Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420

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Renewable Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/renene

Advanced brake state model and aerodynamic post-stall model for horizontal axis
wind turbines
R. Lanzafame, M. Messina*
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria, 6, 95125 Catania, Italy

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In scientic literature, when the aerodynamic design of a horizontal axis wind turbine is discussed,
Received 20 December 2011 different brake state models are presented. The brake state models are implemented within a BEM code
Accepted 30 June 2012 which is a 1-D numerical code, based on Glauert propeller theory, and able to predict HAWT perfor-
Available online 4 August 2012
mance. This code provides reliable results only if a proper brake state model and aerodynamic post-stall
model are implemented.
Keywords:
In this research, the authors have produced a numerical code based on BEM theory in conjunction with
BEM theory
an aerodynamic post-stall model, indispensable for taking into account radial ow along the wind
Centrifugal pumping
Brake state model
turbine blades (Himmelskamp Effect), and the brake state models by Buhl, combined with the calculation
NREL wind rotor of Jonkmans tangential induction factor.
In scientic literature, Shens brake state model is commonly implemented within 1-D numerical
codes, based on BEM theory. Subsequently, a comparison with Shens brake state models was carried out.
With the numerical code presented in this work, the power for an NREL wind rotor was predicted. With
the numerical simulation, it was possible to notice when these different brake state model furnish results
close to experimental data.
2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The numerical codes based on BEM theory are powerful tools for
the design and performance evaluation of HAWT. BEM theory is
based on Glauert propeller theory [1] modied for wind turbines.
Today, many researchers are developing numerical codes based on
BEM theory [2e11]. Industry also utilizes these numerical codes to
design HAWT. These numerical codes are 1-D codes and produce
reliable results provided certain criticalities are resolved. These
criticalities regard the correct representation of lift and drag coef-
cients at high values of angle of attack, the implementation of
a post-stall model (to take into account radial ow along the
blades) and the implementation of a brake state model (to correctly
determine axial and tangential induction factors) [12e17].
This paper compares two different (the most accredited) brake
state models to evaluate the performance of a HAWT. The two brake
Abbreviations: BEM, Blade Element Momentum; HAWT, horizontal axis wind
turbine; NREL, National Renewable Energy Laboratory; BSM, brake state model; 1-
D, One-dimensional; 2-D, Two-dimensional.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mmessina@diim.unict.it (M. Messina).
state models are Shens [18,19] and Buhls [20,21] (here Buhls
model is combined with Jonkmans equation to determine the
tangential induction factor).
First, a numerical code based on BEM theory [13] was devel-
oped, and a post-stall model [13,17] was implemented within the
numerical code. Next, the two brake state models were compared,
predicting the power curves for the NREL wind rotor [22]. In
scientic literature [29], experimental measurements are reported
for this wind turbine rotor. Finally, a comparison between the
simulated and experimental power curves is performed.
2. BEM theory, post-stall model and brake state model
The numerical code, developed in [13] is a 1-D code for the
design of a horizontal axis wind turbine. It has very fast compu-
tational times and provides great accuracy compared with experi-
mental data. This code is based on Blade Element Momentum
(BEM) theory, and can be implemented to design a wind rotor, and/
or evaluate its performance.
BEM theory based numerical codes subdivide the wind turbine
rotor into annuli of dr thickness, the ow of each sector being
independent of adjacent circular sector ows [17,23]. Applying the
equations of momentum and angular momentum conservation, for

0960-1481/$ e see front matter 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2012.06.062
416 R. Lanzafame, M. Messina / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420

Nomenclature dR resultant force from lift and drag [N]

dN normal rotor force [N]
A rotor area [m2] dT tangential rotor force [N]
Re Reynolds number [e] c airfoil chord [m]
a angle of attack [ ] r air density [kg/m3]
f incoming ow direction angle [ ] CL airfoil lift coefcient [e]
u angular velocity [s1] CD airfoil drag coefcient [e]
a axial induction factor [-] CLmax CL at a 45 .
a0 tangential induction factor [e] Nb number of blades [e]
r local blade radius [m] F tip loss factor [e]
V0 wind velocity far upstream [m/s] CN normal force coefcient [e]
V1 relative airfoil velocity [m/s] lr local tip speed ratio [e]
dL lift [N] C torque [Nm]
dD drag [N] P mechanical power [W]

each innitesimal dr sector of the blade, the axial force and torque The curve t can be applied to any airfoil in the same aero-
can be dened (Eqs. (1) and (2)). dynamic region (the fully stalled one), because in this region the
The axial force on the blade element of width dr is: benets due to radial ow are greater [33].
To increase CL distribution in the fully stalled region, a new
r V02 1  a2 approach was implemented. As shown in Fig. 2, a fth-order log-
dN Nb CL cos f CD sin f c dr (1) P
i fcosti *lna g was adopted for the
i
2 sin2 f arithmic polynomial CL
attached ow region (2  a  18 ), while for the dynamic stall
 
The torque on the blade element of width dr is: region (18  a  90 ) the function CL 2CLmax*sin(a)*cos(a) was
adopted. This last function intersects the logarithmic polynomial
r V0 1  a u r 1 a0
dC , Nb CL sin f  CD cos f c rdr curve at about 1/2e1/3 of its descendent part. This method
2 sin f cos f furnishes the correct amount of increase in CL in the fully stalled
(2) region, and permits the 1-D numerical code, to take into account
radial ow along the blades.
Fig. 1 shows the axial and tangential forces (dN and dT) for an
Analogously to lift coefcient, two different mathematical
annulus of width dr.
functions have been implemented to describe the drag coefcient.
From Eq. (2) wind rotor power can be evaluated, as reported in P
i fcosti *lna g
i
A fth-order logarithmic polynomial CD
Eq. (3).
was adopted for the attached ow region (2  a  18 ), while for

Z the dynamic stall region (18  a  90 ) the function CD CDmax
P u dT (3) *sin2(a) was adopted. The cos ti, in the CD logarithmic polynomial,
have been evaluated through the least squares method, starting
while the power coefcient is given by Eq. (4) from the CD experimental data [21]. Also the CDmax has been ob-
tained from CD experimental data.
P
cp (4)
1
rAV03
2

2.1. Post-stall model

Knowing the lift and drag coefcients (CL and CD) is crucially
important for assessing the forces and torques according to Eqs. (1)
and (2).
A problem which might cause numerical instability is linked to
the mathematical description of the airfoil lift coefcient. The
airfoils experimental data is 2-D and taken from wind tunnel
measurements. Furthermore, due to rotation, the boundary layer is
subjected to Coriolis and centrifugal forces which alter the 2-D
airfoil characteristics. This is especially pronounced in stall. It is
thus often necessary to extrapolate existing airfoil data into deep
stall and include the effect of rotation [24e28].
Owing to radial ow along the turbine blades, mathematical
equations describing lift coefcient have to overestimate experi-
mental CL values within a precise range of the angle of attack.
Centrifugal pumping is a phenomenon which describes radial air
ow along blades [29,30]. This ow slows the ow detaching from
the airfoil, causing an increase in airfoil lift.
To take into account radial ow along a rotating blade in
scientic literature, many authors modify the CL distribution
[29,31,32]. Fig. 1. Forces acting on the airfoil.
 R. Lanzafame, M. Messina / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420 417

Fig. 2. Graphic visualization of the post-stall model.

2.2. Brake state model s !

10 4
a 1 2 a1  a  1 (7)
A brake state model is a set of mathematical equations imple- 2 lr
mented within a 1-D numerical code, based on the Blade Element
Momentum theory, to design and evaluate the performance of
where F is the Prandtl tip loss factor, as reported in [29,31].
horizontal axis wind turbines.
The proposed post-stall model, in conjunction with the brake
The brake state model implements different mathematical
state model, has been validate through the comparison between
expressions to evaluate the tangential (a0 ) and axial (a) induction
the simulated and experimental data on the mechanical power for
factors. In the numerical code presented in this paper, Eqs. (5)e(7)
the NREL wind turbine (see Fig. 3). The results of the numerical
were implemented [13].
code proposed in this work (including the post-stall model
The numerical stability of the mathematical code depends on
described in Subsection 2.1, and the brake state model described in
tangential (a0 ) and axial (a) induction factors. Before selecting these
Subsection 2.2), are very close to experimental data.
mathematical expressions, many simulations have been carried
out, implementing different mathematical expressions for the
3. Comparison between experimental and simulated data
tangential and axial induction factors. In all the simulations the
results were not good as those presented in this paper (see Fig. 3),
The numerical code produced by the authors, is implemented to
and in some cases, the numerical code does not converge to the
predict the power curve of the NREL wind rotor [22]. The radius of
solution, but diverges to an innite loop of calculations.
In Eqs. (5) and (6) the two mathematical expressions imple- NREL wind rotor
mented in this code for the evaluation of the axial induction factor 14
are reported:
for a < 0.4: 12
Mechanical Power [kW]

10
1
a (5)
4Fsin2 f 8
1
cNb
C cosf CD sinf
2pr L 6

Experimental data Simulated data

while for a  0.4 [20]: 4

p 2
18F  20  3 CN 50  36F 12F3F  4
a (6)
36F  50
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
In Eq. (7) the mathematical expression implemented in this
Wind Speed [m/s]
code for the evaluation of the tangential induction factor is re-
ported [21]: Fig. 3. Experimental mechanical power for the NREL wind turbine.
418 R. Lanzafame, M. Messina / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420

the rotor is 5.03 m and rotates at 72 r/min. The blade section is the
S809 airfoil. The experiments were carried out in the worlds
biggest wind tunnel at NASA Ames.
The rotor blades are twisted and tapered. Power control is
passive and occurs by deep stalling a section of the wind turbine
blades. One method to maintain almost constant the wind turbine
power, while the wind speed varies, is that to design the blades so
that they work in the deep stall region, and power production is
limited by these aerodynamic conditions (see Fig. 3, for the wind
speed varying from 10 m/s to 20 m/s).
Experimental measurements of power as wind speed varies
were taken from scientic literature [29].
In Fig. 3 the comparison between the experimental and simu-
lated data is shown. It is possible to notice how the 1-D numerical
code proposed in this work (with the post-stall model, and the
brake state model described in Subsections 2.1 and 2.2) furnishes
reliable results.

4. Numerical simulation and comparison of brake state

models
Fig. 4. Buhls brake state model.

The combined JonkmaneBuhl [20,21] brake state model is

implemented within the numerical code developed by the authors In 2005, Shen et al. [18] proposed a new tip loss correction
(see Eqs. (5)e(7)), and is compared with Shens brake state model model to predict physical behavior close to the tip. The local thrust
[18,19]. coefcient is replaced by a linear relation when the axial induction
Shens brake state model is represented by Eqs. (8)e(14). value is greater than a critical value (a  1/3). Fig. 5 shows Shens
For a  1/3 brake state model in conjunction with experimental data taken
p from [23].
1 1  CN
a (8) Implementing the numerical code, the BEM computation is
2F
carried out using 20 blade elements distributed uniformly along the
while for a  1/3 blade. Comparative axial induction factors are rst computed. In
q Fig. 6, the axial induction factor is plotted as a function of radius.
2 Y1  4Y1 1  F Y12 The axial induction values are almost identical for the inner part
a (9) of the blade but diverge when approaching the tip. This value is
21 FY1
lower than the value obtained with the Glauert model (reported
also in [18]), but greater than the value obtained with Shens brake
1
a0 (10) state model. A greater a value implies less predicted power.
1  aFY2 Fig. 7 shows the predicted power curves for the NREL wind rotor.
1
1a It shows the predicted power curve of the simplied Glauert model
with [18], the predicted power curve of Shens model [18], and the

4Fsin2 f
Y1 (11)
sF1 CN

4Fsinfcosf
Y2 (12)
sF1 CT
  
2 N R  r
F1 cos1 exp  g b (13)
p 2rsinf

g exp  0:125Nb lr  21 0:1 (14)

Figs. (4) and (5) show the brake state models.
In [34], Glauert reported the experimental results showing that
the trust coefcient equation CN 4a(1  a) is not valid if the axial
induction factor exceeds 0.4. Glauert [34] gave a correction for
determining the axial induction factor, when a > 0.4, valid only for
F 1. If the losses at the tip of the blade are taken into account
(F < 1), the correction proposed by Buhl [20] must be considered
and implemented. Fig. 4 shows Buhls brake state model in
conjunction with experimental data taken from [23].
This correction is needed to eliminate the numerical instability
which occurs when the Glauert correction is implemented in
conjunction with tip losses. Fig. 5. Shens brake state model.
 R. Lanzafame, M. Messina / Renewable Energy 50 (2013) 415e420 419

1 and the brake state models by Buhl combined with Jonkmans

tangential induction factor.
0.9
This brake state model was compared with that of Shen et al. to
Shen et al. [18]
This work
predict the power curve for an NREL wind rotor for which experi-
0.8
Glauert [18] mental mechanical power measurements are reported in scientic
0.7
literature.
The comparison highlighted two different behaviors for the two
a [axial induction factor]

0.6 brake state models which in this work better predict the power
curves at low and middle wind speeds, whereas Shens works
0.5 better at high wind velocities.
The advantages of the developed method are those of a 1-D
0.4
numerical code: very little computational weight, the possibility
to effect many simulations in a very little time, the possibility to
0.3
evaluate different geometrical congurations of the wind turbine in
0.2
order to obtain high power coefcient, maximize the Annual
Energy Production.
0.1 The disadvantage of this numerical code is its precision. These
disadvantages can be overcome with a nal 3-D CFD simulation.
0
0.25 0.5 0.75 1
r/R
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