ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS LAB MANUAL

DECE III SEM (C-16)

GUNTUR ENGINEERING COLLEGE

YANAMADALA, ANDHRA PRADESH 522019

2017-18

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 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

2. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
3. BRIDGE RECTIFIER
4. RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER
5. SINGLE STAGE CE AMPLIFIER
6. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR
7. COLPITTS OSCILLATOR
8. HARTLEY OSCILLATOR
9. RC DIFFERENTIATOR
10. RC INTEGRATOR
11. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE CLIPPERS
12. CLAMPERS
13. CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE
14. V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT COLOR LEDs
15. SIMULATE HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER CIRCUITS USING
PSPICE MODELLING
16. SIMULATE CE AMPLIFIER AND OBSERVE THE EFFECT OF DISCONNECTING
BYPASS CAPACITOR USING PSPICE MODELLING

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 1. HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
AIM:
To Obtain output waveforms and measure DC o/p voltage, ripple voltage of a Half- wave
rectifier with/ without filter at different loads and compare with that of theoretical values.

APPARATUS:
Silicon Diode 1N4007
Resistance 1 k, 10k, 100k
Capacitor 100uf, bread board
CRO
Digital Multimeter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Without filter:

With filter:

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THEORY:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The
conversion of AC into DC is called Rectification. Electronic Devices can convert AC power into
DC power with high efficiency.
Consider the given circuit. Assume the diode to be ideal i.e., Vf = 0, Rr = Infinite, Rf = 0.
During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased and it conducts and hence a current
flows through the load resistor. During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and it
is equivalent to an open circuit, hence the current through the load resistance is zero. Thus the
diode conducts only for one half cycle and results in a half wave rectified output.

PROCEDURE:

Without filter:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains and the secondary side to
rectifier input.
3. Using a CRO, measure the maximum voltage Vm of the AC input voltage (at the anode)
of the rectifier and AC voltage (at the cathode) at the output of the rectifier.
4. Using a DC voltmeter, measure the DC voltage at the load resistance.
5. Observe the Waveforms at the secondary windings of transformer and across load
resistance for a load of 1K.
6. Calculate the ripple factor (), percentage of regulation and efficiency () with the below
given formulae.

Ripple factor (Theoretical)

Ripple Factor(practical) where,

With filter:
01. Connect the capacitor filter across the load as in the above circuit diagram.
02. Proceed with the same procedure mentioned above to measure Vr value from the CRO and
also dc voltage.
03. Calculate Vrrms & Vdc by using the formulas.
Vr, rms=Vdc/43fCRL , Vdc=2VM/, Where Vr is the peak to peak amplitude of filter output
04. Calculate ripple factor and % regulation by using the formulae.
Ripple factor=Vrms/Vdc=1/43fCRL

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EXPECTED WAVE FORMS:

TABULAR FORM:
Load resistance Vac Vdc Ripple factor (Vac/Vdc)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Wires should be checked for loose connections.
2. Carefully note down the readings without any errors.

RESULT:
Thus the operation of Half Wave rectifier is studied.

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 2. FULL WAVE RECTIFIER
AIM: Obtain output waveforms and measure DC o/p voltage, ripple voltage of a Full- wave rectifier
with/ without filter at different loads and compare with that of theoretical values.

APPARATUS:

Silicon Diodes 1N4007

Resistance 1 k_,
Capacitor 470 uF
CRO
Digital Multimeter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Without filter:

With filter:

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THEORY:
The conversion of AC into pulsating DC is called Rectification. Electronic Devices can
convert AC power into DC power with high efficiency.
The full-wave rectifier consists of a center-tapped transformer, which results in equal
voltages above and below the center-tap. During the positive half cycle, a positive voltage
appears at the anode of D1 while a negative voltage appears at the anode of D2. Due to this diode
D1 is forward biased. It results a current Id1 through the load R.
During the negative half cycle, a positive voltage appears at the anode of D2 and hence it
is forward biased, resulting a current Id2 through the load. At the same instant a negative voltage
appears at the anode of D1, reverse biasing it and hence it doesnt conduct.

PROCEDURE:
Without filter:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to AC mains and the secondary side to
rectifier input.
3. Using a CRO, measure the maximum voltage Vm of the AC input voltage of the rectifier
and AC voltage at the output of the rectifier.
4. Using a DC voltmeter, measure the DC voltage at the load resistance.
5. Observe the Waveforms at the secondary windings of transformer and across load
resistance for a load of 1K.
6. Calculate the ripple factor (), percentage of regulation and efficiency () as per the below
given formulae.
Calculations:

Ripple factor (Theoretical) =

Ripple Factor (Practical)

With filter:
01. Connect the capacitor filter across the load as in the above circuit diagram.

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02. Proceed with the same procedure mentioned above to measure Vr value from the CRO and
also dc voltage.
03. Calculate Vrrms & Vdc by using the formulas:

Ripple factor (Theoretical) Where f = 50Hz, R =1K, C = 1000F.

Ripple Factor (Practical)

EXPECTED WAVE FORMS:

TABULAR FORM:

Load resistance Vac Vdc Ripple factor (Vac/Vdc)

RESULT:
Thus the operation of Full Wave rectifier is studied.

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 3. BRIDGE RECTIFIER

AIM: Obtain output waveforms and measure DC o/p voltage, ripple voltage of a Bridge
rectifier at different loads and compare with that of theoretical values.

APPARATUS:
Bread board
Silicon Diodes 1N4007
Resistance 1 K
Capacitor 470 F
CRO
Multimeter

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

The bridge is seen to consist of four diodes connected with their arrowhead symbols all pointing
toward the positive output terminal of the circuit. During the positive half cycle of input voltage, the
load current flows from the positive input terminal through D1 to RL and then through RL and D4
back to the negative input terminal.
During this time, the positive input terminal is applied to the cathode of D2 so it is reversed
biased and similarly D3 is also reverse biased. These two diodes are forward biased during negative
half cycle; D1 & D4 are reverse biased during this cycle, and finally both half cycles are rectified.

PROCEDURE:
01. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

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02. Connect CRO across the load
03. Note down the peak value VM of the signal observed on the CRO
04. Switch the CRO into DC mode and observe the waveform. Note down the DC shift.
05. Calculate Vmis and Vdc values by using the formulae
Vrms=Vm/2, Irms=Im/2,
Vdc=2VM/ , Idc=2IM/
06. Calculate the ripple factor by using the formulae
R= (Vrms/Vdc)2 -1
07. Remove the load and measure the voltage across the circuit take down the value as VNL. Calculate
the percentage of voltage regulation using the formula
Regulation = (VNL-VFL)/VFL*100

EXPECTED WAVE FORMS:

Rectified output:

Filter output

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TABULAR FORM:

Load resistance Vac Vdc Ripple factor (Vac/Vdc)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Wires should be checked for good continuity.

2. Carefully note down the readings without any errors.

RESULT:
Thus the operation of bridge rectifier is studied.

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 4. RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

AIM: To plot the frequency response characteristics of a RC coupled Amplifier.

APPARATUS:
Transistors BC 107 2 No's
Resistors 3.3K 2 No's
33K 2 No's
330 2 No's
1K 2 No's
Capacitors 100uF 3 No's
10uF 2 No's
Bread Board
Regulated power supply
CRO

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
This is most popular type of coupling as it provides excellent audio fidelity. A coupling
capacitor is used to connect output of first stage to input of second stage. Resistances R1, R2, Re
form biasing and stabilization network. Emitter bypass capacitor offers low reactance paths to
signal coupling Capacitor transmits ac signal, blocks DC. Cascade stages amplify signal and
overall gain is increased total gain is less than product of gains of individual stages. Thus for
more gain coupling is done and overall gain of two stages equals to A = A1*A2
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A1 = voltage gain of first stage, A2 = voltage gain of second stage.

When ac signal is applied to the base of the transistor, its amplified output appears across
the collector resistor Rc.It is given to the second stage for further amplification and signal
appears with more strength. Frequency response curve is obtained by plotting a graph between
frequency and gain in db .The gain is constant in mid frequency range and gain decreases on
both sides of the mid frequency range. The gain decreases in the low frequency range due to
coupling capacitor Cc and at high frequencies due to junction capacitance Cbe.

PROCEDURE:

1. Apply input by using function generator to the circuit.

2. Observe the output waveform on CRO.
3. Measure the voltage at i) Output of first stage, ii) Output of second stage.
4. From the readings calculate voltage gain of first stage, second stage and overall gain of
two stages. Disconnect second stage and then measure output voltage of first stage and
calculate voltage gain.
5. Compare it with voltage gain obtained when second stage was connected.
6. Note down various values of gain for different frequencies.
7. A graph is plotted between frequency and voltage gain.

TABULAR FORM:
Vi=
Frequency Output voltage V0 Gain V0/Vi Gain in db 20log V0/Vi

MODEL GRAPH:

Input Wave form:

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First stage output:

Second stage output:

FREQUENCY RESPOSNSE:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All connections should be tight.
2. Transistor terminals must be identifying properly.
3. Reading should be taken without any parallax error.

RESULT: Thus voltage gain is calculated and frequency response is observed along with
loading affect.

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 5. COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER

AIM: To plot the frequency response characteristics of a single stage CE Amplifier

APPARATUS:

Transistor BC107 1(One) No.

Resistors (100K%u2126, 10K%u2126, 1K%u2126) 1(One) No. Each
Resistors (2.2 K%u2126) 2(Two) No.
Capacitors (10F) 2(Two) No.
Capacitors (100F) 1(One) No.
Bread board 1(One)No.
Dual DC Regulated Power supply (0 30 V) 1(One) No.
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) (0-20MHz) 1(One) No.
Function Generator (0-1MHz) 1(One) No.
Connecting wires (Single Strand)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

The common emitter configuration is widely used as a basic amplifier as it has both voltage
and current amplification. Resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage divider across the base of the
transistor. The function of this network is to provide necessary bias condition and ensure that

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emitter-base junction is operating in the proper region. In order to operate transistor as an
amplifier, biasing is done in such a way that the operating point is in the active region. For an
amplifier the Q-point is placed so that the load line is bisected. Therefore, in practical design
VCE is always set to VCC/2. This will confirm that the Q-point always swings within the active
region. This limitation can be explained by maximum signal handling capacity. For the
maximum input signal, output is produced without any distortion and clipping.

The Bypass Capacitor:

The emitter resistor RE is required to obtain the DC quiescent point stability. However the
inclusion of RE in the circuit causes a decrease in amplification at higher frequencies. In order to
avoid such a condition, it is bypassed by a capacitor so that it acts as a short circuit for AC and
contributes stability for DC quiescent condition. Hence capacitor is connected in parallel with
emitter resistance.

An amplifier amplifies the given AC signal. In order to have noiseless transmission of a signal
(without DC), it is necessary to block DC i.e. the direct current should not enter the amplifier or
load. This is usually accomplished by inserting a coupling capacitor between two stages.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Set source voltage VS = 50mV (say) at 1 KHz frequency using the function generator.
Observe the phase difference between input and output by giving these two signals to the
dual channels of CRO.
3. Keeping input voltage constant, vary the frequency from 50 Hz to 1 MHz in regular steps and
note down the corresponding output voltage. Calculate gain in dB as shown in the tabular
column.
4. Plot the graph: gain (dB) verses Frequency on a semi log graph sheet.
5. Calculate the 3-dB bandwidth from the frequency response.

TABULAR FORM:
Input voltage (Vi)= 50mv
Frequency Output voltage V0 Gain V0/Vi Gain in db 20log V0/Vi

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Expected waveform:

(a) The Input & Output Waveforms at 1 KHz

MODEL GRAPH:

Bandwidth = fH fL (in Hz)

PRECAUTIONS:
01. Wires should be checked for good continuity.
02. Transistor terminals must be identified and connected carefully.

RESULT: Thus Common Emitter Amplifier is studied and its Bandwidth is calculated.

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 6. RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR

AIM: To implement RC Phase shift oscillator and verify the effect of varying the RC component values
and observe output waveforms on CRO.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Transistor,
Dc source,
Capacitors, resistors,
Potentiometer,
Breadboard and CRO
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
The Transistor Phase Shift Oscillator produces a sine wave of desired designed
frequency. The RC combination will give a 60 phase shift totally three combination will give a
180 phase shift. The BC107 is in the common emitter configuration. Therefore that will give a
180 phase shift totally a 360 phase shift output is produced. The capacitor value is designed in
order to get the desired output frequency. Initially the C and R are connected as a feedback with
respect to input and output and this will maintain constant sine wave output. CRO is connected at
the output.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Connect CRO output terminals and observe the waveform.
3. Calculate practically the frequency of oscillations by using the expression f = 1 / T ( T= Time
period of the waveform)

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4. Repeat the above steps 2,3 for different values, and note down the practical values of oscillations
of the RC-phase shift oscillator. Formula for calculating frequency: f = 1 / 2 RC6
5. Compare the values of oscillations both theoretically and practically.

MODELWAVEFORM:

RESULT:

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 7. COLPITTS OSCILLATOR

AIM: To implement Colpitts oscillator and verify the effect of varying the tank circuit component values
and observe output waveforms on CRO.

APPARATUS:
Transistor BC 107
Capacitors 0.1F - 2Nos , 10F - 2Nos, 47F - 1No
Resistors 6.8k, 1k,100k
Decade Inductance Box (DIB)
Decade Resistance Box (DRB)
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V)
Connecting Wires

CIRCUITDIAGRAM:

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THEORY:
The tank circuit is made up of L1,C4 and C5 .The resistance R2 and R3 provides the necessary
biasing. The capacitance C2 blocks the D.C component. The frequency of oscillations is determined
by the values of L1,C4 and C5, and is given by f = 1 / (2 (CTL)1/2), Where CT = C1C2 / ( C1 + C2).
The energy supplied to the tank circuit is of correct phase. The tank circuit provides 1800 out
of phase. Also the transistor provides another 1800. In this way, energy feedback to the tank circuit is
in phase with the generated oscillations.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram.
2. Connect CRO output terminals and observe the waveform.
3. Calculate practically the frequency of oscillations by using the expression f = 1 / T (T= Time
period of the waveform) f = 1 / (2 (CTL)1/2)
4. Repeat the above steps 2,3 for different values of L, and note down the practically values of
oscillations of the Colpitts oscillator.
5. Compare the values of oscillations both theoretically and practically.

OBSERVATIONS:
Inductance ( mH ) Theoretical Frequency Practical Frequency
( Hz ) ( Hz )

MODELWAVEFORM:

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be correct.
2. Transistor terminals must be identified properly.
3. Reading should be taken without any parallax error.

RESULT: Thus Colpitts oscillator is implemented.

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 8. HEARTLY OSCILLATOR

AIM: To implement Hartley oscillator and verify the effect of varying the tank circuit component values
and observe output waveforms on CRO.

APPARATUS:
Transistor BC 107
Capacitors 0.1F, 10 F
Resistors 6.8Kohm, 1Kohm and 100Kohm
Decade inductance box (DIB)
Decade resistance box (DRB)
Cathode ray oscilloscope
Bread board
Regulated power supply (0-30V)
Connecting wires

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Hartley oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local oscillator in radio
receivers. It has two main advantages i) Adaptability to wide range of frequencies and ii) easy to
tune. The tank circuit is made up of L1, L2, and C1. The coil L1 is inductively coupled to coil L2, the
combination functions as auto transformer. The resistances R2 andR3 provide the necessary biasing.

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 The capacitance C2 blocks the d.c component. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the
values of L1, L2 and C1 and is given by, F=1/(2(C1(L1+L2))).
The energy supplied to the tank circuit is of correct phase. The auto transformer provides 180 out of
phase. Also another 180 is produced by the transistor. In this way, energy feedback to the tank
circuit is in phase with the generated oscillations.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect CRO at output terminals and observe wave form.
3. Calculate practically the frequency of oscillations by using the expression
F=1/T, Where T= Time period of the waveform and F=1/(2(C1(L1+L2))).
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of C1 and note down practical values of
oscillations of colpitts oscillator.
5. Compare the values of frequency of oscillations both theoretically and practically.

Observations:
Capacitance Theoretical freq Practical freq

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT: Thus Hartley oscillator is implemented.

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 9. RC DIFFERENTIATOR

AIM: To implement RC differentiator, apply a square wave and observe the output waveform on CRO.

APPARATUS:

s.no Items Range Quantity

1 Resistors 1K,2.2K,16K Each 1

2 Capacitors 0.01micro farad 1
3 Function generator 1
4 Bread board 1
5 CRO 1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY: The differentiator circuit performs the mathematical operation of differentiation. That is
the output waveform is the derivative of the input waveform.
A passive RC differentiator is nothing more than a capacitance in series with a resistance, that is a
frequency dependant device which has reactance in series with a fixed resistance (the opposite to an
integrator). The output voltage depends on the circuits RC time constant and input frequency.
Thus at low input frequencies the reactance, Xc of the capacitor is high blocking any d.c. voltage or
slowly varying input signals. While at high input frequencies the capacitors reactance is low allowing
rapidly varying pulses to pass directly from the input to the output.
This is because the ratio of the capacitive reactance (Xc) to resistance (R) is different for different
frequencies and the lower the frequency the less output.

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the differentiator shown in figure and switch on the mains.
2. Connect the function generators to the input terminals, apply square wave at the input terminals.
3. Measure the output voltage of regulated power supply circuit +5 volts and -5volts.
4. Observe output of the square wave oscillator using CRO the output voltage will be
approximately 4.5vpp and frequency is 100 Hz to 20 KHz.
5. Select required frequency using potentiometer and connect it to the input of the differentiator.

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6. Choose capacitor value such that RC time constant is smaller than the input signal (RC<<T).
7. Connect the capacitor and observe the output signal using CRO.
8. Thus the output signal will be the derivative of the input signal.
9. Similarly change the capacitor C value for different time constants
RC>>T, RC=T, RC<<T

OUTPUT WAVEFORMS:

TABULAR FORM:
Frequency O/p voltage Gain=20 log (Vo/Vi)
S.no HZ
Vo db

1
2

RESULT: Thus RC differentiator is implemented.

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 10. RC INTEGRATOR

AIM: To implement RC integrator, apply a square wave and observe the output waveform on CRO.

APPARATUS:

S.no Items Range Quantity

1 Resistors 1K,2.2K,16K Each 1

2 Capacitors 0.01micro farad 1
3 Function generator 1
4 Bread board 1
5 CRO

CIRCUIT :

THEORY:
A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integration of the input is called
integrator. For a passive RC integrator circuit, the input is connected to a resistance while the
output voltage is taken from across a capacitor. The capacitor charges up when the input is high
and discharges when the input is low. For an RC integrator circuit, the input signal is applied to
the resistance with the output taken across the capacitor, and then VOUT equals VC. As the
capacitor is a frequency dependant element, the amount of charge that is established across the
plates is equal to the time domain integral of the current. That is it takes a certain amount of time
for the capacitor to fully charge as the capacitor cannot charge instantaneously only charge

exponentially. Therefore the capacitor current can be written as:

The rate at which the capacitor charges (or discharges) is directly proportional to the amount of
the resistance and capacitance, giving the time constant of the circuit. Thus the time constant of a
RC integrator circuit is the time interval that equals the product of R and C.

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the integrator shown in figure and switch on the mains.
2. Connect the function generators to the input terminals, apply square wave at the input
terminals.
3. Measure the output voltage of regulated power supply circuit +5 volts and -5volts.
4. Observe output of the square wave oscillator using CRO the output voltage will be
approximately 4.5vpp and frequency is 100 Hz to 20 KHz.
5. Select required frequency using potentiometer and connect it to the input of the differentiator.
6. Choose capacitor value such that RC time constant is smaller than the input signal (RC<<T).
7. Connect the capacitor and observe the output signal suing CRO.
8. Thus the output signal will be the derivative of the input signal.
9. Similarly change the capacitor C value for different time constants
RC>>T, RC=T, RC<<T
WAVEFORMS:

RESULT: Thus RC integrator is implemented.

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 11. CLIPPERS
AIM: To assemble Positive and negative clipper circuits and obtain output waveforms with sinusoidal
input.

APPARATUS:
S.no Items Range Quantity
1 Rps DC supply 0-30v 1
2 Diode 1
3 Resistor 1K,1M 1
4 Capacitor 0.1microfarad 1
5 Zenor diode 2
6 Signal generator (0-1)MHZ 1
7 CRO -- 1
8 Breadboard,wires -- 1

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the fig.
2. Give a sinusoidal input of 10V peak to peak.
3. Check the output at the output terminal.
4. To plot the transfer characteristics, connect channel 1 of the CRO to the output and channel 2
to the input and press the XY knob.
5. Adjust the grounds of both the channels to the centre and measure the designed values.

THEORY:
The process by which the shape of a signal is changed by passing the signal through a network
consisting of linear elements is called linear wave shaping. Most commonly used wave shaping circuit is
clipper. Clipping circuits are those, which cut off the unwanted portion of the waveform or signal without
distorting the remaining part of the signal. The basic components required for a clipping circuit are an
ideal diode and a resistor. In order to fix the clipping level to the desired amount, a dc battery must also
be included. When the diode is forward biased, it acts as a closed switch, and when it is reverse biased, it
acts as an open switch. Different levels of clipping can be obtained by varying the amount of voltage of
the battery and also interchanging the positions of the diode and resistor.
Depending on the features of the diode, the positive or negative region of the input signal is
clipped off and accordingly the diode clippers may be positive or negative clippers. There are two
general categories of clippers: series and parallel (or shunt). The series configuration is defined as one
where diode is in series with the load, while the shunt clipper has the diode in a branch parallel to the
load.

CIRCUIT & WAVEFORMS:

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RESULT: Thus positive and negative peak clippers are designed.

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 12. CLAMPERS

AIM: To realize a Clamper circuit and observe the input and output waveforms on CRO.

APPARATUS:
S.no Items Range Quantity
1 Rps DC supply 0-30v 1
2 Diode 1N4007 1
3 Resistor 1K,1M 1
4 Capacitor 0.1microfarad 1
5 Zenor diode ECZ 5.1 2
6 Signal generator (0-1)MHZ 1
7 CRO -- 1
8 Breadboard,wires -- 1

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.
2. Switch on the D.C power supply and set the reference voltage VR to 2V.
3. Apply I/P Voltage of 10V p-p Sine wave at 1KHz from the Signal Generator and observe the o/p
on CRO.
4. Measure the clipping levels in the O/P waveform and compare them with the theoretical values.
5. Sketch the waveforms on graph sheets to the scale.
6. Repeat the above steps for the rest of the circuits.

THEORY:
Clampers can also be referred as DC restorers. Clamping circuits are designed to shift the input
waveform either above or below the DC reference level without altering the waveform shape.
This shifting of the waveform results in a change in the DC average voltage of the input waveform.
The levels of peaks in the signal can be shifted using the clamper circuit, hence clampers can also be
referred as level shifters.
Clampers can be broadly classified into two types. They are positive clampers and negative
clampers.

1. Positive Clamper: This type of clamping circuit shifts the input waveform in a positive
direction, as a result the waveform lies above a DC reference voltage.
2. Negative Clamper: This type of clamping circuit shifts the input waveform in a negative
direction, as a result the waveform lies below a DC reference voltage.

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CIRCUIT & WAVEFORMS:

1. Negative clamping with zero reference voltage

2. positive clamping with zero reference voltage

3. Negative clamping with Negative reference voltage

4. positive clamping positive reference voltage

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 5. Negative clamping with Positive reference voltage

6. Positive clamping with Negative reference voltage

RESULT: Thus clamper circuits are realized.

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 13. CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE
AIM: To plot the characteristics of Photodiode.

APPARATUS:

S.no Name Range Quantity

1 RPS 0-30 v 1
2 0-30 ma 1
AMMETER 0-10 micro amp
3 1
Voltmeter 0-10 v
4 1
Photodiode
5 1
Breadboard
6 1
Wires

THEORY:
A silicon photodiode is a solid state light detector that consists of a shallow diffused P-N junction
with connections provided to the outside world. When the top surface is illuminated, photons of light
penetrate into the silicon to a depth determined by the photon energy and are absorbed by the silicon
generating electron-hole pairs. The electron-hole pairs are free to diffuse (or wander) throughout the bulk
of the photodiode until they recombine. The average time before recombination is the minority carrier
lifetime. At the P-N junction is a region of strong electric field called the depletion region. It is formed
by the voltage potential that exists at the P-N junction.
Those light generated carriers that wander into contact with this field are swept across the
junction. If an external connection is made to both sides of the junction a photo induced current will flow
as long as light falls upon the photodiode. In addition to the photocurrent, a voltage is produced across the
diode. In effect, the photodiode functions exactly like a solar cell by generating a current and voltage
when exposed to light.
PROCEDURE:
Photodiode: Connect circuit as shown in figure
Maintain a known distance between the bulb and photodiode say 5cm
Set the voltage of the bulb,vary the voltage of the diode in steps of 1 volt and note down the diode
current Ir.
Repeat above procedure for VL=4V,6V,etc and plot the graph :Vd Vs Ir for constant VL

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CIRCUIT:

OUTPUT:

Tabular form: (Distance- constant, VL-constant)

Vd(v) Ir(mA)

RESULT: Thus characteristics of Photodiode are studied.

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 14. V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF LED
AIM: To obtain the V-I Characteristics of LED.
APPARATUS:

THEORY:
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them. LED operates only in forward
biased condition. Under forward bias condition the anode is connected to the positive terminal and the
cathode is connected to the negative terminal of the battery. It is like a normal pn junction diode except
the basic semiconductor material is GaAs or InP which is responsible for the color of the light. When it is
forward biased the holes moves from p to n and electrons flow from n to p. In the junction the carriers
recombine with each other and released the energy in the form of light. Thus LED emits light under
forward biased condition. Under reverse biased condition, there is no recombination due to majority
carriers, so there is no emission of light. The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the
body of round LEDs. For testing an LED, never connect it directly to a battery or power supply. It will be
destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out. LEDs must have a
resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for
most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less.
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white LEDs
are much more expensive than the other colours. The colour of an LED is determined by the
semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the 'package' (the plastic body).
The resistor value, R is given by:
R = (VS - VL) / I
VS = supply voltage, VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs)
I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted.

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For example, if the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current
I = 20mA = 0.020A, R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350 , so choose 390 (the nearest standard value which is
greater).

If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to connect them in series. This
prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one LED. All the LEDs
connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all the same type. The power supply must
have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for 60 each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another
2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED voltages and use this
for VL.

Forward bias

Reverse bias

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PROCEDURE:
1. Give the connection as per the circuit diagram.
2. Vary the input voltages at the RPS and note down the corresponding current for
the voltages.
3. Repeat the procedure for reverse bias condition and tabulate the corresponding
voltages and currents.
4. Plot the graph between voltage and current for forward bias and reverse bias.
Tabular form:
S. No Voltages V Currents mA
1.
2.
3.

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:

Thus the VI characteristics of LED were studied.

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 15. INTRODUCTION TO PSPICE
A primary purpose of this lab course is for you to become familiar with the use of the software
and to learn to use it to assist you in the analysis of circuits. The program we now need to run in order to
do schematics is called CAPTURE. The program that will let us do the simulations and see the graphics is
called PSPICE. You still can run the simulation from the program where your schematic is.

Capture is used to drawn a circuit on the screen, known formally as schematic capture. It offers great
flexibility compared with a traditional pencil and paper drawing, as design changes can be incorporated
and errors corrected quickly and easily.

PSpice simulates the captured circuit. You can analyze its behavior in many ways and confirm that it
performs as specified. There are a lot of things we can do with this software but the most important for
you to learn, so you can successfully use the software, are:

Design and draw circuits.

Simulate circuits using PSpice.

Analyze simulation results using PSpice

The devices that we will use are resistors, inductors, capacitors and various sources. However it is good to
know that Capture has an extensive symbol libraries and includes a fully integrated symbol editor for
creating your own symbols or modifying existing symbols.

The main tasks in Capture are:

Creating and editing designs.

Creating and editing symbols.

Creating and editing hierarchical designs.

Preparing your design for simulation.

Procedure for Pspice:

1. Run the CAPTURE program.

2. Select File/New/Project from the File menu.

3. On the New Project window select Analog or Mixed A/D, and give a name to your project,
then click Ok.

4. You will get the Create PSpice Project window, select Create a blank project, and then click
Ok.

5. Now you will be in the schematic environment where you are to build your circuit.

6. Select Place/Part from the Place menu.

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 7. Click ANALOG from the box called Libraries:, then look for the part called R. You can do it
either by scrolling down on the Part List: box or by typing R on the Part box. Then click OK.

8. Use the mouse to place the resistor where you want and then click to leave the resistor there,
you can continue placing as much resistors as you need and once you have finished placing the resistors
Right-click your mouse and select end mode.

9. To rotate the components there are two options:

Rotate a component once is placed: Select the component by clicking on it and then use Ctrl-R.

Rotate the component before it is placed: Just use Ctrl-R.

10. Select Place/Part from the Place menu.

11. Click SOURCE from the box called Libraries:, then look for the part called VDC. You can do
it either by scrolling down on the Part List: box or by typing VDC on the Part box. Then click OK.

12. Place the Source. Repeat steps 10 - 12 to get and place a current source named IDC.

13. Select Place/Wire and start wiring the circuit. To start a wire, click on the component terminal
where you want it to begin. Then click on the component terminal where you want it to finish. You can
continue placing wires until all components are wired. Then Right-click and select end wire.

14. Select Place/Ground from the Place menu, click on GND/CAPSYM. Now you are able to see
the ground symbol.

15. Type 0 on the Name: box and then click Ok. Then place the ground. Wire it if necessary.

16. Now change the component values to the required ones. To do this you just need to double-
click on the parameter you want to change. A window will appear where you will be able to set a new
value for that parameter.

17. Once you have finished building your circuit, the next step is, prepare it for simulation.

18. Select PSpice/New Simulation Profile type a name, this can be the same name as your project,
and click Create.

19. The Simulations Settings window will now appear. You can set up the type of analysis you
want PSpice to do. In this case it will be Bias Point. Click Apply then Ok.

20. Now you are ready to simulate the circuit. Select PSpice/Run and wait untill the PSpice
finishes. Go back to Capture and see the voltages and currents on all the nodes.

21. If you are not seeing any readout of the voltages and currents then select PSpice/Bias
Point/Enable Bias Voltage Display and PSpice/Bias Point/Enable Bias Current Display. Make sure that
PSpice/Bias Point/Enable is checked.

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 HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

Draw connections like this; in the figure I am creating a final connection between the outputs of
D1 and D2. Next now that the parts are connected we need to modify parameters on the source and
transformer. To change the parameters simply double click on the part symbol.

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We will use a transient analysis, so that we can see how the voltages change with time. Set the Run to
time to 50 ms, which will be a bit more than 3 periods of the sine wave.

The result is the waveform of a classic half-wave rectifier. Note that the traces are not really smooth.
When PSPICE chose the interval, the step size was a bit too large to make a really smooth graph. This
might be an instance when it would be useful to go back and enter a value for the maximum step size in
the simulation profile.

Add a 47-F capacitor in parallel with the load resistor to make a peak rectifier.

If we needed, we could use the plot cursors to measure various points on the output voltage curve to
determine the ripple voltage.

41