Energy Convers. Mgmt Vol. 38, No. 10--13,pp.

969-982, 1997
Pergamon ~) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd
All fights reserved. Printed in Great Britain
PII: S0196-4~104(96)00127-6 0196-S904/97 $17.00 + 0.00

MINIATURIZATION TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO

ENERGY SYSTEMS

T. A. AMEEL, R. O. WARRINGTON, R. S. WEGENG ~ and M. K. DROST'

Institute for Micromanufacturing, Louisiana Tech University, Ruston, LA 71272, and 'Pacific Northwest
National Laboratories, Richland, WA 99352, U.S.A.

Alaetraet--An overview of the miniaturization technologies and their application to energy systems is
presented. Based on the technologies referred to as MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) or MST
(micro systems technologies), silicon based micromachining, deep X-ray lithography and the micro
mechanical machining processes (micro drilling, milling, cutting, electrical discharge machining, laser,
focused ion beams, etc.) will be discussed in the context of application to fluid flow, heat transfer, fluidies
and energy systems. An overview of fundamental research and applications will be made with emphasis
on the work in the United States. The collaborative work in progress by the Institute for
Micromanufacturing and the Pacific Northwest National Laboratories is highlighted. In particular, the
on-going development of a micro HVAC (heating, ventilating and air conditioning) system is given specific
attention. Devices and/or systems such as micro heat pumps, heat pipes, evaporators, condensers, heat
exchangers, compressors and the like will be presented. Advantages, disadvantages and the rationale for
miniatmization will be discussed. Current needs and markets will be discussed along with a discussion
for future needs. 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd.

Miniaturization Micro energy devices and systems MEMS or microelectromechanical systems

INTRODUCTION

Micromanufacturing, Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS), Micro Systems or Micro Systems

Technologies (MST, primarily in Europe) and Mechatronies (primarily in Japan) are relatively
recent phrases that have become synonymous with the design, development and manufacture of
very small (sub-micron to millimeter) devices and systems. The function of these devices range from
micro sensor elements and micro actuator elements to micro energy systems. Micro systems are
created by combining individual devices, either monolithically or using hybrid packaging
technology, into complete systems capable of a selected function. Mechanical and electrical
components, including built-in circuitry, may be integrated into micro systems which must be
connected to the macro world. Therefore, packaging of devices and systems is also an important
mieromanufaeturing technology. Most of the technologies that have been utilized in
mieromanufacturing, with the notable exception of X-ray micromachining (LIGA), are existing
technologies adapted to the miniaturization of structures, devices and systems. These are enabling
technologies that make possible systems that are smaller, lighter, more functional and yet more
economical than traditional systems. At this point in the development of the technology, it may
be that mini systems, with micro components, could very well be the economic drivers of the
technology for the foreseeable future.

BASIC PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES

Since the early period of micromanufacturing, there have been many technologies developed to
realize miniaturized components. Some of these technologies have been specifically targeted at the
development of processes for the integration of micromanufactured devices with integrated circuits
to form microsystems. Both monolithically integrated microsystems and microsystems realized
using hybrid technologies such as multichip modules are presently being developed. In addition
to the technologies aimed at combining integrated circuits and micromanufactured devices, there
969
970 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATION TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS

Table 1. A comparison of miniaturization process technologies

Surface
Micromechanical X-ray Bulk Si processing processing Deep u.v.
machining micromachining techniques techniques and other
Feature height 1 mm 100 pm-cm's 500 pm-mm's 10-20 #m 100/~m
(using bonding
techniques)
Cross-sectional Very good Very good Fixed by crystal Very good Very good
shape
Cross-sectional Good Limited Limited Very limited Very limited
shape variation
with depth
Materials Wide range New materials Fixed Fixed Fixed
possible being developed
continuously
IC compatibility Good Good Fair Excellent Excellent
Process maturity Developing First products Fairly mature First products Maturing
Aspect ratio Large Large Small Medium Fairly large
Low volume Excellent Poor Fair Poor Fair
production
High volume Possible Good Excellent Excellent Excellent
production

are those being developed to produce devices for micromechanical applications where system
integration is not an issue. These processes include micromechanical machining technologies such
as d i a m o n d machining, laser processes, focused ion beam, microdriUing, etc. In general, the
micromechanical processes provide a greater flexibility in dimensional design o f components,
whereas photolithographic-based processes offer the advantage o f batch fabrication o f the
components.

Fig. 1. Examples of miniaturization process technologies: (a) spinnerets formed with LIGA; (b) focused
ion beam machined end-mill; (e) a milled circular stepped structure; (d) PMMA 3D molds.
 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATIONTECHNOLOGIESAPPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS 971

1000
/
1. C h o i L ~ a i m e ( p ~ ) ~ 16 .~ /
2. C oi (w ) qa. 17 - /

100
4. Yu (lima) r ILI9 /

i 10

yJ
rh yeor
Z

. I . . . . . . t . . . . . . . .

0.1 1000 10000

Reynolds Number
Fig. 2. Comparisonof microchannelheat transfer correlationsfrom various researchers.

Table 1 compares the five major process technologies for system miniaturization. Processes
included in the last column are deep u.v., photosensitive polyimide and the plasma driven
technologies such as inductively coupled plasmas (ICP) and electron cyclotron sources (ECR). Note
the considerable differences in production volume, materials, aspect ratio, and cross-sectional shape
variation with depth. The choice of a particular process is dependent upon the type, volume, and
application of the end-use device. As shown in Table 1, each group has its own advantages and
disadvantages; however, in general, only the micromechanical machining technologies allow for
good cross-sectional shape variation with depth (3-D vs 2~D). Figure 1 shows examples of several
of these process technologies including (a) a spinneret negative formed using LIGA; (b) a 20/zm
end-mill formed by focused ion beam; and (c) a circular stepped structure machined with the
end-mill. New technology being developed at the Institute for Micromanufacturing (IfM) will allow
for fully 3-D surfaces to be generated using the deep X-ray lithography technology. Figure l(d)
shows an example of this technology at a relatively large scale. The applications of this technology
to devices such as pumps, compressors, etc. is readily apparent.
Recently, there has been a significant amount of commercial product development being pursued
using micromanufacturing technologies. One of the major areas of interest is microsensor
development which has resulted in pressure sensors, accelerometers, chemical sensors for detection
of particular chemical species and flow rate detectors for sensing microflow rates of fluids. Another
important area of commercial interest is microactuator development. Microactuators have a
similarly large range of applications including micromotors, magnetic actuators such as microrelays
for use in low leakage switching of high frequency signals, micropumps for delivery of precise
volumes of fluids and microvalves such as check valves for uni-directional flow of both gases and
liquids.
Most of the total effort to this point has concentrated on the fundamental principles (e.g. process
and device modeling, driving mechanisms), the basic technologies (e.g. the fabrication processes
972 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATION TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS

necessary to realize the miniaturized components) and applications of the technology to

demonstrate emerging sensing and actuation schemes as well as fabrication methodology.

FUNDAMENTALS AND DEVICES

In support of microscale device and system development efforts, considerable attention has been
given to the fundamental fluid dynamics and heat transfer processes in microgeometries. The most
attractive phenomena related to scale is an apparent reduction in friction factor and an increase
in heat transfer rate compared to macroscale theory and correlations [1]. Figure 2 is a compilation
of available data for single-phase convection heat transfer in microtubes and microehannels [2-5].
Note that all the Nusselt number data in the turbulent regime lies above the traditional
Dittus-Boelter equation. This implies that higher heat transfer rates are possible in microgeometries
than in macrogeometries at dynamically similar conditions. Figure 3 presents data from the
previously mentioned studies [2, 4, 5] and that of Pfahler et al. [6] for the friction constant (f.Re)
normalized with the theoretical value (i.e.f.Re = 64 for tubes). While not conclusive, the majority
of the data suggest a decrease in friction factor in microgeometries compared to dynamically similar
macroscale channels. Data for other fluids such as Si oil and n-propanol, indicate the same
reduction. The implication of Fig. 3 is that while pressure drop increases with the inverse of the
square of the length scale, this increase is tempered by the friction factor reduction. Combining
the effects indicated in Figs 2 and 3, suggests that heat transfer efficiency may be increased through
scale reduction without the full undesirable pressure drop increase normally associated with
downscaling. With pressure drop scaling with 1/d2 and the length for thermal transport scaling with
d 2, it can be argued that no significant increase in pressure drop may result from downscaling [7].
It may actually be possible to engineer microchannel heat exchangers using multiple parallel
channels of short length resulting in high overall heat transfer rates without high pressure drops
(and high pumping power costs). These advantageous traits have been applied to the development

4.5

3.5
woh-,31 _
Wu3 Dh=55.9
Yu DI~I9 & 52
Choi5 D h ~ l . 2
~
~
~-~
tttI
Choi4 Dh=53

13
rj
Pfahlrl9 Dh~8.47
Pfahlr20 Dh=l.01
Pfahlr18 Dh=l.01
~-~
~-:~
,, ,
]
!
Tl~r~c~l
i 2.5

i 1.5

0.5
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
~ N-m~
Fig. 3. Laminar friction data for microchannel flow using gases.
 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATION TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS 973

Table 2. Demonstrated micropump characteristics of operation

Max. flow rate Max. pressure
Pump characteristics (pl/min) rise (atm) Reference
pneumatic--heated air in an actuation chamber 55 0.33 [14]
external pneumatic actuation 80 0.05 [15l
piezoelectric activation~dual pump 20 0.15 [11]
electrohydrodynamic actuation 1400 0.025 [ 16]
bi-directional operation 850 0.30 [17]
bi-directional and self-blocking 1600 0.17 [18]
valveless diffuser/nozzle micropump 1400 0.20 [19]

of heat exchangers, evaporators and condensers which are required of most thermal/fluid systems
[8]. These components do not appear to be significant constraints to the development of full
thermal/fluid energy systems.
Valves represent one of the most fundamental components of a thermal/fluid energy system.
Although the actuation methods vary, most of the microvalves that have been developed to date
use diaphragms to regulate flow and because heat dissipation occurs much faster over the small
distances in micro devices, mechanical or fluidic thermal actuation become attractive alternatives
to other methods. Bimetallic actuators have been used to operate valves, utilizing the differing
thermal expansions of silicon and metals [9, 10]. Piezoelectric actuation for both normally open
and normally closed valves and for a three way valve have been developed by Esashi [11]. Solenoid
activation combined with a square diaphragm supported by four beams connected at the corners
allows for greater deflection of the diaphragm [12]. A novel valve design for gas flow uses an
electrostatic force to move the film between the outlet holes controlling the flow [13].
The operating characteristics of micro pumps are severely limited by the lack of design options.
Liquid pumps to date have been limited to pressures of less than one atmosphere, and gas pumps
have only attained a fraction of this. Flow rates are of course very small, but vary widely from
one pump to the next. Table 2 includes representative data of pump characteristics, maximum flow
rate and maximum pressure rise for a variety of micropumps developed to date.
There are many potential advantages of making fluidic systems on the micro scale. The total
amount of liquid in a system can be tiny compared to a macro scale version. Micro scale
components are generally very simple and this translates into ease of construction and reliability.
The first and most famous example of a microfluidic application was the ink jet printer head [20].
One novel micro fluidic application is jet thrust vectoring. Tiny jets of fluid can vector a macro
jet when injected into the boundary layer, allowing macro manipulation with precise control and
very small power inputs [21].
Fluid delivery systems combine several of the components mentioned previously. Lammerink [14]
describes a dosing system integrated on a silicon chip, consisting of a pump and a flow meter, which
when used in conjunction with an electric circuit, can accurately control the output of the pump.

Fig. 4. Microscale Joule-Thompson cryogenic cooler---exposure in PMMA: (a) expansion and liquid
collection chambers; (b) inlet and outlet ports and counterflow heat exchanger.
974 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATION TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS

New Design
Test Article Schematic Pyrex

Substrate

Leads

AluminaWafer
Heater Coating
on Back
Surface of
Cu Substrate

Fig. 5. Schematic of PNNL microscale evaporator test unit with channels and diamond fins.

Esashi [11] integrated a valve and flow sensor into a single unit to produce a mass flow controller
with fast and accurate response. One fully realized micro device is a neural probe reported by Chert
and Wise [22]. The probes have shanks as narrow as 58/~m and are capable of delivering tiny
amount of chemicals with very accurate positioning. Integrated onto the shank next to the fluid
outlet holes are electrodes which may be used to detect or transmit electrical pulses from or to
neurons.
A number of small scale cooling devices have been proposed. A microscale Joule-Thompson
cryogenic cooler based on a design from the Institut fur Microtechnik Mainz (IMM) is shown in
Fig. 4. The exposure by the IfM in polymethyl-methacrylate (PMMA) shows the expansion
chamber and liquid collection chamber (Fig. 4a) and the counterflow heat exchanger and inlet and
outlet ports (Fig. 4b).
A variety of devices, such as micro/mini evaporators, condensers and heat exchangers, are under
development at Pacific Northwest National Laboratories (PNNL). The integration of these
individual devices into complete energy systems is the goal of the PNNL efforts, as presented in
the following section. A demonstration evaporator consisting of a copper substrate, a patterned
silicon layer and a Pyrex top layer is shown schematically in Fig. 5. The Si layer could consist of
surface elements, such as fins or microchannels, to increase the heat transfer rate to the fluid. An
example of an evaporator with 80 by 50 #m rectangular channels is shown in Fig. 6. A wide variety
of fin geometries are capable of heat transfer enhancement for these devices. An example of a
diamond-shape fin pattern, with a fin height of approximately 30 #m, is shown in Fig. 7. The
concept of patterned silicon, with either microchannels or fins, can be extended to the development
of micro heat exchangers used as components in a heat pump, shown schematically in Fig. 8. With
the proper fluid, the evaporation and condensation processes can take place in the heat exchanger
elements while the expansion process is integrated into an insulating layer between the heat
exchanger layers.
 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATIONTECHNOLOGIESAPPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS 975

SYSTEMS
While significant research has been focused on the development of individual microscale
components, there are few examples of these components being integrated into systems. However,
when applied to energy and chemical conversion systems, microtechnology has several attractive
features.
Highflux--Surface phenomena, such as heat or mass transport, can be more effectively exploited
in microscale devices. The phenomenal performance of microscale heat exchangers has been
documented by a number of researchers. Similar performance enhancement for some mass
transport phenomena has been preliminarily demonstrated at PNNL. This type of performance
allows the development of small, high flux energy and mass transfer devices.
Small size and weight--Microfabrication can radically reduce the size of sensors, actuators,
energy and chemical conversion systems.
Distributed processing of mass and energy--Rather than relying on one central system, the use
of microtechnology lets the designer provide distributed processing systems, to meet the expected
needs.
Economies of production--To a great extent, hardware for miniature energy systems will be
produced using mass production techniques developed for microelectronics applications. These
techniques have been successful in producing dramatic cost reductions in microelectronics. A
similar impact is expected on the cost and availability of miniature energy systems.
Architectures that allow the simple integration of microscale components into systems are critical
to moving from individual components to complete microscale energy and chemical systems. To
be of interest to macroscale energy and chemical applications, attractive system architectures need
to allow the simultaneous fabrication of large numbers of small systems arranged to operate in
parallel. An individual heat pump with a volume of I c m 3 and a cooling capacity of 1 W/cm 2would
have limited application; however, if it is possible to fabricate sheets of material with hundreds
or thousands of these heat pumps operating in parallel, delivering hundreds to thousands of watts
of cooling, a technology with many important applications results.

Fig. 6. Siliconeevaporator with 80 by 50 pm channels from PNNL.

976 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATIONTECHNOLOGIESAPPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS

Sample # 27 Pattern "A" Wide Diamonds

18 hr Ion Etch
Header depth = 31 l.tm; Diamond height = 37 l.tm

0 150x 27 o

Fig. 7. Diamond shape microfin array for a silicone evaporator.

Sheet architecture
In the sheet heat pump [23] concept, the heat pump is assembled in layers, as depicted in Fig. 9,
with each layer containing arrays of micro components that perform one of the unit operations
of a typical vapor-compression heat pump. In this "sandwich", the external layers would consist
of micro evaporators and condensers, another layer would include the orifices that function as
micro expansion valves and another the micro compressors necessary to provide the required
temperature lift to the refrigerant. Two additional insulating layers may be added to the
"sandwich", resulting in a sheet heat pump shown in an exploded view in Fig. 10. In essence, each
sheet may consist of a number, perhaps hundreds, of individual units providing the required process
in a highly parallel manner.
The concept for a small-scale, microtechnology-based power generator requires little departure
from the heat pump concept. For example, using the Rankine power cycle requires components
performing as pumps, heat exchangers (again, an evaporator and a condenser) and a generator (a
device that converts work performed by an expanding gas to electrical energy). A sheet heat engine
therefore would look much like a sheet heat pump and would generate electrical power when a
temperature gradient is placed across it.
By combining multiple sheets, where each sheet is composed of a large number of individual
microscale components, progressively more complicated energy and chemical processing systems
can be assembled.

Examples of miniature energy systems

A range of miniature energy conversion systems are being developed by a number of
organizations. Examples include:
Microscale heat pumps--Nikajima [24] suggested the development of a microscale Stirling cycle
heat pump for cooling electronics to cryogenic temperatures. Drost [23] reported the results of a
thermodynamic evaluation of a microscale vapor compression cycle heat pump. Technical
development of both microscale vapor compression and heat actuated heat pumps is continuing
at PNNL.
 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATION TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS 977

Micro Heat Exchanger Schematic

Patterned
Silicon ~let

ii Pyrex

I::xoan~ion Valve
I
I

Patterned
\ Silicon
\
\
N

Fig. 8. Schematic of PNNL evaporator/condenser/expansion valve assembly for microscale sheet heat
pump.

Evaporator

Compressor

Condenser

Idl-I

H H i

Fig. 9. Schematic of sheet architecture based microscale heat pump.

978 AMEELet al.: MINIATURIZATIONTECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS

Fig. 10. Expanded view of a microscaleheat pump designed with a sheet architecture.

Microscale heat engines--The development of microscale heat engines has been proposed [25].
Technical development of microscale heat engines is in progress at PNNL and at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT). Work at P N N L has focused on Rankine cycle microscale heat
engines while MIT is working to develop a microscale Brayton cycle heat engine.
Microscale combustion systems--Given the very high heat transfer rates attainable in microscale
heat exchangers, it may be possible to develop a very high capacity microscale combustor by
placing a sheet of high temperature material containing microscale combustion channels between
 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATION TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS 979

microscale evaporator sheets. Both gas phase and catalytic combustion are contemplated.
Ultimately it should be possible to control combustion gas temperature to minimize the production
of nitric oxide and to enhance mixing to minimize the requirements for excess air. PNNL is
currently developing a microscale combustor for the Department of Defense's Advanced Research
Programs Administration. In one prototype version of a microchannel combustor/evaporator, the
heat of reaction is removed through the microchannel evaporator unit. Trials include both
gas-phase and heterogeneous, catalytic oxidation, with the catalyst being applied as a surface
coating to the individual microchannels. Heat removal rates of 25 W/cm2 have been obtained thus
far and it is the goal of the PNNL program to demonstrate the precise control of gas-phase
temperatures, so that significant quantities of NOx are not produced.
Microscale fuel processing--Microscale chemical systems may be an attractive alternative to
conventional reformers for hydrogen or syngas production from hydrocarbon fuels. With this in
mind, PNNL is also currently investigating the partial oxidation of methane, with temperature
control being provided by onboard, microchannel heat exchangers. Basic research [26] suggests that
a high yield and very high throughput can be obtained if reaction temperatures can be controlled.

APPLICATIONS
The commercial availability of compact energy conversion systems could significantly change the
way energy is used in many applications. Two specific applications of potential microtechnology-
based systems are described here, illustrating how their successful development can provide
radically new solutions to old problems. These examples include space conditioning and power
generation.

Heating, ventilating and air conditioning applications

If the development of a microtechnology-based sheet heat pump with a cooling rate of 1 W/cm 2
is successful, only 1 m 2 of material would be needed to condition the typical residence. Small heat
pump modules (perhaps 100 cm 2 each) would then be spread around a residence. Each module
could include up to 100 individual heat pumps, sensors and controls as well as a small fan for
removing thermal energy from the heat pump module. Individual modules would be built into the
wails of the residence so that the heat pump can exchange thermal energy with both the outdoors
and conditioned space. Alternately, the heat pumps could be embedded in window frames or
between floor joists.
One concept calls for the application of a microtechnology-based, thermochemieal compressor,
as the fluid-motivating component within an absorption cycle sheet heat pump. The
thermochemical compressor uses heat, plus a small pump, to provide compression, so each module
must have a source of thermal energy. For this concept, thermal energy can be supplied by solar
energy, hot water, or the combustion of natural gas, perhaps within the previously described
microscale combustor.
By spreading a large number of small, sheet heat pumps around the heated space, the
microtechnology-based sheet heat pump concept would replace the typical central space
conditioning system with a distributed system.
The proposed concept can have a significant impact on energy consumption in buildings.
Improved energy efficiency will result from four features: distributed space conditioning, super
zoning, energy cascading and minimized field fabrication.
Distributed space conditioning--The distributed concept would eliminate the need for ducting and
avoid cycling. For example, during the cooling season a room would be cooled by a set of sheet
heat pumps, of which only part would be operating for most of the day.. During the cooler part
of the day, perhaps one of ten micro heat pumps would operate. As the outside temperature
increases, additional sheet heat pumps would be turned on. As the outside temperature drops, an
increasing fraction of the micro heat pumps would be shut down. In most eases, an individual micro
heat pump would be turned on only once each day. By eliminating ducting losses (estimated by
the U.S. Dopartment of Energy to be 30 to 40% of the supplied energy) and cycling, the distributed
heat pump concept can improve the overall efficiency of a typical central heating system by at least
50%.
ECM 38/10-J3--C
980 AMEELet al.: MINIATURIZATIONTECHNOLOGIESAPPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS

Super zoning--Zoning, dividing a building into individually controlled separate zones, is difficult
to implement with central heating and cooling. By distributing a large number of sheet heat pump
modules, each containing separate controls and sensors, it may be possible to move to superzoning
in which every room or sections of a room can be individually controlled and conditioned. This
allows for a lower installed equipment capacity for the building, saves energy by eliminating the
overcooling and overheating of spaces and provides a more comfortable space.
Minimized field fabrication--As discussed above, central heating and cooling systems lose a
significant fraction of the supplied energy because of distribution system losses and/or cycling.
Additional losses result from poor system design, installation and lack of commissioning. All of
these losses can be minimized by factory installation of modular microtechnology-based sheet heat
pump systems into prefabricated building systems, avoiding field fabrication.
Potential for energy cascading--Micro heat pumps could be used as a bottoming cycle with other
energy conversion systems, improving the overall energy efficiency of the system. One concept
involves a microtechnology-based, thermochemical compressor that is heat-actuated and can be
driven by any heat source with a temperature of approximately 150C. Microtechnology-based
sheet heat pumps could be combined with small-scale power generation, such as the system
described in the following section, to provide both power generation and space conditioning. In
addition, the microtechnology-based sheet heat pump could be operated by other sources of
thermal energy such as solar energy or waste heat from industrial processes.

Applications for distributed power generation

Although work is on-going toward the realization of micro heat engines, there is also the
potential to enable distributed fuel cell utilization. The successful development of a microscale
chemical reactor for the partial oxidation of methane, would make feasible localized or even
residential power generation applications. For example, it may be possible to locate the reactor
system and a fuel cell in roughly the same space in a building that the furnace occupies today.
Fuel cells require hydrogen gas (and oxygen) as the input fuel. Currently, much of the hydrogen
gas produced is industrially synthesized from natural gas by the steam-hydrocarbon reforming
process. The kinetics of these reactions are slow and the capital and operating costs are high. Steam
reforming has not been economically scaled down from a large industrial scale. Recent research
has shown that methane and other hydrocarbons can be activated over catalysts at temperatures
up to 1000C and at nominally atmospheric pressures with hydrogen yields as high as 90%.
The partial oxidation reaction carries a significant advantage in terms of potential hardware
volume. Since the residence time requirement for partial oxidation is on the order of 1 ms, the
reactor volume can be substantially reduced. Thus, a compact system, relying on partial oxidation
of methane, and utilizing microchannel heat exchangers for temperature control, has the potential
of providing significantly more processing capacity per unit volume. For example, it is estimated
that the partial oxidation mCerochannel reactor for a 30 kW fuel cell would occupy a volume that
is less than 20 1 (0.7 It3). Alternately, a unit this size could be used for transportation applications.

FUTURE NEEDS/RECOMMENDATIONS
Future research on microscale energy and chemical systems needs to focus on resolving four sets
of issues.
High power density and efficient actuators--While microscale heat-actuated heat pump concepts
appear attractive, it is still desirable to have an electricity-driven microscale heat pump option. The
successful development of a microscale vapor compression cycle depends on the availability of a
high energy density, high efficiency actuator capable of driving a refrigerant compressor. Such an
actuator, or a system of such actuators, must be able to deliver work (to the refrigerant) on the
order of 0.1-1.0 W/era 2. While this represents a challenging functional requirement, it is believed
that microactuators demonstrating this level of power output are achievable and will be developed
during the next few years.
Materials issues--Materials for low temperature applications are generally available.
Occasionally material compatibility issues may be important but usually can be resolved by careful
design. High temperature applications are different. High temperature materials, that can be
 AMEEL et al.: MINIATURIZATION TECHNOLOGIES APPLIED TO ENERGY SYSTEMS 981

fabricated into microstructures, must be able to function in high temperature and potentially
corrosive environments with very high temperature gradients and repeated thermal cycling.
Reliability--Commercial viability of microscale energy and chemical systems depends on
attaining a high reliability. Component and system reliability and failure mechanisms need to be
determined. Ultimately, microscale energy and chemical systems must exhibit operating lifetimes
that approach macroscale systems.
Mass production cost--Mass production costs need to be determined and low cost mass
production techniques developed. If miniature energy systems are developed and generally
deployed for typical energy conversion applications, the production runs will undoubtedly exceed
that associated with computer chips, as far as the amount of material produced. Therefore, there
is a significant opportunity to realize mass production economies. Accordingly, value engineering
techniques will need to be reapplied to the new microscale systems with the objective of reducing
complexity and manufacturability.

CONCLUSION

The overall potential for the miniaturization technologies is seen to be limitless. In the area of
energy systems, reducing sizes into the micrometer regime results in several advantages for
microsystems when compared to macroscale counterparts. The development of thermal/fluid
components is primarily in the demonstration phase and further work in design optimization will
be required. Two micro energy system concepts have been introduced and the rationale for their
development has been discussed. It was pointed out that possible deterrents to the future
development of these systems may be materials, reliability, mass production costs and the
availability of high energy density, high efficiency actuators capable of driving a refrigerant
compressor.

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