TABLE OF CONTENTS

2
CHAPTER 1
Format & Strategies

2
CHAPTER 2
Structure of Matter

5
CHAPTER 3
States of Matter

7
CHAPTER 4
Reaction Types

10
CHAPTER 5
Stoichiometry

11
CHAPTER 6
Equilibrium & Reaction Rates

12
CHAPTER 7
Thermochemistry

13
CHAPTER 8
Descriptive & Organic Chemistry

15
CHAPTER 9
The Laboratory
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
FORMAT & STRATEGIES STRUCTURE OF MATTER
1. TYPES OF QUESTIONS 1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Atom: smallest particle of an element that retains the
1.1 Part A chemical properties of the element
A set of choices is provided and the next few questions Element: substance that cannot be broken down into
refer to these choices. simpler substances through chemical reaction
Each choice may be used one, more than once, or not at
all in each set 1.1 Subatomic Particles
Subatomic Relative Relative mass/
1.2 Part B Particle Charge a.m.u
Every question contains two statements, I and II. Protons (P) +1 1
For each question, decide whether I is true or false and Neutrons (n) 0 1
whether II is true or false Electrons (e-) -1 1/1837
Finally, fill in oval CE only if statement II is a correct
explanation of II 1.2 Protons, Neutrons and Electrons
It is possible that I and II are both true however II is not Nucleus of atom contains protons and neutrons
the explanation of I Nucleus surrounded by electron shells
These type of questions will be in answered in a special Isotopes: atoms of the same element that have
section of the answer sheet labelled chemistry and different number of neutrons in the nucleus
the questions will begin from 101 Reading the symbol:

1.3 Part C
These are general five-choice questions with each set of
options independent from the previous
Questions may contain words in capital such as NOT,
LEAST or EXCEPT and therefore are not always looking
for the correct option
Questions could also be to fill in a gap of a statement
2. PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESS
1) Clarify the problem: separate problem into facts,
conditions, questions that need to be answered and
establish the goal
2) Explore: examine sufficiency of data, organize data and
apply knowledge, skills and understanding
3) Select a strategy: choose a method to solve the
problem. Not each one can be applied to every problem
and most of the times you will use a combination than
one exclusively: Strategies: trial-and-error, reduction,
working backwards, knowledge based
4) Solve: apply skills to carry out chosen strategy
5) Review: examine reasonableness of solution through
estimation and evaluating effectiveness of process
Isoelectronic ions: ions having same no. of e-s
Ground state: lowest energy state for particle
Excited state: any energy level above the ground state
1.3 Electron Configuration
Electrons are arranged in energy levels called shells
Each shell is described by a principle quantum no. (P.Q)
As the P.Q. increases, energy of shell increases
Orbital: region in space where there is a maximum
probability of finding an electron
Each orbital can hold 2e-s in opposite directions
When e-s are placed in a set of orbital of equal energy,
they occupy them singly and then pairing takes place
e-s placed in opposite direction, creating a spin to
reduce repulsion
Completely filled or half-filled are more stable
1.4 Subshells
Orbitals 1 3 5 7
-
Max e s 2 6 10 14

PAGE 2 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
Aufbaus principle: method of Halogens:
showing how atomic orbitals are o Exist as diatomic molecules
filled in a definite order to give o Most commonly used to form salts
lowest energy arrangement possible o Reactivity decreases down the group
Energy difference between 4 & 3
very small an e- from 4 can be promoted to half-fill or 1.8 Atomic Radius Trends
full-fill 3 orbital, to make atom more stable Down a Group Across a Period
When filling, fill 4s before 3d and when removing, also INCREASES DECREASES
remove first from 4s New shells added Shell no. remains same
Attraction of nucleus to Proton no. increases
1.5 Periodic Table valence e-s decreases Effective nuclear charge
increases
Ionic radius: describes size of ions
o Metals: lose electrons lose a shell and ionic radius
less than atomic radius
o Non-metals: gain electrons gain a shell and ionic
radius greater than atomic radius
Acid Properties Increase
Base Properties Increase 1.9 General 1st I.E Trends
Atomic Radii Decrease
Down a Group Across a Period
Ionization Energy Increase
DECREASES INCREASES
1.6 Groups and Properties of Metals Atomic radius increases Atomic radius decreases
General Properties: Effective nuclear charge Shielding effect constant
o Malleable, ductile, lustrous decrease
o Oxidise (rust & tarnish) to form positive ions (cations)
1.10 Electronegativity
o Conduct heat an electricity
Electronegativity: strength with which the atoms attract
Alkali Metals:
valence electrons in a chemical bond. Scale of 0 to 4, 4
o Most reactive metal family
being greatest electronegativity
o Form alkaline solutions when reacted with water
Across a period: increases Down a group: decreases
o Reactivity increases down group
Alkali Earth Metals: 1.11 Radiations
o Also reactive but less in comparison to 1st group
-particle -particle -ray
o Reactivity increases down the group
Helium Fast-moving Electro-
Transition Metals: Identity
nucleus electron magnetic
o Usually form coloured solutions 4 0
Symbol 2 1
o Have several possible oxidation states
Charge +2 1 0
o Act as catalysts
Relative 1
o Silvery-blue at r.t.p (except copper and gold) 4 0
Mass 1840
o Solid at r.t.p (except mercury)
Speed Slow Fast V of Light
o Magnetic
Energy Discrete Varying
1.7 Groups and Properties of Non-Metals Few mm of Few cm of
Stopped by Paper
aluminium lead
General Properties:
Range in air 5cm 12m No Specific
o Do not conduct electricity
Ionizing
o All elemental gases are included here High Low Very Low
power
o Hydrogen placed with metals, is also a non-metal

PAGE 3 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
1.12 Nuclear Reactions 3. CHEMICAL BONDING
Types of Decay Particle Charge
Change Change Chemical Bonds: result of the attraction between
in Mr in Ar atoms, ions or other particles
Alpha Decay 2+ -4 -2
Octet Rule: all atoms try to achieve the closest noble
Beta Decay 1- 0 +1
Gamma Radiation 0 0 0 gas electron state
Positron Emission + 1+ 0 -1
Electron Capture 1- 0 -1 3.1 Ionic Bonding
Law of conservation of matter: in all forms of decay Ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between
neither protons nor neutrons are created or destroyed oppositely charged ions.
There are 2 main types of nuclear reactions: Elements of the ions have a difference in
o Fusion: 2 smaller nuclei form a larger nucleus electronegativity of greater than 1.67
o Fission: a large nucleus splits into 2 smaller nuclei Structure: giant ionic lattice, crystalline solids
Have high melting and boiling points
2. MOLECULAR SHAPES
3.2 Covalent Bonding
2.1 VSEPR and Hybrid Theory Covalent bond is the bond formed by the sharing of
Type Shape Angle Hybrid Example pairs of electrons between two atoms.
2 Pairs of e-s Covalent compounds are made of molecules which are
held together by weak intermolecular forces
2B Linear 180O sp They have low melting and boiling points
CO2
- Sharing occurs unequally due to different
3 Pairs of e s
electronegativities of the 2 atoms in the bond
Trigonal o Nonpolar: difference between 0 & 0.4
3B 120O sp2
Planar o Polar: difference between 0.4 & 1.67
BF3
4 Pairs of e-s
3.3 Metallic Bonding
4B Tetrahedral 109.5 O
sp 3 Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between metal
CH4 cations and delocalized mobile electrons
Structure: lattice of +ve ions surrounded by mobile e-s
3B 1L Pyramidal 107O sp3 Mobile electrons can conduct electricity and heat
NH3
3.4 Properties and Structures
2B 2L Angular 104.5O sp3
H2O
-
5 Pairs of e s
Trigonal
5B 90O sp3d
Bipyramid
PF5
-
6 Pair of e s

6B Octahedral 90O sp3d2

SF6
B = Bonded Pair
L = Lone Pair

PAGE 4 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
3.5 Intermolecular Forces Deviations visible at low temp. & high pressure
Intermolecular forces: weak forces present between Molecules are close to each other
two covalent molecules Volume of molecules not negligible relative to container
London Dispersion Forces (Induced Dipole-Dipole): VDW forces present, pulling molecules to each other
Very weak forces present between non-polar molecules Pressure is lower than expected from ideal gas
Due to constant motion of e-s, at an instant, a non-polar Effective volume is less than expected from ideal gas
molecule develops poles due to distortion of electron
density giving rise to instantaneous dipole, which is able 1.3 Measuring Pressure of Gases
to induce a dipole in the adjacent molecules Unit Abbreviation = to 1 atm
Permanent Dipole-Dipole Forces: Atmosphere atm 1 atm
Two or more neutral molecules attract due to their Millimetres of Hg mm Hg 760mm Hg
Torr torr 760 torr
partial charges
Pascals Pa 101,000 Pa
Unlike charges creates a strong attractive force
Standard temp. and press. (STP): 273K and 1 atm
Greater difference in polarity = stronger forces
Hydrogen Bonding: 1.4 Gas Laws
Strongest type of intermolecular force in covalent bonds Grahams Law of Effusion (Diffusion): rate of effusion
For hydrogen bonding to occur, we need: of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of
o Molecule having a H atom bonded to F, O or N its molecular mass
o Molecule having F, O or N atom with lone pair of e-s

=

STATES OF MATTER
Charless Law: at constant pressure, the volume of a gas
1. GASES varies directly with the absolute temperature
1
= 2 or =
1.1 Kinetic-Molecular Theory 1 2

Matter in all forms is composed of small particles Boyles Law: at constant temperature, the volume of a
Particles of matter are in constant motion; solids vibrate gas varies inversely as pressure changes
about a fixed position, liquids slide past each other and 1 1 = 2 2 or =
gases are in continuous and random motion Guy-Lussacs Law: at constant volume, the pressure
Collisions of particles with themselves and the walls are varies directly with the absolute temperature
1
elastic; no loss of energy 1
= 2 or =
2
Combined Gas Law:
1.2 Ideal Gas Laws 1 1 2 2
Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly 1
=
2
Distance between gas molecules is greater than Daltons Law: the pressure of a mixture of gases is equal
diameter of molecules volume is negligible to the sum of partial pressures of the component
No forces of attraction/repulsion between molecules = 1 + 2 + +
All collisions between particles are elastic conserved Ideal Gas Law:
Temperature of gas related to average of molecules =
Conditions at which gases behave ideally:
o High temperature 2. LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
o Low pressure
Limitations of Ideal Gas Laws: 2.1 Solids
Real gases do not obey kinetic theory in two ways: Particles held together by ionic or string covalent bonds:
o There is not zero attraction between molecules o Attractive force is very strong
o We cannot ignore volume of molecules themselves o Definite shape and volume
PAGE 5 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
Types of Solids: 2nd type: energy against temperature (heating curve)
Amorphous: solids without form, random structure with
little or no long-range ordering e.g. glass
Crystalline: regular structure, particles in a repeating
pattern
Polycrystalline: solid with a large number of small
crystals in which structure is regular but crystals
arranged in randomly

Ionic
e.g. NaCl
Amorphous
Molecular
Solids

e.g. sucrose 2.5 Phase Equilibrium

Crystalline
Atomic The evaporation of a liquid in a closed container
e.g. diamond o Constant evaporation from surface
Polycrystalline o Particles continue to break away
Metallic
e.g. copper from surface but are trapped in
space above the liquid
o As gaseous particles collide,
2.2 Liquids
some of them hit the surface
Particles have strong forces of attraction of the liquid again, and become trapped there
o Particles have more freedom than in solid o An equilibrium is set up in which number of particles
o Indefinite shape but definite volume leaving surface is balanced by number re-joining it.
liquid water molecules vapour water molecules
2.3 Phase Changes
o In this equilibrium, there will be a fixed number of the
Heat of fusion: energy put in to melt a substance
gaseous particles in the space above liquid.
Heat of vaporisation: energy needed to cause transition
Vapour pressure: pressure exerted by a vapour in
from liquid to gas
equilibrium with a liquid.
2.4 Phase Change Diagram Vapour pressure increases as:
1st type: temperature against pressure Temp. Ek Forces weaken More vapor

3. SOLUTIONS
3.1 Measuring Concentration
Molarity (M): no. of moles of solute per litre of solution

=

Molality (m): no. of moles of solute per kg of solvent

Triple point: temperature and pressure at which the =
substance can exist in all three phases in equilibrium (T)

Percent by Mass: another expression of concentration

= 100
&

PAGE 6 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
3.2 Solubility REACTION TYPES
Rule of solutions: Synthesis: 2 or more reactants form 1 product
o Polar solvent dissolves polar solute +
o Non-polar solvent dissolves non-polar solute Decomposition: breakdown into 2 or more products
Solubility: degree to which a given solute will dissolve in +
a given solvent Displacement: units replace each other
Solubility of solids in water: o Single: more reactive element replaces less reactive
o Increases with increasing temperature + +
o Not affected by pressure o Double: 2 compounds react to form 2 new compounds
Solubility of gases in water: + +
o Decreases with increasing temperature Combustion: hydrocarbon burnt in oxygen
o Increases with increasing pressure + 2 2 + 2
Hydrolysis: reaction with water
3.3 Electrolyte + 2 +
Ionic substances dissolve, ionic bonds broken and
substance dissociates into mobile ions 1. ACIDS AND BASES
Electrolyte: solutions capable of carrying conducting
electrical current 1.1 Acid and Bases Theories
Acid Base
3.4 Colligative Properties Arrhenius Produces H3O+ Produces OH-
Properties of solutions that depends on the ratio of Brnsted-Lowry Proton donor Proton acceptor
solute to solvent particles: freezing and boiling point, Lewis Accepts electrons Donates electrons
and vapour pressure
Freezing Point Depression (FPD): 1.2 Strong and Weak Acids and Bases
o Pure solvent has a certain freezing point and when Strong acids/bases: acids/bases which dissociate almost
freezing particles must cluster. completely in solutions
o In solution, solute particles get in the way and HX(aq) H+(aq) + X-(aq)
prevents tight clustering HX(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + X-(aq)
o Causes the freezing point to decrease Weak acids/bases: acids/bases which are only partially
Boiling Point Elevation (BPE): dissociated in solutions
o Pure solvent has a certain boiling point and when X-(aq) + H+(aq) XA(aq)
boiling the particles try to escape. X (aq) + H2O(l) HX(aq) + OH-(aq)
-

o In solution, solute particles get in the way which
requires more energy to escape
o Causes the boiling point to increase
FPD and BPE expression:
=
where is a constant dependent on solvent, is
molarity and is the no. of ions in solution (1 for
covalent compounds)
FPD and BPE depend only on type of solvent and
number of solute particles, not type of solute particles
Strong and weak acids and bases can be distinguished
by the pH value of their aqueous solutions
Amphoteric: substance that can act as an acid or a base
Monoprotic acids: donate one H+ proton per molecule
Diprotic acids: donate two H+ protons per molecule
1.3 Properties of Acids
Acids are conductors of electricity in aqueous solution
Acids will react with metals that are more reactive than
hydrogen ions to liberate hydrogen gas
Acids react with bases to neutralize each other, forming
water and a salt
Acids react with carbonates to release carbon dioxide

PAGE 7 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
1.4 Strong Acids Calculating acid dissociation constants:
HCl hydrochloric acid [ + ][ ]
=
HBr hydrobromic acid []
HI hydroiodic acid
Calculating base dissociation constants:
HNO3 nitric acid
[ + ][ ]
H2SO4 sulfuric acid =
[]
HClO4 perchloric acid
1.10 pH Scale
1.5 Properties of Bases
Gives strength of acid/bases by concentration of H+/OH-
Bases are conductors of electricity in aqueous solution
ions
Bases react with acids to neutralize each other, forming
= log[ ] = log[ ]
water and a salt
= 14
Bases react with fats to form soaps
Calculating the pH:
1.6 Strong Bases o Firstly, use all the information and calculate the
KOH potassium hydroxide constant as you would in other equilibrium questions
NaOH sodium hydroxide o Find the log without a calculator, see the power of 10 it
Ba(OH)2 barium hydroxide is to and that is your log
Sr(OH)2 strontium hydroxide o If it is Ka, this is the pH
Ca(OH)2 calcium hydroxide o If it is Kb, do (14 Ans) hence finding pH

1.7 Conjugate Acids and Bases 1.11 Titration

When acid-base reacts, an equilibrium mixture is Adding strong acid or base of known identity and
formed concentration (titrant) to unknown acid or base solution
with an indicator
Equivalence (end) point; enough titrant has been added
to neutralize the subject acid or base
Titration curve:

The stronger an acid, the weaker its conjugate base

The stronger a base, the weaker its conjugate acid

1.8 Acid/Base Properties of Salts

Weak acid + strong base = basic salt
Weak acid + weak base = neutral salt
Strong acid + weak base = acidic salt
Strong acid + Strong base = neutral salt

1.9 Acid/Base Equilibrium

When an acid/base is added to water, it dissociates and
a dynamic equilibrium is set up between acid/base and
ions
o Equivalence point where curve steepest

PAGE 8 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
1.12 Indicators 2.3 Voltaic (Galvanic) Cells
Color Below Color Above Separates the reduction and oxidation reaction and
Indicator pH Range
Lower pH Higher pH forces the electrons to flow over a wire (producing
Methyl orange 3.1 4.4 Red Yellow electricity) from the oxidation reaction (at the anode) to
Bromthymol blue 6.0 7.6 Yellow Blue the reduction reaction (at the cathode).
Litmus 4.5 8.3 Red Blue
Phenolphthalein 8.3 10.0 Colourless Pink
Titration of strong acid and strong base; end point will
be pH 7 and any indicator can be used
Titration of strong acid and weak base; use methyl
orange; changes colour in acid region
Titration of strong base and weak acid; use
phenolphthalein; changes colour in basic region

1.13 Buffer Solutions

Equilibrium systems that resist changes in acidity and
maintain constant pH when acid or bases are added Anode: +ve electrode, attracts vely charged anions
It is a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base or a Cathode: -ve electrode, attracts +vely charged cations
weak base and its conjugate acid
Salt bridge: device that maintains electrical neutrality
Work by reacting with any added acid or base to control
The EMF of a voltaic cell is due to potential energy
the pH
difference of the electrons before and after the transfer
Standard Reduction Potentials (EO): potential that
2. OXIDATION-REDUCTION
would be produced between a given half-reaction and
hydrogen
2.1 Redox Reactions
EMF = cathode potential anode potential
Oxidation: loss of electrons, gain of +ve charge
+ve EMF indicates a spontaneous process
Oxidising agent (OA): reduces itself to oxidise others
Reduction: gain of electrons, gain of ve charge The greater the difference between the electrode
Reducing agent (RA): oxidises itself to reduce others potentials, the larger the EMF
Half-reaction: equation that shows only either oxidation
2.4 Standard Reduction Potentials
or reduction
Redox reaction: reaction where both oxidation and
reduction occur
Can be shown with changes in oxidation numbers of
elements from the product side to the reactant side

2.2 Calculating Oxidation Numbers

Ionic Molecules: group number = valence electrons
Rules:
o Atoms in a diatomic molecule; oxidation number = 0
o Oxygen in a compound; oxidation number = -2
o Oxygen as peroxide; oxidation number = -1
o 1st group elements & hydrogen; oxidation number = +1
o H with highly reactive metal; oxidation number = -1
Following these rules, all other atoms in a covalent bond
must balance out the charge
PAGE 9 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
2.5 Electrolytic Cell Avogadros constant: number of atoms, ions, molecules
Energy from a cell used to bring about a or electrons in a mole = 6.02 1023
nonspontaneous redox reaction Molar mass: mass of a given substance divided by its
Used for: amount of substance; g/mol
o Purification of elements
o Separating metals 1.2 Formulae
o Charge batteries Empirical formula: gives simplest ratio of different
Example: atoms present in a molecule
Molecular formula: gives actual numbers of each type of
atom in a molecule
Molecular formula can be calculated using the Mr of a
compound and its empirical formula
= ( )

Where =

2. CHEMICAL EQUATIONS

2.1 Balancing Equations

3. PRECIPITATION Use correct formulas for all reactants and products
Begin balancing with most complicated-looking group
3.1 Precipitation Reaction Polyatomic ions can be a single unit if unchanged
Occur when cations and anions in aqueous solution Balance single element reactants & products last
combine to form an insoluble ionic solid; precipitate Keep your eye out for diatomic molecules
It is a double replacement reaction when the reactants If stuck, double most complex group & try again
are soluble and one of the products formed is insoluble. Make sure all coefficients are in lowest-possible ratio
Numbers too complex, restart
3.2 Solubility Table
Soluble Salts Insoluble Salts 2.2 Stoichiometric Calculations
All sodium, potassium and
The rest =
ammonium salts
= 24
All nitrates N/A
Formula applies to gases at r.t.p.
Chlorides Except silver and lead
Unit of volume is 3 and 10003 = 13
Except barium, lead and
Sulphates
calcium =
Potassium, sodium and
All other carbonates
ammonium carbonates
2.3 Reagents
Reactants may not always be present in perfect number
STOICHIOMETRY of reacting moles
Limiting reagent: reactant with fewer number of
1. MOLE CONCEPT reacting moles
Excess reagent: reactant with greater number of
1.1 The Mole reacting moles
Mole: amount of substance that has the same number
of particles (atoms, ions, molecules or electrons) as
there are atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope.

PAGE 10 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
2.4 Yields 2.1 Factors Affecting Rates of Reactions
Theoretical: equations say we can get this much of Concentration: mole per volume of a substance
product from that much of reactant Higher reactant conc. - forward reaction faster
Actual: experiments say we got this much of product Higher product conc. backward reaction faster
from that much of reactant Higher conc. = more chance of successful collisions
Percent: ratio of actual to theoretical as a percentage
Temperature: thermal energy provided to molecules
100 =
Higher temp. more EK, increasing rate of reaction
Lower temp. less EK, decreasing rate of reaction
EQUILIBRIUM & REACTION RATES
Catalyst: decreases Ea of reaction
1. EQUILIBRIUM SYSTEMS Provides a different path for the reaction to take
Reversible reaction: a reaction in which products can be Unconsumed by reaction
changed back to reactants by reversing the conditions Biological catalysts are called enzymes
Dynamic Equilibrium: the state of a reversible reaction
Physical State:
carried out in a closed container where the rates of
forward and backward reactions are equal and constant Homogenous: reactants in same physical state
Heterogeneous: reactants in different physical states
1.1 Le Chateliers Principle In hetero; reactants limited to contact area therefore
When a chemical system in dynamic equilibrium is larger contact area allows for faster reaction
disturbed (conditions changed) it tends to respond in
such a way so as to oppose the change and a new 2.2 Potential Energy Diagrams
equilibrium is set up Exothermic reaction:

1.2 Equilibrium Constants

Equilibrium Constant

Expressed in terms of Expressed in terms of Endothermic reaction:

concentration partial pressure

[] ()
= =
[] ()
Only liquids and gases Only gases
Large value of / equi. towards products side
Smaller value of / equi. towards reactants side
/ changes only with changes in temperature
Amount of reactants that disappear always appear in Addition of a catalyst:
the products in same ratio as present in equation

2. RATES OF REACTIONS
Rate of a reaction: change in concentration of reactants
or products per unit time
Activation energy: minimum energy colliding particles
must possess for a successful collision to take place

PAGE 11 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
THERMOCHEMISTRY 3. ENTROPY
Entropy (): measure of the degree of disorder
1. CALORIMETRY & SPECIFIC HEATS Universe favours a more disordered system; nature
tends to chaos
1.1 Heat Capacity
Amount of heat energy required to raise temperature of
3.1 Laws of Thermodynamics
a substance by 1oC 1st Law: energy can neither be created nor destroyed;
o Molar: 1 mol of the substance only transformed from one type to another
o Specific: 1 gram of the substance 2nd Law: disorder of universe, its entropy, is constantly
increasing
= 3rd Law: entropy of a perfect crystal at 0K is zero

1.2 Calorimetry 3.2 Rules when Determining Entropy

Enthalpy of reaction measured using a calorimeter
Measures heat flowing out/into system as reaction
proceeds
Calorie: amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of a substance by 1oC
1 = 4.184 When gas molecules escapes from solvent, there is an
2. ENTHALPY
Enthalpy (): heat content of a chemical reaction
2.1 Types
Enthalpy of Combustion (): 1 mole of element
or compound is completely combusted under standard
conditions in its standard state
Enthalpy of Formation (): 1 mole of compound is
formed from its elements under standard conditions in
their standard states
Enthalpy of Fusion ( ): 1 mole of a solid melted to
1 mole of the corresponding liquid at the normal
melting point of the substance
Enthalpy of Vaporisation (): 1 mole of a liquid
changed to 1 mole of the corresponding gas at the
normal boiling point of the substance
Greater disorder in a system - larger entropy
Entropy of substance always increases changing state
from solid to liquid to gas
When pure solid or liquid dissolves in solvent, entropy
of substance increases
increase in entropy
Entropy generally increases with increasing molecular
complexity
Reactions that increase no. of moles of particles often
increase entropy of system
4. GIBBS FREE ENERGY EQUATION
=
: enthalpy : entropy
: temperature in Kelvin
The sign of used to predict spontaneity of a reaction
at constant temperature and pressure
4.1 Interpreting Sign of
negative: reaction (probably) spontaneous
positive: reaction improbable
= : system at equilibrium; no net reaction

2.2 Hesss Law 4.2 Factors Affecting

The total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is Will it happen?
independent of the route by which the chemical -ve +ve Always
reaction takes place as long as the initial and final +ve +ve At high temp.
conditions are the same. -ve -ve At low temp.
Reason to use Hesss Law: +ve +ve Never
o Std. conditions hard to maintain (e.g. exo/endo)
o Elements dont always react directly

PAGE 12 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
DESCRIPTIVE & ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 1.3 Uses of Carbon Dioxide
Used to make carbonated drinks:
1. CARBON CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Solid CO2, dry ice, used as refrigerant as it sublimes
1.1 Allotropes of Carbon Used in fire extinguishers as it is heavier than air and
Carbon can exist as: prevents combustion from occurring
o Diamond: sp3 hybrid orbitals Used by plants for photosynthesis:
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

o Graphite: sp2 hybrid orbitals 2. HYDROCARBONS

2.1 Alkanes
Saturated; 4 single sp3 bonds
General formula = CnH2n+2
o Fullerenes: spherical cage of carbons Cycloalkanes: single bonded ring
compounds; CnH2n
First four alkanes = gases
Non-polar; weak intermolecular forces of attraction
Compounds separated due to difference in b.p. by
1.2 Carbon Dioxide fractional distillation
Carbon cycle: 2.2 Alkenes
Unsaturated; 3 sigma sp2 bonds and 1
pi pure p bond on double bond
General formula = CnH2n

2.3 Alkyne
Unsaturated; 2 sigma sp bond and
2 pi pure p bond on triple bond
Name: -yne
General formula = CnH2n-2

2.4 Aromatic
Aromatic = unsaturated ring
structures
Benzene is the simplest aromatic
compound = C6H6
Laboratory preparation: react marble chips with acid General formula = CnH2n-6
CaCO3 + 2HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Testing for carbon dioxide: limewater turns milky 3. ALCOHOLS
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O Functional group: ROH (hydroxyl)
Excess CO2: continued passing will eliminate cloudy Colourless, flammable liquids
solution, forming soluble calcium hydrogen carbonate
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2

PAGE 13 OF 17
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
3.1 Uses of Alcohol 6. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND DERIVATIVES
Methanol Ethanol Functional group: RCOOH
b.p. 65oC b.p. 78 C
o
Preparation from an aldehyde: mild
Miscible with water Miscible with water and oxidation of an aldehyde
Poisonous; cause solvent for many Amino acids: acids containing amine
blindness if ingested substances group (NH2)
Used as fuel and solvent Used as fuel
6.1 Esters
3.2 Types of Alcohols Inorganic salts produced by reaction of
o o o
Primary 1 Secondary 2 Tertiary 3 alcohol and acid
Reaction occurs with H2SO4

4. ETHERS
Functional group: ROR
Formed when a primary alcohol is
Functional group: RCOOR
dehydrated with sulfuric acid
Sweet smelling; used in perfumes and flavour extracts
Naming ethers:
Naming esters:
o Shorter chain becomes first part of name with ane
suffix changed to oxy.
o Longer alkane chain becomes suffix of name
o E.g. ethoxypropane or ethyl propyl ether

o E.g. ethoxyethane or ethyl ether or diethyl ether

7. AMINES AND AMIDES
7.1 Amines
Functional group: RNH2
Example: ethanamine or ethylamine

5. CARBONYL COMPOUNDS
5.1 Aldehyde
Functional group: RCHO 7.2 Amides
Preparation from 1o alcohol: mild Functional group: RCONH2
oxidation of alcohol using oxidizing Replaces hydrogen in the carboxyl group
agent or inserting hot copper wire Example: ethanamide or ethylamide
CH3OH + [O] [CH2(OH)2] HCHO + H2O

5.2 Ketone
Functional group RCOR
Preparation from 2o alcohol: oxidation
of alcohol
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 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
8. COLOURED COMPOUNDS 9.3 Greenhouse Effect
Refers to build up of CO2 and other carbon gases in the
8.1 Soluble and Insoluble atmosphere
Coloured Soluble Coloured Insoluble As Earths surface absorbs solar radiation, it warms and
Compounds Compounds radiates infrared radiation back into atmosphere
Soluble copper salts are AgCl is white Extra CO2 reflects and traps radiation causing Earth to
blue/green Chromate precipitates warm
Fe salts are red/brown are orange
Cobalt salts are blue Dichromate precipitates 9.4 Acid Rain
Complex ions are often are yellow Nitrogen and sulphur oxides produced by pollution
coloured Hydroxide precipitates interacts with water producing acid rain
are white
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
8.2 Oxides 2NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2 or NO2 + H2O + O2 HNO3
Oxide Colour Damages trees & plants, kills fish and other river life,
Titanium oxide White buildings, statues and metal structures
Copper oxide Green (patina)
Iron oxide Red (rust) THE LABORATORY
Silver oxide Black (tarnish)
1. LABORATORY
9. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
1.1 Technological Tools
9.1 Earths Atmosphere Gravimetric balance: direct readings to thousandth of a
Atmospheric Composition: gram instead of mechanical balance
Nitrogen (N2) 78% pH meters: direct pH readings instead of indicators
Oxygen (O2) 20% Spectrophotometer: measures % of light transmitted at
Argon (Ar) < 1% specific frequencies so that molarity of sample can be
Water Vapour Variable determined without titration
Other < 1%
Computer-assisted lab: probes take readings and
Layers of Atmosphere: computer programs can monitor variables, collect data
and produce graphs

1.2 Laboratory Safety Rules

9.2 CFCs Effect on Ozone Layer
CFCs escape in atmosphere and because of their
inertness, remain without further reaction until they
reach the stratosphere and ozone layer.
In stratosphere, high energy U.V causes Cl atom to split
of CFC molecule forming Cl which reacts with ozone
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Dress appropriately for lab; safety goggles, lab coat, tie
back long hair and do not wear open-toed shoes.
Know safety equipment available and how to use;
eyewash fountain, fire blanket, fire extinguisher etc.
Know dangers of chemical; read labels, dont taste/sniff
Dispose of chemicals according to instructions.
Always add acids and bases to water slowly to avoid
splattering; can generate heat, steam, and splash
Direct test tubes away when heating/reaction occurring
Never pipette by mouth; dont use it as a suction pump
Use the fume hood when dealing with toxic fumes
Do not eat or drink in the lab; can ingest toxic chemicals
Follow all directions; never haphazardly mix chemicals
 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
2. EXPERIMENT SETUPS Chromatography: different substances from a solution

2.1 Methods of Separation

Filtration: separate solid from a liquid

2.2 Other Set-ups

Titration: finding concentration of unknown acid or alkali

Simple distillation: separate solvent from a solution

Calorimetry: finding heat capacity of a substance

Fractional distillation: separate liquids from each other

3. IDENTIFYING CHEMICALS
3.1 Gas Tests
Gas Test and result
1) Damp red litmus paper turns blue
Ammonia (NH3) 2) White fumes form with HCl
3) Smell = sharp odour
Carbon dioxide 1) Bubble thru limewater; goes milky
1) Place light splinted; ignites, pop
Hydrogen (H2)
2) Burns with blue flame

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 COLLEGEBOARD SAT II CHEMISTRY
Gas Test and result 3.4 Hydrogen Sulphide Tests
Hydrogen 1) Damp blue litmus turns red Bubble H2S gas through solution being tested; ppt. formed
Chloride (HCl) 2) Smell = choking odor Metal Colour of Sulphide ppt.
1) Damp lead acetate paper turns Lead Brown-black
Hydrogen
brown-black
Sulfide (H2S) Copper, Silver, Mercury,
2) Smell = rotten egg odor Black
Nickel, Iron
1) Insert glowing splint = relights
Oxygen (O2) Cadmium, Arsenic Yellow
2) Nitric oxide gas turns red-brown
Antimony Orange
3.2 Cations Test Zinc White
Bismuth Brown
Ion Test and result
Ammonium Add strong base (NaOH) - produces
(NH4+) ammonium
4. LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
Iron(II) (Fe2+) NaOH or Ammonia = green ppt.
Iron(III) (Fe3+) NaOH or Ammonia = red-brown ppt.
Hydrogen (H+) Blue litmus turns red

3.3 Anions Test

Ion Test and result
Add conc. H2SO4 and warm = vinegar
Acetate (C2H3O2-)
odor released
Carbonate (CO32-) Add HCl; limewater turns milky
Add nitric acid, then aqueous silver
Chloride (Cl-)
nitrate = white ppt. soluble in NH3(aq)
-
Hydroxide (OH ) Red litmus turns blue
Sulfate (SO42-) Add HCl then BaCl2 = white ppt
Add HCl then test gas with lead acetate
Sulfide (S2-)
paper = turns black-brown (H2S)

3.2 Colours of Solutions

Ion Present Solution color
Cu2+ Blue
Fe3+ Yellow to orange (rusty)
Ni2+ Green
MnO4- Purple
CrO42- Yellow
Cr2O72- Orange

3.3 Flame Tests

Metal Flame Colour
Lithium, Strontium, Calcium Red
Sodium Yellow
Potassium Lilac
Barium Green
Copper Blue-Green
Iron Gold

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