Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
3 Mechanical, Hydraulic
and Thermal Analysis and Design
Induction Machines
4
Chapter 38 A Genera l Outline of Induction Mach ines 53
38-1 Definitions. App lications 53
38-2 An H ist orica l Out line of the Induction Motor 56
Chapter 39 Construction of Inducti on Machines 57
39-1 The Squirrel-Cage Induct ion Motor 57
39-2 Construction of the Sli p-Ri ng Indu ction Mot or 61
Chapter 40 Electromagneti c Processes in the Electri c and Mag-
neti c Circuits of an Induction Machine at No-Load 64
40-1 The Id eal No-Load Condi ti on 64
40-2 Analy sis of t he Magnetic Circu it at No-Load 65
40-3 Calculation of No-Load Curr ent 71
40-4 Calculatio n of the Main Stator Wind ing Impedance 72
Chapter 41 Electromagneti c Pro cesses in Induct ion Mach ines on
Load 73
41-1 Basic Defi nitions an d Assumptions 73
41-2 The Stator Voltage E quation. Stato r MMF 7'5
41-3 The Rotor Voltage Equation . Ro tor MMF 78
4'1-4 Analys is and Design of th e Squi rrel-Cage W indi ng 8 1
41-5 MMF Equati on. Magnetizing Current . Mutual Field 84
4'1-6 Voltage and Current Phasor Dia grams for an In-
duct ion Mach ine 86
41-7 En ergy Conv ersion by an I ndu ction Mach ine .
Power Losses. E fficiency 87
Chapter 42 Appli cati on of Transformer Theory to th e Indu c-
tion Machine 91
42-1 The Rotor at Standstill 91
42-2 Transferr ing the Rotor Qua ntities to the Stator
Winding 95
42-3 Basi c Equat ions and the Space-Time Vector
Diagram of an I ndu ct ion Mach in e 96
42-4 E qui valent Circuits of a n Induct ion Machine 98
Chapter 43 Analytical and Graphical Determination of El ectro-
mechanical Characteristics of Inducti on Machines 103
43-1 Modes of Operation 103
~~ -~ Currents in the Stator and Rotor Windings i OE)
Contents 7
Synchronous Machines
32 Basic Construction
of Electrical Machines
38
36--J_~~~
9
35-~~~~"""~
3"
33
32
31
30 11
18
2fi 19 Its 49 50 51 20
yoke, through keys 51, fram e 48, fram e feet 19, anchor holts
25, baseplat e 24, to foundation 20. (The electromagne-
tic forc es and the forc es transm itting external torque via
fixed parts ar e shown by arrows 53 and 54, respectively, in
Fig. 32-1) .
Appreciable electromagnetic forces (especially during
transi ents) are act ing on the coil conduct ors as well.
To count era ct them, the active conductors are anchored
to slots by wedges 49, whereas the coil ends (over-
Part Three. Classification of Electrical Machines
I nsu la t io n class
'I'em p er ature , C
A
I E
I B
I F
I I-I
...
ifJt
1 M 3001
i ih1 fbl
1M som 1M 7211 1M822 1
t
J$
1M 5002 1M 5102 1M8'f21
J ,e
,..., ,...,
1M9'f01
+mf ~ ~
J '[
J ,[
Fig . 33-1 Various form s of moun ti ng, sha ft positi on, anrl bearing
design for electrical machines
i
Codc dc-I
s ig n a- Descri p ti on
tion
sumdC-/
Corle
a- Description
tion
o No shaft extension
1 One cylindrical shaft extension
2 Two cylindrical shaft extensions
3 One tapered shaft extension
4 Two tapered shaft extensions
5 One flanged shaft extension
G Two flanged shaft extensi oris
7 Flanged shaft extension on the drive end,
and a cylindrical shaft extension on the
opposite side
8 All other shaft arrangements
2*
26 Pa rt t hree. Class ification of Eiectrical Machines
(el
Fig . 33-2 Venti lation and cooli ng sys te ms used on elec tr ical machines:
II l - m aehi ne bein g cooled ; 2-external-fan motor: ,1- hot a ir (gas) pipe cond u it;
4-co l d-a il' (gas) p ipe cond ui t ; 5- wa te r-coo led h ea t -exch an ger
II
I
Ch. 33 Construction Types 21
34 Mechanical Design
of Electrical Machines
:M-1 Parts Transmitting Mechanical
Power
An electrica l mach ine must be designed so th at all of its
me m bers h av e am ple m ech ani cal stre ngth and rig id ity t o
carryall l ik ely for ces w ithin t he sp ecifi ed limits of defor-
mation.
Th e elem ents are checke d for st re ng th and ri gidity as
a part of th e m echanic al ana lys is and desi gn of a mach in e,
which reduces to determinin g the stresses and strains that
may be indu ced by the various forces and m om ent s (mech anic-
al and electromagnetic).
To begin wi th, cons ider the me ch an ical ana lysis of the
me m bers transmitting mecha nica l power.
In t he generating m ode of op era ti on , input mech anical
power is conveyed t o t he conversion asse mbly where it is
t urne d in t o electric power (see F ig . 32-'1 ) by a chain of
elements whi ch include a h alf-coupling (9) , th e shaft (17) ,
t he rotor yoke (78), and t he pol es (3).
Let us tak e a closer look at how mech an ical pow er is
t rans mit t ed alon g the sh aft of th e m achin e. In a s teady
st ate, the sh aft is act ed up on by mutu all y b al an cin g tor-
qu es, nam ely an ex te rn al torque, T ext (arrows 53 in the figure)
26 Part Three. Classi fication of El ectrical Machines
T c lIl '= .J
S I _I
dT em = ; 00 ydvT
.0 0
R 3 dR = "to I n~i: I
H ence, th e tungeutial stress at th e outer surface of th e sh aft is
"to = T em/ (nR~/2) (34-1)
where nR ~/ 2 is t he mom ent of resistance in torsion .
Under r at ed con dit ions, it sh ould not exceed the limit set
for the sh aft material. I n practice , it r anges from 40 to
100 MPa according to ser vi ce con ditions and the gra de of
steel used .
The fl ow of mechan ical power per unit are a of a sec tion
passed th rough a rotating body (say , section I-I acr oss the
shaft) is given by th o proj ection of th e Umov vector on an
ou twar d norm al t o tha t sur face, or m a th em aticall y
Up = - vv"t'l' = 2R2 Q T e m/n R~
Ch. 34 Mecha nical Design 27
~-r-- \ / --..1
~/\', / r,~
v:~ I~~~" -~\~:v
/'~' iffi ~\\ 'v,,-
Fig . 34-2 Stresses in th e rotor eleme nts due to cen tr ifugal forces
N
G
Fig. 3!i-il Sag of th e sha ft.clue to tho sol f-woig h t and ma gn eti c. a urae -
t.ion
fc = ~ln V g/y
Th is frequency is the sa me as the r ot ational Ir equ encv cor-
respond ing t o the critical ang ular velocity
Q c = 2nf c ='V
g/y (34-8)
The resonant vibrations that occur at th is frequ ency m ay be
pr ohibitively larg e in amplitude . Therefor e, the sh aft stiff-
ness , K, mu st be ch osen such th at the cr itical rot ation al
fr equ ency differs from th e r ated one by at least 30 %.
In more det ail , the m ech anical anal ysi s and design of
elec tr ical m achines is discussed in [39, 40].
35 Thermal Analysis
of the Cooling System
35-1 Basic Arrangement of the Cooling
System in an Electrical Mach ine
En ergy convers ion by an elec trica l mac h ine in evitabl y in-
volves th e loss of some po wer di ssipat ed as h eat in th e
coils , cores , and structural parts. To avoid overh eating and
damage to t he m achi ne, th is heat must he abs tracte d and
discard ed ou tside the machi ne. Thi s purpose is served by
a cooli ng sys tem and a coolin g agent (whi ch ma y be a gas or
a liquid) wh ich is mad e to ci rcula te t hrough the system
con tinuously.
Ordinarily , th e cooling system of an electr ical machine
consists of du cts inside the m achine t o gu ide t he coolant,
and a fan or pump to build up the sta t ic pr essure necessary
to circulate the coolant. Closed- circuit cooling systems use
a consta nt quan t it y of coolant wh ich , on bein g heate d, is
made to pass through a cool er wh ere it giv es up its heat to,
say, water , and this di scards th e h eat to the surroundings.
A typica l arra nge ment of a cooling system is shown in
Fig. 35-1. A cold gas (mostly ai r) at inlet t emp erature 8 1
en ter s t he m achine at th e left en d, flow s ax ially in t he air
* Th is equation appli es to both horizo n tal anrl ver tica l machines.
Ch, 3!i Th ermal Analysis of Cooling System 33
5 10
Coolant y, kg m- a
3-021,0
Part three. Class ification of Electri cal Machin es
Copper
Aluminium
385
200
Asbestos
Electric-grade I 0.2
Electrical-sheel pressboard 0.17
s teel (along la- Glass 0.11
minations) 20-45 Slot insulation
Electrical-sheet (class B) 0.16
steel , varnished Transformer oil 0.12-0.17
(acro ss lamina- Thin film of stag-
tions) 1.2-1.5 nant air 0.025
Mica 0.36 Thin film of stag-
nant hydrogen 0.017
- - -_-_=1:-=
-
/ /...... --
o
,/
/J( <,
T
.... _-
2T 3T
t
(c)
t
T 2T 3T (d)
<30 02
' Q _
Va - ,
1-I-2 2-- Q
Vi T
I "\I
L.J P /2
i Cv
Q
(35-12)
Th e no ta t ion us ed in th e net-
P"2 work is as follows. P W l and P Cl
s tan d for the copp er (winding)
Fig . 35-4 Therma l an al og cir- and core losses in th e stator "
cui t of an electrica l mac hine P W 2 and P C 2 for the copper
(winding) and core losses in the
rotor, R l is th e thermal resistance presented by th e insula-
tion between the s ta tor winding and the stat or core [see
Eq . (35-2)], R 2 is t he thermal resis tance presen t ed by the
sta tor overhangs to t he coola nt, wi th all owa nce for th e
insulation resistance of the overhangs [see Eqs. (35-2),
(35-3)], R ~ is th e th ermal resistance that the heat flow
experiences in transfer from the stator t eeth t o th e coola nt
in the dir ection of th e ail' gap, R q is the t he rma l resist ance
that the heat flow exper iences in tr ansfer from the
outer surface of th e stator yok e to the coolant . R 5 , R B ,
R 7 , and R s are th e therm al r esi stances in th e 1'0 tor
which resp ecti vely corres pond to R l , R 2 , R ~ , and R / in 1
th e sta tor.
Th e temp erature-rise equa tions ar e written in th e same
mann er as the voltage ecJuations for a!1 electr tc network (the
Gh. 36 Hydraulic Analysis of Cooling System 41
(35-4)]:
(36-2)
As is seen , this can be done by adopting suitable cross-secti-
ons qi for t he cooling ducts.
It is important to rem emb er t hat the h ydraul ic (cooli ng)
system of a machine ordinarily has several paths operating
I.----~~I I II
C-_-'_'-f-...,---,-
h . hI=hI[=hm
(c)
Fig. 36-1 H ydrauli c cir cu it of an ele ctri ca l machine
between the 1'0 tor core and the shaft (at I I I in the same
figure) *.
In carrying out the hydraulic and thermal design, the
parallel passages must be detailed and proportioned so that
the flow rate in each particular path, Qi, is proportional to
the heat transferred to the coolant in that path whereas the
sum of the flow rates is equal to the total flow rate, Q.
~
Duct expansion,
lJ2 > lJl
f/,-qz
~
0.5
Duct inlet,
lJl ~ lJ 2
~ (or 0.1 for a gra dua l c ha nge
in cr oss sec tion)
~
lJ2!lJt /0 10 .2 I 0.41 0.6/ 0 .8
~
Duc't con trac-
tiou, s.>, ~ '. 5 1 .35 1 .3 1 . 21 . 1
q, - 1/[
~
a 1 20 I 40 I 60 I 80 I 00
.~
Duct bend
~ J .05 1 111 1 35 1.75 11.0
a(l = pole enclosure (=pole arc -7- pol e pitch), usu al-
ly from 0.6 to 0.75
k WI = winding fa ctor for the fund amental componen t
of the ma gn etic fie ld (in mos t cases , 0. 92
t o 0. 96)
Q = 2:n:n/60 = synchronous angular velocity (17, =
synchronous spee d, rpm)*
For a .c . mach in es,
Sd = lniERI R = kES R
wh ere
S R = ln i V nI n = t otal ra te d power
k E = En/Vn = a coefficient (equ al to 0.0 5-0.08
for Induction m achin es, and 1.07-
1.1 5 for sy nchro nous mach in es)
For d ,c. ma chines,
Sd =
kEVnl n
wh ere k E is 1.05 for genera t ors, an d 0.95 for motors.
Given a par ti cular electromagn etic lo adin g , the m achin e
constant remains un changed. An inc rease in electromagnetic
lo ading leads to a decreas e in the machine cons tant . Th e
magni tude of elect rom agnetic loading depend s on the proper-
ties of the m aterials that go to make the coils and cores,
and also the arrangement of the cooling system.
The rated gap density , B 0, R , is limited by the saturati on
of t he armature cor e teeth , and its v alue usuall y li es he-
twe en 0.7 T and 0. 95 T . An increase in the ga p flux densi ty
and, as a cons equence, in the tooth flux density leads to an
increase in the core loss, P eu """ B5. n-
In geometrically si mil ar machines, the elect ri c loading is
proportional to the conductor size and cur rent density:
A = QeuJ/1:""" l
where Qeu ,..,., l2 is the total cross-sectional are a of the con -
duc tors occupying one pole pitch, and 1: = :n:D/2p ,..,., l ,
where l is the base (or ref erence) dimension of the machin e.
Therefor e, the copper loss in the arm ature winding is propor-
t iona l to the base dimension an d the squa re of t he electr ic
.loading
P eu """ ZSJ2 ,..,., lA2
* Synchronous spee d (vel oci ty) is that whic h corr esponds to th e
Irequ ency of the a.c. suppl y. - Tr anslator' s note.
--
ch, 37 size I1TI(I Performan ce 51
Taking the desi gn cor e length as the base (reference) dim en-
sion, l = lo' and noting that th e core diamet er is likewise
proportional to the bas e dimension , D L, we can derive r-J
In ord er to bring down the temp er a ture of the coils and cores
in high-pow er machines, one ha s to increase the cooling
surface area by ar tific ial means, such as ducts in the cores
and coils, to use bettor coolants (such as hydrogen or trans-
former oil), and to replace indirect cooling (blowers, ordina-
rily used on smaller machines) by direct (internal) cooling
(ventilation).
Induction Machines
4
38 A General Outline
of Induction Machines
38-1 Definitions. Applicat ions
An ind uction mach ine is an a .c , two-wi ndin g un i t in which
only one (primar y , usuall y the s ta t or) windi ng is supplie d
with an alternating cur rent at a constan t fre que ncy WI from
an external source . In the othe r (second ar y, usu all y the
rotor ) winding, cur rents ar ise from induct ion . The fact
t hat the ro tor cur rents are produ ced by in du ction is th e basis
for the na me of th is cla ss of ma chines. The fr equ ency W 2
of the ro to r cur re nts is a fun ction of the roto r mechanical
speed Q , and the rotor rpm depend s on th e torque applie d to
the shaft.
Induction machines are als o called "asynchrono us" because
the ir operating speed is slight ly less than sy nchro nous in th e
moto r mod e and sligh tly hi gher than syn chronous in th e
generator mode.
Induction m achines ar e r arely used as genera to rs, but are
very popular as moto rs. I n fact , of all elect r ic motors, th ey
are the most commonly used ones .
More oft en th an not, induct ion ma chin es ha ve a three-
phase , sy mmetrica l (ba lanced), het erop ol ar wi nding on the
st ator (see Chap . 22) and a three (or pol y-) pha se, symm etri-
cal (bal anced) , h et eropolar winding on t he ro tor.
The r oto r winding is eit he r of the squirrel-cage or th e
phase-wound t ype . The squirrel-cage rotor (Fig . 39-1) con-
sists of met al bars push ed t hrough the ro to r slots and shor te d
at both ends by rings. In a phase-wound rotor, th e terminal
of each ph ase is br ough t ou t to a collec tor or sli p ring.
Squi rre l-cage motors are less expensive to m ak e, are more
reli abl e in service and hav e, th erefore, found a wid er field
54 Part Four. Induction Machines
39 C onstruction
of Induction M achines
39-1 The Squirrel-Cage Induction Motor
Th e basic arr angement of a squirre l-cage inductio n mo tor is
shown in Fi g . 39-1. As is seen, it is about the sam e as th a t
of the rotating elect rical machine examined in Sec. 32-1
(seelFig. 32-1).
Fig. 39- 1 A 55-kW, 1500-r pm, 50-H z, totally enclosed, bl ower- cool -
ed squir rel-cage inducti on motor
Fig . 3!J-3 Hadi al-duct sta tor core built up of one-pi ece lam in ations
and mou nted in th e fr a me
h.lrand
5 ---~==t~
5,
". ~1t:;;:;~\1\1
J
z:
1
(a ) (b)
the slot liner or cell . The slot liner or cell is usually made
up of two or more layer s of in sulating material: it is placed
in each slot prior to pl acing th e coils . In the slots, the coil s
are a nchored by top in sulation plates 6 and slo t wedges 7.
In a double-l ayer winding , th e l ayers ar e separate d by inter-
l ayer 5 (or, simply , la yer) insulation . No suc h insulation is
need ed in a singl e-la yer winding .
The rotor consists of a cor e 3 (see Fi g. 39-1) with slots on
its outer periphery, a pol yphase winding 19, integrally cas t
Fig. 3!1-5 The core of a cas t-alumin ium squirr el-cage induction m ot or
cool ing blades 7, a shaft 15 , and two fan s , 8 and 11. Onl y
the core and t he winding cont r ibute to ene rgy conve rs ion:
the rema ini ng parts serve v arious st ructural or mechanical
fun cti ons . For exa m ple, the sha ft t ra nsmits mech anical
energy to th e assoc iated driv en mach in e, th e fan s make the
coolant circulate inside the machine, etc.
In more det ail , the const ruc ti on of the cor e and winding
is shown in Fi g. 39-5 . Th e cor e, 4, is built up of one-piece
elec trical-sh eet steel l aminations 0 .5 mm thick . On the outer
peripher y , th e laminat ions are pu nch ed with slo ts of a s uit-
ableshape(closed in Fi g . 39-5, an d partl y clo sed in Fi g . 39-2 a) .
Th e ro tor core laminations are stack ed up on a mandrel,
clamped, and held compressed so lon g as the rotor windin g
is fabri cated . The 1'0 tor winding consists merely of iden ti cal
copp er 01' cast-aluminium bars sol idly connected to a conduct-
ing (sho rt-ci rcuiting) en d ring a t each end (at 2 in Fi g. 39-5),
thus forming a short- circui t ed sq uirrel-cage s tructure. The
end rings ar e cast integral wit h fan bl ades 3 .
Apart from serving as t h e secondary winding, t he squirr el-
cage stru cture holds together the rotor lamina tions upon
removal from the mandrel. With this -arrangem ent, t here is
no need to us e separate axial clamps .
The rotor is mounted on th e shaf t (at 15 in Fi g . 39-1)
which is carried in two ball or roll er bearings (12 and 17).
Ch. 39 Construction 61
17
the outside, th o overh angs are taped with bands 32 to res ist
centrifugal forces.
Electrical connection of the rotor winding to ex terna l
(uonrotating) circuits is by means of slip rings to which
the coil t erminal leads are brou ght out, and a bru sh assembly
connected to the external circuits directly. It is usual to
make t he slip rings as an integral assembly. The rings (at
15 in the figure) may be made of st eel or brass alloy and are
separated from one another and from ground by insulating
spacers 17. Th e assembly is held together by insulated studs
16 and joined to the shaft end by a flange. The slip rings
make sliding contact with carbon or copp er-carbon brushes
electricall y connected to th e conductors 12 of the brush yoke
(or rocker arm) . Figure 39-6 also shows the bru sh-yoke studs
11 and insulating parts, the brushgear enclosure 13 and
cover 14; the brushes and brush-ho ld ers are not shown.
The necessary contact betw een the brushes and slip-
rings is ma intained by brush-holders mounted on the brush
yoke (for mor e detail, see Sec. 51-3). Connection of the
brush-yoke conductors to the starting rheostat is made
inside the slip-ring termin al box 18.
The rotor is held in a proper position relative to the sta-
tor and made free to rotate by the same parts as are used in
a squirrel-cag e motor . These are a roller bearing 25 , a ball
bearing 10, end shields (or fram es) 31, and bearing caps 27.
The motor shown in Fig. 39-6 is of ventilated, drip-proof
construction (see Sec . 33-2). Inside the ma chine, cooling air
follows both radial and axial paths. Atmospheric air enters
the machine by openings in the end shields and is directed
by baffles 9 towards the cooling blades 28, between the
overhangs of the rotor winding, and towards the axial
ducts in the rotor core. From the ax ial ducts, the air enters
the radial ducts in the rotor and stator cores. The air driven
by the cooling blades past the rotor ov erhangs bathes the
stator overhangs. The hot air then en ters th e clearance be-
tween the stator yoke and the frame wh ence it is discharged
through side openings in the frame into the atmosphere.
The static pressure required to drive cooling air inside
the machine is produced by the radial ducts in the rotor,
which act as centrifugal fan s .
64 Part Four. Induction Machines
40 Electromagnetic Processes
in the Electric and M agnetic
Circuits of a n Induction
Machine at No-Load
401 The Ideal No-l oad Condition
I t is convenient to beg in our study of the induction mac hine
wi th the id eal no-load con dit ion . In this condition, the
electromagnetic processes involved are less elaborate than
they ar e on load.
In the id eal no-load condition , th e external torque applied
to the shaft is zero, Tex t = O. I t is also assumed that th e
friction torque is likewise zero. The ro tor is spinning a t the
same ang ula r velocity as the ro tat ing (or revo lving) fi eld
(Q = Q1), the slip (defined as the quotient of the difference
between the synchronous sp eed and the actua l speed of th e
rotor , divid ed by th e synchronous spe ed) is zero (8 = 0),
no emf or current is induced in the rotor winding (12 = 0),
and the electromagnetic torque required to balance th e exter-
nal t orque and the frict ion torque is zero (T ern = 0) .
At no-load, an induction motor clos ely resemb les a trans-
former (see P art '1). In ei ther case, there is only a curr en t
in the primary winding, 11=1=0 , and no current in th e second-
ar y 1 2 = 0; the magnetic fie ld is es ta bli she d solely by the
pr imary current, for which reason we may call it the m ag-
netizing current (II = 1 0 ) , In contrast to a transformer ,
howev er, the set of magnetizing curren ts in the phases of th e
polyphase stator winding es tablishes a rota ting (01' r evol v-
ing) magnetic fi eld .
By analogy with a transformer, the voltage equation at
no-load is onl y needed for one phase of t he stator (tha t is,
primary) wind ing :
.. .
VI = -E I + (R + jX
I 1) 10
where E I = emf induced in the phase by a rotating magne-
.
VI
tic flux (Pm
III
pri mary ph ase leak age resistance (to he expla in-
=
ed lat er)
X I = primary phase leak age inductance (to be ex-
pl ai ned later)
Because th e inducti ve and resist ive dr ops, X II o an d
. .
RII o, are negligible, VI is almost completely balance d by E I ,
that is
7.2
/
/
//~t
--
1.7
where H is the magnetic in-
tensity at CD m , and dl is an
element of length of the mean
magnetic line .
To facilitate calculations,
7.0
0.9
1
I---
2
/
1
~8
-
-/<z
J
the line integral is replaced by Fig. 40-2 Plots of ~a = j (lcz)
a sum of mmfs within the oha- and ~B = j (k z )
racteristic segments of the
mean magnetic line, assuming that within each segment
the magnetic intensity is constant:
be refined by all owing for the flux branching into the slot
and nonmagnetic clearances
o, = B s1A s1
where
A S1 = ll bS1 +
('1 - k r )lC1 b Z 1 b y n yb z 1+
is the cross-sectional area of the slot and nonmagnetic clea-
ran ces per slot pitch, B sl is the flu x den sity in the slot and
nonm agnetic clearances, bS1 is the slot width at the section
which is h Zl /3 distant from the tooth tip, II is the total
leng th of the stator core, and by is the width of a vent duct.
In t he circums tances,
(I)z = <Do - (D s
Let us divide the right- and left-hand sides of th e equ ation
by th e act ive cross-s ectional area of the tooth, A Z1> and
t ake into account the fact that when two paths with flux
density B 2 1 and B S1 are arranged in parallel, the magnetic
intensity in them will be th e sam e
H S1 = B sl / /1 o = H Zl = I (B 21)
Then we ge t
B Zl = B z, - /1o k s H Zl
where B Z1 = (l)zIA 21 is th e actual tooth flux density, B Z1
is the too th flu x densi ty as found by Eq. (40-5) on the
assumption mad e ori gin ally, H Zl is the tooth field in tensity
corresponding to B ZI on the main magnetization curve, and
k s = A 811A Zl is the coeffi cient allowing for the effect of
nonm agne tic clearances .
The sough t flux density B Zl is found by simult aneously
solving the above equation, where B Zl is a linear function
of H z i . and th e equat ion describing the main magnet ization
curve H z i = I (B Zl ) for t he core material used . As a r ule ,
th e solution is obtained gra phicall y at the intersection of
the straight line B 2 1 = B Z1 - ~LoksH z i. passing through
po in t BZl> with th e curve H 21 = I (B 2 1 ) ' Th e pr oced ure can
be fac il ita ted by usi ng magnetiz ation curves H Zl = I (B Zl )
plotted in ad vance for sev eral values of ks'
o Th e mmf in the rotor teeth
(40-6)
70 Part Four. Induction Machines
. .
The phase angle ~~ between 1 0 and -E I (see Fig. 2-8)
does not differ from the angle between 1 0 and loa' and
may be written
~~ = arccos (I .J1 0 )
Accordingly, we may define the active and reactive compo-
nents of the no-load current as
loa = 1 0 cos ~~
and
lor . t, sin ~~
By the same token, the active and reactive components or
-E I may be written as E I cos ~~ and E I sin ~~.
At VI = VI R, the no-load current in an induction ma-
chine accounts for a larger proportion of the rated current
than in a transformer. This is because the stator and rotor
cores are always separated by a nonmagnetic clearance which
presents a considerable opposition to the magnetic flux,
whereas in transformers the cores are usually of the closed
construction.
The relative no-load current, IoIII,R' increases with
decreasing power output and rpm . For motors rated any-
where between 1 and 100 kW, it ranges from 0.5 to 0.25.
For fractional-horsepower motors, it ranges from 0.5 to 1.0.
By finding 1 0 for several values of E I (or (D m ) , we can plot
the relations E I = f (1 0 ) and cD m = f (1 0 ) , The former is
known as the no-load characteristic of a machine, and the
latter, the magnetization curve (or characteristic) of the ma-
chine. The two relations are linear only at E I ~ VI,R' At
E I > VI,R when the . magnetic circuit of a machine is usual-
ly saturated, the relations are strongly nonlinear.
The rea ctive pow er, Qo, sto red by X o at 1 0 represents the
re active pow er stored by the m ain reactive impedance du e to
self-inductance Xu = 2nf IL n m =, E t l1 0 r at lor. Therefore,
O = mIX oI~ = InIXUnr
Hence,
X o = Xu (nJI~) = X u sin 2 ~~ (40-19 )
where
.
SlIl ~' - I II - x, X 11
~ ~~===:=~
0 - Or 0- lfX~+R5 l/X rl+Rij
In most cases, it will be sufficiently accurate to take
sin ~~ ~ 1.
In an unsa turated machine, L n m is found by E q . (28-4).
In a saturated m achine, it should be reduced by a factor
of k s The relative magnitudes of R o and X o for the stator
winding are depend ent on the core sa t urat ion which in turn
varies with E I or Wm .
. .
buted quan ti t ies F l m and B m ar e depicted as complex am pli -
tudes rotat ing at an electrical angular ve loc ity W I '
The projections of t he com plex fun ct ions re prese n ting
th e rm s phase quantities (l\e jrol , I~ejrol, and so on) on t he
stator pha se axes A I , BI and CI are equal t o VV' :2 of
the correspond ing ins tant aneous phase qu anti ties. The
Fig . 41-2 P haso r diagr am s for (a) s tato r qua ntit ies and (b) rot or quan-
tities of an indu ction machine (motor mode of operation, w < wI>
s > 0)
. . .
On the diagram B, , (!J m , and 'l'l1n rotate all in the same
direction (see Fig. 41-2). Variations in the flu x linkage at
WI = 2n/1 induce in each phase a mutual emf whose com-
pl ex rms value is given by
E t = - .
JWt
' r m
1/ 2 = -
.
J V2
2lt I tlV t' wt rT-.
7
'l-' m
(41 2)
-
should lag behind VI by CPI < n/2 and that the active power
should be
PI = 7n I V I I I cos CPI > 0
is
'P'2m
w2k w 2<P m
= (41-7)
where W2 = rotor phase turns
lC w 2 = rotor phase winding factor for the fundamen-
tal (2p-pole) component of magnetic flux den-
sity
.
In Eq. (41-7), the mutual flux <Pm is the same as in
.
Eq. (41.2). Both <Pm and 'P'2m are acting in the same direc-
tion as ti.; As they vary at W S , the rotor phase flux linkages
give rise to the mutual emf E 2S' The frequency 12 of the
mutual emf, currents and other quantities in the rotor
phases is a function of the angular field velocity relative
to the rotor
12 = ws /2n = wls/2n = lIS (41-8)
The complex emf E2S lags beh ind the complex flux linkage
by n/2, and the rms value of the emf at slip s is given by
E2S= -jw s 1fzmIV2 = -j(2n/V2)/zW2kw2CDm (41-9)
The rotor phase mutual emf, E 2s, may be expressed in
terms of the mutual emf, E 2 , that would be induced by the
same field in the rotor at standstill, when ro = 0, Ws
= WI - W = rol,
S = 1, and 12 = lIs = 11'
As follows from Eq. (41-8),
E 2S = E 2s (41-10)
wh ere E 2 = Wl'P'2mIV2.
The rotor phase is also linked by the leakage flux. This
produces a leakage flux linkage, 'P'2U, proportional to 1 2
(the lines of the mutual and leakage fields for phase A 2
and the other rotor phases are shown in Fig. 41-1).
The leakage emf, E 2US, induced in a rotor phase by va-
riations in the phase flux linkage at
Ws = 2n/2 = SWI
i, = R2~~sX2S (41-14)
F2m -- - ("V2- /)
n 1 C,,W-=-2A
-:
ln 2 -
,- -C\\,-,,
-,- '~ (41-1G)
p
(see Eq . (4.1-19)) .
6*
84 Part Four. Induction Machinos
j _ Fomrtp
(41-25)
o- l f Z mI wIk\\"!
(41-26)
where
k - II Z-2W 2!cW 2
t r: 11! w k
1 I w i
(41-27)
Qui te appr opr ia tely, it is ca lled th e curre nt equa tion . The
magn etizing current 1 0 given by this equa t ion sets up the
sam e mutual fi eld as th e no-lo ad current 1 0 equal in mag-
nitude. B y the same to ken , t he on-load sta tor mutual emf
E 1 is t he same as it is a t no-load and a t curren t 1 0 , Quite
na turally , the equation connect ing the mutual emf E 1 and
the magnetizing current loon load turns out to be th e sam e
as at no-load (see Eq . 40-17):
(4'1-28)
86 Part Four. Induction Machines
where
Zo = R o -I- jX o
is the main impedance of th e s ta tor winding.
. .
The complex flux densi t y, B m , and the complex flux, q)m,
lead the complex emf E l by n /2. The r elationship between
E l , on th e one hand, an d B m and cD m , on the other, rem ains
the same as at no-lo ad [see Eq. (40-'1) and also Eq. (40-3)
with allowance for saturation and Eq. (41-2) without allow-
ance for saturation].
The mmf and curren t phasor diagrams corresponding to
Eqs. (41-24) and (4'1-27) app ear in Fig. 41-4 .
we can see that the second term represent s the copper loss
m lR ll~ = Peu!
that is the power dissipated as heat in the stator wind ing
(Fig. 41-6).
Ch. 41 El ectromagnetic Proc esses on Load 89
42 Application of Transformer
Theory to the Induction
Machine
42-1 The Rotor at Standstill
The equations derived in Chap . 41 to describe th e electr ic
circuits of an induction machine give an ad equat e insight
into the associated processes. Unfortunately, they ar e in-
convenient to us e, because th e rotor circuit qu antities
vary at a frequency different from that of the stator circuit
quan tities . This stands in the way of expla in ing the perform-
ance of induction machines by transformer theory, where
the primary and secondary quantities vary at the sam e fre-
quen cy .
Fortunately, the stator voltage equation,(41-4) , written
at 11 is th e same as th e primary voltage equation of th e
transform er . Therefore , we need only to r e-arrange the rotor
v olt age equation in such a way that the rotor quantities
vary at the same fr equency as the stator quantities, that
is, 11'
As follo ws from th e for egoing (see Chap. 41), th is can
be done by r eplacing the rotor rot ating at Q by a rotor
at sta nds till, because then s = '1, and 12 = sll . 11 : I n .
doin g so, th e oircuit paramet ers of the rotor at s tands till '
must be chosen such that. th e repl acement could not affect
energy conversi on in th e machi ne. I I, is an easy m atter to
show th at with the rotor at standstill the rotating .mutual
92 Part Four. Induction Machines
Fig . 42-1 An equiv alent rotor at sta ndstill as a mo del of a ruta tin g
rot or
I
II
Ch, 1.2 Application or T ransformer Theory
. .
where V 2 = R mI 2 is the voltage develop ed across the equi-
valent load .
7-0240
....
I, z, 1; z, it c. z, i"Z eZz'
. 1 Z it z, z~
10 il
ZI ~1
~ E1 z, R:n 100 CIR'
f m 100 ,.jo R'm
20 Zo
(lL ) (6) (c)
equ ations for all the qu antities char acte r i zing th e electro-
magn etic processes in t he m achin e (for exam ple , I I, I~ ,
1 0 , E l = E~, P em , P m' etc .). I n some cases, h owever , su ch
as when it is required to construct the circle diagram (see
Chap . 44 ), t he equivale nt T vcircu it should pr efer abl y be
t ran sform ed in t o an equiv alent L- circuit, such as sh own in
Fig. 42-3b . It diff ers from t he T- circ uit in that t he m agne-
t i zing ar m is brough t out to t he term ina ls and connected
to rece iv e VI' The impedance of the magnetizing arm in the
L-circuit is t aken equal to Z o +
Zl' an d it is assumed t o
carry a fic t it ious magnetiz ing curren t
. .
1 0 0 = V1/(Zl + Zo)
wh ich is the same as t he actual magneti zing current 1 0
in t he T-circui t un der ideal no-load conditions , when s = 0
an d R:n = CXJ .
Th e current I;
in t he right-hand arm of the L-circuit
(th e r otor ar m ) may be foun d subj ect to t he requirement that
7*
100 Part Four. Induction Machines
. . i; = i, - i.,
and , because 1 0 0 =1= 1 we have
0,
. . . .
I; =1= -I~ = II - 1 0
Using Eq. (42-11) and the equivalent T-circuit, let us first
find the currents in the primary and secondary windings
ZO+Z2eq 1+YoZ 2e'l
Ii = ViZ 1 Z 0 +Z 0 z'2e q +Z 1 z'2eq = Vi Z1 + C1 Z'2e q
(42-12)
',' z, . 1
- I2 =. V 1 Z 1 Z 0 +ZZ'
0 2eq
+ ZZ'
1 2e q
= V 1 Z 1 + C 1 Z '2eq
where
Z2eq = R~/s + jX~
and
Yo = 1/Z o
The complex coefficient, C1 = (Zl + Zo)/Zo, used here
"
and elsewhere, is the sum of a real and an imaginary part
,1
,~ C1 = (Zo + Zl) Zo = e' + e"j (42-13)
II" where
+
e' = [(R o--I- R 1) R o (X o + Xi) Xo]/(R~ + X~)
e" = [(Xu + Xi) R o- (R o+ R 1) Xo]/(R~ --I- X~)
(42-14)
i, = i, = V1/(Zl + Zo)
does not differ from the current found from the equivalent
T-circuit. At V*l = V*l,H = 1, the per-unit no-load cur-
rent is
I V I" 03t 04
*0= z*,+z*o ~ . 0
Z1 = VR~+X~
of the T-circuit is on the average 0.1, whereas at no-load
it is about 0.035. Taking the approximate phase angles of
102 Part Four. Induction Machines
does no t exceed
0.17 5 -7- 5 X '100 = +3. 5 %
The errors in the curre n ts , power losses, activo and r eact-
iv e powers found from the simpli fie d L-circuit for all the
oth er operating con ditions of an induction machine will
likewis e be ins ignifican t.
Ch. 43 Electromechanical Characteristics
magnetic torque
T em = B m i 2a
balancing the external torque acts against the field and
is assumed to be negative (T ern < 0). The electromagnetic
I 'i.: _
P ern = PCU 2
In this mode, an induction machine is operating as a trans-
former short-circuited on the secondary side, the only dif-
ference being that instead of a pulsating mutual field there
exists a rotating mutual field.
At a short-circuit,
R~ = R~ (1 - 8)/8 = 0
and the equivalent circuit in Fig. 42-3 has an impedance
given by the parallel combinations of Zl +
Zo and Zl +
Z;.
Noting that
I z, + Z~ I -e; I z, + z, I
108 Part Four. Induction Machines
~+ ml V~ (43-14)
CV R ~ +X ~c R
2Q1 1)
(43-15)
torque:
T T /T R ~, .V~I
ern.*= em i = s[(R* +c'R ~' 2Is)2+(X *+ c "R ~' 2Is) 2]
= Pern/Si , R = P'l, ern
Th erefore, the torque-slip and the power-slip characteristics
plo tted in Fig. 43-2 on a per-unit basis are id entical.
The mech anical power develop ed by the rotor can be
found from Eq. (41-36):
(1- s) m1Rfvr
P rn =(1-s)P em= s [(R + c"R /)2 'I '
2 S + (X +c" R 2 s)~ l
= TernQ (43-'17)
Th e power-slip curve crosses zero twi ce (see Fi g. 43-2),
namely at s = 0 (when Tern = 0) and at s = 1 (when Q = 0).
The useful mechanical power available at the sh aft of
a machine, P 2' is found by accounting for the additional
(stray) losses P ad and the frict ion and windage losses p t / w ,
which should likewise be found as fun ctions of slip:
P 2 = P m - P ad - P f / W (43-18)
Wh atever th e mod e of operation and whatever the direc-
tion of energy conversion , an induction machine alw ays
draws from the supply line a reactive power required to set
up the mu tual rotating fi eld and leakage fi elds. The reactive
power drawn by an induction machine from the supply line
is giv en by
(43-19)
wher e fIr = f (s) is from E q. (43-9).
The total reactive power is the sum of the reactive powers
required to set up the mu tual rot ating fi eld
Qo = mlXof~ (43-20)
the stator leakage field
QCJl = m1X1fi (43-21)
a nd the rotor leakage fi eld
QCJ 2 = ml X~ (f~)2 (43-22)
where f~ = f (s) is from Eq. (42-12).
th. 43 Electromechanical Characteristics 1.15
QI2=Q1/v-(Q - Q\ Q)
Thus, in an arbitrary steady state, such that Q12 =1= 0,;
the stator and rotor harmonics are rotating out of synchro -.
120 Part Four. Induction Machines
rem
aO-------<>---<J-----<~
S2 1 Qsync.v a
Fig. 43-6 Stray synchronous t orque due to the vth stator and rotor
harmonics
. V, B jXsc
- 1 xsc
-0.3
-0.2
-0.15
. . .
add t o r~ the no-lo ad current 1 0 which la gs beh ind VI by the
angl e eroo and is equal to Vl/(Zl +
Zo). The start of the
current phasor 1 0 0 will locate the origin 0 to which the
voltage ph asor may now be sh ifte d . On joining th e poi nts
o and As, we obtain th e stator current phasor I I (th e seg-
ment OA s), which lags behind the voltage by th e angle (Pl'
Let us mark on th e resistance line the points corre spond-
ing to th e cha ra cter ist ic values of slip as follows.
128 Part Four. Induction Machines
The power factor, cos CPI, can be found from the ratio of
the powers involved. The efficiency in motoring and generat-
ing can be found by Eqs. (43-1) and (43-2). The mechanical
power at the shaft cannot be found directly from the circle
diagram. Instead, it is deduced from the mechanical power
on the rotor:
P 2 = Pm - P f / W - Pad in motoring
I P 2 I = I e.; I Pf/w+ +
Pad in generating
Using the circle diagram, we can also find I I R , cos CPR,
SR, TJR, T em.rm and Tern,s' Under rated conditions, when
the machine is operating as a motor, point A B coincides
with point A R chosen from the specified rated power, P R =
P 2 ,R , such that
ABBI = Pm,R/cp
where A B -+A R , Pm,R = P 2 , R +
Pf/w +
Pad' and A sB I is
the intercept of the perpendicular AsB on the diameter.
The electromagnetic torque is a maximum, Tern, m(+) or
Tern , m(-), when point As coincides with point A m(+ ) in
the case of a positive slip, or with point A m (_) in the case of
a negative slip. At those points, the length of AsB 00 per-
pendicular to the diameter and bounded between the circle
and the electromagnetic power line, A oA 00, is a maximurn:
Tern, m(+) = (cp/QI ) (ABB 00)' where A B -+ A m( + )
Tern. m(-) = (cp/QI ) (AsB 00)' where As -+A m(_)
When point As coincides with point AI' the inherent
(static) starting torque can be found from
T B = (cp/QI ) (AsB 00)' where A B -+A I
The circle diagram can be constructed from a no-load or a
short-circuit test, as either can readily be applied to an
induction machine. From the circle diagram thus obtained,
it is an easy matter to determine all the intermediate con-
ditions.
Gh. 44 Starting of Squirr el-Cag e Motors 131
and to rais e the static (inherent) star ting torque, Eq. (43-15):
T ml R~Vr
8 = Q [(Rd- R ~) 2+x~e]
Fig . 114-3 Current densi l.y d istribuli on in a bar of a deep -bar squi r-
rel-cage structure
4.0
"
It/f7, R Tern/Tern",
2.2
Z.O
' / ~\ Tem/T,m.R V Kr;:T
11I 17,ff 1.8
~ '"'
./V
3.2 1.ti
~ ." ~ k 1.4
~'" ~ ~5 ~ ~6~ 1.2
/ \\j '/'>
2.4
\' f'ij ~ ~ ~, ~\ 0::
7.0
/ 1\'< ~ ~ ~~ ~ 0.8
"" ~~
7.6
~
I '\ '< 0
0.6
~
0.8 0.4
~~ 2
jilli r-= s
0.2
a
o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 44-5 Torq ue-slip chara cte ristics of squirrel-cage moto rs with
improved starting perf orman ce:
l-wound-rotor motor; 2- roun d-bar squirrel-cage motor; 3- rectang ular deep-
bar sq uirre l-cage mot or; <i- tra pe zoida l-bar squirrel-cage motor ; 5- double-cage
motor; a- bulb-bar sq ui rrel-cage motor
45 Steady-State Performance
of Induction Motors.
Speed C ontrol
45-1 Loading Conditions. Stability
When properly started (see Figs. 44-1 and 44-2), an induc-
tion motor must come up to a sp eed such that it will be
running at rated (full) load (point I) or less than rated load
(point III lying on th e characteristic curve between the
no-load point where Tern = 0 and Q = Ql ' an d the rat ed-
t orque point where T ern = T ern,n and Q = Qn).
For short interv als of tim e, the load may he such as
exists at point IV which lies between points (Tern,n,Qn)
and (T m, Q m ) at torques exceeding the rated value (Tern
> T ern ,n), but lower than the m aximum (breakdown or
pull-out) torque (T em < T m)' How lon g a motor may be
140 Part Foul'. Induction Machines
r
7]. 0.98 ~ r-
c: Tem/Tem,!
/-
cos 1 7] l"- I>-
s,
1.0
1/
V -
r-
V P1~ Y"
:/'"
V
-
v
DID
" 10
I cos1f1 ~ TemiY v/v
I / 1/ V V- 3
0.5 11
1
-
I /
/ .,/
~
A
" /'
V
/V A
.,/
V s 2 0.5
'-1 ./ /' t:::- 1
I ./ ~ ~
~ P2/ PN
a o 0 a
o 0.5 1.0 1.5
Fig. 45-2 Pole- chan gin g windin g for tw o and four poles (2h = 2,
2P2 = 4)
and
T em,2 = T ern,l Sl / (1 - Sl)
The reactive power required to magnetize the motors in
cascade has to be drawn from the supply line. Because of
this, the power factor of the cascade is reduced. Also, since
the motor windings are connected in series, the short-cir-
cuit impedance of the combination is doubled, and its
maximum (breakdown or pull-out) torque is reduced.
T em r-/ V~
. .
In the general case, E/!; may be oriented relative to E 2 in
any arbitrary manner, and it may be visualized as consist-:
ing of two terms
12 = SlE2/ZZ = SlE2/R z
and write the original electromagnetic torque given by
Eq . (42-9) as
pm 2w 2kw2C!Jm 1 A
T em.l= V2 zcospz
VI
i,
'II -i;
5ZEz
i,
t, Pm
.pm rPm
/ E" Iz
/
I- -iza -i, Sz Ez ~
i, S,El (IL) sz(+EiJ(b) Sz Ez+EiJ (c)
V, VI -i; VI
-j z' -i;
io rpm fA 10 to <Pm
<Pm
iil fA t, IA E~'
i.iJ
f
t, i, IZ
Fig . 45-6 The ullc c t or an injected : emf in tho rotor circuit on slip
and reacti vo curreu ts
is given by
SI = (Q1 .: Q)/Q 1
where Q 1 is the angular velocity of the PPS field, and Q
is the angular velocity of the rotor. Therefore, the PPS
current will be
where
Zll = (R1 + jX 1) + (Z-b + Z-;I)-1
is t he imp edance of the stator phase for the PPS cur rents
(see Fig. 46-1a), and
Z 21 = R~/s + tx;
is the imp edance of the equ iva len t rotor at s ta ndst ill for
the PPS cur rents .
or
111 Rt+jX 1 I ZI j X ~ l IZ R1+jX I i~ z j X~
10,
101
20
(a)
IV"
tal
20
(b)
Zs
Rz
Fig . 46-1 E qui vale nt circu i ts of an induction machine for (a) posi-
tive sequence and (b) negative sequence voltages
I B1 = I na + 1
2
a
. . . 12
I Cl = Ina + 1
1 2a
2
may he written
X 12 ~ Xd- X~ ~ x ;
R12 = R 1 + R~/s < n.; X sc
i58 Part Four. Induction Machines
and
T - m 1V r2R ;
e m ,2 -
(s-2) Q1 [( .
R1 n:2 )2 -.J_ X2 ]
+ __
2-s I sc
In the mo tor modo of opera tion , when 0 < s < 1, T em,1 > 0
and T em , 2 < O. To retain the same result an t torque under
voltage unbalance, T em,1 mus t be increased by Tern 2' This
leads to an increase in the slip (about Tern ~/(Tem 1
- I T em,2 I) t imes), in creased losses, a higher temperature
rise, and a reduced efficiency .
( .
Tem.2 (c} Tem,Z
Fig . 46-2 MMFs in the case of an open -circu ited rotor phase:
(a) pul sating rot or mmf an d it s resolution" into forward an d backward mmr
wav es; ( b) st a tor an d rotor mmfs set ling up a "posittve-seq u entce field ; (c) stat or
an d rot or rnrnrs setting up a negative-seq uence field
=i 2i V3exp ( - j:n/2)
. . . . .
I b 2 = I b 22 + I b 21 = a 21 22 + a I 21
= -i 21 V3 ex p ( - j:n/2)
As is seen, t hey are equal in ma gnitude , bu t opposite in
direction (the positive di rection of current flow is assum ed
to be from the finish to the start of the phase):
. . .
1 2 = Ia 2 = - l b 2
Ch. 46 Un balancod Operation 161
. .
mmf, F 22 ' Since F 22 m has a damping effect , too, the resul-
tant backward mmf is given by
. . .
F o2m = F 1 2m +
F 22m
and the corresponding re volving field has a peak flux den-
si ty equal to B 2 m exp [-j (W1t +
1X2)] .
When the rotor is rotat ing with the forw ard fi eld (in which
case S l = S < 1 and S 2 = 2 - s ; 1), the backward field is
travell ing relative to the rotor
fas ter th an the forward fi eld
is (S 2Q1 > Sl Q1)' and the ro-
t or cur rents damp en it more
heavily tha n the forward field. <, H
As a result, the dominating "
\ '<l"tl
component is the forward field \
\
F o1m > F o2m and B 1 m > B 2m o--,---~...=c--04 :
The result is what is known I
/
as an ellipt ical revol ving fi eld /
/ k
tl
whos e flux density is giv en / ..,"
by
B= B 1m exp [j (W1t + 1X1 ) ]
+B 2m exp [- j (W1t + 1X2)] Fig. 47-2 Locus of the ell ipti-
Th e field owes its name cal in du cti on fie ld phasor
"elliptical" to the fact that the
locus of the flu x densi t y phasor is an ellipse (Fig. 47-2).
Its semi-major axis, 1-0, repre sents th e maximum flux
densi ty of th e field ,
B m a x = B 1 m + B 2m
wh ereas its semi-minor axis, 2-0, represents t he minimum
flux densi t y
B m i ll = B V II - B 2 m
It is to he noted th at at B 2 ffi = a the ellip tical field becomes
a circular one with a peak flux density B 1 m (th e circle is
shown das hed in the figure). At B 1 m = B 2m , we ha ve a p ul-
sating field with a peak flux den sity 2B 2 m (the ell ipse
contra cts t o a straigh t-line segment between points 5 and 6).
Th e t orque of a s ingle-phase motor is the sum of two tor-
qu es
T ern = T e m , l + T e m 2
166 Part Four. Induction Machines
Tern
S
Sz
. .
phase B carrying a current I B = 1 1 forms a single-phase
winding con nec ted for a supply voltage V1 (see Fig. 47-1).
By an alo gy wi th a t hree-phase win ding (see Sec. 46-1),
an unbalan ced set of curre nts in a tw o-pha se winding may
be visualized as the sum of positive and negative sequ ence
currents:
. . . . .
IA = I A1 + I A2' IB = I Bl + I B2
wh ere
. .. .
I A1 = jI B1' I A2 = -jI B2
. . .
The positive sequence currents, I Bl = I u and I A1'
establish a forward mmf, Fum, and a forw ard ro t ating
field. The negative sequence currents produce a ba ckward
mmf and a ba ckward rotating fi eld. Sol ving the above set
of equations for the current components in ph ase B , with
phase A disconnected, we get:
j B1 = iu = (j n - jj A)/2 = j B/2
j B2 = j1 2 = (j B ji.A) /2 = j B/2 +
The current diagram an swering the above equations app ear's
in Fig. 47-1b.
Th e voltage across a single-phase winding may be visu-
alized as th e sum of. positive and nega tive sequ ence compo-
nents:
. . . .
V1 = VB = V B1 + V B2
On express ing VB1 and VB2 in terms of positive and negative
sequence cur rents and impedances ,
. . . .
V Bl = Vu = IuZ u = I 1Zu /2
and
VB2 = V12 = i 12Z 12 = j1 Z12/ 2
we obtain a voltage equat ion for a sing le- pha se motor
V 1 = / 1 (Zu/ 2 + Z12/ 2)
The t erms Zu and Z12 are the ph ase impedances of a two-
ph ase winding to th e positive and negativ e sequ ence cur-
r ents (see the equivalent circuit in Fi g. 46-1). To calcula te
Ch, 47 Single-Phase Ind uction Motors 169
ZIl and Zl ~' we may use t he equa tions give n in Sec. 46-1,
but it must be rememb er ed that R 2 an d X 2 should be con-
s trued as the imp edan ces referre d t o a phase of t he two-
ph ase winding . Therefore, t he im pe dance referring coeffi-
cient as given by E q . (42-8)
an d used in
Ro
and Z
jX o
X 2 = X 2k z l zt
III
III us t
be adj usted for the
number of ph ases in the If, i---<~==~
primar y tw o-phase winding , RO
T
IILl = 2. r:tz
On the basis of the vo lt- R, u
I Zl
age equa ti on , we may t reat "2 . joz
the current in a singl e-phase ..J!i.
mo.tor as on.e pr?duced in a:ffi'=---=,o c..=...--=--2J_~~:r= __
ser ies combination of ZIl/ 2 Fi g. 47- 4 Equivalent circu it of a
and Zl 2/2 due t o Fl ' T here- single-p ha se motor
fore, the equivalent cir cu it
1.00 .--- .-------,------,---,
of a single-pha se induction
motor can be obta ined by
0.75 H+--.-- -+- :-+--,H
com bi ning the equivalent
circ u its for positive a nd, ne-
0.50 I-I-f~ -Q-~ :E-- H
ga t ive sequence curren ts
appear ing in F ig . 46-1a and
b, with t he r esistan ces an d
rea ctances in those circuits
all divided by t wo. The o 0. 5
upp er porti on of t he equi- Fig . 47-5 P ositive and negative se-
val ent circuit t hus deri ved quence volt ages of a single-pha se -
app lies t o t he posi tive- mo tor as fu nctions of sli p (R ; =
seq uence qu antities , and = R 1 = 0.05 , X 1 = X;= 0.1 , R o=
th e low er portion to the ne- = 0, X o = 3)
ga t .ive-se quenco quantities.
The t orq ue of a single-phase mot or can be wri tten as the
sum of two torq ues , T em,l an d T ern.s - res pectively associated
with t h e positiv e-sequen ce vol ta ge , F Il , and t he neg at iv e-
seq uence voltage, F l 2:
The equations for T em,l and T em, 2 (see Sec. 46-1) should be
adjusted for Ini = 2 and extended to include the posit ive
.and negative sequence vo ltages as found from the equiva-
lent circuits of Fig. 47-4 : .
.
V lI = Vi
. I ZllZ+Z12I
. .I
V i 2=V i Zll+Z12
Z I
Because , with VI held constant, V n and V I 2 vary with slip
approximately as shown in Fig. 47-5, the plots of T em, I
and T ern.z as funct ions of slip differ from those obtained
with V n or V I 2 held constant, and have the form shown in
Fig. 47-3 .
q----'0 Tr--. . - - - - - - - - , V1
V1
0---' - - - - t - - - , G
B
J(
RW
Zsw
F"m~
~Flzm II
(a, )
Fig . 47-6 Split-phase induction motor: (a) circuit and (b) phasor
diagram
I Al
.
= jI BI
.
j B2 = (imv + dsw )/2
I
A 2 = -
.
jI B2
Graphically , I BI = I II can be found as the median OG of
triangle OCD or calculated from the equ ation
1 11 = I B1 = (lRw/2) -V 1 + k 2 - 2k cos (rc/2 + ljJ)
Similarly, I B2 = 112 can be found graphically as h alf the
side CD or calculated from the equation
1 12 = I B2 = (I Rw /2) V 1 + k 2 - 2k cos (n/2 -tl')
where k = I sw /l mv is the relative current in the starting
wind ing .
The peak values of the forward and backward stator mmfs ,
172 Part Four. Induction Mach ines
0--..-.....---_._-,---,- +
11
(a)
Fig. 47-10 A circular field in a capacitor molar: (a) circuit and (b)
phasor diagram
sam e,
VB=VA
In = I A
CPB = CPA
P n = V nI n cos (f! B = VAI A cos rpA = P A
The phase A quantities at WA = W B are primed and repre-
sented on the diagram of Fig. 47-10b by dashed lines. Also,
since a balanced two-phase supply produces a circular field,
the ph ase curren ts and volt ages ar e shifted in time-phase by
i:
n /2, t hat is, = jiB and VA = Fir B' It should be stressed,
however, that such a voltage on phase A can only be obtain-
ed wi th a two-phase supply.
If, on the other hand, phase A having the same number of
turns as phase B is energized from a sin gle-phase supply,
it will, in the general case , be impossible to adjust the
value of C so that the phase A voltage is VA = Fir B which is
essential for a circular field to be established. The situation
is usu ally corrected by additionally adjusting the number of
turns in winding A . The circular field will be re tained if ,
in passing to a winding with WA =1= WB, t he phase A mmf
remains unchanged:
F A = wAI A = wn I A = FA = cons ta nt
Hen ce, the phase A current is
I A = IAwn1w A = I BWn1w A = I nin AB
where n AB = wAlw n is the turns ratio of a capacit or motor.
Since the circular field is retained, the phase A voltage
changes in proportion to the turns ratio:
V A = V 'AWA/Wn = V nnA n
At the same time, the angl e CPA = rp B and the ph ase A
power remain unaffected:
P A . VAI A cos CPA = V AI A cos (Pn = consta nt
A cha nge in W A leads t o a change in both V A and I A- Th e
objectiv e is to choose such a value of W A that the voltage
across the seri es circuit of phase A and capacitanc e C
is th e same as the supply voltage, Ti, that is,
. . .
VA +VC=V
176 Part Four. Induction Machin es
.pI"
?
t.
J
-- --l (a)
48 Special-Purpose Induetion
Machines
and
we obtain
I 2 -- - S I I -- ~~l-Q
Q1
I 1-- Pm =F p rci
Pm
1
'~~ !wv, v, fi _ _
VJv1 .c .
Vi"'E
-,
z Il
I' _1-
.
C -, _
k W1 = k W 2
E] = E2
Ch. 48 Special-Purpose Induction Machines 183
where
. .
V z = ZioartIZ
The rotor of the phase regulator is acted upon by an app
reciahle electromagnetic torque which can be found from
Eq. (29-2). To overcome it, the rotor needs to be assisted
by a booster, usually in the form of a worm-pair transmis-
sion. The work pair is designed so that the rotor can be
moved by hand or by a small electric motor. The worm also
serves to lock the rotor in the chosen position.
(2) Three-phase induction regulator. A three-phase induc-
tion machine operated in the transformer. mode may be
. ' .'
emf E I in the primary and another emf E 2 in the secondary.
The phase voltage of th e secondary, if we neglect its imp ed-
ance , is t he vectorial sum of the supply voltage VI and the
secondary in du ced emf E 2 :
. .
Th e phase shift between the VI and E 2 vectors and, as a
consequence, the va lue of V 2 depend on the elect ri cal angle
bet ween t he phase axes of the st at or .an d rot?r windings . If
we turn the rotor , the t ips of the E 2 and V 2 vectors will
move along a circle . The min imum an d max imum va lues of
V 2 corres pon d t o the ang les ~ = 0'" and ~ = 180 ,
0
V2m 1n = VI - E 2
V2m a x = VI +
E2
If we ignore the resistance, R I , an d reactance, Xl ' of the
pri mar y, then VI = E I . The emfs in duced in the primary
and secondary are conn ected by a relation of the form
E I/E 2 = wlkwl/W2kw2
The pr imary of an induct ion regulator may be star- 0 1'
delta-connected. The rotor can be turned and locked in the
des ired position in much the
same way as in a phase regula-
tor.
(3) Rotating -field transfor-
mer for frequency and phase
conversion. A still furth er use
for an ind uction mach ine in
which the rotor is restrained
from rotation is phase and
frequency conversion Sin ce
the rotor need not move relative
to the stator , no clearance,
or . air gap, nee d be pr ovi ded
Fig . 48-5 Rotating-field trans-
between th em. So, in order to
former reduce the magnetizing cur-
rent, the outer core , 4, ma y be
press-fitted on the inner core,
3 (Fig. 48-5). The pri m ary , 1 , and the secondary, 2, which
remain stationary relative to each other, may , as a way of
Ch. 48 Special-P urpose Induction Machines 185
B m = peak fl ux density
S = (Ul - U)/Ul = slip of the li quid metal re lative
to the field
The elect romagnetic force exerted on the liqu id meta l is
given by
N = Tem/R = PemfQ1R = P cm/Ul = psuI B~,;T: lMp
and the pressur e built up by the pump is
H = N/l f".. = psu1B k clp
The mechanical power of the pump is given by
Ps = N u = (N/ lf".. ) (u lf"..) = HQ
wh ere
Q = ult:
is the volumetric flow rate through (delivery of) the pump .
When the li quid-m et al conduit makes 12 turns aro und the
in ner stator, the pressur e develop ed by .the pump, H, is
as many t imes greater, but the flow rate (or, rather, delivery
of the pump) is decreased by the same facto r .
F lat linear inducti on pump. This form of pump (Fig. 48-9)
resem bles a li near induction mach ine (see Sec. 48-7). It
(a)
2p"C
Fig . 48- 1l (a) Linear and (b) l imited-ro tation induct ion motor
and power factor of linear and lim it ed-r ota tion motors ars .
usu ally inferior to those of units with a circular stator. This
is because their stators do not form a complete circle, and
there appear edge effect s.
The slip in linear and limited-ro tation motors is defin ed
as the r atio of the linear sli p ve locity , U 1 - U , to the syn-
chronou s linear ve locity of the travell ing fi eld, U 1 = 2T:h.
Under r ate d conditions, U is very close t o U 1, so S = (Ul - u )/u 1
is as small as it is in con ventional induction m achines.
Linear induction machines can be used t o give reciprocat-
ing motion by periodically reversing the ph ases of the stator
winding, such as in m etal-cutting machine tools. In su ch
an application" the movable part must be longer t ha n the
13-0 2 4 0
194 Part Four. In duction Machines
49 Induction Machines
for Automatic Control
App lications
49- 1 Induction Control Motors
and Tacho-generators
Induction control motors. Induction con trol (or servo)
motors are us.d in aut omat ic control as devices that convert
the ampli tude or phase of a control voltage into the angular
displacement or angular velocity of the output shaft (the
final con trol element ).
cw
.
Veon/ro/
Q
Vconlrol
5 , "
r::
__L_--j.l:'!ain
ltco;trol (a)
(b)
Vconlrol
- jVmain
= R~/Xsc
49-3 Synchros
The nam e "synchro" r efers to a class of induction ma chines
ada pte d for the r emo te meas urement and/or transmission of
angula r position .
Synchros m ay be brush-typ e or hru shl ess. In the form er
case, a salient-pole rotor carries a concentrated fi eld winding,
FJiV, whi ch draws its current from an a.c . supply via slip-
rin gs and brushes (not shown in Fig . 49-10) . The stator slots
accommodate thre e distributed synchronizing windings dis-
Ch. 49 Machines for Automatic Control 205
The coils are supplied with a.c, and set up a pulsating flux
which has its path completed around the coils as shown in
the figure by the dashed line. This path runs through the
stator frame 2, a nonmagnetic gap, the right-hand claw-
pole 1, the nonmagnetic gap, the teeth and yoke of the stator
core 5, the nonmagnetic gap, the left-hand claw-pole 1,
Z 3 'I 5 B
and again the gap. In order to prevent the flux from "short-
ing" between the poles without threading the stator core
and linking the synchronizing winding, the claw poles are
separated by a nonmagnetic gap, and the shaft, 7, is made
of a nonmagnetic material. Any other undesirable path for
tho flux is avoided by providing a broad gap 6 between the
stator core and frame.
With the above arrangement, the field in the stator core
varies with the rotation of the rotor in the same manner as
in a conventional brush-type synchro.
Brushless synchros are more reliable and accurate, but
their design is more elaborate and they have a larger size
and mass.
Modification Application
51 A General Outline
of Synchronous Machines
51-1 Purpose and Field of Application
A synchro nous machine is an a .c . two-winding machine in
which one winding is conn ect ed to a supply line operating
at a constant fr equency WI' and the other is excited by direct
current ( w2 = 0)* . It owes its name, "sy nchronous", to the
fact that the rotor must rotate at synchronous speed , that is,
the speed correspondi ng to the frequency of the a.c . supply.
Most fre quently, the stator carries a het eropolar , three-
phase, 2p-pole armature winding (see Chap. 22), and the
rotor carries a heteropolar 2p-pol e field winding (Fig. 5'1-'1a).
On small machines (2-5 kW), the armature is sometimes
wound on the rotor; this is known as the in verted arrangement
(Fig. 5'1-'1b). The field winding is then wound on the stator.
Whether the armature is wound on th e stator or rotor does
not affect the electromagnetic performance of the machine.
However , for big machines, the normal arrangement with
the armature on the stator is preferable . The point is that
the sliding contacts on the rotor carry as little as 0.3 % to
2 % of the converted power, whereas in the inver t ed arrange-
men t they have to transfer total power.
The part of the machine carrying the armature winding
is called the armature, and the part carrying the field wind-
ing is sometimes called the field structure. So, in the norm al
arrangement, the stator is the armature, and in the inv erted
arrangement, the rotor is the armature .
4-r--",,~
J
2
1
Fig. 51-1 Synchronous machine : (a) norm al (rotating-fi eld ) and (b) in-
verted (stationary-field) arrangem ent
l -armature core; 2-three-phase armature winding; 3- fic l d-struct ure core; 4-
field win din g; 5-brushgear
./
There are also eng ine-ty pe syn chronous generators (those
driven by Diesel, gasoline, or st eam engines); they are built
for small outputs and supply isolate d loads.
The second important application for synchronous machi-
nes is as motors, especia lly for large units (reciprocating
compressors, blowers, and hydraulic pumps). They compare
favourable wi th induction motors in that they generate
rather than expend react ive power. Sm all synchronous motors
(notably those with permanent-magnet excita t ion) are very
popular, too.
As a rule, synchronous machines are design ed so that they
can generate reactive power about equal to the activ e
power (about 60% and 80% of the total power, respe ctively).
Sometimes, it is ad van tageous t o install near major indus t-
ri al centres what ar e known as synchronous condensers-
synchronous ma chines sp ecifi cally built to gener ate reactive
power only.
The data ordinarily st at ed on the nameplates of synchro-
nous machines include the following:
(a) Power rating (the t otal kVA for generators and sy nch ro-
nous condensers, and the shaft kW for motors).
(b) The rated power fac tor (at overexcitation).
14*
212 Part Fiv e. Synchronous Machines
e==~==~====~_tg
21
Fig. 5 t-3 S ta tor core segments: (a) wi th dove- tailed re cesses on slo t
axis; (b) wi th dove-t ailed recesses on tooth ax is
leads and end conne ctions (overh angs) of form ed-coil win-
dings and the stra nds with in each slot in bar-t yp e windings
(see Sec. 31-2).
In a multi- turn formed-coil win ding (see Fig. 51-6a), the
turns consisting of one or seve ra l strands , 1, ar e insulated
from one another by turn insulation, 2, an d from the ground-
ed par t s by ground insulation, 3. In a bar-typ e winding
(see Fig. 51-6b), the ground ins ulation, 3 , also doubles
as turn insulation . An insul ating pl at e, 2, separa tes the
adja cent rows of stra n ds the vol t age betw een which is
very low (by two ord ers of magnitude lower t han the turn
voltage). As a way of reducing the electric field in the ail'
gap between the groun d in sulation and th e cor e, an outer
wra pper of a semiconducting m ateri al , 4, is applie d to
the coil.
In large ma chines , the coil conducto rs, when energiz ed,
are sub jected to appreciable electrom agne t ic forces. These
forces ar e especially large a t st art ing or in th e case of a
sudden short-circuit. To prevent da mage to the coils or pro-
h ibit ive vi bration ; the slot "conductors , end connections and
Ch. 51 General Outli ne 221
One or several brushes can ride on the same -slip ring. The
brush boxes 7 are fastened by bolts 8 to a common steel
yoke or bracket, 1, insulated from the machine frame and
connected to one of the terminals in an external circuit.
The force of spring 5 can be adjusted by moving a bracket,
4, up or down.
In the pole faces of synchronous motors and condensers
and of most generators, it is usual to install heavy copper
2ti
~o..;
I I I
1--24~
t t
Fig. 5 1- 12 Indir ectl y air-cooled nonsalien t-pole synchro nous genera tor (turho genera tor):
l -sl alor fram e (yoke): 2 - rot or core; s-s ta l or core ; 4-clampi ng st u d; 5-st a l or win di ng ba r ; 6'- p rcss ure ri ng : 7- ro tor bi n d-
in g ring; 8-win ding b racke t ; V-air baffl e and .diffusor; IO- field coil; l1-centr in g rin g; 12-cellt r ifu gal fan ; 1.' - lJrllsh yo ke
an d br ushgea r ; 14-bca ri ng en d-shield ; i 5-b ea ring liner ; 16 -exc iter ; 1 7-flexi b le coupli ng ; 18- bea ri n g pedes ta l ; l !)- slip ri ng ;
20-fan gu ide van es ; 21-sli p-r ing t o fi el d Wind in g conn ec t ion ; 22 - fire-exting uis hing system line; 2S-stn to r windi ng u-rm tn a!
leads; 24- directi on of h ot-air flow to wa r ds cool ers; 25- dire cti on of cool ed-air fl ow ; 26- cool ed-a ir t herm ome ter ; 27-en d
shiel d; 28- inspect ion hol e
-
228 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
2
Fig . 51-14 Sec tiona l views across and along a nonsalient-pole rotor
i-rotor yoke; 2-maJor core t oot h; 3- min or core t oot h; 4- ax ial duct in core;
5-field coil ; 6-axial duct in ma jor tooth; 7-magnetic wedge in duct; 8- non-
ma gnetic wedge; 9- bin ding ring; l o-cent rin g ring; ll -field windi ng to sli p
rin g connection ; 12-sli p rings; 13-sleeve insul at ion; 14-sli p-ring sleeve
52 .Excitation Systems
for Synchronous Machines
52-1 Arrangement of and Requirements for
an Excitation System
The direct current required to energize the fi eld winding
of a synchronous machine is taken from what is known as an
excit er. Most frequently, this is a d.c. gen er ator (see Sec. 64-12)
whos e shaft is mechanically coupled to that of the asso-
ciated synch ronous machine .
Sev eral arrangement s using a d.c. generator are shown in
Fig. 52-1 and Fig. 52-2a. Apart from t he main exciter, the
system contains a pilo t (or auxiliar y) excit er to energize
cu. 52 Excitation Systems ~ 231
in proportion to Vf:
texc .
53 Electromagnetic Processes
in a Synchronous Machine
531 Voltage and Magnetic Field Waveforms on
Open Circuit
On open circuit (at no load) , the armature current is zero,
whereas the field winding carries a direct current, If, which
sets up an excitation field inducing an emf, E f , ill the arma-
ture winding. In an excited ma chine, this condition can be
obtained in anyone of two ways, namely :
(a) by opening the line leads of the armature winding
(thereby introducing an infinite impedance in the armature
circuit), or
(b) by inj ecting an emf in the armature winding to ba-
. . ,
lance E j , that is , V s = -E f .
The procedure in (a) is simpler to implement and is nearly
always used in measuring open-circuit characteristics. The
procedure in (b), described in more detail in Sec. 58-2,
calls for an addition al source of V s ' Also the armature cur-
rent will reduce to zero only if E, and V s are ideally sinu-
soidal in waveform.
In carrying out an open-circuit test by the second pro-
cedure, the armature winding always retains a small cur-
rent associated with the harmonic emfs. Because of this
current, the measurements are always in error, and the error
is not always easy to estimate.
An excited machine on open circuit is subject to friction
and windage losses, P f/\y, the armature core loss, Pc, and
some additional (or stray) electromagnetic losses, P ad ,DC'
The motor driving a synchronous machine must supply a
power equal to the sum of the above losses, P f / W + Pc
+ P a tl. o c s and accounting for about 0.3 to 3 % of the total
power of the machine.
Ch. 53 Electromagnetic Processes on Open Circuit 237
the saturation of the pol es, arma ture te eth and other ele-
ments of the magnetic circuit.
As has been explained in Chap. 26, th e waveform of th e
excit at ion field in salient-pol e and nons alient-pole machines
is improved in different ways. In salient-pole ma e-hines this
is achieved by a proper choice of th e ratio of the maximum ,
om, and minimum, 0, air gap (th e air gap under a pol e, see
Fig. 26-1). In nonsalient-pole ma chines, this is don e by the
choice of the rel ative woun d
ri length of the pol e pit ch , p
(see Fi g. 26-4).
The waveform of the excita-
tion field on open circuit can be
characterized in t erms of a
set of factors which dep end on
the relative (pole-pitch) dimen-
sions (see Fig. 53-2).
The field form factor is the
ratio
Fig. 53-1 Determination of th e k t = B Ol.m/B o (53-1)
excitation fie ld facto rs where B ol, m is the peak value
of t he fundam ent al flux den-
si t y (see Fig. 53-1), and B o = B ot is the radial component
of the flux density at the pole axis. When the field is sinu-
soid al, k t = 1.
The excitation fl ux form factor is the ratio
k(J) = CVt m/CVil. m (53.2)
where
cD t m = 'tloB o. mean = ao'tloB o
is the total mutual flux , and
2
cD n .m = Ji'tloB ol, m
is the flux at the fundamental flux density. When the exci-
tation fi eld is sinusoidal, k(J) = 1.
The pole span factor is the ratio
a o = cDtmhloB o = B o. mean/Bo (53.3)
where B o.mean is the mean flux density in the air gap .l and B 6
is t he flux density at the pole axis. Since
B o.mean = cvtmhl o
and
Ch. 53 Electromagnetic Proc esses on Open Circuit 239
1.3
a il' gap at the pole ax is , 8,
01' the minimum ail' gap (see
Fig. 53-1). Plots of k ,J" k j , k B 1.2 1--'\+----1-+--+--1
and aD v ersus th e ratio 8 m /8',
as found from the field pa tt ern
of a ' smooth ar ma ture core
and for th e typical relativ e , I l
Ef = YE7t +E75+E17+'"
is assumed to be the same as the rms value of the fundamen-
tal emf, E f = E fl , because the squares of the harmonic
emfs, E15, E'7' are small in comparison with the square of
the fundamental emf, Eh.; The emf form factor, k B, . in
Eq. ,(53-11) can be expressed in terms of the flux form factor
-'"" 5 /4 /2
5
4
6 ~~ 411111111!iimlilll 1111111111111111 11111111 11111111 W- hat
12
13
11
18
~
' h02 9
h4
db
12 dt
k(J) as
k n = n!2 l/ 2: ;
and is found with allowance for saturation, airgap shape,
and mmf Ior each sp ecified value of E e It is especially
important to calculate the magnetic circuit for two charac-
teristic values of flux, namely:
(1) The flux corresponding
Zp to the r ate d no-load voltage,
s , = VR :
eDm ,n o- lo a d = V u/4kniIwlkwi
(53-12)
and
(2) The flux, eDmR, corres-
.ponding to the mutual emf at
rated load,
e, = kEV R
where k E = E rRIVR is the
mutual emf per-unit regulation
accounting for the increase in
mu tual emf as th e load is
Fig. 53-6 Magnetic field in a varied from no-load (open cir-
salient-pole synchro nous ma -
chine at no load cuit) to full-load (for conven-
tional gener ators and motors,
kE ~ 1.08) .
To obtain a complete magnetization characteristic of a
synchronous machine, cD m = t (E j ) , it will suffice to carry
out calculations for E j = 0.5V R, V R, kEVR, 1.2VR, and
1.3VR , with o., found from Eq. (53-11). '
The magnetic circuit of a salient-pole synchronous ma-
chine is shown in Fi g. 53-5, an d the fi eld pattern on open
circ uit (a t no load) , in Fi g. 53-6.
The exc itat ion mmf, F jm, tha t give s rise to <D m , is found
by Amp ere's circuital law for the mea n magnetic line con-
taining parts L a l (the stator yoke), h Z I (the stator teeth),
6 (the air gap), h m (the pole cores), and L a 2 (the rotor yoke):
Fjm = FfJ + F + F + r; + F
Z1 al a2 (53-13)
In calculating F fJ, it is important to account for the effect
produced by variations in the radial gap length owing to
..
' ~
Ch. 53 Electromagnetic Processes on Open Circuit 245
saliency:
(53-'14)
where Bo is the flux density at the pole axis, 0 is the radial
gap length at the pole axis, and k o is the gap factor.
The va lue of Bois found from
B 0 = fPm/aoT:lo
where a o is the design pole span factor (the pole arc ratio)
with allowance for stator saliency and saturation , taken
from Fig. 53-3 for 0' = Okok z a. As has been explained in
Sec. 51-1, k Za is first guessed, then refined after F 0' F Zl and
F al have been found to a first approximation. The value of
k o = k Olk o 2 is found via
(bs/B )2
leo I = tzl/(tZ t - YIO) , where YI = 5+b s/B
and the damper-winding slot factor
02 (b !o)2
k02 =tz2/(tz2-Y20), where 1'2 = 5+b
o2 /B
F:':fm = FtmlFfm.De
F:"l = FllFt m.De
F* o = F olFfm.De
F",2 = F 2lFfm.oe
Now, th e relationships betw een the per-unit quantities
in volved are plo t ted on a di agram . As is seen from Fi g. 53-8,
the open-circuit cha rac terist ics and basic magnetization
curves drawn on a per-unit basis are id entical. Also , a com-
parison of the per-uni t ma gnetization curves for a range of
diff erent salient-pole ma chines will show that t hey t oo dif-
fer very little. Th e aver aged per-unit open-circuit charac-
teristics and mag netization cur ves , calle d t he normal or
normalized char act eris tics, ar e shown in Fig. 53-8.
Fig. 53-to Magne tic fie lds in a nonsali en t-pole synchro nous ma chine
a t no load: (a) mutu al Iield; (IJ) leakage field ; (c) resul tant fielrl
252 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
of the major teeth lying within the region of high flux den-
sity is completely utilized by the flux. In contrast, the sec-
tion of minor teeth , (Z2/2p) l2bZ,minofl dis tributed in the
region of low flux density, is utilized in completely. The
fraction utilized is called their design section and given by
Sz,minor = (Z2/ 2p) l2b Z , minor (O.7'15p)
SM
, - - - -1 j
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I I
I
L J
i= Ef
(RI+RL)-j-j(Xd-XL) (54-4)
Ef
1 = -V (R I +RL)2+(X 1 +XL)2
The phase angle p depends on the ratio of the reactive impe-
dance to tho resistance:
~=arctan XI+XL (54-5)
R1+RL
In the above equations, the inductive reactance of the arma-
ture winding,' Xl' is the sum of the leakage inductive react-
ance, X cr, and the mutual inductive reactance, X a , asso-
ciated with the mutual field in the armature. In a nonsalient-
pole machine where the air gap is uniform, X a is calculated
in the same way as in an induction machine (see Sec. 28-5).
In a salient-pole machine, X a depends on the position of Fa
relative to the pole axes (see Sec. 54-5). R 1 is the resistance
of an armature phase.
In a nonsalient-pole machine, R I can be calculated in
the same manner as in an induction machine (see Sec. 31-2);
how it should be calculated for a salient-pole machine is
'explained in Sec. 54-'5.
17-0240
258 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
i=i~_
Ef x
fl=o
~
i=i d
Ef
\
p=,./2
(h)
Fig. 54-2 Armature magnetic fie ld and mmf under characteri stic
loads:
(a) fi eld and mmf due to q-axis armature current; (b) fi eld and mmf du e to d-axis
demagn etizing curr ent; (c) fiel d an d mm f du e to d-ax is m agneti zi ng c urr en t
and
Xl + XL = Xl - Xc < 0
If, in the case of a capacitive load, the own phase re-
sistance R I is small in comp arison with the inductive react-
ance, I XL + Xl I (Fig. 54-2c) , the phase angle between I
and E f is
I
~ = arctan ~L:~ = ar ctan ( - CX) )
.
= - n/2
.
This means that the armature current, I, leads E f by an
angle ~ and is therefore in line with the d-axis:
I d = I I sin ~ I= I
I q = I I cos ~ I= 0
Now the armature mmf, F a m = F d m , and the magnetic
field established by the set of d-axis currents, I = I d, are
in line with the excitation mmf, Fi nt , and boost the excita-
tion field. Thus , in the case of a capacitive load, the arma-
ture winding carri es a set of d-axis ma gn etizing currents , I d .
17*
2M !>art Five. Synchronous Machines
Fig . 54-3 Magnetic fields due to (a) d-axis and (b) q-axi s set of anna-
Lure currents
(54-37)
X ad-X aq . 2(.\
Ra = 2 SIn l-'
Xl 2 -- 2 cos 2P
eh. !jfi Electr omagnet ic Processes on Load 271
55 Electromagnetic Processes
in a Synchronous Machine
on Load
55-1 Electromagnetic Processes in a NonsalientPole
Machine (Neglecting Saturation)
A study in to t he elect romagnetic pr ocesses t hat take place
in a synchrono us m achin e is un dert ak en in ord er to develop
a mathematical model in the form of equat ions re lating
the quantities in its electr ic an d m agnet ic circuits .
To begin wi th, we sha ll tu rn to an un saturated machine ,
assuming that the rela tiv e perm eabi li ty of th e iron parts
in its magnetic circuit is infinitely lar ge, ~LI'C = 00 . Neglec-
ting the r eluctance of the iron, we m ay treat th e "m agne tic"
circuit as linear, and apply th e principle of sup erpo sition,
that is, det ermine the ma gnet ic field as th e sum of th e fi elds
established independ ently by the d. c. fi eld curre nt, I f ,
and the armature currents , I . Then, the per-p hase v oltage
equation for the arm ature of a non salient-p ole sy nchronous
m achine ma y be writt en as
. . . . .
Ef + Eu + Ea = V + RI (55-1 )
wh ere E f = fi eld emf induced by t he mutual fi eld due to
the field mmf , F f m
Ea = armature mu tual emf induced by the mutual
field du e to the armature se t of currents, I
272 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
-i::~t>t
j Xt!I ~
Ri~
v. t R lXf VZ
If fJ TV Ef ~~>L
RJ
Fig . 55-1 Voltage phasor diagram and equiva lent circuit of a non-
salient-pole synchronous machine (neglecti ng sa tura tion)
(55-3)
~
-
........~~-/
JI
found in one of two ways,
as follows .
('1) Using I d=Isin ~ and
I q = I cos ~, found earlier
.....~.L-.~-t---i.:=...~ (see Sec. 54-'1), determine
F dm and F qm from Eq.
(54-3). Ref erring to Fi g. 53-3
and Fig. 54-4, find the ex-
citation field form factor ,
kf , and the armature field
form factors , k d and k q (In
an unsaturated machine, the
design air gap, or the axial
gap length, is 8' = k 0 8.)
Fig .~~-55-2 Voltage phasor diagra m Calculate the armature reac-
of a salient-pole synchronous ma - tion factors, k ad = kd/kf
chine in the generator mode of and kaq=kq/k , and replace
operation (negl ecting saturati on) f
(see Sec. 54-3) the direct -
and quadrature-axis mmfs,
Fdm and F qm, by equivalent field mmfs, Fadm = kadFdm
and F aqm = kaqFqm- Determine E ad and E aq as the emfs
corresponding to Fadm and F aqm from the linearized no-
load charact eristic, E f = t (F 0) in Figs. 54-5 and 55-2.
This method can be used, if we know 8, 8m , and k o (to a first
approximat ion , it may be taken that 8m/8' = '1.5), and
the winding data of the machine.
Ch. 55 Electromagnetic Processes on Load 277
. .
E aq = -jX a'll '1
This method is more convenient, because one only needs to
know the parameters of the armature winding.
On expressing E cr' E a d and E aq in Eq. (55-13) in terms
of the respective inductive reactances and currents, the
armature voltage equation may be re-written as
. . . . . .
Ef = V + RI + jXcrI + jXaql q + jXadld
or
. . . . . (55-14)
s, = V + RI + jXqlq+ ixsr,
where X d = Xcr + X ad and X q = Xcr + X aq arethe total
d- and q-axis inductive reactances, respectively.
: A voltage ph asor diagram for a salient-pole synchronous
machin e answering the above equation is shown in Fig. 55-2.
It has been plotted for a machine in t h e generator mode
of oper ation , supplying an isolated resistive-inductive load
for which V sin cp > a and V cos cp > O. The simplest ap-
proach is to construct a phasor diagram from which to
find E f (or If). When the operating conditions are specified
by giving V, I and cp , its construction poses no difficulty.
As is seen from Fig. 55-2 , the angle ~ that defines the direc-
tion of E , (or the negative dire~tion of the q-axis) may be
found gra ph ica ll y before th e E j itself is found. To this
end, i t will suffice to locate the point D which is the tip
of th e phasor
. . . .. . .
OD = 11 + RI + ix crI + jX a'll = V + RI + jXqI
and draw th e q-axis in th e direction opposite to the pliasor.
The d-axis must lag behind the q-axis by 90. The phasor
diagram can he constructed for any mode of operation of
a synchronous machine, as sp ecified by giving V , I , and cp o
(See the explan at ion for the equations of a nonsali ent-pole
machine.)
As has already been explained, the operating mode of
a synchronous ma chine may alternatively he sp ecified by
giving an y one of three more sets of defining, quantities ,
278 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
(I)m = f (F I ) , cIl f u = f (F I ) ,
cIl 2 = f (F 2 )
I
I
I
I
t
I
I
I 'Pf=f(F,)
.- - - - --1. - _ --
F
Fig. 55-4. The steps involved are numb ered from 1 through 11.
Th e first step is t o dr aw a pliasor di agram of the vol tages
defined by Eq s . (55-21) and to det ermine th e resultant
mutual emf, E r (1), and the resultant mutua l flux, cI:> rm,
equal to it when drawn on a per-unit basis , (2). The next
step (3) is to determine the resultant mmf, FIn correspond-
ing to the stator and ai r-g ap mmf, at cI:>m = cI:>rm, by refer-
ence to the magnetization curve, (Pm = f (F I ) , where F I
is taken as th e stator and a ir-ga p mm f. In doing so , we
still negl ect the effect of the rotor mmf , F 2 , and the value
Ch, 55 Electromagnetic Process es on Load 283
(55-22)
the field mmf found from the no-load curve (see Fig. 55-3);
if the r esistive-inductive load is sufficiently larg e, it may
be som ewh at small er t ha n t hat mmf.
In Fi gs. 55-3 and 55-4 , I f (or E f) is found for th e generat-
or mod e of operation and a r esistive-inductive load.
A similar procedure m ay be used to det ermine If in any
other operat ing mode specified in t erms of the firs t set of
defining qu an tities (V , I and rp). If th e mode of operation
is specifi ed in terms of any other set of three defining quanti-
ties, nam ely: (2) V, (P , I f (3) (P, I , I f and (4) V , I, If '
t he fourth unk nown quantity will h ave to be found in
a more complicated manner.
Taking th e secon d set as an exa mple, several values of
I are taken arbitrarily, and for each (with V and (P fixed
in adva nce ) t he d.c, fi eld current, I f ' is found. Then an
If = f (I) curve is pl otted , and th e value of I corresponding
to t he assume d va lue of I f found from th at curve. With the
third set of defining quantities, sev eral values of V ar e
t ak en arbitrarily , an d with t he fourth set , sever al va lue s
of (p. The remaind er of the pro cedure is the same as has
been just explained .
(55-26)
Fig. 55-8 Deter minat ion of the fie ld mmf in a saturated sa lie nt-po le
synchronous mac hine (wi th allo wance for varia ti ons in fie ld lea kage
flux on load )
/ Z
/
where Xad, s and X aq,s are th e sat ura ted inductive react-
ances, and X a d and X a q are their values obta ined negl ecting
sa t ura t ion .
Us ing X ud ,s and X" q , s, we ma y write the resp ective
mulual emf's
. .
E ad = -jX ad ,s! d
and . .
E aq = - j X a q ,s! q
induced by ! d and !q in a saturated m achine . Us ing E a d
and E " q and also th e Iin earized no-l oad charac ter is tic,
E j = f (F 0)' we ca n readil y determine the eq uiv alen t mmf,
F a dm and F a qnll with all ow-
ance for sat uration (Fi g . 5.5-8 . 1.0 .; :---
and 55-9). Now , we need
r---.. -J ~~
-
0.8
not calcula te r-; F qm ' !t a d '
~?'" r-,
and k a q . 0.6
If the m agn etization ch a-
0.4 I
r acteristics and the radia l ga p
~'l d/ -:
--
length of a machine are no t 0.2
known, then the va lues of ~ I
d and q can be found by o f..---- Er
reference to th e normalized 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 7.1 1.2 1.3
no-load and magn etization
curves of asa lien t-pole mach ine Fig. 55- 10 P lots of cf' q and
in Fi g . 53-8 . Assuming also qd as functio ns of E r
t ha t the ma chine h as th e rela-
t ive ai r-gap dim ensions typi cal of salient-pole machines , na -
mely 8 m /8 = 1.5 , 8m /8' = 1.4 , and 8' IT = 0 .03, we can write
d and '1 as fun ctions of the res ultant mutua l emf, E,. (on
a per-unit ba sis) . The plots of d and q as fun ctions of
E r shown in Fi g . 55-10 h av e been constructed , us ing the
pl ot s of d and q as fun ctions of k z a (see F ig . 55-7) and
the normaliz ed no-lo ad characte r istic (see Fig. 53-8) from
wh ich k z a = f (E r) h as been det ermined. Consid ering
E qs . (55-28) and (55-29) together, F q d tn can be expressed
in terms of F a q m :
(55-31)
where qd = k q cfT/ k a qO' q is a dim ensionl ess factor . For
a sal ien t-pole m achine havin g a norm al no-load curve and
typical air-gap dim ensions, qd dep ends sol ely on E r . A plot
of th is dep end ence is shown in Fig. 55-10.
19 - 02 40
Part Five . Synchronous Machine s
field set up by 1 q
.
X aq,s = saturated value of the q-axis mutual
inductive reactance of the armature,
as defined in Eq. (55-30)
. .
The resultant d-axis mmf, F l rd , corresponding to E rd
and leading the latter by 900 , is the sum of all mmfs acting
along the d-axis:
. . . .
F l rd = F li + Fadm + F qdm (55-33)
Equation (55-33), which is the, d-axis mmf equation, con-
tains the mmfs found neglecting the rotor mmf:
Fl i , which is always acting in the same direction as Fl rd
.-""Fadm, which is in line with f~, and
, F qdm . which is always in electrical
. quadrature lagging
with E r d and in opposition to Flf.
The on-load leakage flux, cD i a , corresponds to the field
mmf, Flf = Fi m - F2' on the cD i a = f (F I ) curve. The
rotor mmf, F 2 , is found with reference to the <1>2 = f(F 2 )
curve, from the flux at a rotor pole
. . .
" cD 2 . cD rd m + cDi a (55-34)
The total on-load field mmf is given by
.
. Fi m =
. + F.
F li 2 (55-35)
eh. 55 Electromagnetic Processes on Load 291
sequ en ce of .g ra ph ic al cons~ruction s is t h e sa me as it wa s
in th e pr ev iou s cas e. It differs from the sequen ce shown
in Fig. 55-8 onl y in tha t E rtl is used to find directly t h e
resultant d-axis mm f , F r rl ll ll whi ch a p p ro x ima te ly all ows for
th e rotor mrnf 3S well and is then used to d etermine th e total
field m rnl . . . .
Ffm = F r dm - F adm - F q dm.
Fig . 56-1 Energy conversio n in a synchro nous ma chine (in the gene-
ra tor mod e of operation) :
1-arm a ture (stat or); 2-field s truc tu re (rotor); 3-exciter (d. c, gene-
ra tor )
1
equ ivale n t circuit of Fi g.
Rc RL jX L 56-2 to ca rry E ,.. Then ,
j Pe = InIR eI 5 = InIEi-lR e
(56-7)
Fig . 56-2 Phasor diagram and equi -
wh er e I e = PellnlE ,. is the
valent circuit of a sa tura te d sy n-
chronous machine (with allowance additional current in the
for core losse s) arm ature winding , which
is in line with E ,. .
Be-writing Eq . (56-13) subject to Eq . (5 6~7) gives
P~m = mIl (V cos W + JR) + m~E.,.Ic
Ch. 56 En ergy Conversion
and noting th a t
v cos <p -+ L; = E ,. cos 13,.
and
I cos ~,. + I e = l' cos ~;.
we ge t
P e m = !nIE,.!' cos ~;. (56-8)
Using Eq . (56-8), we can write P e m transferred across
th e air gap to the stator , in terms of the armature quanti-
ti es , namel y th e resultant mutual emf E ,. , the armature
current l' adjus ted for t he a ddit ion al curren t I e asso ciated
with the core loss es , P e :
t: = 11 (t ; + I cos ~ ,.) 2 + (I sin ~ ,.) 2
and the cosine of the ang le B;' between E,. and 1':
cos B; = (I cos B,. + I e )/1'
As is seen, usin g Eq. (56-8), we can find the electrom agnet-
ic pow er in a saturated or an unsaturated synchronous
ma chine , onc e E ,., I, cos B,. and P e hav e been det erm in ed
for th e spec if ied mode of operation as ex pla ine d in Chap . 55.
It may be adde d that , give n E ,. or cD ,., th e arma t ure (stator)
core loss P e can be found from t he sa me equa tions as for
an induction ma chine (see Sec. 40- 3) .
As alread y noted, the elec tromagne t ic power transferred
to th e s tat or is t ho sum of two terms, nam el y
P el = P + P ell l = mIE,.I cos ~,.
and
P; = !nIE"!e
vVe may treat P el as th e pow er expended to move the sur-
face current Al equ ivalen t t o the armature cur re nt I, at
an ang ular v eloci ty Q . Likewi se, P ; ma y be t reate d as t he
power expe nde d to mov e th o surf ace curre nt A le equ iva len t
to I e, at an a ngula r ve lo ci ty Q .
Th e elect romagne tic tor q ue, T e m , acting on th e stator
(see Fi g. 56-1) is produced by the interaction of the resu ltant
mutual field having a flux cJ)rn" with th e s ur face current
A; equivalent t o the armature curren I,
. . .
I' = I + Ie
298 Par t Five. Synchron ous Machines
follows from
Tall = i dL
2
ll / dy
(at fixed armature current) th e torqu e T a a acts in th e direc-
tion of displacem ents ell' such l.ha t tlie armature induct-
ance L l1 in creases and dL lI >
> O. As a result, the cl-axis
of the rotor is forced to align
itself wi th th e axis of the
armature field . i
Figure 5G-4 shows a p has-
01' diagram for a synchronous
machine operating as a gene-
rator into a resistive-capaci-
tive load (cp< 0) at ~ < O. fia
Irrespective of the field
curren t , T a f in t h e generator Text
mode is always positive and
acts on the rotor in a direction
opposite to the direction of Ri
rotation . The torque r.; in
th e case of a resistiv e-indu c-
tive load (cp > 0, ~ > 0) is
negative , whereas in the case
of a r esistive-capacitive load Fig . 56-4 Determining the elec-
tro magne tic t or que componen ts
(rp < 0) at ~ <0 it is positive . for a salient-pole unsaturated
Formally, this is associat- machine operating into a r esi s-
ed wi th the change of sign ti ve-ca paci ti ve load ([3 < 0)
by the resistiv e componen t,
R a , of the mutual impedance , which is positive at ~ >0
and negative at ~ < O.
57 Characteristics of
a Synchronous G enerator
Supplying an Isolated Load
!.l J 1 Operaf' on of a Synchronoals Generator
int o a n Isolated! load
The op erating' con d it ions of a synchronous generator sup-
plying an isolated load vary according to the nature of
that load.
302 Pa rt Five. Syn chronous Machines
A famil y of exc i tat ion ch ara c ter ist ics for a sy nchronous
gen erator at va rio us lo ad angles is shown in Fi g. 57-1.
With a r esistive-inductive load (cp > 0), the armature
mmf has a dema gn etizing effec t, and th e fi eld current must
be raised so as t o mai n tain
the desi red terminal vol tage.
The largest incr ease in field
current occurs in th e case
of a purely ind ucti ve load
(cp = 00), and t ho leas t , in
t he case ofa pur el y resistive
lo ad (rp = 0). .
This can be born e out qu a-
li ta t ively by reference to the
simple voltage phasor dia-
gram in Fi g. 57-2a (negl ecting
sa turat ion an d saliency, as I
explaine d in Sec. 55-1) , at o
cp = 37. The lo cus of I is
the line 1'-2'- 3', th e locus of
E f is the line 1-2-3 . As is
seen , at cp > 0 , an increase in I Fig . 57-1 Cont rol character-
istics, I f = f( I), of a sync hro -
is accompanied by a conti- nous generator a t V R , QR and
nuous ri se in E , or I f (on the rp held consta nt:
excitation character ist ic in - - negl ecting sa tur atio n;
Fig . 57-1 for cp = 37, the - - _ . wi th allowance for sa-
numerals 1, 2 and 3 label the tur ation
sa me poin ts as in Fig . 57-2a).
The effect of load on fi eld current gr ows in proport ion to
the ind uctive reactance
Fig. 57-2 Constr uc tion of exc ita tion cha rac teris ti cs
Ef,oc<?--- - - o
ViI = 1 Q - - - - I -!f
= I:,:sc,ocF*f,oe (57-6)
* Some authors define the SCR as the ratio of the field current
producing rated voltage on open circuit to the field current producing
rated short-circuit current,- Translator's note.
314 Part Fiv e. Synchronous Machines
C 1.0
t
o
sin~=(Xq-Xc)/l!(Xq- Xc)2= 1
At Xc> X qs it has a magnetizing effect! because
sin ~ = - 1
318 Part Fi ve. Synchronous Machines
and
~ = -n/2
o 7.D I
It is assumed that R =
gram, Fi g. 57-9, of an unsaturated , salient-pole machine.
and X d > X c> X q' Obviously,
. .
self-excitation will lead to V = (R L [X c ) I only if the
. . . -
VE
o 1.0 I
Using Eq. (55-15) and findin g cos B and sin B from the
specified load resistance an d reactance :
cos B= RT"
V (X c - X q)2+ R t
X q-X c
sin B= <. 0
V (X c -X q)2+ R t
58 Parallel Operation
of Synchronous Machines
58-1 Parallel Operation of Synchronous Generators
in an Electric System
Mechanical energ y is conv erted to electricity predominantly
by syn chronous machines. In the Sovi et Un ion , about 85%
of th e total comes from the steam-turbine gener at ors instal-
led at fu el-fired stations, about 15 % by hydro-electric
. ..
the same as the direction of V s and is shown in the figure
by an arrow. Then E f (or V) supplied by G will be positive,
when it is directed from X to A, as shown in Fig. 58-2.
With the switch (usually a circuit-breaker) Sw open, G
is running on an open circuit, and the emf existing between
the phase contacts of the switch is
I1E
. = Ef + Vs (58-1)
.
which is a function of E f and of its phase relative to Vs'
given by the angle a in Fig, 58-3 . If, before the gen lrator G
Ch. 58 Parallel Operation 327
ZL = RL + jX L, so the frequency
1= pQf2n
and the voltage (at a given load impedance) ar e solely de-
cided by the power supplied by t he prime mover (a turbine),
fs=const
lre~dP) J, I ~=-V=cunst
J/own- J t GV
UP-E-]
- j IIr(UQ
t ~
Down Up
Let us 't ake a closer look a t th e fact ors that affect th e act iv e
an d r eactive power of a sa lient-pole synchronous machine
connecte d to an infinite bus, that is , as before , a large-capa-
city system for whi ch constant frequency , Is, and constant
volt age , V s , m ay be assum ed . "
The tw o powers are fun ctions of th e arm at ur e current
.
I, and the phase ang le bet ween I and the gene r at or voltage,
. -
V= - V s , ' J
P = Jn1VI cos (p
(58-5)
Q ...:... Jn1VI sin cp
332 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
In turn, j is a function of i,
and the spatial position of the
rotor relative to Vs, defined by the angle 8 between the
V Ii phasor and the q-axis.
In an unsaturated synchronous machine, I is determined
. ..
by V = - Vs, E f , and the phase angle 8 between them (with
E aligned with the negative direction of the q-axis). On
open circuit, 8 = O. Under the
action of an external torque,
Text, the rotor takes up a
position, or angle 8, at which
T em balances T ext. Therefore,
a study into the transients
associated with parallel ope-
ration can markedly be simpli-
d fied, if we express the active
and reactive powers as func-
tions of V = Vs, E f , and tI:
P = f (V, s; tI)
Q = f (V, s., tI)
Fig. 58-7 Active and reactive
powers expressed in terms ofTo begin with, let us con-
V, Ej, and 8 sider the active power. Noting
that rp = ~-8, we can write
P defined by Eq. (58-5) as a function of tI, I d and I,! as
" m 1 V2 (Xd-Xq) .
P = 2 (Xd Xq+R2) SIll 28
The component P' arises when the saturation factor, eot
is nonzero. So it is the power that would additionally be
delivered to the line at V at a nonzero e.
The component P" arises from the interaction of an un-
excited salient-pole rotor with the currents that are produced
in the armature winding due to V. These currents can be
found from Eqs. (58-7) and (58-8) at e = O. So it would be
developed owing to saliency (X d =1= X q) by a synchronous
machine connected to a line with V at a given angle 8,
if it were unexcited (e = 0) , because then P' would be zero.
In a nonsalient-pole machine, X d = X q = Xl ' and P " is
nonexistent.
It is worth while noting that R needs to be accounted for
only in the design of fractional-hp ma chines wh ere it plays
an important rol e. In large machines, it is legitimate t o put
R = 0, because the armat ure winding has a negligibly small
resistance (R ~ X q < X d)' Then ,
P = P' + P" = P ern = Tern Q (58-10)
where
P' = m 1 V 2B sin 0
Xd
P" = mr;2(1IX q-1/X d)sin 28
Par t Five. Synchronous Machines
X [eR+(Xdsin8-Rcos8)] (58-15)
In the above equations, both P af and P aa are functions of
the excitation factor, e = Ef/V. In investigating parallel
operation, it is convenient to write the electromagnetic power
and the electromagnet ic torque each as a sum of two
t erms, one of which (T~m or P~m=QT~m) depends on e,
and the other (T~m or P~m = QT~m) is independent of e.
Then,
(58-16)
where
P~m = QT~m = Paa(=O)
m V2 (Xa-X )
= (~aXq +R 2): (XelsinO-RcosO) (Xqcos0+Rsin0)
(58-17)
P~ m = QT~m = P a ] + Paa- Paa(=O)
(Xel;:~~~ 2)2 [(X~Xd +2R2X d-XqR 2) sin 0
+ R (X qX el -2Xg - R2) cos 8+ eH (xg-R2)] . (58-18)
P = TemQ
If P or Tern is varied so that
If remains constant, then (ne-
glecting saturation), E f will
likewise remain constant, and
of all the quantities governing
the operating conditions, only
the power angle 8 will be
varying. Fig. 58-8 Power/angle and
torque/angle curves of a salient-
The plot of P or Tern as a pole synchronous machine (VR =
function of the power angle 8 = 1.0, Ef, R= '1.77, ' X d = 1.0,
for constant V s, Is, and If (in X q = 0.6, PR = cos erR = 0.8)
an unsaturated machine, E f
is constant) is called the power versus power angle or torque
versus power angle characteristic or curve of a synchronous
machine.
The active power versus power-angle characteristic of a
synchronous machine (with R = 0 and neglecting saturation)
appears in Fig. 58-8. When drawn to a different scale, it is
22-0240
338 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
range - n < 8 < n), In Fig. 58-9, only the part of the
characteristic corresponding to the generator mode of opera-
tion is shown.
At first glance, it may appear that the conditions at points
1 and 2 are identical. However, although Tern and P =
= T em Q = m 1 VI cos <p are the same in either case, there is
a lot of difference in other respects. Because 8 at points 1
and 2 takes on different values (see Fig. 58-9) , the armature
current I at those points will have a different magnitude
and a different phase angle, but its projections on I cos CP.
will be the same. What is more important is that the depar-
ture of 8 from its value at points 1 and 2 produces opposite
effects. An increase in 81 by il8 results in an increase in the
electromagnetic torque, whereas an increase in 8 2 by il8 re-
sults in a decrease in the electromagnetic torque. Also, an
increase in 81 leads to an increase, whereas an increase in
8 2 , to a decrease in the active component of current. At
81 and 8 2 , the emf E f and the current I are shown by dashed
lines; at the angles 8 -+ il8 , by full lines.
Because of the above differences, the operation at point
1 is stable, because the machine is capable of going back to
a stable running (that is, in synchronism with the system)
in spite of chance departures in the associated operating va-
riables. In contrast, the operation at point 2 is unstable,
because the machine is no longer capable of counteracting the
departures in its operating variables.
Let us demonstrate that the operation at point 1 is stable.
Suppose that some chance factors have caused 81 to increase
by il8, whereas Ted, V, is, and If have all remained unchang-
ed. Then the electromagnetic torque will be Tern -+ ilT em,
where
ilT em = (aT em/(8) il8
is the positive change in the electromagnetic torque, ilT em >
> O. Obviously, this upsets the balance of torques that exist-
ed in the steady state and, as follows from the equation of
motion for the rotor,
Te ~t -(Tern -+ ilT em) = JdQ/dt
- ilT ern = JdQ/dt (58-27)
the excess torque, il Tern, which acts against the direction
of rotation, gives rise to a negative acceleration, or decele-
342 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
ration, give n by
dWdt = - /1T em/J
As a result , the an gul ar v elo cit y of the rotor decreases
t
Q=Qs+ \ (dQ /d t) d t<Qs
..J
o
The angular ve locity of th e ro to r, wi th E , acting al ong its
q-axis, will likewise decrease, so t h at
<
.
Because V = .- V
. (0 (Os
A plot of t s as a function of 8 for the generator mode of
operation appears in Fig. 58-9. As is seen, at < 8 < 8 m ax
t, > 0, and the operation is stable. In contrast, at 8 m ax <
< 8 <:Tt, t, < 0, and the operation is unstable. Sustained
tween 8 =
operation in the generator mode can only take place be-
and S = 8 ma x . The higher the synchronizing
torque, the more stable is the operation, and it is increasing-
ly more difficult for the machine to slip out of synchronism
with the system (or bus) voltage. The best stability exists
when the machine is floating on line, that is, neither deli-
vers nor absorbs power; then i, = t s ma x ' As the electromag-
netic torque or active power increases, the synchronizing
torque decreases. At Tern = Tem .max and P = P ma x , the syn-
chronizing torque is zero , and the machine is no longer cap-
able to &,0 back to stable o:peration of it~ own accord.
344 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
<
The operation in the gen erator mode is stable at < 0
8ma x , and also at 8 + 2:n;k, where k is an integer. The
operation in the motor mode is stable at - 8 ma x < 8 < 0,
and also at 8 + 2:n;k.
As we have seen, sustained operation in the unstable re-
gion of the characteristic (say, at point 2) is impossible. Even
a slight , inadvertent change in e will cause it to decrease pro-
gressively until (as the rotor slows down) the machine moves
in the stable region at point 1. Conversely, a chance increase
in 8 at point 2 will cause it to rise until (as the rotor picks
up speed) the machine moves in the stable region at point 3.
As is seen, 8 3 differs from 81 by 2:n; which corresponds to the
rotation of the rotor relative to the stator voltage by 2:n;/p
(or by two poles, see Fig. 58-10).
The active power of a synchronous machine can be control-
led by varying Text. At Tex t = 0, the machine is operating
at no load, e = 0, and Tern = f (8)=Q. An increase in
T ext in the direction of rotation of the rotor upsets the ha-
.I ance of torques (Text =f= Tern), so that an acceleratio..Q. j.~
Ch. 58 Parallel Operation 345
Qmax _
-
ml VR (Ef. R- VR)
Xd
>
Or , in per-uni t , as in Fi g. 58-11 ,
Q .= Q ./S =V*(E",f - V *)
* ma x ma x R X ,j'd
When T ext > 0, the machine is deliv ering act ive power
to the system. When T ext < 0 , it is absorbing acti ve power
from the system. Posi tive va lues of P correspond t o positive
values of 8; negative va lues of P correspond to negative va -
lu es of 8. As is seen from Figs . 58-8 and 58-11, an increase
in active load and 8 leads to a decrease in reactive power.
This decre ase sol ely dep ends on th e absolute value of act ive
power and e and is t he sa me in both the generato r and motor
mod es of operation:
Q (8) = Q (-e) , P (e) =-P (-e)
Under ra ted operating conditions, when P = P R , cosrp
= cos CPR (= 0. 8) and 8 = eR , the machine delivers ra t ed
re active power , QR = sincpR = 0. 6. At 8 0 (-eo), the
reactiv e power is zero . As act ive power ke eps rising (in ab-
solut e value), the reactive power becom es negative, t ha t is,
the machine absorbs it from the system.
If
field current is If < If(cosrp= 1), and its reactive current is ne-
gative, I; < 0, that is, it is leading the voltage.
At overexcitation, the system acts as an inductive load
for the machine (the reactive current in the armature bucks
the excitation field). At underexcitation, the system acts as
a capacitive load for the machine (the reactive current in
the armature boosts the excitation field). If we look at the
things the other way around, relative to the system with
Vs = - V which is in antiphase with the machine voltage,
an overexcited machine acts as a capacitive load delivering
reactive power, whereas an underexcited machine acts as
an inductive load which absorbs reactive power (see Fig.
58-13).
A decrease in excitation leads to a decrease in the steady-
state stability limit which for a nonsalient-pole machine is
given by P ma x = m1EfV/X d The underexcitation region is
bounded by line AB to the left of which a synchronous ma-
chine is unstable. On line AB (say, at point 3'), P m a x he-
comes equal to the constant P level for which a given "V"-
curve has been constructed.
For the motor mode of operation , "V"-curves are plotted
in a similar manner, except that the active component of
current is drawn in the opposite direction from the voltage,
t, < 0.
the pumps which transfer water from the lower to the upper
reservo ir.
Three-phase synchronous motors in the Soviet Union come
in ratings from 20 kW to several tens of megawatts . At speeds
from 100 to 1 000 rpm, mo-
tors usually have a salient-
pole rotor. At hi gher speeds
(1500 and 3 000 rpm), the rotor
is of nonsalient-pole construc-
tion. Depend ing on their rat-
ings, synchronous motors can
be built for voltages from 220
V to 10 kV. The rotational
spee d of a synchronous motor
depends on the supply-line fre -
quency and is in depen dent of
the load applied to the motor
shaft.
Given the same power rating
and rpm, synchronous motors
are identical in construction to
synchronous generators. The
only exception is the design
of their damper (starting)
windings with which synchro-
nous motors can be started as Fig. 58-15 Voltage phasor dia -
induction un its where neces- gram of a salient-pole synchro-
sary . nous machine operating as a
The electromagnetic proces- motor (negl ecting sa turation)
ses occurring in synchronous
motors are described by the same equations, phasor and vec-
tor diagrams as in synchronous generators (see Chap . 55).
As an example, Fig. 58-15 shows the phasor and vector dia-
gram of an overexcited, salient-pole synchronous motor (ne-
glecting saturation) . It differs from the phasor and vector
diagram of a synchronous generator (see Fig . 55-2) only in
that the active component of armature current is drawn in
. . .
the opposite direction from V, and is in line with V s = - V.
As in an overexcited generator, 1/" lags behind V by n/2
an d leads V s by n/2 .
The torque, active and reactive power of a synchronous
moto r are calculated by the equations derived for a synchro-
352 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
tion of the eddy currents in the solid iron parts with the
rotating magnetic field.
The performance of a synchronous motor started as an
induction motor can be stated in terms of the starting torque,
T s, at s = 1, and the pull-in torque which is defined as the
torque at s = 0.05 and designated as T o.o5 Sometimes,
these torques and current are given as fractions of the rated
torque and current in synchronous running (see below) .
As has been noted in Sec . 37-2, the principal dimensions,
weight and cost of a synchronous motor depend on its total
(or apparent) power
S R = PR/TJR cos CPR
and increase with decreasing power factor. As is seen from
Table 58-1, a synchronous motor operating at unity power
factor is by a mere 17 % more expensive than a comparable
squirrel-cage induction motor, whereas at cos cP = 0.8,
it is 44% more expensive . On the other hand, a synchronous
motor operating at unity power factor does not generate re-
active power, that with cos rp = 0.8 leading does generate
a sizeable amount of reactive power equal to about 75 %
of the active power. Unfortunately, at cos cP = 0.8, the ef-
ficiency is lower. Synchronous motors capable of supplying
reactive power make it possible to reduce the reactive power
of unit synchronous generators (those . installed at electric
stations) and of synchronous condensers.
Table 58-1 Comparison of Synchronous and Induction Motors,
1000 kW, 1000 rpm
Q = VIr> 0
59 Synchronization Methods
59-1 Exact Synchronization
In order to conn ect any synchronous machine in parallel
with another machine or a system, it must be synchronized,
that is, the speed of its rotor must be brought up to synchro-
Ch. 59 Synchronization Methods 359
(59-2)
where
2
WaY = 000 +---;t (wm a x - (00) = Ws (1-s av )
is the average angular velocity over the interval, and
2
Say = So + n (Smax - So)
is the relative slip corresponding to Wav '
Ch, 59 Synchronization Methods 365
I 'I: so = I so'II R ~
- (P/06 ) .. ,/SRI*s'l'*f
. ())R V ffiRJ
bel' of pol e pairs , the incoming genera tor will set in motion at
the velocity of the servo generator equal to Q soplp s'
(2) After Gs comes up to its rated angular velocity, Q s,R =
wRlps, and to its rated frequency, is = iR = Qs,RPs/2n ,
the incoming generat or , held in synchronism by elect ric al
conpling between the rotors, comes up to its rated velocity,
QR = wRlp .
60 Instability of Synchronous
Machines in Parallel Operation
60-1 Free Oscillations of the Rotor Following
a Sudden Change in External Torque
When a m achine is oper ating in parallel with anothe r ma-
chine or a sys t em, for each sy nchrono us steady st at e ther e is a
certa in definite an gul ar position t ha t t he r otor t akes up r ela-
tive t o the r otating fi eld . This positi on is described in ter ms
of t he lo ad (torque or di sp lacem ent) angle, 8, wh ich is the
. ,
sa me as th e ang le between "lff m and "lf v m (see Fi g. 59-2).
At constant V s and I f , eac h v alue of T ext corresp ond s to a
certain definit e v alue of 8 on the power- an gl e cha rac teristic
of th e m achine (see Sec. 58-6). An y cha nge in t he qu antities
that gov ern the power an gl e inevitably leads to a change in
the position of the rotor r elative to the rotating fi eld. The
response of 8 to such cha nges is usu ally oscillatory. Oscilla-
tions of 8 about its new va lue are acco mpan ied by oscilla-
t ions in the angu lar velo city of t he rotor, arm ature current ,
electromagnet ic to rque, and active and reactive power .
We sha ll limit ou r di scussion to small oscillations of th e
rotor. Th en L\8 , the d evi ations of 8 fro m its initi al va l ue,
8 0 , will be so small that
sin a ~ a = 8 - 8 0
where a desi gnates th e deviation, L\8.
Suppose that initially (at t < 0), the m achine is operating
as a genera t or at V s , T ex t .u balanced by T ern . u- synchronous
velocity (Os , and 8 = 8 0 , Then th e arma tur e cur re nt * will
be
. . .
1 0 = E, - V/ jX 1
In Fi g. 60-'1, the positions of the ro t or aud all the ph asors
and vectors in vol ved are sho wn at t ~ 0 by full li nes , and on
th e power-an gle cha ra cteristic the initial operating concli-
tions correspond to poin t 1 . At t = 0 , the ext ern al torqu e
suddenly increases hy L\ T ext to becom e
T ex t = T ex t , 0 + L\ T ex t
t: =((8)
"!~XI./Tem,o
8
E jV sin 60
CG = CG oo
x, 1/ Ey+ V 2- 2VEj cos 60
the characteristic equ ation has real roots, and the machine
goes to a new steady state at 8 eo = 8 0 + Cleo aperiodi-
cally.
'" = Cilmax-Cilmln
1':
Cil s = 2 (I( a/C'I)t max / ffis
= 2T ext. vp/ffivffisJ
where ffi max = ffis + (da/dt)max
ffimin = ffis - (da/dt)max
When a synchronous generator is supplying a lighting
load, the moment of inertia for its rotor must be chosen such
that ~ < 0.01 to 0.005. Failure to meet this requirement will
cause flicker unpleasant and tiring to the eye.
When a synchronous generator is connected to an infinite
bus or system (as in Fig. 58-6), which implies constant Vs
and constant fs' the amplitude of the vth-harmonic oscilla-
Ch. 60 In stability in Pa rall el Operation 385
2 II IV
strongly depends on the ratio )/ '\
of 00 0, the natural fr equency 1
of rotor oscillation, to OO v , the <, (,JoIUJIJ
frequency of oscillation of the o 2 J
vth-harmonic of external
torque (Fig. 60-3). Fig . 60-3 Plot of ~v =
. At ooo/oov~1,theamplitude =amaxlao .max as a fun ction of
of oscillations of the power (D ol (D v:
angle in ope ration into an l - a t . D = 0; 2 - a t D =
infinite system, = ~ V ; tslp > 0
a max = Svao ,max ~ a omax
is the same as with the m achine serving an isolated load.
In this case, the motion of the rotor is mainly governed by
its inertia, and the s ynchronizing torque plays a minor
role ' .
tseG -e; (J/p ) (d 2a/dt2
)
25-0 2 40
386 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
61 Unbalanced Operation
of Synchronous Machines
61- 1 An Outline of Unbalanced Op eration
Unbalanced operation is a frequent occurrence in the use of
synchronous m achines. It may arise from internal causes,
such as damage which upsets t he symmetry of the arm ature
winding, and from extern al caus es, su ch as lack of symmetry
and balance in the load or the system to which a given syn-
chronous'j'machine is conn ect ed. .
In this section, we shall limit ourselves to steady-state
unbalanced conditions arising sol ely from the dissymmetry
or unbalance of the system to which the machine is conn ected.
In all cases, it will be assume d that the three-ph ase arm ature
winding of the machine is well balanced and symmetric.
If not otherwise qualified, it will be assumed t hat the wind-
ing is star-connected.
In the case of an isolated load , current unbalance can arise
from a difference in load impeda nce between the generator
phases. This form of unb al anc e also includ es various exter-
nal unbalanced short-circuits (a t wo- or a single-phase fault
to ground, etc.) , when t he r esistance betwe en the shorted
points falls to zero.
L I n operation into an infinite system, current unb alance
between the generator phases may occur owing to voltage
unbalance in the system (in turn caused by an unequal
sharing of load among the phases) , or owing to various unba-
lanced faults in t he system 's parts (transmission lines, trans -
formers , etc .). .
The unbalanced conditions arising in a synchronous ma-
chine can conveniently be analysed by the m ethod of sym -
metric components. In the genera l case , when the arma tu re
winding is star-connect ed with t he neutral point brought out,
the arma t ure carr ies all the t h ree sets of sym metric curren t
componen ts, na mel y positive , negative, and zero.
. . . . ..
Th e positive-sequence set of cur rents in the armature phases
(II = I AI. I Bl = I lA a 2 , and I ci = I Ala) produces a fun-
25*
388 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
. .
lci a = I Ai da
The q-axis mmf is produced by the positive-sequence set
of q-axis currents
. .
I AIq = I Al cos ~ exp (j~)
. .
I BIq = I A I qa
2
. .
I CIq = I AIqa
.
The negative-sequ ence set of currents in the armature ph a-
. . . . .
ses (1 2 = 1 A 2 , 1 B2 = 1 A 2 a, 1 C 2 = 1 A 2 a2 ) produces
a fundam ental mmf, fr 2m ' rot at ing at Q 2 = 2nj/p = - Qt
in the direction of negative ph ase sequence (from phase A
to phase C to ph ase B).
If the rotor of a synchronou s machine is m agnetically
and electrically symmetrical and balanced, which is true,
for example, of the polyphase (m2 >
2) , squirrel-cage rotor
of an induction machine , the negat ive-sequence impedance
of the armature winding can be det ermined by reference t o
the equiv alent circui t of an ind uctio n machine in Fig. 42-3.
As will be rec all ed, at syn chronous speed the rotor slip , 8 1 ,
relative to the positive-seq uence curre nts is zero. Therefore,
in calculating the negative-sequen ce impedance, the rotor
slip relative to the negative-sequence field must be taken as
2 - 8 = 282 =
This can readily be pro ved , because
82 = (Q 2 - Q})/Q 2 = (Q 2 +Q 2)/Q 2 = 2
Assume that the rotor is of the nonsalient-pole d esign, the
field winding is open-circuited , and the damper is an elec-
trically~ symmetric, equ al-pitch , short-circuited winding.
Let us adopt for the equivalent circuit in Fi g. 42-3 the nota-
390 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
Z2 = R 2 + jX 2 = R + jXa+ 1/jXa+1/(0~5R~c+jX~c)
If Xa~ X~c > O.5R~c, then approximately we may write
R2 = R + O.5R~c > R
X2 = x ; + X~c~ Xl
As is seen from the above equations, the negative-sequence
reactance of the armature is substantially smaller than the
positive-sequence reactance . This is because the negative-
sequence field is bucked by the currents induced in the dam-
per winding. The currents in the damper winding hinder the
penetration of the magnetic field into the rotor core which
has a low reluctance, and crowd it outside the damper-
winding loop where it sees the high reluctance presented by
the nonmagnetic gaps and clearances. These same gaps and
clearances complete the path for the damper-winding leak-
age flux defined in terms of X~c' Because of this, the nega-
tive-sequence impedance is equal to the sum of X tJ and X~c'
In contrast, the negative-sequence resistance is higher
than the positive-sequence resistance, because it is associat-
ed not only with the copper losses in the armature winding,
P e u = mRI~
but also with the electromagnetic power transferred across
the gap to the rotor
P em ~ (mR~c/8) I~
which should be found for the braking mode of operation.
The-rotor copper losses, P e u2 = rnR~cI: are made up for by
the P em supplied from the stator side and by an ~equal me-
chanical power input
I Pm 1= mR~cn 1(1 - 8)/8 I = Peln
coming from the rotor's side.
Ch. 61 Unbalanced Operation 391
+- (0.5Ri +- jXicrt r 1 1
(61-2)
. The q-axis field set up by F2 '1m corresponding to the rms
current 1 2 '1 or the instantaneous currents iA2~' i B 2 '1 and
i C 2 '1 (in the figure, i A 2 '1 = 0), is solely bucked by the cur-
rent induced in the q-axis loop of the damper winding,
i sc . '1' and is nearly completely crowded out of that loop
(see Fig. 61-1b). The impedance ZZq= R 2q+jX 2'l
that the armature presents to the negative-sequence currents
1 2 q that set up the q-axis field can be found from theequi-
valent circuit at the bottom of Fig. 61-2. .
ZZq = R +- jXcr + [UX a'1t 1 + (0.5R sc. '1 + jX~c, qt r
1 1
(61-3)
In a salient-pole machine, "the d- and q- axis negative-
sequence impedances and their resistive and inductive com
ponen ts differ from the positive-sequence quantities: .
I Z2d I * I Z2'1 I
R 2d *- R 2 '1
X 2d X 2 '1*
A more detailed analysis would show that the magnetic
and electric dissymetry of the rotor in a salient-pole machine
Ch, 61 Unbalanced Operation 393
and when the rotor is aligned with the field along the q-axis,
the current is
i, - is = i., = - V /Z2 2q
I
are defined as the sum of PS, NS and ZS voltages associated
with currents of the corresponding phase sequences: ..
~ = ~ + ~ +~
A Ai A2 AO
VB = V + V B2 + V no
Bi
(61-7)
. . . .
V C= V Ci + V C2 + V co
where
. .
V BI = V Ala 2
V C I = VAl a
.
V B2 =
.
V A2a
.
V no = V co = V Ao
.
Contributions to the positive-sequence voltage come from
the field set up by the field (excitation) current and the
field set up by the positive-sequence armature currents
rotating at synchronous velocity. The equation for the
positive-sequence voltage is written in the same manner as
for balanced synchronous operation (see Chap. 55). It can
be written with and without iron saturation. If the magnetic
circuit is unsaturated, the phase A positive-sequence voltage
398 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
will be given by
. .
VAl = E Aj - ZII AI
. (61-8)
where
.
E Aj =
.
s,
is the excitation voltage of phase A, and
z, = RI + jX I
(61-'11)
where
. .
Ej - ZII AI = VAl
Equations (61-11) could be used to construct a voltage
phasor diagram for unbalanced load. Unfortunately, it
would be rather cumbersome. It is simpler to construct
a combined voltage phasor diagram for unbalanced load
(as shown in Fig. 61-4) which corresponds to Eqs. (61-12)
deduced from Eqs. (61-11) upon multiplying the second
Iine by d and the third line by a 2 :
V A = Ej-ZliAI-ZziAZ-zoiAO }
a~ B= ~j-Zl~~l- zzaj~z-zoajB.o (61-12)
where
.
Ef -
.
ZII AI = VAl
.
In the case of a balanced load,
. . .
VA = a 11 B = a2 V e = 11 Al
The combined diagram shows how m uch V A' a V /I and
and
XI =X cr +X a
whereas for a salient-pole machine the y can be found fro m
the specified V AI' I A l and <!J, as explained in Chap. 55.
The negative- and zero-s equence currents are
i A2 = - VA2/Z2
and
JAO = - VAolZo
In the rotor circuits, the negative-sequence field induces
appreciable second-harmo nic currents which may lead to
a prohibitive t emperature rise of t he rotor. Th erefo re,
whether or no t a machine can safely be operated at a given
voltage unbalance dep en ds on the magnitude of negative-
sequence currents. For long-term op eration of large m achi nes,
the per-unit negative-sequence current should be less th an
0.1 or 0.2, that is, 1*2 = I 2/IR < 0.1 to 0.2.
A still lower limit is set for the negative-sequence voltage
V,1:2 = I Z*2 I I,~2 < 0.1 I Z*2 I to 0.2 I Z*2 I
= from 0.015 to 0.05
Ch. '61 Unbalanced Operation 401
because usually
I Z*2 I ~ X'I'2 = 0.15 to 0.25
This implies that a synchronous machine can operate in
parallel with a system for a long time only at practically
balanced .voltages, when the negative-sequence voltage is
such that
V*21V*1 = 0.015 to 0.05
The positive-sequence voltage is always very close to its
rated value, that is
V I:l = 1.0
VA=iAZ A)
T> =~BZB (61-13)
Vc=IcZ c
26-0240
402 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
. .. .
Eq. (61-14), becau se V 11 = 0, 1 11 = I e = 0, and E f = E f .
The first step is to write the symmetric components of
currents in t erms of the unknown fault current for phase A
. . . . .
l AO = (I A + I B + I e) /3 = I A I3
. . .. .
I Al = + I Ba + I ea2)/3 = I AI3
(I~4.
i _ 3Ef
A - ZI +Z2+ Z0
(61-16)
I ~ 3Ef
A ~ X1+X 2 +X O
(2) Phase-to-Phase Fault (Fig. 61-5c). In this form of
fault (also known as two-phase fault) the line voltage turns
to zero
. . .
VAB = VB - VA = 0
Also, the fault current in phases A and B is th e same , whereas
phase C remains unaffected:
. .
I B = ;- I A
Ie = 0
The symmetric components of currents may be written in
terms of fault current as
. l' .
lAO = 3" (I A + I B) = 0
i Ai = 1A
3
(1-a) =(I~/-V3)exp(-j300)
. I '-
I A2 = : (1- a 2) = (IAI -V 3) exp (300)
.. .
I Bi == [A i a 2 = - IA2
.. .
I B2 = I A2a = - I Ai
26* .
404 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
VA = O~ .and VB= 0
The phase C current is zero , Ie = O. The symmetric com-
ponents of currents can be expressed in te rms of an equal
fault current in phases A and B :
. . .
lAO
.
=
. + I B)/3
(I A
.
I Al = (I + aI B)/3
A
j A2 = (i ; + a2j B)/3
. .
Solving the equations for V A = 0 an d V B = 0, derived
from Eqs. (61-11) and neglecting t he resistive components
of ZI' Z2 and Zo, the double phase-to- ground fault current
is found t o be
jEj V3(X2e -j 30 +Xoej30o)
X 1 X 2+X OX 1 +x 2XO
I _ V 3 Ef V X ~+ X iJ+ X2X O (61-18)
A - X IX 2+X OX 1 +X 2XO
Ch. 62 Soviet Synchronous Machine s 405
{{ 62 Synchronous M achines
of Soviet M a nufacture
62-1 Turbogenerators
Th ese are nearly always two -pole , 3000-rpm , horizo nt al-
shaft, nonsali ent-pole machines. Turbogenerators with rat-
ings under 30 MVA use indirect air cooling. Air is circulated
in a closed-circuit ventilation system, abs orbing h eat from
the active parts and giving it up in water-cooled heat
exchangers . A sectional view of an air-cooled turb ogenera t or
is shown in .Fig. 51-12 (see Sec. 51-12 for more detail).
A closed-circuit ventilation system (see Sec. 33-3) may
use not only air , but also hydrogen which compares favour-
ably with other gaseous coolant . With a machine, it is
maintained 97% pure , the remaining 3 % being water va pour
and air. At a pressure of 0.05 X 10 5 Pa (gauge ), this mixture
has a density whi ch is one-ei ghth of that of air. Th e heat
transfer coeffici ent from th e cooling surface to hydrogen
is 1.35 t imes the figure for air, and the thermal conductivity
is about five times that of air. Because of this, ind irect
hyd rogen cooling offers the following advantages.
1. Friction and windage losses are reduced t o ab out one-
eighth . In turbogenerators ra ted at 25 to 100 MW , these
losses account for 25 % to 50 % of the t otal losses, so the
efficiency is improved by 0.9 t o 1.0 %.
2. The temperature gradients due to gas layers in the
insulation""'and also between the insulation and the sl ot
sides are practically non-existent. The heat transfer coef-
ficient of the insulation is improved by about 30% . Coupled
with the improved heat transfer, th is permits the rating
of turbogenerators to be raised by about 20 % for the same
temperature ris e and the sam e dimensions of the stator and
rotor windings.
3. The insulation is more reliable and durable, because
there is no oxidation , dirt or dampness , an d also becaus e
a corona discharge in a hydrogen atmosphere is less det ri-
ment al t o the insulation than' in "air.
.4 . Since hydrogen will not sustain combust ion, there is
no ri sk of a fire breaking out in the windings.
5. Hydrogen cooling systems require sma ller coolers
than for air.
406 Part Fi ve. Synchronous Machines
Fig . 62-2 Seclio na l vi ew ofa 30-MW, 3000-r plll, turbogcnera tor using indirect hydrogen cool ingtal l dimensi ons
in "mrn)
408 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
1760 !7[]0
Table 62-1
Fig. 62-4 Axi al sys tem of dir ect ven t ilation for a turbogenerator
~d ~ 2
- hydrogen . -:--- hydrogen
.-.:-< Liqui d
Fig . 62-5 Multiple-inlet radial system of direct hydrogen cooling for
th e stator cor e and rot or win ding combine d with direc t liquid cooli ng
for the st a tor winding:
1- axial fl ow fan; 2-water-co oled heat-exchan ger ; 3-hi gh- pressure com pa r t-
m en t ;!4 - col d-liquld hea der; 5- ho t - l iq uid header
Fig. 62-9 Turbogenerator with the stator windings directly cooled by water and the rotor winding cooled by hydro-
gen at a pressure of 3.5 X 10 5 Pa (gauge)
,.
414 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
Electric landing,
kA/m:
p ~10 38 45 50 61 67 70
p=/1 32 40 45 4!J 50
p=2 28 32 . 36 41 45
I'
-.
00
~
422 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
-,
...
OJ
Ul
~
OJ
"C
~
0
c.>
Ul
;::l
0
~
0
IIo
~
;;.,
-
(f)
0-
C'1
~
.~
~
424 Part Fi ve. Syn chronous Machines
between the d-axis of the rotor and the axis of the resultant
field, 'I'v, which in this case is solely set up by the armature
current, I.
For its operation, a reluctance motor depends on the dif-
ference in permeance along the d- and q-axis of the rotor,
xs :,
The electromagnetic torque acting on the rotor of a reluct-
ance motor always tends to align its d-axis with the field.
This can be proved by reference to the basic equation of
energy conversion by electric machines
r.; = (dWldY)i=constant
In a reluctance machine,
W '" i 2 L
where L is the inductance of the armature winding and i
is the armature phase current. As the d-axis of the rotor
moves through an angle dy> 0, tending to line up with
the axis of the armature mmf (01' towards the field axis),
the armature inductance goes up
dL>O
because La > L q , and the energy stored by the magnetic
field is incremented by
dW = i2dL
As a consequence,
r.; = (dWldy) > 0
and this implies that the electromagnetic torque is acting
in the direction of dy and tends to line up the d-axis of
the rotor with the field axis. In the motor mode of operation
(Fig. 63-2), when the d-axis of the torque lags behind the
field axis, e < 0, the electromagnetic ' torque operating
on the rotor acts in the direction of rotation, T em < O.
At R = 0 and I e I = n/4, the electromagnetic torque is
a maximum,
r.; max = m~;2 (11X q - 11Xa)
In analyzing fractional-horsepower reluctance motors
(especially, those with ratings of a few watts or less), it
Ch, 63 Special-Purpose Machines 427
2 J 4
10
teeth and the 8 poles. This is the mutual flux. The smaller
proportion of th e total flux goes directly from the N t o
the 8 poles without linking the armature winding. This is
the leakage flux of the field winding.
The best performance is shown by claw-pole machines in
which the ring-shaped winding is stationary. Because such
a design needs neither a sliding contact nor brushgear to
supply the field winding it is called the brushless type.
I
its path basically as shown in the figure, that is, from the N
poles 9, across the gap, to the teeth of the armature core 3
along the yoke and armature teeth, again across the gap
to the S poles 8, through the S pole yoke 7, across the gap
between yoke 7 and end-shield 5, through the end-shield,
the frame 4, the other end-shield 11 , across the gap between
-
Fig. 63-6 Rotor of a brushless, claw-pole synchronous generator
n = Q/2n = j/Z~
Gh. 63 Special-Purpose Machines 437
With a suffi cien tly la rge number of rotor t eeth , very low
sy nchronous spe eds can be obtained. For example , at f =
= 50 Hz and Z" = tOO,
n = 0.5 rps = 30 rpm
If t he numb er of rotor teeth is limited an d the heteropolar
armature winding can be m ade wi th a numb er of pole pairs
clos e t o that of rotor teeth, two modifications of t he smoot h
stator core design can be used , namely :
(1) with he t eropolar (or ra dial) excit at ion (see Sec . 20-4,
"b", Fig. 20-6);
(2) with homopolar (or axial) excit at ion (see Sec . 20-4,
"d", Fi g. 20-8).
If the r ot or has so m any teet h that a smooth stator desi gn
is out of the questi on , resort can be made t o a toothed stator
in an y one of the two modifications discussed above, namely:
(1) w ith het er opol ar (radial) exc itat ion (see Fi g. 63-7
and also Sec. 20-4, "e" , an d Fi g. 20-7);
(2) with homopolar (axial) excit at ion (see Fig. 63-8 ,
Sec . 20-4, "e", and Fi g. 20-9).
The field mo t or dr aws its power from an a .c , supply line
v ia a r ect ifi er . I n self-exc ite d mo t ors , the field wind ing is
energized fro m the armature wind ing by t ra nsformer act ion .
In t h is arrangem ent, the fie ld circuit is clos ed through a rec-
tifier, and transform er cou pli ng is provided by using th e
heterop olar arrangemen t with a pole ratio , P2/PI' equal to
an odd numb er . With both h eteropolar and homopolar
exc it ation , th e exci tat ion fi eld can be produced by suitably
magn etiz ed perm an ent magnet s. The armature winding
can be sing le-, two-, or three-phase . Starting is by direct
connection to t he line.
In addit ion to a ma in (or run) winding , single-phase ind uc-
t or-type moto rs h ave an aux ili ary (or starting) winding con-
nected to th e supply line via a capacitor. To facilitate
starting in whi ch the current s inte r act with the armature
fi eld rota t ing at Q2 = 2n f/P2 whi ch is m any times the rated
sy nchron ous veloc ity of the moto r, Q = 2nf/Z". The v ar i-
ables of the short-circuited win ding must be matched so that
the star tin g to rque excee ds the load (external) t orque , but
is smaller t han the m aximum synchronous (or pull-out)
torqu e . If thi s requirement is not m et, the rotor m ay "skip"
the rated rotational speed . If th e moment of iner tia of the
rot or is not very high, and the synchr onous speed is suffi-
438 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
\
Gh. 63 Special-Purpose Machines 441
tion, it is seen that the rolling torque Tern exc eeds the torque
T e rn l = dW/dl'l
developed when an eccen tric 1'0 tor is carried by b earings
by a factor of D r/(D g - Dr), that is
T ern = [Dr/(D g - Dr)] T ern . 1
The ratio D r/(D g - Dr) , called the mechanical spe ed
reduction ratio, can be as high as 100 or even more. Owing
to this, rollin g-rotor motors can give very low rotational
speeds-from several rpm to te ns of rpm, and l arge torqu es.
A major disadvan tage of rolling-ro tor mot ors is t hat
the centre of gr avity of the ro t or , O, mov es r ound a circle
with a radius 0 t,03 at a very high angular velocity, Ql'
This circular motion of th e centre of grav ity necessitates
the use of suita bly designed coup lings to tran smit ro tation
from the r ot or to the output shaft, and also leads t o vibra-
tion and noise in operation.
Flexible wave-rotor motors. Their distinction is that
their hollow, thin-walled rotor , 4, mad e of a ferromagnetic
where
Yz =
Dr -D g 2rt
Dg
is the angle through which th e rotor turns over a period
of change, T l ' of current . When Dr> D g, the rotor will
rotate with the field; when D r < D g, it will rotate against
the field.
In det ermining the t orque of a wave-rotor motor, it should
he remembered th at , elcctromagnetlcally.Cit is in effect
a reluct ance synchronous motor (see Sec . '63-2). On this
assumption , t he deform ed ro to r h asf'the same numb er of
"teeth", Z4 = 2Pl' as a salient-pole r ot or . If the deformed
r tor were able t o rotate at the field velocity % th e electro-
444 Part Five. Synchronous Machines
--lA
Fig. 63-12 Permancnt-rnagnet-excl ted claw-pole rotor: 1- ring-shu perl
perman en t magnet; 2-S -pole disc; 3-N-pole disc
2
i, 11m
tern shown ill the figure, the lines of flux in the core and
in the gap are directed radially, and the flux density B
does not differ from the gap flux density.
Consider the magnetization of the rotor core rotating
at Q which is smaller than QI' the angular velocity of the
stator mmf, F l m , that is, with a slip given hy
S = (Q I - Q)/Q I > 0
The rotating stator mmf
F l1ll = (mI V 2 I n ) Ilw1kwllp
magnetizes the parts of the magnetic circuit cyclically in
a sinusoidal manner . This gives rise to a field such that
the sum of the partial mmfs halances F I ,
. . .
F l m = F om + e;
where
Pom = cEl m ~ BlmfJhL o
is the peak value of mmf existing in all the parts of the
magnetic circuit where the hysteresis effect may he neglect-
ed, except the rotor core propel'. F m is the peak value of
mrnf within the rotor core, equal to H m /::. .
Suppose that an element of the rotor core is cyclically
magnetized in a sinusoidal manner at tho slip frequency
SUl I Then the magnetic field intensity in that element
will vary likewise sinusoidally,
H = H m sin (SUl I) t
The flux density in the element under consideration varies
periodically hy tracing out the hysteresis loop corresponding
to the peak field intensity, H m From knowledge of H m
at each instant of time, t, we can readily determine B = f (t)
(Fig. 63-15). As is seen, the flux density varies with time
nonsinusoidally . Applying a Fourier expansion, we can
isolate the fundamental component (varying at tho slip
frequency SUl I) and determine its peak value, B l1 n , and the
\ phase shift a relative to Hill" Then, we can calculate the
mutual flux
zo -0240
450 Part Five. Synchronous Machin es
01'
Q2 = Ql - Q = sQ 1
This condition ca u be sa ti sfied both when th e rotor is tra-
vell ing at synchronous sp eed, Q 1 = Q, and at synchronous
speed, with som e slip ,
s = (Q 1 - Q) /Q 1
At synchronous sp eed , the r ot or phases ar e excited with d. c.:
Q2 = Q1 - Q = 0
At as ynchronous speed , the ro t or ph ases are exc ite d wit h
a .c. at the slip frequency , /2 = Sfl ' shi fte d in tim e ph ase
by :rc/2 . As a result, th e excitation fi eld is rotating rela tiv e
to th e rotor at the desired an gular velocity, Q 2 = sQl .
Th e fr equ ency of field current , f2' is contro lle d cont i-
nuously and au toma t ically in such a way th a t th e stato r fi eld
and th e rotor field are travelling at a consta nt velocity
such that
Ql = Q +Q 2
' "f'Z
I )11
p ~r
Fig. 63-20 Variable-ratio connection giving "flexible ti c" between
two elec tr ic syste ms
---- 1974 .
43. EepUUITOUH JI. M. IIau.1RI/-US! ene u m puuecs u suuu u tt cti ui eu po-
suuusenuoeo np uxien euu s . Brreprna, Mocrcna , 1971.
44. Tennep B . , I'mra-ru B . ).{on o.uu u ne .uai ue /lO.IlS!, J.w.lt e/f,/Ilbt u. n om cpn.
u otuuo cmu. B acuu.xpouu us: xuuuu.nax , Il ep . C nerrrcn., 8uop r llfl,
Mocrcaa , 1964.
45. CblPOMJlTUllI{On H . A., Pescu.su p utioniu. acu uxposuiu U CUltXP UIt -
nu tmenmp oireue a meseii , I'o eauoprommar, Mocxna - Jl eunm-pan,
1953. .
Bibliog rap hy 461
Ma chi ne constant, 40 ,
?~~1~~ct~3~34 .. r ': ' :
Magneti zing c urve of a ma chine, n Ro tor teeth mmr, 60 .,
Main stator wind ing impedan ce, 72 Hotor y ok e mmr, 70
w!l\1F
armature , 251, . ~ ~,"~ ..
in ge nera tor mod e, 257 Sali en t-pole synchron ous m achin e,
M ul t tspc cd inducti on m ot or , 1"" 217 l
elec tromagnetic p~ocesses in , 275,
Ne gativ e sequ en ce imp edance of 284 , '
armature winding, 380 v olt a gc -d ragram of , 276
Noise le vel class if ic ation, 23 Self -syn'ehronl zation , 361
No-load cha rac teris tic of a ma chin e, Sha ded- pole m o tor, 177
72 Shor t-ci rcuit ratio ' (Se!J ) of
No-load c urre n t, 71 sy nc hrono us ma chine, 3 13
No- load (op en-circuit) mode of ope - Shor t-c ir cu it triangle, 312
ration ; 7 ~ Single phase ind uction motor, 163
Nominal se rv ice condi ti ons, 15 hasi c eq ua tions, . 167
No n magne tic drag-cup motor, 188 eq niva len t circu it , ' W 7
Nonsalien t-pol c synch rono us ma- Single pha se -to -gr ou nd fa ul t, 402
c hi ne , 217, 22u Skewed slots, 118, 122
clcc tr omagnc ttc pro cesses in, 271 I Sli p-r ing indu ction motor, 61
270 Solid -rotor induction motor, 186
v oltage dia gram of, 2n , 280 Sov ie t turbogcnerators, 405
Speci al-p urp ose indu ct ion m a chi nes,
179 ,
Operati on of sy nc hr ono us ge ne rator Specif ic ma gn eti c ten sil e force , 30
into Spe ci fic syn chroni zing power, 31.3
isola t ed load , 301 Sp ecifi c syn chroni zing t orq ue, 343
is olated unhalanced load , Split-p hase in duction motor , 170
-: Perf ormance cha rac teristics, l id, 142,
Sq uirre l-c age in duction motor, 57
Squirrel- cag e w indin g a na lysi s, 81
143 Stabili ty in paralle l opera tion , 340
P orm an cn t-mngnet sy nch ro n o us 11lU- Sta r ti ng of inducti on m otors, 131
chines improved startin g performan ce , 13!i
Phase r egulator, 182 bell -shaped ba r des ign , 138, 130
Phase- to-phase fault, I,O:J de ep-ha l' desi gn, 13G
Ph ase-w ound i nd uc tio n motor, 54 doubl e ca ge design, 137
Pol e enr:losure, 50 torqu e-slip cha racteristic, 138
Pol e spa n factor , 238 t ra pe zoida l-ba r desi gn, 138
Inuex
t :.