Free Fall on the Rotating Earth

On the earth, the previously derived form of the basic equation of mechanics holds if
we neglect the rotation about the sun and therefore consider a coordinate system at the
earth center as an inertial system.

mr |M = F mR|L m r |M 2m r |M m ( r ). (2.1)

The rotational velocity of the earth about its axis can be considered constant in time;
therefore, m r = 0.
The motion of the point R, i.e., the motion of the coordinate origin of the system
(x  , y  , z ), still has to be recalculated in the moving system. According to (2.1), we
have

R|L = R|M + |M R + 2 R|M + ( R).

Since R as seen from the moving system is a time-independent quantity and since
is constant, this equation finally reads

R|L = ( R).

This is the centripetal acceleration due to the earths rotation that acts on a body
moving on the earths surface. For the force equation (2.1) one gets

mr = F m ( R) 2m r m ( r ).

Hence, in free fall on the earthcontrary to the inertial systemthere appear vir-
tual forces that deflect the body in the x  - and y  -directions.
If only gravity acts, the force F in the inertial system is F = Mmr/r 3. By inser-
tion we obtain
Mm
mr = r m ( R) 2m r m ( r ).
r3
We now introduce the experimentally determined value for the gravitational accel-
eration g:

M
g = R ( R).
R3

Here we have inserted in the gravitational acceleration Mr/r 3 the radius

r = R + r and kept the approximation r R, which is reasonable near the earths
surface. The second term is the centripetal acceleration due to the earths rotation,

W. Greiner, Classical Mechanics, 9

DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-03434-3_2, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2010
10 2 Free Fall on the Rotating Earth

Fig. 2.1. Octant of the globe:

Position of the various coordi-
nate systems

which leads to a decrease of the gravitational acceleration (as a function of the geo-
graphical latitude). The reduction is included in the experimental value for g. We thus
obtain

mr = mg 2m r m ( r ).

In the vicinity of the earths surface (r   R) the last term can be neglected, since
2 enters and || is small compared to 1/s. Thus the equation simplifies to

r = g 2( r ) or r = ge3 2( r ). (2.2)

The vector equation is solved by decomposing it into its components. First one suit-
ably evaluates the vector product. From Fig. 2.1 one obtains, with e1 , e2 , e3 the unit
vectors of the inertial system and e1 , e2 , e3 the unit vectors of the moving system, the
following relation:

e3 = (e3 e1 )e1 + (e3 e2 )e2 + (e3 e3 )e3

= ( sin )e1 + 0 e2 + (cos )e3 .

Because = e3 , one gets the component representation of in the moving system:

= sin e1 + cos e3 .

Then for the vector product we get

r  = (y  cos )e1 + (z sin + x  cos )e2 (y  sin )e3 .

The vector equation (2.2) can now be decomposed into the following three compo-
nent equations:

x  = 2y  cos ,
y  = 2(z sin + x  cos ), (2.3)
 
z = g + 2y sin .

This is a system of three coupled differential equations with as the coupling parame-
ter. For = 0, we get the free fall in an inertial system. The solution of such a system
 2.1 Perturbation Calculation 11

can also be obtained in an analytical way. It is, however, useful to learn various ap-
proximation methods from this example. We will first outline these methods and then
work out the exact analytical solution and compare it with the approximations.
In the present case, the perturbation calculation and the method of successive ap-
proximation offer themselves as approximations. Both of these methods will be pre-
sented here. The primes on the coordinates will be omitted below.

2.1 Perturbation Calculation

Here one starts from a system that is mathematically more tractable, and then one
accounts for the forces due to the perturbation which are small compared to the re-
maining forces of the system.
We first integrate (2.3):

x = 2y cos + c1 ,
y = 2(x cos + z sin ) + c2 , (2.4)
z = gt + 2y sin + c3 .

In free fall on the earth the body is released from the height h at time t = 0; i.e., for
our problem, the initial conditions are

z(0) = h, z(0) = 0,
y(0) = 0, y(0) = 0,
x(0) = 0, x(0) = 0.

From this we get the integration constants

c1 = 0, c2 = 2h sin , c3 = 0,

and obtain

x = 2y cos ,
y = 2(x cos + (z h) sin ), (2.5)
z = gt + 2y sin .

The terms proportional to are small compared to the term gt. They represent the
perturbation. The deviation y from the origin of the moving system is a function of
and t; i.e., in the first approximation the term y1 (, t) appears. Inserting this
into the first differential equation, we find an expression involving 2 . Because of the
consistency in we can neglect all terms with 2 , i.e., we obtain to first order in

x(t) = 0, z(t) = gt,

and after integration with the initial conditions we get

g
x(t) = 0, z(t) = t 2 + h.
2
12 2 Free Fall on the Rotating Earth

Because x(t) = 0, in this approximation the term 2x cos drops out from the
second differential equation (2.5); there remains

y = 2(z h) sin .

Inserting z leads to
 
1 2
y = 2 h gt h sin
2
= gt 2 sin .

Integration with the initial condition yields

g sin 3
y= t .
3
The solutions of the system of differential equations in the approximation n = 0
with n 2 (i.e., consistent up to linear terms in ) thus read
x(t) = 0,
g sin 3
y(t) = t ,
3
g
z(t) = h t 2 .
2
The fall time T is obtained from z(t = T ) = 0:
2h
T2 = .
g
From this one finds the eastward deflection (e2 points east) as a function of the fall
height:

g sin 2h 2h
y(t = T ) = y(h) =
3g g

2h sin 2h
= .
3 g

2.2 Method of Successive Approximation

If one starts from the known system (2.5) of coupled differential equations, these equa-
tions can be transformed by integration to integral equations:
t
x(t) = 2 cos y(u) du + c1 ,
0
t t
y(t) = 2ht sin 2 cos x(u) du 2 sin z(u) du + c2 ,
0 0
t
1
z(t) = gt 2 + 2 sin y(u) du + c3 .
2
0
 2.2 Method of Successive Approximation 13

Taking into account the initial conditions

x(0) = 0, x(0) = 0,
y(0) = 0, y(0) = 0,
z(0) = h, z(0) = 0,

the integration constants are

c1 = 0, c2 = 0, c3 = h.

The iteration method is based on replacing the functions x(u), y(u), z(u) under
the integral sign by appropriate initial functions. In the first approximation, one de-
termines the functions x(t), y(t), z(t) and then inserts them as x(u), y(u), z(u) on the
right-hand side to get the second approximation. In general there results a successive
approximation to the exact solution if t = 2t/T (T = 24 hours) is sufficiently
small.
By setting x(u), y(u), z(u) to zero in the above example in the zero-order approxi-
mation, one obtains in the first approximation

x (1) (t) = 0,
y (1) (t) = 2ht sin ,
g
z(1) (t) = h t 2 .
2

To check the consistency of these solutions up to terms linear in , we have to check

only the second approximation. If there is consistency, there must not appear terms
that involve linearly:

t t
x (2)
(t) = 2 cos y (1)
(u) du = 2 cos 2h(sin )u du
0 0

t2
= 42 h cos sin = f (2 ) 0.
2

Like x (1) (t), z(1) (t) is consistent to first order in :

t
1
z (2)
(t) = h gt 2 + 2 sin y (1) (u) du
2
0

t
g
= h t 2 + 2 sin 2h(sin )u du
2
0
g
= h t 2 + i(2 ).
2
14 2 Free Fall on the Rotating Earth

On the contrary, y (1) (t) is not consistent in , since

t t
y (2)
(t) = 2ht sin 2 cos x (1)
(u) du 2 sin z(1) (u) du
0 0

t3
= 2h sin t 2h sin t + g(sin )
3
t3
= g(sin ) = 2h(sin )t + k(2 ).
3
We see that in this second step the terms linear in once again changed greatly. The
term 2ht sin obtained in the first iteration step cancels completely and is finally
replaced by g(sin )t 3 /3. A check of y (3) (t) shows that y (2) (t) is consistent up to
first order in .
Just as in the perturbation method discussed above, we get up to first order in the
solution

x(t) = 0,
g sin 3
y(t) = t ,
3
g
z(t) = h t 2 .
2
We have of course noted long ago that the method of successive approximation (itera-
tion) is equivalent to the perturbation calculation and basically represents its concep-
tually clean formulation.

2.3 Exact Solution

The equations of motion (2.3) can also be solved exactly. For that purpose, we start
again from
x = 2 cos y, (2.3a)
y = 2(sin z + cos x), (2.3b)
z = g + 2 sin y. (2.3c)

By integrating (2.3a) to (2.3c) with the above initial conditions, one gets
x = 2 cos y, (2.5a)
y = 2(sin z + cos x) + 2 sin h, (2.5b)
z = gt + 2 sin y. (2.5c)

Insertion of (2.5a) and (2.5c) into (2.3b) yields

y + 42 y = 2g sin t ct. (2.6)

The general solution of (2.6) is the general solution of the homogeneous equation and
one particular solution of the inhomogeneous equation, i.e.,
c
y= t + A sin 2t + B cos 2t.
42
 2.3 Exact Solution 15

The initial conditions at the time t = 0 are x = y = 0, z = h, and x = y = z = 0. It

follows that B = 0 and 2A = c/42 , i.e., A = c/83 and therefore
 
c c c sin 2t
y= t sin 2t = t ,
42 83 42 2

i.e.,
 
g sin sin 2t
y= t . (2.7)
2 2

Insertion of (2.7) into (2.5a) yields

 
sin 2t
x = g sin cos t .
2

From the initial conditions, it follows that

 2 
t 1 cos 2t
x = g sin cos . (2.8)
2 42

Equation (2.7) inserted into (2.5c) yields

  
g sin sin 2t
z = gt + 2 sin t ,
2 2
 
sin 2t
z = gt + g sin2 t ,
2

and integration with the initial conditions yields

 2 
g t 1 cos 2t
z = t 2 + g sin2 + h. (2.9)
2 2 42

Summarizing, one finally has

 
t 2 1 cos 2t
x = g sin cos ,
2 42
 
g sin sin 2t
y= t , (2.10)
2 2
 2 
g 2 t 1 cos 2t
z = h t + g sin 2
.
2 2 42

Since t = 2fall time/1 day, i.e., very small (t  1), one can expand (2.10):

gt 2
x= sin cos (t)2 ,
6
gt 2
y= sin (t), (2.11)
3
 
gt 2 sin2 2
z=h 1 t .
2 3
16 2 Free Fall on the Rotating Earth

If one considers only terms of first order in t, then (t)2 0, and (2.11) becomes

x(t) = 0,
gt 3 sin
y(t) = , (2.12)
3
g
z(t) = h t 2 .
2
This is identical with the results obtained by means of perturbation theory. However,
(2.10) is exact!
The eastward deflection of a falling mass seems at first paradoxical, since the earth
rotates toward the east too. However, it becomes transparent if one considers that the
mass in the height h at the time t = 0 in the inertial system has a larger velocity
component toward the east (due to the earth rotation) than an observer on the earths
surface. It is just this excessive velocity toward the east which for an observer on the
earth lets the stone fall toward the east, but not downward. For the throw upward
the situation is the opposite (see Exercise 2.2).

Fig. 2.2. Cut through the earth

in the equatorial plane viewed
from the North Pole: M is the
earth center, and the angular
velocity

EXAMPLE

2.1 Eastward Deflection of a Falling Body

As an example, we calculate the eastward deflection of a body that falls at the equator
from a height of 400 m.
The eastward deflection of a body falling from the height h is given by

2 sin h 2h
y(h) = .
3 g

The height h = 400 m, the angular velocity of the earth = 7.27 105 rad s1 ,
and the gravitational acceleration is known.
Inserting the values in y(h) yields

2 7.27 400 rad m 2 400 s2
y(h) = ,
3 105 s 9.81
 2.3 Exact Solution 17

where rad is a dimensionless quantity. The result is Example 2.1

y(h) = 17.6 cm.

Thus, the body will be deflected toward the east by 17.6 cm.

EXERCISE

2.2 Eastward Deflection of a Thrown Body

Problem. An object will be thrown upward with the initial velocity v0 . Find the
eastward deflection.
Solution. If we put the coordinate system at the starting point of the motion, the
initial conditions read

z(t = 0) = 0, z(t = 0) = v0 ,
y(t = 0) = 0, y(t = 0) = 0,
x(t = 0) = 0, x(t = 0) = 0.

The deflection to the east is given by y, the deflection to the south by x; z = 0 denotes
the height h above the earths surface.
For the motion in y-direction we have, as has been shown (see (2.4)),
dy
= 2(x cos + z sin ) + C2 .
dt
The motion of the body in x-direction can be neglected; x 0. If one further ne-
glects the influence of the eastward deflection on z, one immediately arrives at the
equation
g
z = t 2 + v0 t,
2
which is already known from the treatment of the free fall without accounting for the
earths rotation. Insertion into the above differential equation yields
 
dy g 2
= 2 t v0 t sin ,
dt 2
 
g 3 v0 2
y(t) = 2 t t sin .
6 2
At the turning point (after the time of ascent T = v0 /g), the deflection is

2 v3
y(T ) = sin 02 .
3 g
It points toward the west, as expected.
18 2 Free Fall on the Rotating Earth

EXERCISE

2.3 Superelevation of a River Bank

Problem. A river of width D flows on the northern hemisphere at the geographical

latitude toward the north with a flow velocity v0 . By which amount is the right bank
higher than the left one?
Evaluate the numerical example D = 2 km, v0 = 5 km/h, and = 45 .
Solution. For the earth, we have

d 2r
m = mge3 2m v with = sin e1 + cos e3 .
dt 2
The flow velocity is v = v0 e1 , and hence,

v = v0 sin e2 .

Then the force is

mr = F = mge3 + 2mv0 sin e2 = F3 e3 + F2 e2 .

F must be perpendicular to the water surface (see Fig. 2.3). With the magnitude of
the force

F = 4m2 2 v02 sin2 + m2 g 2

one can, from Fig 2.3, determine H = D sin and sin = F2 /F . For the desired
height H one obtains
2v0 sin 2Dv0 sin
H =D .
42 v02 sin2 + g 2 g

Fig. 2.3.

For the numerical example one gets a bank superelevation of H 2.9 cm.

EXERCISE

2.4 Difference of Sea Depth at the Pole and Equator

Problem. Let a uniform spherical earth be covered by water. The sea surface takes
the shape of an oblate spheroid if the earth rotates with the angular velocity .
 2.3 Exact Solution 19

Find an expression that approximately describes the difference of the sea depth at
the pole and equator, respectively. Assume that the sea surface is a surface of con-
stant potential energy. Neglect the corrections to the gravitational potential due to the
deformation.
Solution.

Fig. 2.4.
mM 
Feff (r) = 2 er + m2 r sin ex , r = r sin ,
r
r2
V |rr21 = Feff (r) dr
r1

r2 
mM
= 2 er + m r sin ex dr er
2
r
r1

mM r2 m2 r 2 sin2 r2
= .
r r1 2 r1

We therefore define

mM m2 r 2 2
Veff (r) = sin . (2.13)
r 2
Let

r = R + r(); r()  R.

The potential at the surface of the rotating sphere is constant by definition:

mM
V (r) = + V0 .
R
According to the formulation of the problem, the earths surface is an equipoten-
tial surface. From this it follows that the attractive force acts normal to this surface.
Because of the constancy of the potential along the surface, no tangential force can
arise.
   
mM r m r
V (r) = 1 2 R 2 1 + 2 sin2
R R 2 R
! mM
= + V0 .
R
From this it follows that
mM m
V0 = 2
r 2 R 2 sin2 m2 R r sin2 .
R 2
As can be seen by inserting the given values, the last term can be neglected:

mM
 m2 R sin2 .
R2
20 2 Free Fall on the Rotating Earth

Exercise 2.4 From this it follows that

mM m
r = V0 + 2 R 2 sin2 ,
R2 2
or explicitly for the difference r(),
 
R2 m
r() = V0 + 2 R 2 sin2 . (2.14)
mM 2

The second requirement for the evaluation of the deformation is the volume conserva-
tion. Since one can assume r  R, we can write this requirement as a simple surface
integral

/2 2
da r() = 0, (2.15)
=0 =0

and hence, because of the rotational symmetry in ,

/2 
m2 R 2 sin2
V0 + 2R R sin d = 0,
2
0

from which follows

/2 
m2 R 2 sin3
V0 sin + d = 0.
2
0

With

/2 /2
2
sin d = 1 and sin3 d = ,
3
0 0

one gets
m 2 2
V0 + R = 0,
3
m
V0 = 2 R 2 .
3
By inserting this result into (2.14), one obtains
 
R 4 2 2
r() = sin2 .
M 2 3

In the last step M/R 2 is to be replaced by g; thus we have found an approximate

expression for the difference of the sea depth:
 
2 R 2 2
r() = sin2 . (2.16)
2g 3
 2.3 Exact Solution 21

By inserting the given values Exercise 2.4

m 2 1
R = 6370 km, g = 9.81 , = = 7.2722 105 ,
s2 T s
we get
 

d = r r(0) 10.94 km.
2

If one wants to include the influence of the deformation on the gravitational po-
tential, one needs the so-called spherical surface harmonics. They will be outlined in
detail in the lectures on classical electrodynamics.1

1 See W. Greiner: Classical Electrodynamics, 1st ed., Springer, Berlin (1998).

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