1.

Identify and explain the three criteria for establishing cause-and-effect

relationships between variables. Discuss the ability to satisfy these criteria when
using correlational and experimental designs.

Three criteria to establish cause and effect relationship:

1. Temporal Precedence Cause must precede after effect
2. Covariation Cause and effect must occur together
3. Alternative (confounding) explanations must be eliminated
Correlational research involves measuring the degree of association between two or more
variables:

What is the average education level of Canadians over the age of 30?
What is the average income of Canadians over the age of 30?
*They are depicted through scatter plots*
Two characteristics which describe correlation:
1. Direction: If the correlation is positive then the two variables change values in the same
direction (increase = increase / decrease = decrease)
If the correlation is negative then the value of one variable increases while value of the
other variable decreases
2. Magnitude: How closely the changes in one variable are linked to changes in another
variable
Experimental research improve upon correlational studies because they can provide strong
evidence for cause-and-effect relationships
The three criteria for establishing cause-and-effect relationships between variables are temporal
precedence (cause must precede effect), covariation (cause and effect must occur together),
and any alternative (confounding) explanations must be eliminated. Cause and effect
relationships can be established using experimental studies, but not correlational studies. In
correlational studies a researcher looks for associations among naturally occurring variables,
whereas in experimental studies the researcher introduces a change and then monitors its
effects. Therefore, only a well-controlled experimental design allows conclusions about cause
and effect. There is the possibility of no covariation in correlational designed studies. For
example, if your independent variables are violent TV watchers and sitcom watchers and you
find that the violent TV watchers have high aggressiveness (dependent variable) and sitcoms
waters have low aggressiveness (dependent variable) there is no way of knowing if the violent
TV watchers had high aggression before watching violent TV (thats why they liked it) or
became aggressive after starting to watch violent TV. The same applies for the sitcom watchers
and low aggression. An experimental design study could use a sample of TV watchers and
random assignment in order to establish a cause-and effect relationship between the variables.
2.
Explain the following expressions as they apply to neurons and neuronal
communication: lock & key; all-or-none; information flows downstream.
Define agonist and antagonist as they apply to neuronal communication and
provide a detailed explanation of two examples each. Explain the difference
between Localization of Function and Lateralization and provide two
examples of each.

lock and key:

lock and key analogy: explain how neurotransmitters and their receptors work: when
neurotransmitters are released at the axon terminal from synaptic bulb, they cross the
synaptic cleft and fit in the receptor site of particular receptor of the dendrite like a key in
a lock. (highly specific)
all-or-none principle:
the response strength of a nerve or muscle fibre response to a stimulus is independent
of the strength of the stimulus. If the stimulus exceeds Threshold Potential, the nerve or
muscle fiber will give a complete response, other wise there is no response.
information flows downstream:
when the action potential (electrical impulse) reaches the axon terminal, it triggers
release of neurotransmitters into the synapses, the microscopically small spaces that
separate individual nerve cells.
presynaptic cell (before the synapse, transmitter): the upstream neuron; the cell that
releases these chemicals;
postsynaptic cell (after the synapse, receiver): the downstream neuron; the cell that
receives this input.
The dendrites of the postsynaptic cell contain specialized receptors that hold speciFc
molecules, including neurotransmitters. Then, this process of neural communication will
begin again.
Info always flow in one direction at a time because transmitters must be transported
from the dendrite of a neuron to the exon of another neuron downstream. Info not
transmitted in two directions at same time within a single stream of neurons is because
that the refractory period prevents signal to back flow by over-repolarizing.
agonist: drugs that enhance or mimic the eects of a neurotransmitter actions by binds
to a receptor and activates the receptor to produce a response. Nicotine and marijuana
are agonistic. They allow the opioid receptors in the brain fully resulting in the full opioid
effect. Relief pain, feel pleasure.
antagonists: inhibit neurotransmitter activity by blocking receptors or preventing
synthesis of a neurotransmitter. curare and dopamine is antagonistic. Inhibit function of
antagonists. Can reduce hypertension.
Localization of Function vs. Lateralization:
Localization: different areas of the brain are specialized for different functions. Eg
damage to Broca's area (language expression) lead to unable to communicate but
capable of understanding language
Lateralization refers to the fact that the Right & Left hemisphere are partly specialized
Left hemisphere specialized for language Right specialized for spatial tasks Roger
Sperrys Split Brain experiments: presented different objects to the right & left visual
field. Left side is motion, right side is reading/speech Broca showed this with his patient
of 30 years who couldnt speak. This was due to a lesion on the left side of the frontal
lobe, now known as Brocas area, which is responsible for speech production. Wernicke
identified the part of the brain responsible for receptive speech. Hitzig found that
stimulating different parts of the cerebral cortex produced movements in different areas.

3.
Explain, compare, and contrast the two approaches to intelligence (a single
general intelligence vs. multiple specific abilities). Identify and explain one
example of each to illustrate your answer.

Single general ability Scientific evidence dates back to early 20th century work by
Charles Spearman, who began by developing techniques to calculate correlations
among multiple measures of mental abilities. Factor analysis is a statistical technique
that examines correlations between variables to find clusters of related variables or
factors. If scores on algebra, geomey and calculus correlate would form a math ability. If
tests of vocabulary, reading comprehension and verbal reasoning correlate itd from a
language ability. For there to be an overarching general ability called intelligence one
would expect that tests of different types of abilittis would all correlate with each other,
forming only one factor. When say someone is intelligent, usually implying they have a
high level of generalized cognitive ability. Expect intelligent people to be intelligent in
many ways about many topics. Wouldnt all somone intelligent if they were only good at
limericks. Spearman found that grades in different subjects were +ve correlated across
different topics. This led him to hypothesize the existence of a general intelligence factor
(g). g represented a persons mental energy, reflecting his belief that some peoples
brains are simply more powerful than others. This has influenced psychologist by
cementing the notion that intelligence is a basic cognitive trait comptising the ability to
learn, reason, and solve problems, regardless of their nature. g has a strong correlation
between high scholl and university grades and predicts how many years a person will
stay in school and earn afterwards. Also predict seemingly unrelated phenomena like
lifespan, snap judgement speed, self control. Intelligence tests predict who get hired
and how well people perform at a variety of jobs. The correlation is so strong that
general mental ability is the single best predictor of job performance. The usefulness of
g is also shown by modern neuroscience research findings that overall intelligence
predicts how well our brains work. Overall intelligence, as indicated by g, is related to
many real-world phenomena, from how well we do at work to how well our brains
functions. Correlation doesnt equal causation. The effects could be from motivation. A
single number cant capture the kind of genius exhibited by savants. The idea that its
important to appreciate the diversity of abilities different people possess is captured well
by Craig the founder of Free the Children. Led to believe that only a few people are
gifted. In truth everyone has a unique gift. Multiple specific abilities Spearman believed
that g didnt fully capture intelligence. Different items were corrletaed, but were never 1.
To account for the idiosyncratic skill or knowledge factor Spearman hypothesized a 2nd
kind of ability that was specific to each task. s to represent this specific-level, skill-based
intelligence. No one questions s, but g has been criticised and has led to different
theories of multiple intelligences. The first by Thurstone who examined scores of
general intelligence tests using factor analysis, and found 7 different clusters of what he
termed primary mental abilities. Word fluency, verbal comprehension, number abilities,
spatial visualization, memory, perceptual speed, and reasoning. He argued there is no
g, and that intelligence needed to be understood at the level of those primaries.
Spearman argued that the primaries were correlated and suggested g. Controversy was
settled by the widespread adoption of hierarchical models that describe how some types
of intelligence are nested within others. The general hierarchial model describes how
our lowest-level abilities (s) are nested withing a middle lever that roughly corresponds
to the primaries, and these are nested withing general intelligence (g). This didnt
completely settle it because it left a lot of room for describing the middle level. Fluid
intelligence is a type of intelligence used in learning new information and solving new
problems not based on knowledge the person already possesses Crystallized
intelligence is a type of intelligence that draws upon past learning and experiences.
Sternbergs triarchic theory of intelligence a theory that divides intelligence into 3 types:
analytical, practical and creative Analytical- book smarts the ability to reason logically
through a problem and to find solutions Practical street smarts the ability to find
solutions to real-world problems encountered in daily life. Creative intelligence- the
ability to create new ideas and generate novel solutions to problems. Gardners theory
of multiple intelligences a model claiming that there are 8 different forms of intelligence,
each independent of the others. Few of his intelligencies can be accurately and reliably
measured making his theory unfalsifiable.
4.
Identify, explain, and then compare the two theories proposed to account for
colour perception. What evidence is there to support each?
Trichromatic Theory
Evidence comes from colour matching and colour mixing studies.
Young and Helmholtz carried out experiments
Individuals adjusted the relative intensity of 1,2, or 3 light sources of
different wavelengths
Resulting mixture field matched an adjacent test field composed of a single
wavelength
Individuals with normal colour vision needed three different wavelengths (i.e.,
primaries) to match any other wavelength in the visible spectrum
This finding led to the hypothesis that normal colour vision is based on the
activity of three types of receptors, each with a different peak sensitivity
Consistent with the trichromatic theory, we now know that the overall balance of
activity in S (short wavelength), M (medium wavelength), and L (long
wavelength) cones determines our perception of colour as shown in the figure
below.

Several colour perception phenomenon cannot be explained by the trichromatic

theory alone
it cannot account for the complementary afterimages in which the extended
inspection of one colour will lead to the subsequent perception of its
complementary colour (see demonstration below).
Complementary afterimages are better explained by the opponent-process
theory.

Opponent-Process Theory
 Developed by Ewald Hering(1920/1964)
the opponent-process theory states that the cone photoreceptors are linked
together to form three opposing colour pairs:
blue/yellow, red/green, and black/white.
Activation of one member of the pair inhibits activity in the other.
no two members of a pair can be seen at the same location, which explains why
we don't experience such colours as "bluish yellow" or "reddish green".
This theory also helps to explain some types of colour vision deficiency. For
example, people with dichromatic deficiencies are able to match a test field using
only two primaries. Depending on the deficiency they will confuse either red and
green or blue and yellow.
The opponent-process theory explains how we see yellow though there is no yellow
cone. It results from the excitatory and inhibitory connections between the three cone
types. Specifically, the simultaneous stimulation of red ( L cones) and green (M cones)
is summed and in turn inhibits B+Y-, which results in the perception of yellow. However,
when blue light is present, the S cone is activated, the B+Y- cell receives excitatory
input and blue is perceived.

You can see the opponent relationships between red and green, and blue and
yellow. View the four-colour patch afterimage stimuli below for 30 seconds. Then
remove the colour stimuli by moving your cursor mouse over the image causing it to
become a blank white field. When you fixate at the dot in the center of the field you
should notice that the original colours are all reversed - where you saw red it is now
green and vice versa. Likewise for blue and yellow.

5.
Identify as many parallels between visual perception and auditory perception as
you can. Why do these parallels exist?
Hue, pitch

Brightness loudness