rivet is made out of commercially pure
aluminium, the rivet lacks sufficient strength for structural applications. Instead, 1100 rivets are
restricted to non-structural assemblies such as fairings, engine baffles, and furnishings.
The 1100 rivet is driven cold, and therefore, its shear strength increases slightly as a result of cold
working.
2117 Aluminium Alloy (AD)

The rivet alloy 2117-T3 is the most widely used for manufacturing and maintenance of modern aircraft.
Rivets made of this alloy have a dimple in the centre of the head and are represented by the letters
put in rivet part codes. Because AD rivets are so common and require no heat treatment, they are often
referred to as field rivets.
The main advantage for using 2117-T3 for rivets is its high strength and shock resistance
characteristics. The alloy 2117-T3 is classified as a heat-treated aluminium alloy, but does not require
re-heat treatment before driving.
5056 ALUMINIUM ALOY (B)

Some aircraft parts are made of magnesium. If aluminum rivets were used on these
parts, dissimilar metal corrosion could result. For this reason, magnesium structures
are riveted with 5056 rivets which contain about 5 percent magnesium. These rivets
are identified by a raised cross on their heads and the letter B in a rivet code. The
maximum shear strength of an installed 5056H32 rivet is 28,000 pounds per square
inch.
RIVETING
TYPES OF RIVETED JOINTS
The location of the riveting dictates the type of joint (refer to Fig. 3) that is made. An ordinary lap joint is used on lightly loaded members and, to provide a flush
surface on one side, the joint may be joggled. Where one flush surface and greater strength is required, the single butt joint is used. The strongest joint is the
double strap butt joint.
Basic Rivet Location Terminology

Basic terminologies (refer to Fig. 2) are employed, to describe the location of rivets relative to each other and to the limiting boundaries of the
assembly.
The most common terms are the:
Pitch: which is the distance between two rivets in a row, measured centre to centre, and it should be at least four times the rivet diameter (4D).
Spacing: which is the distance between adjacent rows, and it should be between 3D and 4D. A zigzag pattern of spacing is normally used for liquid-
tight joints.
Land: which is the distance between rivet centres and the edge of the metal sheet and it not should be less than 2D.
Allowance: which is the amount of rivet shank that protrudes beyond the material before the rivet is formed.
Clearance: which is the amount that the rivet hole is larger, than the rivet shank diameter.
INSPECTION OF RIVETED JOINTS

Riveted joints must be inspected at all stages of production and operation. This means that the manufacturing stages must be thoroughly inspected to ensure that
the finished work meets the required specifications.
Whilst in service, rivets must be inspected regularly, to check for a number of faults that might have occurred, such as corrosion, fretting and fatigue.
After the rivets have been closed, they should be inspected to ensure that they are tight and fully formed. Rivet heads must not be deformed or cracked and the
surrounding area must be free from distortion and undamaged by riveting tools.
All aircraft maintenance manuals contain diagrams of formed rivets and their possible faults (refer to Fig. 8). These diagrams show what is acceptable and what is
not.
Stop, and Press (Dimpling), Countersinking Tools

Two special tools, used during the riveting process, are the Stop countersinking bit and the Press countersinking, or (as it is more commonly known), the Dimpling
tool. Both of these tools have evolved as a result of the need for flush skins on high-performance aircraft.
In order to have the rivet heads flush with the surface, the skin must be prepared by either cutting away a portion of the metal to match the taper of the rivet head,
or by indenting (by pressing) the edges of the hole to accept the rivet head.
If the top sheet of the metal, being joined, is thicker than the tapered portion of the rivet head, then the material should be cut countersunk.
Whilst the standard countersink bit (or a twist drill, twice the diameter of the rivet hole) can be used, in a hand or power drill, to form a countersunk hole, the lack
of accuracy and consistency means they are only useful for small jobs and certainly they should not be used where pressurised skins are concerned.
Where a large number of holes need to be countersunk to a consistent depth, then the Stop Countersink tool should be used (refer to Fig. 20). This tool can be
adjusted to cut an exact countersink repeatedly, regardless of the force applied to the drill/tool combination.
The pilots can be changed, depending on the size of holes in the material, leaving the remainder of the tool to be used for all jobs unchanged. The stop may be held
rigidly, during cutting, to prevent marking the surface.
Press countersinking or dimpling is done where the aircraft skin is too thin to countersink, and without the attendant risk of enlarging the drilled hole. The edges of
the hole are formed, to accommodate the head of the rivet, by using a set of dimpling dies, using either coin dimpling or radius dimpling methods.
Coin dimpling forces the sheets into the lower die, leaving a sharply defined and parallel-sided hole. This process also allows a number of sheets to be stacked
together at the expense of a complex pair of tools and leaves a neat, clean dimpled hole with smooth sides (refer to Fig. 21).
Radius dimpling uses a male die to drive the sheets into a female die. The sides of the formed holes are not as smooth as the coin dimpling method, but this less-
precise operation is quicker and cheaper to achieve.
With harder materials, such as magnesium and certain aluminum alloys, a process called hot dimpling is used. This method involves pre-heating the metal, so that it
forms more easily and is less likely to crack when shaping takes place.

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INFORMATION KIT

Information Kit Number: Allied FDN/IK/MFP/01

Subject: Maintenance Fitting Practice

BOLTS,STUDS AND SCREWS 1

7.1 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AIRCRAFT AND WORKSHOP

PURPOSE OF THE GASES

Acetylene is used in gas welding equipment.

GAS CYLINDER IDENTIFICATION

Aviation Oils and Fuels

Chemical and Physiological Hazards

There must be a Fuel

Fire Classes Letter Designation

Ordinary combustibles - paper, cloth, wood A

Flammable liquids Fuel, Oil B

Energised electrical equipment C

Combustible metals Brake units D

FIRE EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

FIRE EXTINGUISHER IDENTIFICATION

Water Gas Red

Water Gas Fire Extinguishers

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Extinguishers

Dry Powder Extinguishers

Foam Fire Extinguishers

Smoke only in designated areas.

Observe and obey No Smoking signs on flight lines.

PROCEDURE ON DISCOVERING A FIRE IN THE WORK-PLACE

ACTION TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF ENGINE FIRES

ACTION TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF BRAKES FIRES

THE NEED FOR SAFETY

Shadow Board and Tool Tag Fig. 1

In workshops and bays it is normal for a toolkit to be held by the

USE OF WORKSHOP MATERIALS

ALLOWANCES & TOLERANCE

CALIBRATION OF TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

The standard specified by the equipment manufacturer/design organisation

General Notes on Calibration

COMMON HAND TOOLS

Engineers Rule Fig. 1

Scriber and Key Seat Ruler

Combination Set Fig. 4

Surface Plates and Tables

Surface Gauge (Scribing Block)

Scribing Block with V Blocks and Surface Plate Fig. 5

Outside Callipers: Used to measure the outside diameter of an object and

Sheet Metal Shears and Snips

Double Cut Dreadnought Rasp.

Hand Brace (Hand Drill)

ing angles will cause an

High Speed Steel

The three most common types of hand-operated reamers are the:

Hand Parallel Reamer

Hand Expanding Reamer

Hand Taper Reamer.

Internal Screw Thread, Cutting Taps

Screwdrivers of the wrong size can cause serious damage to fasteners,

Cross-Point Screwdrivers have been designed, by the several manufacturers of the

Wire Snips (Nippers)

Spanners, Sockets and Wrenches

American/Unified (Imperial) and the Metric system.

Set (Open-Jaw) Spanners

Flare Nut Spanners.

Allen Keys are made from hexagonal- ed

COMMON POWER TOOLS