1. Outline the definitions of abnormal behavior discussed in the text & in class.

Compare
and contrast these definitions in terms of their strengths & weaknesses. What definition
of abnormal behavior do you think best captures the construct? Defend your answer.
Using your preferred definition, how would you have labeled the activities portrayed in
the monkey brains? Use other video clips shown in class to characterize each of the
other definitions of abnormal presented in class and in the text.

The text defines abnormal behavior as a psychological dysfunction within an

individual that is associated with distress or impairment in functioning and a response that
is not typical or culturally expected. On the other hand, the lectures definition of abnormal
behaviors are behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunctions that are unexpected in
their cultural context, associated with present distress and impairment in functioning, or
associated with increased risk of suffering, death, or impairment. In addition, dysfunctions
was defined as behaviors or feelings that prevent a person from functioning in everyday
life, distress as the behaviors of feelings that cause distress, and deviance as behaviors or
feelings that are highly unusual.
The strength to the texts definition of abnormal behavior is that it is universal. The
definition may generally be applied to all people, regardless of culture. In regards to the lectures
definition of abnormal behavior, its strengths are that it highlights what the dysfunctions are in
abnormal behavior, what to look for when searching for abnormal behavior, and also provides a
cultural context to its definition. However, these definitions do have some weaknesses. For the
text definition, the explanation for what abnormal is appears to be vague and does not go into as
much detail as the lectures definition of abnormal behavior. Additionally, the text goes on to say
that it is difficult to define normal and abnormal. In contrast, the lectures definition of abnormal
behavior does not address the fact that what may be viewed as normal in one culture may be
viewed as abnormal or unusual in another culture.
I believe that the lectures definition of abnormal behavior best captures the construct due
to its attention to detail, as well as the fact that the lecture slide from which it came from was
taken from the DSM-V, and has thus been defined in order to best describe abnormal behaviors.
In my opinion, the monkey brains video shown in class can be seen as normal. Despite
the fact that in the culture I grew up in, the behaviors in the monkey brains video would be
considered abnormal, the cultural context needs to be taken into account. Although one culture
may view the monkey brains video as abnormal, the culture in which the monkey brains
video takes place appears to perform this practice of beating a monkey and then eating its brain
as socially acceptable and normal.
Another video shown in class in order to analyze signs of abnormality is the video about
trichotillomania and the woman who enjoyed eating the roots of her hair. Both lecture and text
definitions of abnormal behavior would describe the woman in the video as exhibiting abnormal
behavior. This is due to the fact that culture has been taken into consideration, and the woman in
the videos culture believes the act of eating your own hair is abnormal. Additionally, due to her
pulling out her hair so often, the woman has now begun to go bald on the top of her head, which
has caused her distress.

2. Compare the Freudian psychodynamic perspective and the cognitive/behavioral perspective in

terms of how basic drives, motives, and life experiences contribute to the development of
psychopathology. Discuss their basic differences. Describe how these different perspectives
rationalize the different treatment approaches each advocates.

The Freudian psychodynamic perspective holds that personality can be examined in

terms of conscious and unconscious forces which are experienced throughout life, the cognitive
perspective holds that cognition plays a vital role in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, and the
behavioral perspective holds that learning experienced in life plays a vital role in human
behavior and why people do the things that they do.
In regards to basic drives, motives, and life experiences, the freudian psychodynamic
perspective has the Id (the pleasure principle), the Ego (the reality principle), and the Superego
(the moral principle), which are all sources of motivation for an individual. The cognitive
perspective focuses on the mind and thoughts as its drives and motives, whereas the behavioral
perspective focuses on learning and the resulting behaviors as its drives and motives.
There exist basic differences for these different perspectives. For example, the Freudian
perspective focuses mainly on conscious and unconscious forces, and emphasizes curing the
patient of abnormal behaviors, whereas the cognitive perspective examines thought patterns and
beliefs in order to cure the patient of abnormal behaviors (and was also short term), and finally
the behavioral perspective focused primarily on what the individual has learned throughout their
life, and how that learning has influenced how they behave in the present.
The Freudian psychodynamic perspective believes that psychopathology is the result of
inability of the ego to balance between the id and the superego. The cognitive perspective
believes that mental disorders arise from an error or fault in cognition or thinking, which
explains why cognitive theorists believe that the effective way to solve these problems are to
change the patients cognition. The behavioral perspective believes that faulty learning from
perhaps when one was a child could later lead to psychopathology (faulty learning can be
examined in condition, or perhaps the bobo doll study of how learning is strongly enforced for
children through watching adults). These faults may later lead to psychopathology.
The Freudian psychodynamic perspective rationalizes its treatment approaches by
explaining that perhaps uncovering unconscious desires or motivations may alleviate the patient
of abnormal behaviors or mental illnesses. For example, a psychodynamic theorist may analyze
dreams or perhaps utilize free association in order to cure a patient of a mental illness. By
alleviating the patient of this unconscious desire, the psychodynamic theorist believes that they
are thus able to cure the patient of their mental illness. The cognitive perspective rationalizes its
treatment approaches by explaining that mental illness may be caused by faults in our cognition,
and thus if we were able to change our perspective or beliefs to a more positive and optimistic
outlook, we would be able to cure the patient of their mental illnesses or psychological distress
which were caused by negative thoughts. Lastly, the behavioral perspective rationalizes its
treatment approaches by exemplifying how our behaviors and attitudes are shaped by learning
and what we have learned in the past. If the behavioral theorist may be able to apply classical
conditioning or operant conditioning to their patient, they may be able to alleviate the patient of
their mental illnesses.

3. What purposes do defense mechanisms serve? Identify 4 different defense mechanisms

postulated by Freud. Describe 3 situations in which you or someone you know used specific
defense mechanisms in the past month. Include the name of the defense mechanism you are
describing. What are some ways in which suppression of an emotion, or unconscious feelings,
might lead to a greater risk of developing a psychological disorder? Provide one example.

Defense mechanisms protect us from being consciously aware of a thought or feeling

which we cannot tolerate. The defense only allows the unconscious thought or feeling to be
expressed indirectly in a disguised form. By doing so, defense mechanisms help people avoid
distress from anxiety inducing events or situations.
There are several different defense mechanisms, such as denial, which is where you
completely deny the thought or feeling. Theres also suppression, which is when you are vaguely
aware of the thought or feeling, but you try to hide it. A third defense mechanism is
rationalization, which is when you come up with various explanations to justify the situation
(while denying your feelings). One last defense mechanism is repression, which is where we
avoid thinking about the emotional pain.
One recent situation in which I had to employ a defense mechanism was when I was with
a group of friends and I was hungry. Despite the fact that no one in my group of friends was
hungry (due to the fact that they had all eaten prior to meeting up with me), I kept on badgering
one of my friends, saying that he was hungry, so that we could go get food. This was an example
of projection on my part. Another recent situation which called for a defense mechanism was
when my friend sortve snapped at me when I was trying to talk to her. I figured something was
off with her, and I wanted to try and help by talking to her, but she snapped and got frustrated
with me. She later apologized and told me that she was mad about a midterm that she recently
took that she felt unsure about, especially considering how long she had been studying for that
midterm. This instance of her snapping at me is an example of displacement. One last situation
regarding defense mechanisms was when my friend decided to take muy thai. He goes to UCSD,
and he was telling me that he gets stressed out by exams, essays, etc. (he has a relatively large
workload since he is a biology major). In order to deal with the stress, he took up muy thai in
order to alleviate some of these negative feelings. Muy thai helps him release stress as well. This
example of taking up a socially productive activity exemplifies sublimation.
Suppression of an emotion or unconscious feelings may lead to a greater risk in
developing a psychological disorder. For example. a woman who is currently undergoing
bereavement, but pretends to be happy and content, may lead to the bottling up of her emotions.
This bottling up can potentially lead to anxiety or depression, which may, in part, be due to her
lack of filtering out her emotions. By not addressing your emotions, you may also experience
distress, sorrow, and pain due to not properly dealing with your feelings.

4. Choose two approaches to abnormal psychology (psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive,

biological, sociocultural). Compare and contrast their approaches to clinical assessment. What
types of assessment tools (e.g., projective tests, self-monitoring diaries, observation) reflect each
of the following paradigms: psychodynamic, cognitive, biological, and behavioral?

The behavioral approach and the cognitive approach share some similarities and
differences. The behavioral approach believes that learning plays a vital role in our behaviors
and consequently, our mental illnesses as well. On the other hand, the cognitive approach
believes that our behaviors and possible mental illnesses may stem from faulty cognition, or
errorful thoughts and beliefs. Both of these approaches are similar in that they attribute abnormal
psychology to faults, whether it be faulty learning or faulty thinking. In regards to how these two
approaches differ, the behavioral approach allows no room for thought (which can be seen when
behavioral psychologists apply classical or operant conditioning to their patients), whereas the
cognitive approach analyzes and focuses on thought (which can be examined when cognitive
psychologists focus on changing the patients thoughts or negative beliefs).
For the psychodynamic paradigm, the assessment tools utilized are projective tests (a test
in which words, images, or situations are presented to a person and the responses are then
analyzed for the unconscious expression of emotions), free association (a technique in which
patients are instructed to say whatever comes to their mind without the usual socially required
censoring), dream analysis (which is where the therapist will analyze the patients dreams in order
to search for unconscious conflicts), etc. On the other hand, the cognitive paradigm utilizes
assessment tools such as self-monitoring, as well as self-monitoring diaries. In regards to the
biological approach, the types of assessment tools utilized are pharmaceutical, due to the fact that
the biological approach attributes mental illnesses to chemical imbalances in the brain, and thus
believes that drugs may solve the problem. Lastly, the behavioral approach utilizes assessment
tools such as classical conditioning and operational conditioning in order to cure the patient of
their mental illness.

5. Compare the diathesis-stress model with the reciprocal gene-environment model (aka gene-
environment correlation model) in terms of how they attempt to explain the development of
anxiety or mood disorders. For each of the two models, be sure to include the results of at least
one study to support your comparisons.

The diathesis-stress model explains that individuals inherit tendencies to express certain
traits or behaviors, which may then be activated under conditions of stress. Basically, an
individual may be predisposed to negative health, but if they are never exposed to stressful
situations, the negative health disorders may never surface. The gene-environment model
explains that some evidence now indicates that genetic endowment may increase the probability
that an individual will experience stressful life events. Basically, the individuals genes are
predisposed to leading the individual to stressful life events, which may then lead to anxiety or
mood disorders. For example, the gene-environment model explains that perhaps an individual is
genetically predisposed to seeking out stressful and difficult relationships, which may then lead
to them developing depression as a result.
One study which exemplifies the diathesis-stress model is the Kilpatrick et. al (2007)
study on the development of post traumatic stress disorder. In the study, 589 adults who
experienced the Florida hurricanes of 2004 were interviewed and DNA was collected to examine
genetic structure. What they found was that people with the same genetic make-up examined in
the Caspi et al (2003) study (AKA they had SS- short alleles) were more susceptible to develop
PTSD than their counterparts who had LL (AKA long alleles).
One study which exemplifies the gene-environment model is the study conducted by
McGue and Lykken (1992). This study found that the probability of your divorcing doubles over
the probability in the population at large if your fraternal twin is also divorced and increases
sixfold if your identical twin is divorced. The researchers in this study believed that one
explanation for these results are due to an inherited trait which makes you more likely to choose
an incompatible spouse (which supports the gene-environment model which states that
individuals may be genetically predisposed to seeking stressful situations, which may then lead
to mental illnesses or disorders).

6. Characterize the symptoms associated with: 1) health illness anxiety, 2) illness phobia, and 3)
somatic symptom disorder. What role does anxiety play in the development and maintenance of
each of these disorders? If different, how are the underlying anxiety issues addressed in the
treatment of these disorders?

Health illness anxiety displays symptoms of shortness of breath, feelings of panic, fear,
and uneasiness, heart palpitations, an inability to be still or calm, etc. Illness phobia, on the other
hand, is described as an irrational fear towards things that may bring harm to health. The
symptoms associated with illness phobia are excessive or irrational fear of a specific object or
situation, avoiding the object or situation or enduring it with great distress, physical symptoms of
a panic attack or a panic attack, etc. Lastly, somatic symptom disorders are mental illnesses that
cause bodily symptoms, including pain. Symptoms experienced in somatic symptom disorder
include pain, neurological problems, gastrointestinal complaints, or sexual symptoms.
For health illness anxiety, anxiety plays a major role in the development and maintenance
of this disorder. When someone experiences health illness anxiety, they become overwhelmed
with the feelings and symptoms described in anxiety and panic attacks, and thus anxiety plays a
vital role in the maintenance of this disorder. For illness phobia, anxiety plays a vital role once
the individual is exposed to the health risk. Once an individual is exposed to the perceived risk,
anxiety symptoms begin to surface in the individual. For somatic symptom disorder, anxiety
comes in the form of pain. Anxiety plays a role in somatic symptom disorder in that the patient
has no clue as to what is causing this perceived pain, and thus the anxiety of the disorders
unpredictableness can cause great distress in an individual.
For health illness anxiety, anxiety issues are treated in several different ways, such as
medication, psychotherapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, dietary and lifestyle changes, and
relaxation therapy. For illness therapy, anxiety issues are treated primarily through cognitive-
behavioral therapy, medication, and relaxation techniques. Lastly, for somatic symptom disorder,
anxiety is typically treated through stress reduction techniques, as well as cognitive-behavioral
therapy.

7. Discuss the evidence for a biological basis of anxiety disorders (Be sure to provide at least 3
separate pieces of evidence). Does Generalized Anxiety Disorder differ from any of the other
anxiety disorders in terms of its biological features, if so in what ways?

The biological basis for anxiety disorders may be backed up by several different pieces of
evidence. One example which exemplifies evidence for a biological basis of anxiety disorders is
the fact that Generalized Anxiety Disorders are more observable and likely to appear between
instances of twins. A second example of evidence for a biological basis of anxiety disorders is
the fact that generalized anxiety disorders can be seen throughout families and may be passed
down from generation to generation. One last example of evidence for a biological basis of
anxiety disorders is that researchers were able to discover that, in regards to a study examining
the brains of obsessive-compulsive disorder patients, and patients with normal functioning
brains, they found that patients with OCD, although the sizes and structures of the brain were the
same, the patients with OCD have increased activity in the part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral
cortex called the orbital surface.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder differs from other anxiety disorders in terms of its
biological features. For example, whereas panic is associated with autonomic arousal, GAD is
characterized by muscle tension, agitation, susceptibility to fatigue, some irritability, and
difficulty sleeping.
8. Indicate how the triple vulnerability theory offers an integrative explanation of the
development of the anxiety disorders? Of the Mood Disorders? Be sure to provide clear
examples of generalized psychological vulnerability versus specific psychological vulnerability.

By putting different factors together in an integrated way, researchers have discovered a

theory of development of anxiety called the triple vulnerability theory. The triple vulnerability
theory breaks up three different factors which are all believed to contribute to the development of
anxiety disorders. The first vulnerability is a generalized biological vulnerability (genetics,
inheriting anxiety disorders, etc.). The second vulnerability is generalized psychological
vulnerability (the belief that if you grow up believing that the world is dangerous and outside of
your control, and if this feeling is strong enough, you may have a generalized psychological
vulnerability to anxiety). The last vulnerability is a specific psychological vulnerability (a type of
vulnerability which becomes produced by early experiences, such as being taught by your
parents, that some situations or objects are fraught with danger. By addressing all of these
vulnerabilities, we may have a better understanding for how anxiety disorders, as well as mood
disorders, are developed and produced.
Generalized psychological vulnerability and specific psychological vulnerability,
although they may sound the same, share differences among themselves. For example, an
instance of psychological vulnerability would be a child growing up believing that the world is a
stressful place, and that he has no means for coping with the overwhelming stress of the world.
By growing up this way, the child has exposed himself to generalized psychological vulnerability
to anxiety. Another example would be going into college assuming that life after high school will
be stressful and filled with pressure. By following this belief, you have, again, exposed yourself
to generalized psychological vulnerability to anxiety. However, there are some distinguishing
features between generalized psychological vulnerability and specific psychological
vulnerability. For example, an instance of specific psychological vulnerability would be if one of
your parents is afraid of dogs, or expresses anxiety about being evaluated negatively by others,
you may well develop a fear of dogs or of social evaluation.

9. Describe the similarities and differences between the somatic symptom and related disorders.
Is it possible to distinguish conversion disorder from malingering? Provide an example of how
this might be accomplished. On what basis would you classify fictitious disorder imposed on
another (Munchausen Syndrome by proxy) as child abuse rather than as a factitious symptom
disorder? Defend your response.

Somatic symptom disorders are mental illnesses that cause bodily symptoms, including
pain. This is similar to related disorders, such as panic disorders, social anxiety disorders,
generalized anxiety disorders, etc., in that the source of the illness is believed to be started due to
psychological factors. In addition, somatic symptom disorders, as well as related disorders, may
all cause impairments in daily functioning, and can cause the individual much stress as well. In
regards to differences between somatic symptom disorders and related disorders, somatic
symptom disorders cause the individual to actually feel pain, a phenomena which cannot be
traced back to any physical cause or substance abuse. Similar disorders are able to trace back the
cause of the distress back to abnormalities in the chemistry of the brain, or perhaps substance
abuse, but somatic symptom disorders have yet to be fully explained in terms of source of
psychological distress.
In the study of abnormal psychology, it is possible to distinguish between conversion
disorders (disorders which generally deal with physical malfunctioning), and malingering (faking
symptoms). One way to do this is to administer a test which measures sanity to a person who has
been defined as insane, and a person who people believe may be utilizing malingering. The
person who is actually insane will test closer to where the test declares them insane, whereas the
person who is practicing malingering would score lower since they are trying to make it appear
as though they were insane.
 Fictitious disorders imposed on another may be classified as child abuse rather than as a
fictitious symptome in that the parent (typically a mother) is still bringing upon pain and abuse to
the child, regardless of whether or not the perpetrator believed that they were doing something
wrong. Despite the fact that fictitious disorders imposed on another holds that the awareness of
the abuse is not present, and that the parent is only performing these acts of violence or
aggression against the child in order to gain attention, that does not excuse the fact that the child
is still being abused and is suffering at the hands of a parent or guardian, thus making fictitious
disorders imposed on another more of an act of child abuse than as a fictitious symptome
disorder.

10. It is said that almost all individuals with mood disorders are also anxious, but not all those
with anxiety disorders show depressed symptoms. What features do the Mood Disorders share
with Anxiety Disorders? Describe the characteristics that distinguish these two classes of
disorders. How do these two groups differ in their etiology? Their treatment?

Mood disorders and anxiety disorders share features with each other. For example, both
mood disorders and anxiety disorders are described as distressful. In addition, both disorders are
products of the mind, and both may also result in irritability and fatigue. Despite the similarities
that these two disorders share, there exist some differences as well. For example, several people
who face mood disorders often exhibit feelings of helplessness or hopelessness, loss of interest in
daily activities, appetite or weight changes, etc., whereas people who experience anxiety
disorders often experience excessive, ongoing periods of worry and tension, muscle tension, an
unrealistic view of problems, headaches, etc.
In addition, these two groups also differ in their etiology, as well as their treatment. For
example, mood disorders may come about due to the loss of a loved one, a tragic experience, an
already existing biological predisposition to depression, or simply the environment in which one
is in. On the other hand, anxiety disorders may surface during periods of high anxiety inducing
environments, or perhaps frequently experiencing stressful situations In regards to treatment,
some possible treatments for people undergoing mood disorders may be pharmaceutical drugs
which may help chemical imbalances in the brain, as well as cognitive-behavioral therapy, which
would perhaps ultimately help the patient change their views and beliefs in order to cure
themselves. Possible treatments for anxiety disorders include medication, psychotherapy,
cognitive-behavioral therapy, dietary and lifestyle changes, as well as relaxation therapy.

11. Identify 3 dissociative disorders. Describe the characteristics associated with the dissociative
identity disorder (DID). What objective biological evidence is there supportive of the existence
of DID? Why has the existence of DID been disputed by some clinicians.

Three dissociative disorders are depersonalization, derealization, and amnesia.

Depersonalization occurs when your perception alters so that you temporarily lose the sense of
your own reality. This kind of dissociative disorder is often referred to as an out-of-body
experience. Derealization occurs when your sense of the reality of the external world is lost.
During this dissociative disorder, things may seem to change shape or size, and people may seem
to become dead or mechanical. And lastly, amnesia occurs when an individual experiences
failure when recalling significant personal information.
The objective biological evidence which exists to support the existence of DID can be
found through the fact that individuals with certain neurological disorders, particularly seizure
disorders, experience many dissociative symptoms. This finding suggests brain activity during
association. In one study, the researchers reported that 6% of patients with temporal lobe
epilepsy reported out of body experiences. About 50% of another series of patients with
temporal lobe epilepsy displayed some kinds of dissociative symptoms, including alternate
identities or alternate fragments. In addition, head injuries and resulting brain damage may
induce amnesia or other types of dissociative experience. Finally, strong evidence exists that
sleep deprivation produces dissociative symptoms such as marked hallucinatory activity.
The existence of DID has been disputed by some clinicians due to the fact that the
clinician may have trouble finding out if the fragmented identities are real, or if the person is
simply faking them in order to avoid responsibility or stress. In addition, individuals with DID
are suggestable, and it is also possible that alters are created in response to leading questions
from therapists, either during psychotherapy or while the person is in a hypnotic state.

12. Identify the major components of the central nervous system (CNS) and the autonomic
nervous system (ANS). Describe the major structures and functions that these components serve.
Name 3 of the major neurotransmitters found in the CNS and/or the ANS. What
neurotransmitters and hormones have been thought to be involved in the development of anxiety
disorders, the mood disorders? How do the pharmacological therapies work to treat these
disorders?

The major components which comprise the central nervous system are the brain and the
spinal cord. On the other hand, the major components which comprise the autonomic nervous
system are the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. The brain
and the spinal cord which comprise the central nervous system are responsible for integrating
sensory information and responding accordingly. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible
for the fight-or-flight response, which triggers physiological responses which prepare the body
for stressful situations (examples of these responses would be the pupils dilating, an increase in
heart rate, etc.). On the other hand, the parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for the
rest-and-digest response of the body, which is when the body normalizes our arousal and
facilitates the storage of energy by helping the digestive process.
There are three major neurotransmitters that are found in both the CNS and the ANS.
These neurotransmitters are serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.
 In regards to mood disorders, researchers believe that an insufficient amount or lack of
serotonin may lead to depression in individuals. In addition, the mania experienced in bipolar
disorder has been believed to be a result of an excess amount of dopamine. Lastly, several
anxiety disorders have been associated with an insufficient amount of serotonin, as well as an
increased amount of norepinephrine.
. Several pharmacological therapies are able to work towards treating these different
disorders. For example, in regards to anxiety, the drug benzodiazepine works as a minor
tranquilizer which makes it easier for GABA molecules to attach themselves to the receptors of
specialized neurons. By increasing GABA, benzodiazepines are able to help alleviate symptoms
of anxiety. In addition, in regards to depression, treatment typically involves the class of drugs
called selective-serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or SSRIs. SSRIs work by blocking the
reuptake of serotonin, and by doing so, the effects of serotonin are increased. By increasing the
effects of serotonin, symptoms of depression may be alleviated, and SSRIs may also be used to
treat several other psychological disorders due to its effects on mood.

13. Based on the material covered in the readings to date, which of the perspectives (e.g.,
biological, behavioral, cognitive, psychodynamic, socio-cultural) seems to provide the best
model for identifying the causes of the psychological disorders covered so far this quarter?
Which perspective offers the best model for treating psychological disorders. Defend your
answer with evidence (e.g., examples from studies).

I believe that based off of the materials covered in the readings to date, the biological
perspective provides the best model for identifying the causes of psychological disorders covered
so far in the quarter. This is due to the overwhelming amount of twin studies which provide
evidence of a high correlation between instances of mental disorders and genetics. In a study
conducted by McGuffin et al (2003), the experiments conducted came to the result that an
identical twin is 2 to 3 times more likely to have a mood disorder than a fraternal twin if the first
twin has a mood disorder. In another study which examined psychological disorders and
families, the researchers found that, despite wide variability, the rate in relatives of probands
with mood disorders is consistently about 2 to 3 times greater than in relatives of controls who
do not have mood disorders. In addition to this, many psychological disorders can be examined
in the brain, thus greatly supporting the biological perspective to psychological disorders. For
example, a number of investigators have found intriguing differences between the brains of
patients with OCD and the brains of other people. Although the sizes and the structures of the
brain are the same, patients with OCD have increased activity in the part of the frontal lobe of
the cerebral cortex called the orbital cortex.
The biological approach to psychological disorders also offers some significant
contributions to the treatment of psychological disorders as well. For example, in regards to
anxiety, the drug benzodiazepine works as a minor tranquilizer which makes it easier for GABA
molecules to attach themselves to the receptors of specialized neurons. Additionally, in regards
to depression, treatment typically involves the class of drugs called selective-serotonin reuptake
inhibitors, or SSRIs. SSRIs work by blocking the reuptake of serotonin, and by doing so, the
effects of serotonin are increased. By increasing the effects of serotonin, symptoms of depression
may be alleviated, and SSRIs may also be used to treat several other psychological disorders
due to its effects on mood. These pharmaceutical remedies to psychological disorder are all
results of findings done through the biological approach to psychological disorders. It is through
these contributions that the biological perspective is the most strong perspective when
considering psychological disorders.

14. Define negative reinforcement. Describe how negative reinforcement processes (i.e.,
avoidance) are believed to contribute to the maintenance of the anxiety disorders. How does
negative reinforcement contribute to the maintenance of obsessive-compulsive and related
disorders? If negative reinforcement processes contribute to the maintenance of the maladaptive
responses, what learning process contributed to their initiation? How did Prof. Jamner attempt to
target the avoidance contributing to the maintenance of fear in the class exercise involving the
presentation of snakes and spiders?

Negative reinforcement is when something already present and perhaps negative is taken
away as a result of a behavior, thus leading to the behavior that caused this removal to increase
due to the fact that it created a favorable outcome.
Negative reinforcement processes are believed to contribute to the maintenance of
anxiety disorders in that individuals who experience an anxiety inducing situation may wish to
remove themselves from the situation, thus exemplifying avoidance. By avoiding anxiety
inducing situations, the individual is performing negative reinforcement in that they are
avoiding a stimulus in order to increase favorable outcomes. Negative reinforcement
processes also contribute to the maintenance of obsessive-compulsive disorders and related
disorders as well. Similar to anxiety disorders, negative reinforcement processes work similarly
in regards to maintenance of the disorder. Obsessive-compulsive disorders are described as an
anxiety disorder in which people have unwanted and repeated thoughts, feelings, ideas,
sensations, or behaviors that make them feel driven to do something (compulsions, typically
small rituals). For instance, perhaps an individual has OCD, and consequently, must turn the
lights on and off 3 times before leaving a room, otherwise he experiences anxiety. Negative
reinforcement contributes to this in that the ritual of turning the lights on and off produces a
behavior which alleviates the negative feelings of anxiety, and thus this behavior increases as a
result of this alleviation.
The learning process which contributed to the initiation of negative reinforcement would
be classical conditioning. Classical conditioning is a learning process which pairs various stimuli
in order to elicit a desired response. In regards to negative reinforcement, the individual learns
that the negative stimuli may be removed through a certain behavior, and that removing this
negative stimuli results in a calming and positive result, thus leading to the avoidance of the
negative stimuli.
Professor Jamner attempted to target the avoidance contributing to the maintenance of
fear through the exercise he presented in class which prompted students with fears of spiders or
snakes to actually attempt to touch and hold a spider or snake. By addressing the fear head on
(and not allowing the student with the fear to avoid their phobias), professor Jamner was able to
exemplify how if we are continually exposed to the phobia, the feared object begins to lose its
seemingly terrifying aspects, and consequently, their levels of anxiety would being to lower.

15. Imagine that a person had just discovered that their girl/boy friend was romantically involved
with their closest friend. Using concept of the depressive cognitive triad (a negative cognitive
style) provide an example of what an individual at high risk for depression and one at low risk
for depression would think, say, and act. In what other ways have individuals with MDD or at
high risk for MDD been shown to employ distorted cognitive schemas (world views) and
negative attributional styles.

The concept of the depressive cognitive triad states that individuals who experience
depression will make cognitive errors in thinking negatively about themselves, their immediate
world, and their futures. A person who is undergoing cheating and a breakup and is at high risk
for depression would think that the reason their significant other cheated on them was because
they were a terrible partner to them, they would perhaps say that this instance exemplifies how
all relationships are, and that nothing good could possibly come out of such close relationships
because they are all the same and will end negatively, and would lastly act as though they would
want to remain single because in their minds, all relationships will always be the same and thus
there is no need to pursue any future relationships.
On the other hand, a person who is undergoing cheating and a breakup and is not at high
risk for depression would think that the large part of the blame would befall their cheating
partner (not placing any of the blame on themselves), they would perhaps say that this was just a
rare occasion or instance of cheating, and that many relationships are not like this, and would
lastly act as though future relationships will get better, and that this was just an odd and
unfortunate instance.
Individuals with MDD or who are at high risk for MDD have shown distorted cognitive
schemas (world views) and negative attributional styles. This can be seen through the fact that
individuals high at risk or who have MDD tend to attribute negative events or instances of
depression to themselves, their immediate world, as well as their futures, much like the
depressive cognitive triad. They tend to believe that negative things are their fault, that negative
events happen globally, and that these negative feelings will remain stable and may not ever go
away.
16. Carefully distinguish between bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and persistent
depressive disorder. Going beyond describing each disorder, highlight the characteristics that
they share in common and those that make each distinct. How did the videos shown in class
depict the features you describe? What types of medications would you prescribe (if any) for
each of these disorders? Explain how each of the medications you prescribed act on the nervous
system to improve functioning.

Bipolar disorder is a condition in which a person has periods of depression and periods of
being extremely or being cross or irritable. Major depressive disorder is a mood disorder in
which feelings of sadness, loss, anger, or frustration interfere with everyday life for weeks or
longer. Persistent depressive disorder is also known as dysthymia, is a form of chronic
depression, with symptoms less severe but longer lasting than other forms of depression.
These three disorders share a few things in common, and even share differences as well.
In regards to commonalities, all three of the listed disorders are all mood disorders, and can all
be emotionally crippling. In addition, all three disorders experience instances of depressive
symptoms (feelings of hopelessness and helplessness, loss of interest in daily activities, sleep
changes, etc.). Although these three disorders share things in common, they also share some
differences as well. For instance, although individuals who experience major depressive disorder,
persistent depressive disorder, or bipolar disorder all experience symptoms of depression, people
who experience bipolar disorder also experience an overly joyful or overexcited state. An
individual experiencing bipolar disorder may go from depressed to overjoyed very easily, and
may experience these mood episodes quite often. Another difference between these disorders
can be seen between major depressive disorder and persistent depressive disorder. Persistent
depressive disorder is very similar to major depressive disorder, the only difference is that those
who experience persistent depressive disorder tend to have symptoms that are not as severe as
those who are experiencing major depressive disorder, but the symptoms are longer lasting.
The videos shown in class depict the features I listed above quite well. For example, the
video of the woman who has experienced depression for nearly her whole life exemplifies
several of the above listed features in that she had trouble sleeping, she held a negative view of
herself and the world, and that these symptoms would trouble her long amounts of time. Another
video presented in class was of the man with bipolar disorder. He exemplified the features listed
above clearly in that he was and has experienced bouts of sadness and depression, and then
would later experience instances of happiness and joy.
For bipolar disorder, I would prescribe lithium. Lithium helps alleviate bipolar disorder
because it can combat the effects of mania. Lithium may do this by changing the activity of the
sodium-potassium pump in nervous cells by slowing or stopping the transmission of sodium and
potassium. It is speculated that lithium reduces the potential for a brain neuron to respond to
neurotransmitters that contribute to the symptoms of mania. In regards to major depressive
disorder and persistent depressive disorder, I would prescribe SSRIs. SSRIs work by blocking
the reuptake of serotonin, and by doing so, the effects of serotonin are increased. By increasing
the effects of serotonin, symptoms of depression may be alleviated, and SSRIs may also be used
to treat several other psychological disorders due to its effects on mood.

17. The position that many psychological disorders can be viewed as more extreme
manifestations of common human tendencies, that is, a human characteristic taken to a more
intense level. Based on the readings and material presented in class, provide 3 clear examples of
a disorders that appear to be more exaggerated forms of usual behaviors or traits. Defend your
selection.

Several psychological disorders can be viewed as more extreme manifestations of

common human tendencies. For example, one psychological disorder which can be viewed as an
extreme manifestation of common human tendencies would be dissociative identity disorder.
DID is an extreme manifestation of common human tendencies in that individuals tend to already
have several different personalities or identities depending on the situation. For example, a
man who is at work would act differently than he would if he was with friends, or perhaps if he
was with a significant other, etc. However, in DID, people take different identities to the
extreme. For instance, the individual undergoing DID may have different identities which vary
from age, gender, or even race. Each personality may have its own distinct postures, gestures, or
even way of talking. Consequently, DID may appear to be an extreme human tendency of acting
differently in front of others.
Another psychological disorder which can be viewed as more extreme manifestations of
common human tendencies would be anxiety disorders (mainly phobias). Numerous amounts of
people have experienced anxiety before, whether it be stressful situations, encountering a bug
that scares them, etc. However, people with anxiety disorders, mainly phobias, are irrationally
afraid and anxious of certain situations, to the near point of crippling fear. In regards to phobias,
people have an irrational fear of a certain object (such as snakes, spiders, germs, etc.). People
have experienced fear of certain things before, but people who have specific phobias are
irrationally afraid of certain objects, which can be viewed as more extreme manifestations of
common human tendencies.
One last psychological disorder which can be viewed as more extreme manifestations of
common human tendencies would be bipolar disorder. People tend to experience happiness and
sadness throughout their lives, typically depending on things that are happening around them, or
perhaps in regards to certain situations that they are undergoing. However, these emotions are
not extreme and do not shift abruptly like they do in bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder is a
condition in which a person has periods of depression and periods of being extremely happy or
being cross or being irritable. For example, a person who has bipolar disorder may shift from an
extremely manic state to a depressive state at a completely random time, regardless of the
situation that they are in. Due to this, bipolar disorder can potentially be viewed as a
psychological disorder stemming from extreme manifestations of common human tendencies.
18. Cultural factors are recognized to contribute to how psychological disorders present
themselves (e.g., Koro, dhat, susto, ataque). Using examples from class and the textbook provide
3 examples of disorders that present with culturally specific symptoms (symptoms typically not
shown by individuals in other cultures with the same disorder). Identify a disorder with a
symptom set that is similar across almost all cultures (prevalence, gender breakdown, diagnostic
criteria, etc.).

Cultural factors are recognized to contribute to how psychological disorders present

themselves. For example, koro is a condition found in Singapore which is mass hysteria or
delusion believed to be caused by the belief that an individuals gentials are retracting into their
bodies. Hysteria and delusion can be found in other cultures, but typically not due to the belief of
an individuals genitals retracting into their bodies.
Another psychological disorder which is influenced by cultural factors is dhat. Dhat is
prevalent in India, and includes physical symptoms such as dizziness, weakness, and fatigue.
These symptoms are believed to be caused by an anxious concern about losing semen, a
phenomenon that obviously occurs during sexual activity. Again, these symptoms of dizziness,
weakness, and fatigue may be found in other cultures, but Indias dhat exemplifies how these
symptoms can be culture specific.
One last psychological disorder which is influenced by cultural factors is susto. Susto
can be found in Latin America, and has various anxiety-based symptoms including insomnia,
irritability, phobias, and the marked somatic symptoms of sweating and increased heart rate.
However, susto is believed to be caused by the individual believing that he or she has become the
object of black magic, or witchcraft, and is suddenly badly frightened. Although nearly all
cultures have experienced anxiety-based symptoms, susto is an occurrence which exemplifies
how cultural factors can play into psychological disorders.
One disorder with a symptom set that is similar across all cultures is phobias. Everyone
experiences anxiety and fear, and phobias are found all over the world. However, phobias have a
peculiar characteristic: The likelihood of your having a particular phobia is powerfully
influenced by your gender. For example, someone who complains of an insect or small-animal
phobia severe enough to prohibit field trips or visits to friends in the country is almost certain to
be female, as are 90% of people with this phobia. Typically, men in nearly all cultures must
appear to be the gender that does not show fear, whereas for women, it is more acceptable in
most cultures to express fear of something. Thus, in nearly all cultures, phobias have the same
symptoms and definition (an extreme or irrational fear of or aversion to something) and can
typically have the same prevalence, gender breakdown, and diagnostic criteria.

19. Anxiety and Mood disorders share a number of clinical features (e.g., mixed symptoms) and
possibly a common genetic vulnerability. What evidence (biological, psychological, social)
supports the DSM 5 differentiation of anxiety and mood disorders as distinct conditions?
 Evidence which supports the DSM 5 differentiation of anxiety and mood disorders exist
through biological, psychological, and social pieces of evidence. Although anxiety and mood
disorders share a number of clinical features, the two do have some differences. For example, the
main difference between anxiety and mood disorders is the type of feeling or state-of-mind being
described. Abnormal instances of fear, worry, or nervousness describe an anxiety disorder.
Examples of anxiety disorders include phobias, panic attacks, and obsessive-compulsive
behaviors. Mood disorders describe varying degrees of extreme sadness and elation. A
depressive or bipolar mental state is indicative of a mood disorder.
Biologically, there are some similarities between these disorders and possible
pharmaceutical treatment (both disorders can be treated with various antidepressant type
medications such as tricyclic, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), and serotonin and
norepinepharine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)). However, these disorders can have biological
differences, which can be seen through other varying pharmaceutical treatments. For example,
anxiety disorders tend to be treated with benzodiazepines and buspirone, while norepinephrine
and dopamine reuptake inhibitors (NDRIs) and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are
generally prescribed for mood disorders. Mood stabilizers and anticonvulsants can also be used
to treat mood disorders.
Psychologically, these two disorders share some differences as well. An example of a
mood disorder is major depressive disorder, whereas an example of an anxiety disorder is bipolar
disorder. Both of these disorders experience depressive symptoms (feelings of helplessness or
hopelessness, loss of interest in daily activities, sleep changes, etc.), but there is a significant
difference in that individuals with bipolar disorder also experience shifts in mood and can go
from depressive to a manic and joyful state at random times. In addition, people who experience
anxiety disorders claim symptoms of panic, fear, and uneasiness, shortness of breath, heart
palpitations, etc. On the other hand, people who experience mood disorders (specifically
depression), may experience symptoms such as feelings of hopelessness or helplessness, loss of
interest in daily activities, sleep changes, etc. These differing psychological symptoms exemplify
how there exist psychological differences between these two disorders.
Lastly, there are social differences for how these psychological disorders are different
from each other as well. This can be seen through the environmental factors that influence
anxiety disorders and mood disorders. Both can be caused by different psychological factors
from the environment or from societal factors as well. For instance, people with anxiety
disorders can have their anxiety be caused by an anxiety inducing situation, or perhaps being
near something that frightens them (like if the individual had phobias, for example), which then
causes the individual anxiety. On the other hand, the loss of a loved one, being fired from a job,
or going through a breakup can be factors which psychologically cause the individual to fall into
a bout of depression. Due to the fact that these differing factors and situations typically lead to
either anxiety or depression, evidence for societal differences between these two disorders can be
examined.
20. Provide three (3) clear examples of where a diathesis-stress model (hint: integrative; triple
vulnerability) best describes the processes involved in the development and maintenance of any
of the psychological disorders covered in class or in the assigned readings

There exist several examples which demonstrate how the diathesis-stress model best
describes the processes involved in the development and maintenance of the psychological
disorders. One example would be the study which exemplifies the diathesis-stress model done by
Kilpatrick et. al (2007) regarding the development of post traumatic stress disorder. In the study,
589 adults who experienced the Florida hurricanes of 2004 were interviewed and DNA was
collected to examine genetic structure. What they found was that people with the same genetic
make-up examined in the Caspi et al (2003) study (AKA they had SS- short alleles) were more
susceptible to develop PTSD than their counterparts who had LL (AKA long alleles). This study
exemplifies how the diathesis-stress model applies to and describes the processes involved in the
development and maintenance of psychological disorders.
Another example would be the example of Judy from the textbook. For example,
according to the diathesis-stress model, Judy inherited a tendency to faint at the sight of blood.
This tendency may be seen as the diathesis. This tendency would not become prominent until
certain environmental events occurred. For Judy, this event was the sight of an animal being
dissected when she was in a situation in which escape, or at least closing her eyes, was
unacceptable. The stress of seeing the dissection under these conditions activated her genetic
tendency to faint. The diathesis-stress model thus describes how the mixture of these two factors
led to her developing this disorder.
One last example can be seen through the woman who struggles with depression. In the
video, she explains how she has felt depressed for a majority of her life. An experience of less
intense symptoms of depression is known as dysthymia, and perhaps the woman in the video
grew up with this disorder, or was at least prone to depression (the diathesis). However, once she
went to college and experienced the stressful environment that college demands on students. that
predisposition for depression (or her dysthymia), may have evolved into major depressive
disorder. This example demonstrated how the diathesis and the stress in the diathesis-stress
model work together in order to bring about psychological disorders.

21. Provide a brief integrative explanation that involves genetic, biological, psychological and
social processes (at least two) that best explains the greater prevalence of anxiety and mood
disorders among women relative to men.

There exist several integrative explanations for the greater prevalence of anxiety and
mood disorders among women relative to men. In regards to social processes, there exist
substantial differences in regards to cultural expectations of men and women which can be
examined through gender roles. For instance, an equal number of men and women may have an
experience that could lead to an insect or small-animal phobia, such as being bitten by one, but in
most society it is not always acceptable for men to show or demonstrate fear. As a result, the
man might hide the fear and works towards overcoming it. On the other hand, women experience
more social acceptance when they experience fear, and thus phobias may develop as a result of
these gender roles. In addition, women are more likely than men to experience the eating
disorder bulimia nervosa. This is due to the fact that women in most cultures undergo cultural
emphasis on being thin and thus lead to a higher rate of women struggling to become thin than
men in some societies.
Another integrative explanation for the greater prevalence of anxiety and mood disorders
among women relative to men would be in regards to a biological approach. In regards to
biology, women are twice as likely as men to develop depression. In addition, women are at
higher risk for depression during pregnancy and shortly after delivery. A recent study indicated
that as many as 25% of women suffer from depression during pregnancy or during the
postpartum period. In addition, hormonal regulation largely affects the rate of depression in
women. Estrogen depletion, also known as menopausal symptoms, illustrates increased
depressive rates and vasomotor instability. Hereditarily speaking genetic transmission may cause
women to be more susceptible to depression. This has been studied and examined through family
and twin studies. An example of this can be seen through estimates of heritability showing that
women were twice as likely as men to have a mood disorder by genetic dimensions.

22. Compare and contrast the way mood disorders are expressed in child/adolescents and elderly
adults. How might these differences be explained from a biological perspective? From a social
perspective?

Mood disorders can be experienced by both children/adolescents as well as elderly adults,

and both groups of individuals can be compared and contrasted. In regards to comparing the two,
most investigators agree that mood disorders are fundamentally similar (in occurance) in children
and in adults. In one study, researchers found that adolescents experience major depressive
disorder about as often as adults. Additionally, bipolar disorder seems to occur at about the same
rate (1%) in childhood and adolescence as in adults. Despite these similarities, these two groups
also have some differences as well. For example, there exists a mood disorder which can only be
diagnosed to children under the age of 12 which is known as disruptive mood dysregulation
disorder. In addition, the look of depression changes with age. For example, children under 3
years of age might manifest depression by sad facial expressions, irritability, fatigue, fussiness,
and tantrums, as well as by problems with eating and sleeping. In the extreme this could develop
into disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. In terms of adults expressing depression, adults tend
to exhibit signs of hopelessness or helplessness, a lack of interest in daily activities, sleep pattern
changes, etc. Another difference in regards to depression seen between children/adolescents and
adults is that for children, depression can occur equally in both boys and girls, but once the
children reach puberty (and eventually adulthood), researchers have found that the disorder
occurs more often in women than men. As far as mania is concerned, children under the age of 9
seem to present with more irritability and emotional swings as compared with classic manic
states, particularly irritability.
 From a biological perspective, some of these differences may be explained. For instance,
it was examined that the occurrence of depression is equal in childhood, but becomes more
focused on women than men in adolescence/adulthood. This can be explained through the
hormonal changes experienced in puberty for adolescents, and in regards to adults, some women
have experienced depression due to the hormonal changes which occur during menopause.
In regards to a social perspective, several of these differences may be explained. In terms
of the look of depression changing with age, social perspectives can influence these changes.
For instance, when we were children, we were only able to express ourselves through basic
means such as crying, throwing tantrums, frequently frowning, etc. However, as we got older, we
learned more from society and learned from others, and the symptoms and look of depression
changed to being unmotivated, helpless, loss of energy, etc. In regards to mania, children tend to
exhibit more irritability and more emotional swings. This ties back to social influences in that in
most societies, it is understood that children can be irrational, immature, and may not conduct
themselves in appropriate ways at times. This societal norm is what lets children throw the
tantrums that they throw and act the way that they do when experiencing a manic state. However,
once the child becomes an adult, instances of mania change and the individual can no longer
throw temper tantrums like he or she did when they were younger. Thus, adults tend to respond
to mania with euphoria, aggressive behavior, agitation or irritation, rapid speech, etc.

23. Using the information provided in the following vignette, provide the most appropriate
DSM-5 diagnosis (or diagnoses). Make certain that you specify the bases for your diagnosis (e.g.
criteria met). A complete response would also include the reasons you decided to exclude
possible alternative diagnoses (rule outs).

The symptoms that the patient is exhibiting point towards comorbidity for schizophrenia
and depression. The instance of the patient seeing funeral cars everywhere exemplifies how the
patient is experiencing hallucinations, a characteristic symptom of schizophrenia. In addition, the
patient reports that she sometimes trembles violently, her eyeballs roll upward, and her arms and
hands twist. When an individual experiences schizophrenia, a possible symptom that the
individual may experience is possible periods of manic mood or a sudden increase in energy and
behavioral displays that are out of character. This symptom explains why the patient is
experiencing these abnormal behavior changes and urges in her body. Additionally, the patient
reports that she sometimes utters strange words and no longer understands english. She also
reports that after 5 minutes she regains consciousness from her abnormal behavioral displays
(trembling, eyeballs rolling upward, and her arms and hands twisting) and claims that she does
not remember anything that happened during these attacks. Adding onto these reports, the patient
claims that since her arrival in America, she has been haunted four times by evil spirits. All of
these reports regarding false beliefs point towards delusion, which is a main symptom in
schizophrenia. The patient also said that she experiences suicidal thoughts, a symptom which can
be found in individuals with schizophrenia as well.
 The patient has also undergone an unplanned pregnancy, and also has another child on
the way, despite the use of birth control pills. According to the report, after the birth of her
unplanned baby, she began experiencing increasing fatigue in both arms, pain under her breasts,
and pain behind her left breast, which at times radiated down her back. She had also previously
mentioned that she suffers from headaches, abdominal pain, sleeping problems, severe lack of
energy, and a loss of appetite. In addition, she has said that three months later, she claims to feel
pain everywhere. One symptom of depression is unexplained aches and pains. This is described
as an increase in in physical complaints such as headaches, back pain, aching muscles, and
stomach pain. As a result, the pain that the patient is experiencing can be explained through
depression. One thing that may lead to depression is stress. Perhaps the stress of having an
unplanned baby has caused her to experience depression. This pattern of experiencing a stressful
event and then developing a psychological disorder is explained through the diathesis-stress
model. Additionally, the patient claims that she cannot sleep, which is a characteristic symptom
of depression. The patient also reports that she feels too tired to take care of her children, or to
make love to her husband. In addition, she also claims that she feels feeble. These symptoms of
fatigue, loss of interest in daily activities, and feelings of feebleness, self loathing, and loss of
energy are all symptoms of depression.
Due to all of these symptoms, there are several disorders that can be ruled out. For
example, the patient cannot be experiencing bipolar disorder because although she is
experiencing symptoms of depression, she is not exhibiting or reporting symptoms of shifts to
extreme happiness and joy. The patient cannot be experiencing generalized anxiety disorder
(GAD) either. Despite the fact that she felt anxiety about the spirits, GAD does not explain her
other symptoms well enough for GAD to be a diagnoses for this patient. Lastly, the patient
cannot be experiencing a panic disorder either. This is due to the fact that although she feels
anxiety and panic about the spirits potentially harming her, the spirits are a product of her
delusions which occur due to schizophrenia, and thus schizophrenia is a better diagnosis than a
panic disorder in regards to diagnosing this patient.