52 Electric Power Distribution Engineering Load Characteristics 53

Example 2.7
3500
The average load factor of a substation is 0.65. Determine the average loss factor of its feeders, if
the substation services
3000

Monthly maximum demands (kW)

a. An urban area
b. A rural area

Annual peak load

Solution Unsold
energy
a. For the urban area, 2000

FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7(FLD )2

= 0.3(0.65) + 0.7(0.65)2 1141

1000
= 0.49
Annual
avg. load
b. For the rural area,

FLS = 0.16FLD + 0.84(FLD )2 0

y ry ch ril ay ne ly be
r

er
ar

pt st

r
ua Ju

be
be
ar Ap Ju

Se gu

ob
nu br
M
em

em
em
= 0.16(0.65) + 0.84(0.65)2 M

Au
Ja

ct
Fe ec

ov
O
D

N
= 0.53 Time (months)

FIGURE 2.11 A monthly load curve.

Example 2.8

Assume that the Riverside distribution substation of the NL&NP Company supplying Ghost Town, or, from Equation 2.8,
which is a small city, experiences an annual peak load of 3500 kW. The total annual energy sup-
plied to the primary feeder circuits is 10,000,000 kWh. The peak demand occurs in July or August Total annual energy
and is due to air-conditioning load. Annual load factor =
Annual peak load 8760
a. Find the annual average power demand. 107 kWh/year
b. Find the annual load factor. =
3500 kW 8760
Solution = 0.326
Assume a monthly load curve as shown in Figure 2.11.

a. The annual average power demand is The unsold energy, as shown in Figure 2.11, is a measure of capacity and investment cost. Ideally,
it should be kept at a minimum.
Total annual energy
Annual Pav
Year
Example 2.9
107 kWh/year
8760 h/year
Use the data given in Example 2.8 and suppose that a new load of 100 kW with 100% annual
1141kW load factor is to be supplied from the Riverside substation. The investment cost, or capacity cost,
of the power system upstream, that is, toward the generator, from this substation is $18.00/kW
b. From Equation 2.6, the annual load factor is per month. Assume that the energy delivered to these primary feeders costs the supplier, that is,
NL&NP, $0.06/kWh.
Annual average load
FLD
Annual peak demand a. Find the new annual load factor on the substation.
b. Find the total annual cost to NL&NP to serve this load.
1141kW
3500 kW
Solution
0.326 Figure 2.12 shows the new load curve after the addition of the new load of 100 kW with 100% load.

54 Electric Power Distribution Engineering Load Characteristics 55

Example 2.10
3600
Assume that the annual peak-load input to a primary feeder is 2000 kW. A computer program
that calculates voltage drops and I2R losses shows that the total copper loss at the time of peak
load is I 2R = 100 kW. The total annual energy supplied to the sending end of the feeder is
Monthly maximum demand (kW)

3000
New load curve
5.61 106 kWh.
New annual peak load

Old load curve

a. By using Equation 2.40, determine the annual loss factor.
b. Calculate the total annual copper loss energy and its value at $0.06/kWh.
2000
Solution
a. From Equation 2.40, the annual loss factor is
1241
1000
New annual FLS = 0.3FLD + 0.7FLD
2

average load
where
0
y y il e t r r r r
ar ar rc
h
pr ay un Jul
y
us be be be be 5.61 106 kWh
nu u a M J g m o FLD =
Ja br M A
Au epte ct em em
Fe S
O ov ec 2000kW 8760h/year
N D
Time (months) = 0.32
FIGURE 2.12 The new load curve after the new load addition.
Therefore,

a. The new annual load factor on the substation is

FLS = 0.3 0.32 + 0.7 0.322
Annual average load 01677
FLD =
Annual peak demand
b. From Equation 2.25,
1141+ 100
=
3500 + 100
Average power loss
= 0.3
345 FLS 
Power loss at peak load

b. The total annual and additional cost to NL&NP to serve the additional 100 kW load has two
cost components, namely, (1) annual capacity cost and (2) annual energy cost. Therefore, or

Annual additional capacity cost = $18 /kW/month 12 month/year 100 kW Average power loss = 0.1677 100 kW
= $21, 600 = 16.77 kW

and
Therefore,
Annual energy cost = 100 kW 8,760 h/year $0.06/kWh
Total annual copper loss = 16.77 kW 8760 h/year
= $52, 560
= 146, 905 kWh
Therefore,
and
Total annual additional costs = Annual capacity cost + Annual energy cost
= $21, 600 + $52, 560 Cost of total annual copper loss = 146, 905 kWh $0.06/kWh

= $74,160 = $8, 814

56 Electric Power Distribution Engineering Load Characteristics 57

Example 2.11 Thus, the diversified reactive power (Q) is

Assume that one of the DTs of the Riverside substation supplies three primary feeders. The 30 min

3

annual maximum demands per feeder are listed in the following table, together with the power Pi tan
Q= i =1
factor (PF) at the time of annual peak load. FD
1800 tan18.2 + 2000 tan 31.79 + 2200 tan 25.84
=
Demand 1.15
Feeder kW PF
= 2518.8 kvar
1 1800 0.95
2 2000 0.85
Therefore,
3 2200 0.90

Dg = (P 2 + Q 2 )1/ 2 = S
Assume a diversity factor of 1.15 among the three feeders for both real power (P) and reactive
power (Q). = (52172 + 2518.82 )1/ 2 = 5793.60 kVA

a. Calculate the 30 min annual maximum demand on the substation transformer in kilowatts
and in kilovoltamperes. b. From Equation 2.17, the load diversity is
b. Find the load diversity in kilowatts.
c. Select a suitable substation transformer size if zero load growth is expected and if com- 3

pany policy permits as much as 25% short-time overloads on the distribution substation
transformers. Among the standard three-phase (3) transformer sizes available are the
LD = D D
i =1
i g

following: = 6000 5217 = 783 kW

2500/3125 kVA self-cooled/forced-air-cooled

3750/4687 kVA self-cooled/forced-air-cooled c. From the given transformer list, it is appropriate to choose the transformer with the
5000/6250 kVA self-cooled/forced-air-cooled 3750/4687-kVA rating since with the 25% short-time overload, it has a capacity of
7500/9375 kVA self-cooled/forced-air-cooled
4687 1.25 = 5858.8 kVA
d. Now assume that the substation load will increase at a constant percentage rate per year
and will double in 10 years. If the 7500/9375 kVA-rated transformer is installed, in how which is larger than the maximum demand of 5793.60 kVA as found in part (a).
many years will it be loaded to its fans-on rating? d. Note that the term fans-on rating means the forced-air-cooled rating. To find the increase (g)
per year,
Solution
a. From Equation 2.10, (1+ g )10 = 2

1800 + 2000 + 2200 hence,

FD = = 1.15
Dg
1 + g = 1.07175
Therefore,
or

Dg
6000
5217 kW P g = 7.175%/year
1.15
Thus,
To find power in kilovoltamperes, find the PF angles. Therefore,
(1.07175)n 5793.60 = 9375 kVA
PF1 = cos 1 = 0.95 1 = 18.2
or
PF2 = cos 2 = 0.85 2 = 31.79

PF3 = cos 3 = 0.90 3 = 25.84 (1.07175)n 1.6182