The Biooxidation and Cyanidation of A Refractory Arsenical Gold Concentrate by L.Jones PDF

THE BIOOXIDATION AND CYANIDATION OF A REFRACTORY
ARSENICAL GOLD CONCENTRATE:

FACTORS INFLUENCING CYANIDE CONSUMPTION
by
LYN JONES
B.A.Sc. University of British Columbia, 1996
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF APPLIED SCIENCE
in
THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES
Department of Metals and Materials Engineering
We accept this thesis as conforming

to the required standard
THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA
August 1998
Lyn Jones, 1998

In presenting this thesis in partial fulfilment of the requirements for an advanced
degree at the University of British Columbia, I agree that the Library shall make it
freely available for reference and study. I further agree that permission for extensive
copying of this thesis for scholarly purposes may be granted by the head of my
department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or
publication of this thesis for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written
permission.
Department of f^}iA<, tv*\J {jjitr^j
T h e U n i v e r s i t y o f British Columbia /
Vancouver, Canada
DE-6 (2/88)
Abstract
A significant drawback to the application of biooxidation as a pretreatment for refractory gold
concentrates is the problem of high cyanide consumption. The presence of cyanicides in
biooxidized residues are commonly referred to in the literature, but specific mechanisms are not
proposed. In this study, a four-stage continuous bench scale bioreactor apparatus was set up to
generate a representative biooxidized product suitable for an extensive cyanidation study. In all,
four biooxidation steady states were reached. Residence times ranged from 2 to 5 days, while
temperature and pulp density remained constant at 35 C and 20%, respectively. With the first
two steady states, the primary stage pH was controlled at 1.8, whereas for the second two the pH
was controlled at 1.5. Sulfide oxidation ranged from 70% to 93%.
Cyanidation experiments were conducted on the final products, as well as on samples taken
from the intermediate stages of the reactor. The solids were leached under varying conditions of
pulp density, NaCN concentration, pH, temperature, and stirring speed. Gold extractions ranged
from 46.1% to 95.6%. The sodium cyanide consumption varied from 2.70 to 12.07 kg/tonne-
concentrate. Results indicated that the high cyanide consumption associated with this
concentrate is the result of two separate reaction mechanisms: one forming thiocyanate (SCN")
possibly from a reactive form of elemental sulfur, and the other forming hexacyanoferrates
(Fe(CN) " and Fe(CN) ') by decomposition of basic ferric sulfate precipitates. Cyanide use can
3
6 5
4
be reduced by employing higher pulp densities, primary stage aeration, and shorter overall leach
times.
ii
Table of Contents
Abstract ii
List of Tables v
List of Figures vi
Nomenclature viii
Acknowledgements ix
1. Introduction 1
2. Literature Review 5
2.1 Cyanidation 5
2.1.1 Chemistry 5
2.1.2 Cyanicides 9
2.1.2.1 Cyanate 9
2.1.2.2 Thiocyanate 10
2.1.2.3 Metal Cyanides 12
2.1.5 Cyanidation of Refractory Ores 15
2.1.5.1 Telluride Ores 15
2.1.5.2 Carbonaceous Ores 16
2.1.5.3 Sulfide Ores 16
2.1.6 Modified Cyanidation 17
2.1.7 Oxidation Pre-treatment 18
2.2 Bacterial Oxidation of Refractory Gold Ores 20
2.2.1 Leaching Bacteria 20
2.2.2 Leaching Mechanisms 20
2.2.3 Cell Attachment... 22
2.2.4 The Organic Capsule 24
2.2.4.1 Sulfur Pathways 25
2.2.4.2 Sulfur Granules 27
2.2.4.3 Sulfur Globules 29
2.2.5 Bacterial Metabolism 30
2.2.5.1 Iron Oxidation 31
2.2.5.2 Sulfur Oxidation 34
2.2.6 Summary 38
2.3 Plant Practice 41
2.3.1 Operating Parameters 41
2.3.1.1 Temperature 41
2.3.1.2 pH 42
2.3.1.3 Nutrients 42
2.3.1.4 Gas Concentrations 43
2.3.1.5 Toxic Compounds 43
2.3.2 Design Considerations 44
2.3.2.1 Tank Size and Configuration 45
2.3.2.2 Residence Time 46
2.3.2.3 Pulp Density 46
iii
2.3.3 Applications 47
2.3.3.1 Fairview 48
2.3.3.2 SaoBento 49
2.3.3.3 Wiluna 50
2.3.3.4 Youanmi 50
2.3.3.5 Ashanti 51
2.4 Biooxidation and Cyanide Consumption 52
2.5 Summary 56
3. Methods 57
3.1 The Concentrate 57
3.2 Bacterial Leaching Experiments 60
3.3 Cyanidation 63
3.3.1 Standard Cyanidation Tests 64
3.3.2 Cyanide Consumption Tests 66
4. Results and Discussion 68

4.1 Bioleaching Results 68
4.1.1 Steady State #1 73
4.1.2 Steady State # 2 75
4.2 Analysis of the Four Mass Balance Periods 80
4.2.1 Lime Consumption 87
4.2.2 Leaching Kinetics 89
4.3 Cyanide Mass Balance 92
4.4 Effect of Leach Parameters on Cyanide Consumption 96
4.4.1 Pulp Density 96
4.4.2 Temperature 99
4.4.3 pH 102
4.4.4 Cyanide Concentration 103
4.4.5 Stirring Speed 105
4.5 Sample Treatments 107
4.6 Sulfur Balance 115
5. Conclusions and Recommendations 121

5.1 Recommendations 123
Works Cited 125

APPENDIX A - Analytical Methods 133
APPENDIX B - Thermodynamic Data 137
APPENDIX C - Sample Calculations 138
APPENDIX D - Sample Data 141
APPENDIX E - Statistical Analysis 148
iv
List of Tables
Table 2-1. Some common metal-cyanide complexes and their equilibrium constants 12
Table 2-2. Cyanide consumption following bacterial oxidation pre-treatment 52
Table 3-1. Reagents used in the production of the concentrate 59
Table 3-2. Results of chemical analysis of the concentrate 59
Table 3-3. Nutrient media used during continuous operation 62
Table 4-1. Operating conditions at Steady State #1 74
Table 4-2. Bioleach data summary for Steady State #1 74
Table 4-3. Cyanide leach data for Steady State #1 75
Table 4-13. Lime consumption for each of the four steady states 87
Table 4-14. Possible cyanide consuming species, the most probable complex formed, and the
mass ratio of sodium cyanide complexed to species present 92
Table 4-15. Mass balance results for CN-4-P3 93
Table 4-16. Mass balance for the sealed reactor leach 95
Table 4-17. Comparison of cyanide consumption and % of cyanide consumed as thiocyanate and
hexacyanoferrate for three different pulp densities 98
Table 4-18. Comparison of gold extraction, cyanide consumption, and % of cyanide consumed
as thiocyanate for three different leach temperatures 101
Table 4-19. Comparison cyanide consumption and % of cyanide consumed as thiocyanate and
hexacyanoferrate at varying pH 103
Table 4-20. Gold extraction and cyanide consumption for varying sodium cyanide
concentrations 104
Table 4-21. Comparison of cyanide consumption and % of cyanide consumed as thiocyanate and
hexacyanoferrate for two sample treatments 109
Table 4-22. Results of the S7SCN" balance 117
Table 4-23. Results of the S7SCN" balance
2
119
Table 4-24. Results of the NaOH leach 120
List of Figures
Figure 2-1. Eh-pH diagram for the Au-CN-H 0 system at 25 C

2 8
Figure 2-2. Eh-pH diagram for the Fe-CN-H 0 system at 25 C
2 13
Figure 2-3. Transmission electron micrograph of bacterial cell attached to pyrite 24
Figure 2-4. Sulfur oxidation pathway proposed Lorbach et al. (1993) 25
Figure 2-5. Two possible arrangements for sulfur micelles proposed by Stuedel (1989) 29
Figure 2-6. Possible structure of the polythionate membrane as proposed by Stuedel (1989) 30
Figure 2-7. Oxidation of ferrous ions in the periplasmic space 32
Figure 2-8. Possible mechanism of electron transfer from ferrous iron to oxygen in T.
Ferrooxidans 32
Figure 2-9. Eh-pH diagram for the Fe-S-H 0 system at 25 C
2 34
Figure 2-10. Electron transport chain for sulfur in T. ferrooxidans 36
Figure 2-11. Possible pathways of sulfur at the bacteria-mineral interface 40
Figure 2-12. Typical biooxidation flowsheet 45
Figure 3-1. Schematic diagram of the pilot flotation circuit 58
Figure 3-2. Schematic of the continuous reactor 61
Figure 3-3. Schematic of the cyanidation reactor 64
Figure 3-4. Schematic of the sealed cyanidation reactor 66
Figure 4-1. Eh and pH measurements for the four-stage reactor system 69
Figure 4-2. Change in iron concentration over the continuous run 71
Figure 4-3. Change in arsenic concentration over the continuous run 72
Figure 4-4. Change in pulp density between stages for the four steady states 81
Figure 4-5. Comparison of sulfide oxidation, and iron and arsenic extraction, for each steady
state 82
Figure 4-6. Gold extraction vs. sulfide oxidation 84
Figure 4-7. Cyanide consumption as a function of sulfide oxidation 85
Figure 4-8. The percentage of NaCN consumed as SCN" plotted against sulfide oxidation 86
Figure 4-9. Lime consumption as a function of sulfide oxidation for the cyanidation experiments
88
Figure 4-10. Gold extraction vs time for cyanide leach of steady state 4 product 89
Figure 4-11. Consumption of cyanide during a 24 hour leach test of Steady State #4 product ...91
Figure 4-12. Effect of pulp density on sodium cyanide consumption measured in kg/t 97
Figure 4-13. Effect of pulp density on sodium cyanide consumption measured in ppm 98
Figure 4-14. Relative thiocyanate formation 99
Figure 4-15. Effect of temperature on sodium cyanide consumption 100
Figure 4-16. Effect of temperature on relative SCN" formation 101
Figure 4-17. Effect of pH on sodium cyanide consumption 102
Figure 4-18. The effect of cyanide concentration on consumption 104
Figure 4-19. Effect of stirring speed on sodium cyanide consumption 105
Figure 4-20. Thiocyanate and hexacyanoferrate concentrations in cyanide leach solutions at
three stirring speeds 106
Figure 4-21. Sodium cyanide consumption for a slurry sample treated at 110 C for 3 hours... 108
Figure 4-22. The effect of aeration on sodium cyanide consumption. 109
vi
Figure 4-23. The distribution of iron-cyanide and sulfur-cyanide species for tests conducted at
varying pH 112
Figure 4-24. Eh-pH diagram for the Iron-Sulfur-Cyanide-Water system at 25 C 114
Figure 4-25. Eh-pH diagram for the Sulfur-Cyanide-Water system at 25 C 116
vii
Nomenclature
Eh: potential [mV]
SHE: standard hydrogen electrode reference
P : mesh or grind size that results in 80% passing

80
tpd: tonnes per day
Lpm: litres per minute
viii
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my utmost gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Ralph Hackl, for his advice
and guidance during the past two years, and for his patience over the last two months. During
the experimental phase of the program, a number of people in the biohydro and hydro labs
contributed their expertise to this project. In particular, I would like to thank Chris Pasetka and
Masoud Aftaita for teaching me everything I know about bench-scale continuous bioleaching.
Also, the analytical work of Simon Jupp, the advice of Be Wassink, and the proofreading
expertise of Mike Timmins and Mike Noble, are greatly appreciated.
I would like to thank my parents for their support of my decision to return to school seven years
ago, and for all the encouragement they have provided along the way.
Finally, this thesis would not have been possible without the generous support of the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council and Placer Dome Inc.
ix
1. Introduction
Refractory gold ores are hydrothermal deposits containing microscopic gold particles
encapsulated within a gangue mineral, or adsorbed on carbonaceous matter. In many instances
the matrix consists of sulfide minerals such as pyrite or arsenopyrite. Typically, these deposits
contain less than 10 g of gold per tonne of ore.
Conventional methods of gold recovery such as cyanidation are ineffective at extracting the
gold. Even after grinding to 70-80% minus 74 microns cyanidation will yield recoveries
anywhere from 6% to 40% (Haines and van Aswegen, 1990).
For many years, the solution to refractory sulfide ores has been roasting. The high sulfur
concentration of the ore renders the overall reaction exothermic, making it economically viable.
Unfortunately, the roasting of sulfide ores produces both sulfur dioxide, which contributes to
acid rain, as well as the toxic compound arsenic trioxide. Although new technology exists to
convert S0 to sulfuric acid and to strip arsenic trioxide from flue gas emissions, increasingly
2
stringent environmental regulations make this a rather tenuous option.
The need for an alternative process has spawned a number of "second generation" treatment
methods. These include pressure oxidation, biooxidation, the Arseno Process, the Nitrox
Process, and chlorination. Of these, only pressure oxidation and biooxidation have been
successfully implemented on a commercial scale.
1
Despite the initial success of pressure oxidation, the use of bacteria to improve gold recovery
from refractory ores has gained increasing attention since the late 1970's (van Aswegen, 1993).
Since that time, six plants have been commissioned. The process involves the breakdown of the
sulfide minerals by a mixed culture of iron- and sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms. Leaching
takes place in large tanks under conditions of controlled pH, temperature, and oxygen
concentration. As with pressure oxidation, the result is the production of sulfate and arsenate,
and the liberation of thefinelydisseminated gold particles.
Unfortunately, biooxidation of refractory ores has not yet found a niche in the North American
metal processing industry, but successful pilot operations such as those at the Dickenson and the
Salmita Yellowknife Mines have proven the process to be technically viable (Lawrence, 1994;
Hackl, 1996). Lawrence (1994) suggests that North American operators are hesitant to adopt
bioleaching because of perceived technical and economic risks associated with the complex
nature of the process.
Perhaps foremost among these concerns is the ability of a bioleaching system to tolerate various
process upsets such as fluctuations in temperature and dissolved oxygen concentration, changing
feed compositions, and the influence of toxic compounds such as mercury, arsenic, chloride, and
even flotation reagents. Under most conditions, bioleaching has proven to be remarkably robust:
capable of adapting rapidly to changes in process parameters. However, the stability of
biooxidized residues, particularly with respect to arsenic, are also of concern.
2
One specific characteristic of bio/xidized refractory gold concentrates that may prevent the
application of this technology to lower grade feeds is high cyanide consumption. Indeed, reagent
costs for cyanidation are many times greater for biooxidized solids than for their pressure-
oxidized counterparts. This added cost has evidently proven acceptable for the high grade
material fed to the five commercial-scale plants currently operating, but it is unlikely to be
profitable in North America, where concentrate gold grades are lower.
While much research has focused upon the mechanisms, kinetics, and process control of
bacterial oxidation, there has been very little attention paid to the factors affecting cyanide
consumption. As a result, this thesis endeavors to better understand this phenomenon.
To accomplish this goal, the project has three principal objectives:
1. To generate a representative biooxidized product using a multi-stage,
continuous, bench-scale rector.
2. To investigate the influence of process parameters such as pH, temperature, and
cyanide concentration on cyanide consumption.
3. To identify the mechanisms responsible for the consumption of cyanide, and to
propose ways to mitigate this effect.
3
This thesis consists of four principal sections. The first contains a review of the current literature
pertaining to both bacterial oxidation and cyanidation. Secondly, a detailed description of the
experimental program is included. The results obtained are presented and discussed in section
three. Finally, some conclusions are drawn, and recommendations made.
4
2. Literature Review
2.1 Cyanidation
The use of cyanidation for the recovery of gold and silver has gained widespread acceptance in
industry since it was patented in 1889. This method has replaced more traditional practices such
as mercury amalgamation and smelting. Ten of the world's largest gold producing plants employ
a cyanidation circuit (Jha, 1987).
Cyanidation offers a simple, low-cost method of dissolving gold particles to produce a soluble,
gold-cyanide complex. Dissolution takes place in heaps or in agitated leach tanks, using
potassium or sodium cyanide at concentrations of less than 0.3 %. Under optimum conditions,
gold particles will dissolve at a rate of 3.25 mg/cm/h (Fleming, 1992). In other words, a
2
spherical particle passing 325-mesh will take thirteen hours to dissolve. However, the influence
of gangue materials in the leach, as well as oxide coatings and films, will tend to slow the rate of
dissolution. As a result, a gravity concentration step may be employed to remove any coarse
gold particles from the leach prior to cyanidation.
2.1.1 Chemistry
The dissolution of gold in a cyanide solution proceeds according to Eisner's equation:
5
4Au + SCN~ + 0 + 2H 0 -> 4Au(CN)~ + 40H'
2 2 2
(2-1)
However, the reaction probably has an intermediate step involving hydrogen peroxide (Habashi,
1991). Thus, the equations are as follows:
2Au + 4CN- + 0 + 2H 0 -> 2Au(CN) + 20H' + H 0

2 2 2 2 2 (2-2)
2Au + 4CN~ + H 0 2 2 2Au(CN) + 40H~

2 (2-3)
The reactions indicate the electrochemical nature of the cyanide leaching process with the gold
undergoing anodic dissolution. In turn, the cathodic reaction involves the reduction of oxygen.
Similar equations can be written for silver.
The cyanide ion consists of a triply bonded carbon and nitrogen atom. One of these is a sigma-
bond, while the other two are pi-bonds. The stability of the metal cyanide complexes is due to
pi-bonding between the d-orbital electrons of the metal and the pi-electrons of the cyanide ion.
The rate of gold dissolution has been shown to be principally dependent upon the concentration
of cyanide and oxygen in the leach solution (Kudryk and Kellog, 1994). In an air saturated
solution the rate of dissolution increases dramatically with cyanide concentration until a
maximum is reached. After that point, between 0.1 and 0.2 percent, the rate slowly decreases.
Similarly, higher oxygen partial pressures will also improve the rate of dissolution.
6
Hydrogen cyanide can be evolved according to the following reaction:
CN~ + H ->+
HCN1~ (2-4)
Since the formation of hydrogen cyanide produces a toxic gas and results in the loss of reagent
from the system, steps are taken to prevent HCN evolution. Usually, this means maintaining the
pH of the cyanide circuit well above 9.21, the pK of the reaction.

a
Commonly, the pH of the leach solution is raised above 9.21 through the addition of Ca(OH). 2
This practice can, however, generate calcium peroxide when H 0 (from equation 2-2) is present
2 2
in solution, as follows:
Ca(OH) 2 +2H 0
2 2 -> Ca02 +2H 0 2 (2-5)
The Ca0 can retard dissolution by forming a passive layer on the surface of the metal. This
2
passivation becomes particularly evident as the pH rises above 11. Conversely, this phenomenon
is not observed when the pH is controlled with sodium hydroxide (Habashi, 1991). However,
gold dissolution slows down at pH's greater than 12, possibly the result of oxidation of CN" to
CNO" (cyanate).
Sparrow and Woodcock (1995) cite several advantages for cyanide leaching at moderate pH's:
9.5-10.0. These include lower lime consumption, a more favorable pH for CIP absorption, and
7
the ability to use magnesium containing make-up water. Gold dissolution slows below pH 8,
however, as the concentration of CN" declines.
The Eh-pH diagram for the Au-CN-H 0 system is shown in Figure 2-1. The diagram illustrates
2
the stability of the aurocyanide complex even at moderate oxidizing potentials. In addition, the
typical leaching pH (10-11) also favors complexation over formation of an oxide or a passive
film.
PH
Figure 2-1. Eh-pH diagram for the Au-CN-H 0 system at 25 C. Activity of cyanide
2
10" M . activity of other aqueous species: 10" M. Note: Au(CN) not included,
2 3
2(S)
(drawn using the CSIRO Thermochemistry Program, see Appendix B for data).
8
From Eisner's equation it can be seen that oxygen is required during the anodic dissolution of
gold. Since 0 is expensive to produce, and is only sparingly soluble in water, a number of other
2
oxidants have been used in attempts to increase the leaching kinetics. These oxidants include
hydrogen peroxide, potassium permanganate, bromine, and chlorine (Jha, 1987). However, these
additional reagents add further expense to the process, and offer little advantage over a
conventional, well aerated system.
The rate of dissolution has also been shown to be temperature dependent. At about 85 C the
reaction reaches a balance point between kinetics and oxygen solubility. However, the cost of
heating large volumes of slurry, coupled with higher cyanide consumption, make this option
impractical in most situations.
2.1.2 Cyanicides
The cyanide process may be adversely affected by the presence of cyanide consuming
compounds. These cyanicides include natural acids, soluble salts, sulfur compounds, and oxides
of copper, zinc, and antimony (Bhappu, 1990).
2.1.2.1 Cyanate
The oxidation of cyanide to cyanate (CNO") can occur in the presence of oxidants such as
hydrogen peroxide and ozone. The reaction with H 0 is kinetically very slow, but the reaction
2 2
9
is catalyzed by the presence of Cu , and also proceeds at an observable rate in the presence of
2+
thiosulfate (Flynn and Haslem, 1995). A similar conversion to cyanate is effected with 0 in the
2
presence of S0 in what is known as the "Inco S0 /air" process for cyanide destruction (Devuyst
2 2
et al., 1989). Here, the oxygen and sulfur dioxide combine to form peroxomonosulphate
(HOOSOy), which in turn oxidizes the cyanide.
The oxidation of cyanide can also be accomplished by oxygen according to the reaction:
2CN~ + <9 2 2CNCT (2-6)
Although thermodynamically favorable under typical leaching conditions, the kinetics of this
reaction are reported to be very slow (Adams, 1990). The rate in this case may be controlled by
several factors including temperature and the presence of impurities (Flynn and Haslem, 1995).
In addition, the reaction has been shown to be catalyzed by activated carbon and copper.
2.1.2.2 Thiocyanate
Free cyanide can also be lost from the leach solution by conversion to thiocyanate. The
formation of SCN" is attributed to the presence of sulfur compounds such as sulfide, elemental
sulfur, or thiosulfate. For example, feed material containing only 1% elemental sulfur by weight
is capable of consuming over 15 kg/t of NaCN (Hackl, 1989). A general form of the reaction of
elemental sulfur with cyanide is as follows:
CN~ +|5 g -+SCN~ (2-7)
10
Luthy and Bruce (1979) report that aqueous sulfur species such as polysulfide and thiosulfate
also react with free cyanide, as follows:
CN' + S ~ -> SCN~ + S "

2
X
2
(2-8)
CN~ +S O " -> SCN' + S0 f

2
2 2
(2-9)
Thiocyanate, in turn, can be oxidized to sulfate and cyanate by oxygen, ozone, and hydrogen
peroxide, as discussed earlier. Conversely, thiocyanate may be oxidized back to CN" by ozone
A novel process developed by Soto et al. (1994) uses 1 kg of 0 per kg of SCN" under mildly
3
acidic conditions to promote the following reactions,
SCN~ + 30 +20H~ 3 -> CN' + S0 ~ +30 + H 0

2
4 2 2 (2-10)
SCN~ +0 + H 0^> CN~ + H SO,

3 2 2 (2-11)
thus recovering the cyanide. The low pH is effective in slowing the subsequent oxidation of
cyanide to cyanate because the cyanide is present primarily as the slow to oxidize HCN rather
than CN".
11
2.1.2.3 Metal Cyanides
In addition to silver and gold, a number of base metal ions also form cyanide complexes. In this
case, their effect is considered deleterious as they reduce the free cyanide concentration in the
leach solution. Table 2-1 lists some metal ion cyanide consumers and the species they form.
Table 2-1. Some common metal-cyanide complexes and their equilibrium constants
(Flynn and Haslem, 1995).
Metal Ion Cyanide Complex LogK

cobalt Co 3+
Co(CN) " 3
6 73.0
copper Cu +
CuCN(s)/Cu(CN) - 2
3 10.5/27.0
gold Au +
Au(CN) ' 2 37.0
iron Fe 7Fe
2 3+
Fe(CN) 7Fe(CN) -
6
4 3
6 35.4/42.3
nickel Ni 2+
Ni(CN) "2
4 30.2
silver Ag +
Ag(CN)" 2 20.5
zinc Zn 2+
Zn(CN) "4
2
19.6
Of particular interest during cyanidation of pyrite and arsenopyrite containing ores is the
influence of iron. Thermodynamic data has been summarized by several authors (Zhang et al.,
1997; Flynn and Haslem, 1995) and an Eh-pH diagram for the iron-cyanide water system is
shown in Figure 2-2.
12
PLOT LABELS
Temp. = 298.15 K
[CN] = 0.01 H
IFel = 0.01 H
STRBLE AREAS
Fe [C N16 <3-> Io*)

F 9 [C N16 <-> let)
Fa 0 0 H
Fe
Fa <2+> (nt)
Fa <3+> (oq|
H Fe IC N)6 <3-> (oq)
LICRND AREAS
Af) HCN (PQ)
BB CN <-> IRQ)
H20 3TRB1L1TY LIMITS

1 OXTCEN
2 HYDROGEN
Figure 2-2. Eh-pH diagram for the Fe-CN-H 0 system at 25 C. Activity of cyanide:
2
10"M; activity of aqueous iron species: 10" M. (drawn using the CSIRO
2 3
Thermochemistry Program, see Appendix B for data).
Over the near-neutral to alkaline pH range the stable compounds hexacyanoferrate (II)
(Fe(CN) ") and hexacyanoferrate (III) (Fe(CN) ") are formed (although the former is more
4
6
3
6
prevalent under typical leach conditions (Osseo-Asare et al., 1984)). Zhang et al. (1997)
proposed the cyanide dissolution of pyrite according to the following mechanism:
13
2
2-
FeS (s) + 6CN- - Fe(CN)l~ +S 2
2 (2-12)
Under the oxidizing conditions in the leach, the sulfide is further converted, as follows:
5 2
2_
2
2
,2-
S" -> S 0 ~ - > SO ' -> SO]2
(2-13)
However, many cyanidation plants treating pyrite containing ores or concentrates experience
low sodium cyanide consumptions (i.e. 1 kg/t or less), so reaction 2-12 is likely to be kinetically
slow.
Other workers have suggested that jarosites might be the source of the iron (Komitsas and
Pooley, 1989). Jarosite compounds have the form AFe (S0 ) (OH) where A represents certain
3 4 2 6
univalent ions such as H 0 , K , Na , Ag . Precipitation of these compounds is favored in a

3
+ + + +
number of metallurgical processes as a means of iron, sulfate, or alkali control (Dutrizac and
Jambor, 1987; Dutrizac and Hardy, 1997). Optimum temperatures for precipitation of
crystallized jarosite is found to occur at temperatures in excess of 90C, however a chemically
similar amorphous form is associated with the more moderate temperatures maintained during
bioleaching.
A further consequence of iron cyanide complexation is the formation of Prussian Blue in neutral
or acidic solutions (Burns et al., 1980). A pale blue precipitate forms when ferric ions react with
hexacyanoferrate (II):
14
K + Fe + Fe{CN)\- - KFe[Fe(CN) ]
+ i+
6 (2-14)
Conversely, the same reaction involving hexacyanoferrate (III) gives a brownish color, but does
not precipitate.
2.1.5 Cyanidation of Refractory Ores
For many decades, the cyanidation process was applied only to free-milling ores. Ores with poor
cyanidation characteristics were labeled as refractory and usually separated and sent to the
dump. As the high grade, free-milling ore deposits were exhausted more focus was placed on
treating these refractory ores.
From the perspective of cyanidation, refractory deposits can be grouped into three main
categories: telluride ores, carbonaceous ores, and sulfide ores. In some cases, the ore may
contain elements of more than one of these categories.
2.1.5.1 Telluride Ores
Gold tellurides require an oxidation step before cyanidation. Without this step dissolution is
extremely slow or impossible. At the Emperor Mine in Fiji a chemical oxidation step is
employed to improve gold and silver recovery. In this case, NaOH or Na C0 is used with
2 3
Ca(OCl)(Jha, 1987).
2
15
2.1.5.2 Carbonaceous Ores
Carbonaceous ores contain organic carbon compounds. They are said to be refractory for two
principal reasons. Firstly, the ores can adsorb the aurocyanide complex soon after it has formed,
and as a result are considered "preg-robbing". Secondly, the gold may possibly be chemically
combined with the carbonaceous material. As with the tellurides, the solution is to oxidize or
destroy the carbon prior to cyanidation.
2.1.5.3 Sulfide Ores
The largest and most important category of refractory ores is the sulfides. These usually consist
of pyrite, arsenopyrite, and pyrrhotite (Pinches et al, 1994). In some cases, fine grinding or pre-
treatment with lime is sufficient to improve recoveries. However, usually it is necessary to
remove the sulfide matrix surrounding the finely disseminated gold particles. Again, the solution
is oxidation.
The resistance of sulfide minerals to cyanidation is thought to be the result of three principal
mechanisms. The first of these mechanisms is physical. The gold particles are finely
disseminated, often sub-micron in size, within the sulfide matrix. In turn, the sulfides may be
contained as small particles within other gangue material, such as quartz. Grinding and flotation
may be employed to isolate the sulfide mineral, but does little to permit the access of cyanide to
the precious metals.
16
A second mechanism of resistance to cyanidation is in the chemical composition of the mineral:
some base metal sulfides react with cyanide in solution. For example, pyrrhotite (FeS) combines
with cyanide to form an iron-cyanide complex via the reaction:
FeS + 0.5O +6CN- + H 0 ->[Fe(CN) ] - + S +20H-

2 2 6
4
(2-15)
For each mole of pyrrhotite leached there are six moles of cyanide and a half mole of oxygen
consumed (Kondos et al., 1995). Furthermore, the sulfur can combine with cyanide to form
thiocyanate (SCN').
Finally, cyanidation can be affected by an electrochemical mechanism. If the gold is in contact
with a conductive mineral, passivation of the more noble gold can occur (Jha, 1987).
Several methods to overcome the poor cyanidation characteristics of refractory ores have been
proposed. These methods have been classified by Jha (1987) as falling into one of two
categories: modified cyanidation and oxidation pre-treatment.
2.1.6 Modified Cyanidation
Modified cyanidation refers to changes made in treatment methods to improve recoveries from
refractory ores. This can include lengthening the time of leaching, increasing the concentration
of cyanide, raising the temperature of the slurry, or increasing the oxygen partial pressure.
Generally, these methods are effective at improving recoveries only from mildly refractory ores.
17
For preg-robbing ores, a further modification can be made by employing a carbon-in-leach
(CIL) cyanidation circuit. By adding the activated carbon to the leach tanks, the aurocyanide
complex is quickly adsorbed on the activated carbon before being affected by the preg-robbing
organic material.
2.1.7 Oxidation Pre-treatment
Unfortunately, modified cyanidation is usually not able to overcome the problems associated
with gold encased in sulfide ores. Here the only solution is to oxidize the mineral and expose the
precious metals. Currently, three very different processes are competing to achieve this
conversion: roasting, pressure oxidation, and bio-oxidation.
Roasting was the initial solution to refractory ores more than sixty years ago. Since that time,
hearth roasters have evolved into a fluidized-bed design and represent the most common method
of treating pyrite and arsenopyrite deposits. In this process most of the sulfur and arsenic is
removed from the flue gas as sulfuric acid (H S0 ) and arsenic trioxide (As 0 ). However,
2 4 2 3
increasing concerns about the impact of flue gas emissions on the environment have led to the
development of other oxidation technologies.
At present, pressure oxidation is the most popular treatment method for new refractory gold
operations. In this process, a flotation concentrate of the sulfide mineral is fed into an autoclave.
18
There, in the presence of pure oxygen gas, high temperature and pressure, and a ferric catalyst,
the sulfide minerals are oxidized to sulfate. In addition, it is claimed that arsenic can be removed
from the system in the form of a stable ferric arsenate precipitate (Lawrence, 1994).
Bioleaching employs naturally occurring bacteria to expose the gold particles. The
microorganisms use sulfide minerals as an energy source and produce sulfate as a waste product.
This process is much slower than pressure oxidation or roasting, but is also simpler to operate.
Despite the differences in the processes, roasting, pressure oxidation, and bacterial oxidation can
all yield metal recoveries in excess of 90%. Selection of the method is dependent largely upon
economic considerations and process limitations, as no one option holds an advantage under all
circumstances. For example, roasting offers significant economies of scale for plants processing
in excess of 1000 tonnes of concentrate per day. Conversely, for smaller operations (<300 tpd),
bacterial oxidation requires the lowest capital investment (Carter, 1991).
In addition, the type of ore will greatly influence process selection. For example, as Lawrence
(1994) points out, neither bacterial leaching nor pressure oxidation are favorable for treating
alkaline or carbonaceous ores. Conversely, high arsenic levels can render roasting uneconomic,
but may favor pressure oxidation or biooxidation.
19
2.2 Bacterial Oxidation of Refractory Gold Ores
2.2.1 Leaching Bacteria
Leaching bacteria usually consist of a mixed culture of acidophilic chemolithotrophic bacteria,
the most important of which are the strains Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Thiobacillus thiooxidans,
and Leptospirillum ferrooxidans. The latter derives energy from the oxidation of ferrous iron,
while T. thiooxidans oxidizes reduced sulfur compounds. As the name implies, T. ferrooxidans
is capable of using both of these energy sources. All of these bacteria thrive under conditions of
low pH (0.5-3.0) and moderate temperature (30-40C).
Research is continuing into the use of moderate and even extreme thermophiles such as
Sulfolobus, which operate at temperatures as high as 90C. Despite the potential advantages of
improved kinetics and reduced cooling requirements, these strains have so far met with limited
success. The higher temperature organisms may not be as resistant to toxic compounds and
shear stress as their more moderate counterparts (Morin, 1995).
2.2.2 Leaching Mechanisms
The oxidation of pyrite and arsenopyrite by T. ferrooxidans is thought to be the result of two
principal mechanisms. These mechanisms are referred to as direct and indirect leaching. In each
case, the bacteria oxidize a reduced compound and use the released electron to generate
adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) via the electron transport chain.
20
Direct leaching describes the oxidation of the sulfide mineral to sulfate, for pyrite and
arsenopyrite the reactions are as follows:
FeS + 0 +H 0
2
1
2 2 2 " >FeS0 +H S0 4 2 4 (2-16)
IFeAsS + 70 + 2 H 0 + H S0 2 2 2 4
bac,trta
>2H As0 + 2Fe (50 )
i 4 2 4 3 (2-17)
The high oxygen requirement is evident. As a result, the process requires significant oxygen
liquid mass transfer to operate efficiently, which is achieved by air sparging. Also, direct
leaching can generate both elemental sulfur (S) and ferrous (Fe ) iron which can be further 2+
oxidized by the bacteria:
S"+i0 +H 0 2 2 * " >H S0 2 4 (2-18)
Fe +}0 +H
2+
2
+ hacleria
>Fe +iH 0 i+
2 (2-19)
In the form of ferric iron, the species can act as an electron acceptor and oxidize the sulfide
mineral on its own:
FeS + 14Fe + 8H 0-> \5Fe

2
3+
2
2+
+ 2S0 ' + 16H 2 +
(2-20)
2FeAsS + 4Fe +^0 +3H 0^2H As0 3+

2 2 3 3 +6Fe +2S"
2+
(2-21)
21
This second pathway is known as indirect leaching. As with direct leaching, the oxygen
requirements are considerable. Several authors suggest that the indirect method is the principal,
and possibly only, mechanism responsible for leaching of sulfide minerals (Pinches et al., 1994;
Sand etal., 1995).
An important consequence of the indirect mechanism is the selective oxidation of arsenopyrite
(Miller and Hansford, 1992). This result is of particular interest when the gold is closely
associated with the arsenopyrite. Thus high gold extractions do not always require complete
sulfide mineral oxidation.
While the leaching mechanisms associated with T. ferrooxidans may seem straightforward, the
formation and pathways of the intermediate sulfur compounds is much more complex. This
investigation requires an understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics
of the process at the microscopic level. To accomplish this goal, this review will first consider
the mechanism by which the bacteria become attached to the mineral surface.
2.2.3 Cell Attachment
During bioleaching, T. ferrooxidans is not only found attached to the mineral particles, but
swimming freely in the solution as well. Adhesion to the particle surface is achieved by certain
exopolymeric compounds secreted by the cell (Sand et al, 1995). These compounds act like a
kind of glue that strongly binds the cell to the mineral. While the exact composition of the
22
substance is unknown, it is thought to contain metal cations. These ions provide the
exopolymeric layer with a net positive charge. In doing so, the cell can easily bind to the
negatively charged mineral surface.
Without this layer, attached growth is not possible. Experiments which removed the
extracellular polymers by centrifugation showed that attachment took several hours longer than
untreated cells (Sand et al., 1995). From this result, the bacteria appear to have to generate a new
layer before attached growth can occur. Similarly, attachment also may be dependent on the
presence of metal ions in solution.
Finally, the location of attachment is not randomly selected. Thiobacillus ferrooxidans contain
the genes necessary for chemotaxis. As a result, they are capable of sensing, and moving into, a
gradient of increasing substrate concentration. Specifically, the bacteria have been shown to be
sensitive to thiosulfate in solution. Thus, they are attracted to sites on the mineral where
electrochemical dissolution processes are already taking place.
23
, |
Figure 2-3: Transmission electron micrograph of bacterial cell attached to pyrite.

(Rojas-Chapana et al., 1996).
2.2.4 The Organic Capsule
Figure 2-3 shows a transmission electron microscope image of a bacterial cell attached to a
pyrite grain. The picture clearly illustrates a thick layer of extracellular material referred to as
the organic capsule. The capsule includes the exopolymeric compounds responsible for
attachment that were discussed in the previous section. In addition, the layer also acts as a
reactive medium for sulfur metabolism, and as storage for colloidal sulfur particles that form
during bacterial oxidation. These particles are thought to be stored for use as an energy source
when all other sources are depleted.
24
2.2.4.1 Sulfur Pathways
The formation of an organic capsule and the attachment of that capsule to the surface of the
sulfide mineral provides the setting for bacterial oxidation. Several theories exist about the
specific pathways followed. This section examines some possible direct and indirect
mechanisms.
The direct oxidation of sulfur compounds was investigated by Lorbach et al.(1993). The authors
compared kinetic data collected from experiments using elemental sulfur, sulfite, thiosulfate,
and tetrathionate. Figure 2-4 illustrates the sulfur pathway proposed by their results.
SOs 2
Figure 2-4: Sulfur oxidation pathway proposed Lorbach et al. (1993). The
S-S bond in thiosulfate can be cleaved by the enzyme Rhodanese.
In this diagram, the [S] state is intended to represent an "activated" sulfur compound. This
compound is thought to be a more readily usable form for the bacteria, particularly at a pH of
around 6. As a result, the sulfur pathway appears to branch giving rise to a more acidic route
25
going from sulfur to sulfite near the mineral side of the capsule, versus the "activated" pathway
occurring closer to the neutral environment in the cell. Interestingly, thiosulfate is shown as the
precursor to both pathways.
In comparison, a plausible mechanism for indirect attack has been suggested by Sand et al.
(1995). In this instance, the ferric iron hexahydrate attacks the pyrite surface in a series of steps
that ultimately leads to the formation of sulfonic acid (see equation 2-22, p] represents pyrite).
The sulfonic acid is then hydrolyzed to ferrous iron and thiosulfate (equation 2-23. Note:
equation is unbalanced in the literature). The ferrous iron is quickly oxidized to ferric iron by the
bacteria, and the cycle begins again. The thiosulfate, on the other hand, is unstable at low pH
and is transformed into elemental sulfur or polythionates.
p] - Fe - S~ - S' + 6Fe(H 0)l 2

+
+ 3H 0 -> p]- Fe - S~ - SO; + 6Fe(H O)
2 2
2 +
6 + 6H (2-22)
+
p] - Fe - S~ - SO; + 2H ->/?] + Fe + S 0]~

+ 2+
2 (2-23)
overall:
FeS + 6Fe(H O) f +3H 0-> Fe + S O ' + 6Fe(H O) \ + 6H

2 2 2
2+
2
2
2
+ +
(2-24)
The importance of thiosulfate as an intermediate in sulfide mineral oxidation has been further
confirmed by the work of Shrihari et al.(1992). In their experiments the growth of unattached
cells were investigated. The authors proposed that the attached cells produced a soluble sulfur
intermediate which was then being used as an energy source by the unattached cells. In an
26
attempt to identify and measure this compound, a reactor was constructed that separated
attached and unattached cells by a 0.22 um membrane. The free swimming bacteria were
confined to the side without any sulfur substrate, surviving only upon substances which could
pass through the membrane. Results of this investigation indicated that cell densities increased
on both sides of the reactor initially, with the non-sulfur side reaching a stationary phase first.
This appears to support the idea of a soluble intermediate compound. The authors then
employed a series of methods including iodometric titrations, UV spectrum, and differential
pulse polarography, to identify the substance. The analysis indicated levels of thiosulfate and
sulfite of 14 and 0.3 ppm, respectively. These findings were considered sufficient to explain the
growth of unattached cells in the sulfur-free medium.
The formation of intermediate sulfur compounds during the direct and indirect attack of sulfide
minerals plays a key role in determining the composition of the organic capsule. The next
section examines how the cell organizes and stores sulfur in this outer layer.
2.2.4.2 Sulfur Granules
The organic capsule shown in Figure 2-3 clearly illustrates that the layer isfilledwith colloidal
particles. Rojas-Chapana et.al. (1996) used energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis to determine
that these colloids contain sulfur. The source of this sulfur is believed to be pyrite and the
colloids are thought to serve as energy storage for the bacteria.
While elemental sulfur is the most stable of the intermediate compounds, and thus is easily
identified in the capsule, these granules are more likely to be composed of long-chain,
27
polythionate species. Stuedel (1989) suggests a mechanism by which polythionates are
generated from thiosulfate under acid conditions, as follows:
S 0]~ + H -> HS O;
2
+
2 (2-25)
HS 0~ + S O]- -> HS O; + SO]'

2 2 3 (2-26)
2HS 0- -> H S + S 0 ~
3 2 5
2
6 (2-27)
In this way, the stable polythionate species is formed. This mechanism also generates sulfite
which is then oxidized to sulfate by T. ferrooxidans.
The sulfur granules can be generated from polythionates by orienting their negatively charged,
hydrophilic ends towards the outside of the structure, while the non-polar portion of the chain
stays in the centre. Two such configurations, known as micelles, are shown in Figure 2-5.
In Figure 2-5A the polythionate strands can stretch from one side of the micelle to the other. The
circular compounds within represent hydrophobic elemental sulfur. The diameter of the micelle
is about 6 nanometres. In Figure 2-5B, a larger, heterogeneous, micelle is shown. This structure
consists of an outer layer of folded polythionate chains and an inner core of densely packed,
sulfur ring molecules.
28
Figure 2-5: Two possible arrangements for sulfur micelles proposed by Stuedel
(1989). A) a homogenous configuration; B) polythionates organized at the surface
with core of sulfur ring molecules. (Stuedel, 1989)
2.2.4.3 Sulfur Globules
The sulfur granules discussed in the previous section can also combine together to form larger
elements known as globules. These globules can be found adjacent to the cell wall, floating .
freely within the organic capsule, or even outside the capsule itself.
Apparently these larger structures serve to further organize the sulfur intermediates for storage
and possible future use. The globules are typically between 0.1 and 0.5 um in diameter (Stuedel,
1989). Their shape is maintained by a polythionate membrane similar to that found in the
individual micelles. Figure 2-6 illustrates the orientation of the hydrophilic "heads" towards the
29
outside of the membrane surface. In this case, water is found inside and outside the globule, but
it cannot pass through the membrane.
Figure 2-6: Possible structure of the polythionate membrane as proposed by

Stuedel (1989).
2.2.5 Bacterial Metabolism
Chemolithotrophs use inorganic compounds to generate the energy and reducing power
necessary for survival. The energy is generated through the electron transport chain and is stored
as ATP. The ATP can then be converted to back to ADP (adenosine di-phosphate) releasing 26.4
kJ/mol of energy. This energy is used during various cellular processes including motility and
biosynthesis. In addition, ATP can be used via the reverse electron transport chain (an energy
consuming set of reactions) to generate nicotinamide adenosine di-phosphate (NADPH):
reducing power.
30
Autotrophic organisms use stored energy and reducing power (ATP and NADPH) to convert
carbon dioxide into fructose using the dark reactions of photosynthesis. Fructose is converted to
pyruvate which then enters the tricarboxylic acid cycle (Brock et.al., 1994). From this point, all
of the amino acids needed for biosynthesis can be generated. For the chemoautolithotroph T.
ferrooxidans the energy required for these reactions is generated by the oxidation of reduced
iron and sulfur compounds.
2.2.5.1 Iron Oxidation
The bacterial oxidation of ferrous iron is a relatively straightforward process. The ferrous ions
can be pictured as floating freely within the organic capsule. The outer membrane of the bacteria
contains porins which are large enough to allow the passage of ions into the periplasmic space
(see Figure 2-7). Once inside, the electron is transferred along a series of protein intermediates
before reaching the terminal electron acceptor, oxygen, within the cell.
31
inside cell outside
cell membrane cell
2+
2Fe
2Fe 3+
pH6-5 pH2-3
ATP
Figure 2-7: Oxidation of ferrous ions in the periplasmic space. (Leach, 1992).
cell wall/periplasm membrane cytoplasm
Fe (II)
RCu
cyt a
Figure 2-8: Possible mechanism of electron transfer from ferrous iron to oxygen
in T. Ferrooxidans. (Blake et al., 1992)
32
A recently proposed pathway, by Blake et al.(1992), is shown in Figure 2-8. Here, the ferrous
ion passes an electron to the acid-stable iron:rusticyanin oxidoreductase (cyt c). From there, the
electron is passed to rusticyanin: an acid-stable, soluble, blue copper protein that the authors
claim may constitute up to 5% of the total protein synthesis during autotrophic growth on iron.
The electron is then transferred to a cytochrome-a containing oxidase embedded in the cell
membrane. The final step involves the arrival of the electron at the terminal electron acceptor,
and the subsequent reduction of oxygen.
Ferric ions are also likely to precipitate as jarosites and ferric arsenate (FeAs0 ). Pinches et al.
4
(1994) report the precipitation of a basic ferric arsenate in cases where the molar ratio of
Fe :As is 4:1 or more. This compound has a solubility that is 2 or 3 orders of magnitude lower
3+ 5+
than ferric arsenate formed at lower molar ratios. The Eh-pH diagram for the iron-sulfur-water
system is shown in Figure 2-9. The stability of hydronium jarosite under the conditions of low
pH (<1) and high Eh (>600 mV ) is clearly evident. Ahonen and Tuovinen (1992; 1993) report
she
the precipitation of jarosites in column leaching experiments, and suggest that the concentration
of iron in solution is controlled by the solubility of these precipitates. In an effort to identify a
more accurate value for iron and arsenic oxidation in bioleached residues, some researchers have
used a weak HC1 wash in order to dissolve these precipitates prior to analysis (Zhang et al.,
1994; Xiangetal., 1994).
33
Figure 2-9. Eh-pH diagram for the Fe-S-H 0 system at 25 C. Activity of aqueous
2
species: 1 M. (drawn using the CSIRO Thermochemistry Program, see Appendix B

for data).
2.2.5.2 Sulfur Oxidation
In contrast to the mechanism of iron oxidation, the mechanisms associated with the oxidation of
sulfur are extremely complex. In this instance, the electron donor takes several forms, from the
relatively soluble polythionate and thiosulfate, to the very insoluble elemental sulfur. The
34
oxidation of these compounds has been suggested to be the result of two main pathways: the
reaction of sulfur with enzymes excreted by the cell, or, a reaction occurring between
components at the cellular surface (Roy and Trudinger, 1970).
Since we have already seen that the bacteria is surrounded by an organic capsule, contact
between the cell surface and the sulfide mineral seems unlikely. Thus a direct attack mechanism
would require an enzyme to be secreted into the organic capsule. However, oxidation of the
intermediate sulfur compounds would probably be best accomplished closer to the cell
membrane, where the protein catalysts are less susceptible to loss to, or damage from, the acidic
environment. Consequently, the actual mechanism is likely to be a combination of reactions
occurring in both the capsule and the periplasmic space.
A simplified electron transport chain for sulfur compounds is shown in Figure 2-10. The sulfide
electron is picked up by a flavoprotein, while the thiosulfate and sulfur molecules are shown to
interact with cytochrome-c. Cytochrome-b has also been detected during sulfide oxidation and
was found to be absent in cells grown on Fe(II) (Arkesteyn, 1979). As with the iron oxidation,
the terminal electron acceptor is oxygen.
35
NADPH
^ ,1/2 0 :
N A D P ^ F P . ^ - ^ Q ^ Cyt Cyt C y t aa 3
S otor S2 8
electron flow releases energy
reverse electron flow generates reducing power
Figure 2-10: Electron transport chain for sulfur in T. ferrooxidans. (Brock et al.,
1994).
Although the specific pathways remain unclear, some of the important enzymes in the oxidation
of sulfur compounds have been identified. Of these, APS-reductase, ADP-sulfurase,
glutathionate reductase, and rhodanese are of particular interest.
Both APS-reductase and ADP-sulfiirase are involved in the terminal step of sulfur oxidation: the
conversion of sulfite to sulfate. Karavaiko et al.(1977) suggest the following two step
mechanism,
SO]~ + AMP -> APSreductase -> APS + 2e' (2-28)
APC + P -> ADPsulfurase -> ADP + S0

t
2
4 ~ (2-29)
Thefirstreaction forms adenosinephosposulphate (APS), which is involved in the second
reaction, and two electrons that enter the electron transport chain, as described earlier. The
second equation illustrates the enzyme mediated conversion of APS and a phosphate group to
36
adenosinediphosphate (ADP) and sulfate. A third step involves the reaction of two ADP to form
an AMP (to be used in the first equation) and an ATP, the energy unit within the cell.
How reduced sulfur compounds are oxidized to sulfite by Thiobacillus has been the subject of
much research. In one theory, elemental sulfur can be reduced to sulfide possibly by way of a
membrane bound thiol group (Trudinger and Roy, 1970). A likely candidate for this role is the
nonprotein thiol glutathione (GSH), which is found in high concentrations in aerobic bacteria
(Huxtable, 1986). GSH has also been shown to be a catalyst in the conversion of sulfur and
sulfide to sulfite, and finally thiosulfate. Oxidized GSH is subsequently regenerated by the
enzyme glutathionate reductase.
Another enzyme that might play a part in bacterial sulfur metabolism is rhodanese. This enzyme
catalyses the formation of thiocyanate from cyanide and thiosulfate as follows,
CAT + S 0 ~ -> SCN~ + SO -

2
2 2
(2-30)
Rhodanese is found in mammalian liver cells where it removes cyanide from the bloodstream.
Humans ingest up to three times the lethal dosage of cyanide daily in foods such as apples,
almonds and tapioca (Whatley, 1980; Huxtable, 1986). However, the release is slow and they
can be easily detoxified before harmful quantities can accumulate.
Kelly (1980) reasons that rhodanese could be responsible for thiosulfate metabolism. However,
there is still the question of the acceptor for the sulfane-sulfur of the thiosulfate. In general,
37
Thiobacilli have high rhodanese activity, but low cyanide concentrations, indicating that another
acceptor is dominant.
2.2.6 Summary
Based on the information presented here, a possible sulfur pathway, from pyrite to sulfate,
begins to take shape. The path is not a direct route, but more like a series of chemical reservoirs
and intermediates diffusing through a complex aqueous medium. Figure 2-11 attempts to
illustrate some of the transformations taking place in this system.
Some of the key elements of the pathway outlined here are as follows:
1. The initial oxidation of pyrite at the mineral surface. This can occur by direct oxidation of
the sulfide catalyzed by glutathione leading to sulfite and thiosulfate. Or, it can occur by an
indirect mechanism involving the ferrous iron hexahydrate. Again, the first intermediate is
thiosulfate.
2. The acid-unstable thiosulfate is converted to polythionate and sulfite. The polythionates
combine to form the sulfur granules (micelles) that fill the organic capsule. The soluble
sulfite diffuses towards the cell membrane.
38
3. Some of the soluble capsule components are lost to the outside environment. These include
waste products such as sulfate, as well as thiosulfate and sulfite which can serve as substrate
for unattached cells.
4. Ferrous ions diffuse into the periplasmic space where they are met by cytochrome-c: the
initial electron acceptor. The electron is then passed along the chain generating ATP.
5. Sulfite ions also diffuse into the periplasmic space where they combine with AMP, and,
under the influence of APS-reductase and AMP-sulfurase, go on to form ATP and sulfate.
Subsequently, the ATP is used as energy and the sulfate diffuses out of the cell as a waste
product.
6. Finally, the capsule also contains numerous compounds necessary for metabolism. Of these,
nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorous, and oxygen for use as the terminal electron
acceptor, are of principal importance.
39
Figure 2-11: Possible pathways of sulfur at the bacteria-mineral interface.
(Adapted from Rojas-Chapana et al., 1996).
This pathway focuses specifically on the oxidation of pyrite by T. ferrooxidans as a result of the
overwhelming amount of research that has been done on this particular system. Quite possibly
40
similar mechanisms exist for other sulfides, such as pyrrhotite and arsenopyrite, and other
bacteria such as T. thiooxidans and L. ferrooxidans. However, not enough information currently
exists to confirm this assertion.
2.3 Plant Practice
The bacterial oxidation of refractory gold ores is presently accomplished by treating a flotation
concentrate of the sulfide minerals in a series of stirred tank bioreactors. The biooxidized residue
is then treated by the conventional recovery process of cyanidation. Presently, four plants are
operating using the "BIOX" process licensed by Genmin, while a fifth employs BacTech's
moderately thermophilic culture.
2.3.1 Operating Parameters
The objective of stirred tank biooxidation is to maintain the bacterial biomass in a state of
maximum growth rate. Thus, their energy and sulfide mineral consumption will be optimized.
To achieve this goal requires careful control of key parameters such as temperature, pH,
nutrients, carbon dioxide concentration, and oxygen concentration.
2.3.1.1 Temperature
With the exception of BacTech's moderate thermophiles, which operate in a temperature range
41
of 40 to 50C, the mixed culture used in bacterial leaching is characterized as mesophilic.
Generally, mesophiles show a preference for temperatures in the 30-35C range. However,
cultures can be gradually acclimatized to temperatures as high as 45C.
2.3.1.2 pH
While iron and sulfide mineral oxidizing bacteria occur over a wide pH range in nature,
commercial biooxidation tanks operate only at the bottom end of this scale. Typically, the pH is
maintained between 1 and 2 through the addition of sulfuric acid, lime, and/or limestone.
Concentrates that contain significant quantities of carbonate minerals will be acid consumers,
while those without will tend to produce acid in excess. The target range is low enough to limit
the formation of iron precipitates such as ferric hydroxide or jarosites, yet high enough not to
inhibit metabolism.
2.3.1.3 Nutrients
The presence of nutrients in solution during biooxidation is essential for cell growth. Principal
among these are nitrogen and phosphorous along with trace elements such as potassium,
magnesium, and calcium. For laboratory study and experimentation the 9K medium developed
by Silverman and Lundgren (1959) has gained universal acceptance. A modified version, OK,
which does not contain ferrous sulfate, is sufficient for cultures grown on sulfide minerals. In
addition, commercial applications may change the nutrient recipe if the concentrate already
contains appreciable amounts of a particular mineral, or if a less costly substitute is available
42
(Morin, 1994). One such recipe, used in the MinBac process, provides only nitrogen and
phosphorous to the leach (Pinches et al., 1994).
2.3.1.4 G a s Concentrations
As illustrated earlier, the breakdown of the sulfide minerals requires significant amounts of
oxygen. Unfortunately, for a solution at 40C the saturation concentration of dissolved oxygen is
less than seven parts per million. As a result, the tanks must be continuously sparged with air to
provide the stoichiometric oxygen requirement.
At the same time, the availability of carbon dioxide is also a consideration. The autotrophic
leaching bacteria obtain the carbon necessary for growth by fixing C0 using the dark reactions
2
of photosynthesis. When carbonate minerals are present in the leach, their reaction with the acid
produces carbon dioxide:
CO]' + 2H -> C0 + H O
+
2 2 (2-31)
If, however, little carbonate mineral is present, and no limestone is added for pH control, the air
sparged into the tanks can be enriched to 1% C0 to meet the requirement.

2
r
2.3.1.5 T o x i c C o m p o u n d s
The bacterial dissolution of the sulfide minerals can also lead to the release of toxic compounds
43
into the leach solution. These compounds can include heavy metals such as lead, mercury and
copper, as well as other inhibitors like arsenic.
De et al. (1997) have reported that concentrations of mercury, silver, lead, or cadmium that
exceed 10 mg/1 are inhibitory to the iron oxidizing ability of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. The
inhibition was found to be uncompetitive in that the metals bind to the enzyme substrate
complex and not specifically to the enzyme itself. Conversely, similar concentrations of tin,
cobalt, copper, and zinc had no deleterious effect.
The presence of arsenic has also been linked to the inhibition of iron oxidation (Mandl et al.,
1996). In this case, however, the affect is different depending on whether the trivalent (As(III))
or pentavalent (As(V)) form is present: the toxicity of As(III) has been suggested to be three
times greater than that of As(V). In comparison, other research has indicated that both
compounds result in a reduced rate of bacterial oxidation with the pentavalent form also
inducing a lag phase (Breed et al., 1997).
2.3.2 Design Considerations
The design of a bioleaching system requires an understanding of the fundamental parameters
influencing the process. Of these, the tank size and configuration, residence time, and pulp
density are of key importance.
44
2.3.2.1 Tank Size and Configuration
The configuration and size of the tanks is dependent upon the characteristics of the feed stream.
As recently as 1993, the economics of aeration and agitation suggest a maximum tank size of
880m (van Aswegen, 1993). However, Briggs and Millard (1997) propose much larger reactors:
3
up to 1380 m . Figure 2-12 illustrates a flowsheet for a typical plant. In this case, three primary
3
oxidation tanks are operated in parallel followed by another three secondary tanks in series.
Afterwards, the slurry goes to liquid-solid separation and then to the cyanidation circuit.
Figure 2-12. Typical biooxidation flowsheet, (van Aswegen, 1993)
45
The leaching circuit operates as a four-stage reactor with the first stage being three times the
volume of the other three. This configuration is common for an autocatalytic process and has the
effect of yielding a high rate of conversion in the first stage.
2.3.2.2 Residence Time
The mean residence time of the leaching reactor is dependent upon both the concentrate and the
bacterial biomass. If the dilution rate (the inverse of the residence time) is greater than the
maximum specific growth rate of the organism, then washout will occur. Generally, this is not a
significant concern in bioleaching as longer retention times (2-5 days) are employed to achieve
maximum gold recovery (Morin, 1995). As a result, the length of time the slurry spends in the
leach reactor is more likely to be related to the mineral being leached and the effectiveness of
the biomass to release the gold particles from the sulfide matrix.
Furthermore, certain sulfide ores are preferentially leached. Spencer and Budden (1992) showed
that bacterial oxidation can selectively attack the more reactive sulfide minerals. Thus, the
valuable metals can be recovered without having to completely oxidize the mineral assemblages.
For example, an ore containing refractory gold that is associated mainly with arsenopyrite can
be selectively leached without oxidizing a significant quantity of the pyrite that may be present.
2.3.2.3 Pulp Density
The solids concentration in the reactor is determined by the competing factors of economics and
46
the welfare of the biomass. In this respect, a higher pulp density reduces the size of the reactor
and, in turn, the overall cost of the operation. Research indicates that the optimum bacterial
kinetics are found at a density of 10-15% (Morin, 1995). Most plants operate at 20%, however,
to take advantage of higher throughputs. Apparently, above this concentration the slurry
becomes too viscous to permit efficient gas transfer. Also, higher pulp densities may result in
substrate or end-product inhibition, as well as shear damage to the bacteria (Pinches et al.,
1994).
2.3.3 Applications
The application of bacterial oxidation to the treatment of refractory gold ores is dependent on the
process being an economically viable alternative to roasting or pressure oxidation. In this
respect, biooxidation offers significant savings in capital and operating costs for smaller
operations because of the simplicity of the process. As Carter (1991) points out, bacterial
oxidation is likely to be cheaper than pressure oxidation for plants handling less than 1200 tpd
of concentrate, and cheaper than roasting for less than 1700 tpd.
These results concur with the findings of Haines (1986) that suggested that biooxidation would
hold a significant capital cost advantage over the other two processes for a plant treating 240 tpd
of concentrate. This advantage is realized because of high costs associated with the pollution
control systems of the roaster and the oxygen plant required for pressure oxidation. However, as
plant size increases, bacterial oxidation has difficulty competing with the other two methods due
to upper limitations in reactor size.
47
Small-scale biooxidation plants hold a similar advantage in operating costs. This is due to the
simplicity of the process: highly skilled operators are not required. Much of the operating costs
are associated with power requirements (for aeration and agitation) and reagent consumption. As
a result, the relative costs for biooxidation decrease slowly as plant size increases. In
comparison, costs associated with pressure oxidation and roasting decrease more rapidly; with
roasting holding an advantage over biooxidation over 400 tpd.
While there are no biooxidation plants currently operating in North America, the technology is
gaining acceptance overseas. Of the 11 refractory gold treatment processes operating in other
parts of the world, 5 have employed either the "BIOX" or "BacTech" process (Lawrence, 1994).
What follows is a brief summary of these applications.
2.3.3.1 Fairview
The initial inspiration for Genrnin to develop their BIOX process came from the need to find an
alternative to roasting at their Fairview Mine in Eastern Transvaal, South Africa. The ore
processed at the mine is highly refractory. As a result, conventional cyanidation yields a
recovery of only 35%. A flotation concentrate of the pyrite/arsenopyrite feed is produced which
grades 120 g/tonne Au and contains 24% sulfur (van Aswegen, 1993).
A continuous pilot plant was commissioned in 1984 to treat 750 kg per day of the Fairview
48
concentrate. Based on this experience a demonstration plant was constructed two years later to
process 40% of the 35 tpd of concentrate, with the remaining feed going to the roasters. In 1991,
the BIOX plant was expanded to treat all of the concentrate, and the roasters were subsequently
decommissioned. The plant consistently achieves gold recoveries in excess of 90%.
2.3.3.2 Sao Bento
A second BIOX plant was commissioned in 1990 at the Sao Bento mine in Brazil. In this
application, bacterial leaching has been implemented as a pre-treatment step to pressure
oxidation in order to improve autoclave efficiency.
The ore processed by the mine contains the sulfide mineral pyrrhotite which is converted to
elemental sulfur at high temperature and pressure. The elemental sulfur has a tendency to
agglomerate and thus reduces oxidation and recovery rates. At the same time, the ore also
contains siderite, a carbonaceous mineral, that reacts with the acid to form carbon dioxide. In
turn, the partial pressure of oxygen in the autoclave is lowered, along with the leaching
efficiency. The BIOX pre-treatment step has been used to bacterially oxidize the pyrrhotite and
dissolve the siderite before the pulp reaches the autoclave.
A single leach tank has been implemented to provide the conversion. The BIOX module fit
easily into the existing flowsheet as the autoclave effluent is used to repulp the concentrate prior
to biooxidation. Also, the effluent from the module is fed to the previously existing
neutralization circuit. As a result, the addition of the pre-treatment stage required only the
49
capital expense of the BIOX system and did not upset the plant's water balance.
2.3.3.3 Wiluna
A second Australian plant was commissioned at the Asarco Wiluna mine in 1994 (The first one,
at Harbour Lights, was shut down in 1996 due to depleted ore reserves). This plant was designed
to treat 115 tpd of flotation concentrate. The concentrate grades 80-90 g/t Au. Gold recoveries of
up to 98% are achieved using a first stage consisting of three tanks in parallel, followed by three
tanks in series. Most of the gold is associated with the arsenopyrite, but enough is found in
pyrite and stibnite to require a sulfide oxidation of between 96 and 98%).
2.3.3.4 Youanmi
The use of Bactech's moderately thermophilic culture for bioleaching refractory gold ores has
been demonstrated at the Youanmi mine in Western Australia. The plant was commissioned in
September of 1994 and processes 93 tpd of flotation concentrate. Originally, the plant was
designed to process 120 tpd with a four-tank primary stage and a two-tank secondary stage.
However, this configuration has been modified by removing one tank from each stage. The extra
tanks are now used to store concentrate, and to maintain a backup culture in case of bacterial
loss.
According to Brierley and Winby (1996), the plant encountered no significant difficulty in start-
up. Furthermore, because the reactors operate at a temperature of between 50 and 52C, this
50
process has the advantage of reduced cooling requirements when compared to BIOX. Also, the
higher temperature may lead to faster reaction kinetics. However, the retention time at Youanmi
is five days: the same as at Wiluna.
About 92% of the gold in the concentrate is associated with arsenopyrite, which in turn
represents about 30% of the total sulfides. The plant oxidizes between 85 and 95% of the
arsenopyrite but only 28% of the pyrite. Consequently, the percentage of total sulfide oxidation
is only 1/3 of that at Wiluna (Briggs, 1996). Cyanide leaching of the oxidized concentrate is
successful at recovering 90 to 95% of the gold.
2.3.3.5 Ashanti
The fifth, and by far the largest, BIOX plant was commissioned in 1994 at the Ashanti mine in
Ghana. Bacterial oxidation was selected over other options such as the Nitrox process, roasting,
or pressure oxidation. The BIOX process was found to offer the highest internal rate of return,
required a reasonable capital investment, was well suited to the variances in mineralogy of the
feed, and provided ease of operation and maintenance in a remote location (Nicholson et al.,
1994).
The circuit processes a flotation concentrate that grades 75.9 g/t Au, 11.8% sulfur, and 9.4% .
arsenic. The principal sulfide constituents are arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, and pyrite. In addition, a
semi-oxidized concentrate will be produced during the first five years of mine operation
consisting of weathered surface material. This concentrate contains more pyrite, but less
51
arsenopyrite and no pyrrhotite.
The bioleaching circuit consists of four separate modules run in parallel. Each module has six
900 m tanks. The first three tanks (primary stage) are operated in parallel, whereas the last three
3
(secondary stage) are operated in series. Each stage has a retention time of two days. The current
throughput of the plant is 1100 tpd.
2.4 Biooxidation and Cyanide Consumption
With the exception of Sao Bento, which uses a pressure oxidation finishing step, all of the
operations described here involve cyanidation of a biooxidized product. In each case
consumption of cyanide is excessive when compared to the products of pressure oxidation.
Table 2-2 illustrates the cyanide consumption rates found in these plants. The figures indicate
that consumption rates are many times higher when bacterial oxidation is used.
T a b l e 2-2. C y a n i d e consumption following bacterial oxidation pre-treatment. Data

for Fairview is not presently available.
Plant (commissioned) Process Capacity NaCN consumption

LIPl)|" [Kg tj
Fairview (1986) BIOX 40 NA
Wiluna(1993) BIOX 115 30
Youanmi (1994) BacTech 90 7.5
Ashanti (1994) BIOX 720 15
pressure oxidation - - <2.0
52
After the Fairview plant was constructed, Haines and van Aswegen (1990) suggested that the
high cyanide consumption experienced was the result of the incomplete oxidation of the sulfide
mineral. This led to the presence of elemental sulfur in the biooxidized product. A number of
techniques were reportedly being investigated to rectify this problem, but no significant
reduction in cyanide consumption has been realized for any of the plants built subsequently.
Furthermore, cyanide consumption at the Youanmi mine is fifteen times greater for the
bioleached flotation concentrate than it is for the flotation tails (Brierley and Winby, 1996).
Komnitsas and Pooley (1989) have investigated the cyanide consumption of bacterially oxidized
refractory gold concentrate from Olympias, Greece. The authors used air-stirred pachuca
reactors to leach the pyrite/arsenopyrite mineral. Cyanidation tests were carried out at various
pulp densities and initial cyanide concentrations. The results indicated that cyanide consumption
was higher at low pulp densities. Indeed, at a density of 5% virtually all the cyanide added was
consumed by the slurry; to a maximum of over 156 kg/t. Conversely, at a pulp density of 30%
the amount of NaCN consumed was greatly reduced. However, gold recoveries also declined:
from ~85%> to less than 62%. Both the lower recoveries and the lower rates of reagent
consumption were likely to be the result of mass transfer limitations of the pachuca reactors at
higher pulp densities. Specifically, the availability of oxygen may not have been adequate in all
trials.
Similar tests were conducted by the authors to correlate the gold recovery and cyanide
53
consumption to the percentage of sulfide mineral oxidized. In all cases, the pulp density was 5%
and the duration of the test was 18 hours. Gold and silver recoveries increased with the
percentage of mineral oxidized, and with the amount of cyanide added. Also, the consumption
of cyanide increased with the percentage of mineral oxidized; with virtually all being consumed
when the arsenopyrite oxidation reached -85%.
While this investigation sheds some light on the factors influencing cyanide consumption by
biooxidized residues, the work does not discuss any specific mechanisms involved. Komnitsas
and Pooley suggested that high consumption is related to the formation and precipitation of iron
and silver jarosites and iron arsenates, particularly at low pulp densities. However, no data is
offered to support this conclusion. In addition, no consideration is given to the interaction
between cyanide and the sulfide mineral, or any intermediate sulfur compounds formed during
the leach.
More recent work by Lawson (1997) has focused attention upon the role of the enzyme
rhodanese in cyanide consumption. As discussed previously (equation 2-30), rhodanese can
catalyze the reaction of cyanide and thiosulfate to form thiocyanate. The author suggests that
inactivation of this enzyme will result in reduced reagent consumption. Limited success was
achieved by boiling the slurry prior to cyanidation. This pre-treatment resulted in a 20%
decrease in thiocyanate formation and a 33% decrease in cyanide consumption. However, the
use of the chemical inhibitors sodium sulfite and iodoacetamide were found not to have
appreciable influence. Thus, thiocyanate formation might not be catalyzed by rhodanese, and the
effect of boiling may then be explained by changes to sulfur intermediates or other compounds
54
in the residue.
Further effort has been made to link cyanide consumption to the presence of sulfur species in the
feed to cyanidation (Schrader and Su, 1997; Hackl and Jones, 1997). By the reaction of
elemental sulfur with cyanide shown in equation 2-31, a 1% sulfur content can be calculated to
yield a maximum sodium cyanide consumption of 15.4 kg/tonne. Schrader and Su (1997)
propose that consumption of cyanide increases with S content. However, this conclusion is
based solely on the initial concentration of elemental sulfur and the amount of cyanide
consumed during the leach. No mention is made of how much sulfur remains in the residue, or
what portion of the cyanide is consumed as thiocyanate.
The work of Hackl and Jones (1997) attempted to balance the loss of cyanide with the formation
of SCN" as well as complexes of copper, iron, and zinc. These species accounted for anywhere
between 37% and 59% of the total cyanide consumed by the oxidized concentrate; with the
unaccounted for fraction possibly being lost from the system as HCN gas. Thiocyanate was
responsible for consuming between 9% and 62% of the cyanide. However, assays of the leached
residues indicated that in three of the four tests elemental sulfur alone could not be responsible
for SCN" formation.
The authors also propose an aerated lime pre-leach as a method to reduce cyanide consumption.
They speculate that elemental sulfur reacts with lime according to the reaction:
(2 + 2x)S + 3Ca(OH) -> 2CaS + CaS <9 + 3H O

2 x 2 3 2 (2-32)
55
where, for dilute polysulfide solutions, x will be equal to 1. The treatment resulted in a 68%
reduction in SCN" formation. Interestingly, the pre-leach also resulted in a 74% decrease in the
formation of hexacyanoferrate. A similar treatment has been proposed by Xiang et al. (1994).
Here, the solids are heated to 80-90 C for one hour in a sodium hydroxide solution. In this case,
a 50% reduction in cyanide consumption was realized.
2.5 Summary
Clearly, the problem of high cyanide consumption represents a significant disadvantage in
biooxidizing refractory gold concentrates, both from an economic and a process control
perspective. Furthermore, the uncertainty surrounding the specific pathways and intermediate
products associated with bacterial sulfide dissolution contribute to what Lawrence (1993) refers
to as the "perceived technical risk" of biological pre-treatment. As a result, despite successful
pilot plant trials, biooxidation has yet to gain acceptance among North American operators.
To date, published research in the area of cyanide consumption by biooxidized solids has failed
to identify the specific causes of the problem. Bioleaching tests done in shake flasks or batch
reactors cannot accurately reflect conditions found in actual practice. Furthermore, little work
has been done to identify specifically where the cyanide goes. Finally, a better understanding of
the influence of cyanidation parameters is also required.
A detailed description of the experimental setup designed to address these concerns now
follows.
56
3. Methods
This section describes the experimental methods and procedures followed during the production
of the concentrate, the operation of the continuous reactor system, and the cyanidation tests.
3.1 The Concentrate
A pilot plant run was conducted at Placer Dome's research centre in Vancouver, in order to
produce a rougher flotation concentrate to serve as feed for bioleaching. A schematic of the pilot
flotation circuit is shown in Figure 3-1. Feed to the circuit consisted of a low grade refractory
arsenical gold ore, crushed to -1/4".
57
crushed ore
water
oversize material back

to grinding
CL"
ball mill #1
frother and
underflow collector
tic)tatic n ce lis
tailings
overflow
rougher
ball mill
flotation concentrate
#2
Figure 3-1. Schematic diagram of the pilot flotation circuit.
The dry ore was repulped to a density of 50% before entering thefirstball mill. A spiral
classifier was employed to return the oversize material to the mill. Frother, collector, and a
promoter (to float any free gold) were added to thefinefraction and the slurry was sent to the
flotation tanks via a sala pump. A summary of the reagents used is found in Table 3-1. Screen
analysis of the feed to the flotation circuit revealed a P (80% passing size) of 100 microns.
80
58
Table 3-1. Reagents used in the production of the concentrate.
Function Reagent Concentration [g/t-dry ore]

frother Dowfroth 250 36
collector potassium amyl zanthate 120
(KAX51.KAX55)
promoter Aerofloat 208 6
The flotation setup consisted of 7 cells in series. Froth collected from each cell was sent to the
second ball mill for regrinding. Conversely, the underflow went to tailings. Since no scavenger
flotation circuit was employed, the final product is said to be a rougher flotation concentrate.
Results of the analysis of the concentrate are shown in Table 3-2. Assuming that the sulfide
minerals consist exclusively of FeS and FeAsS, the feed grades 25.3% pyrite and 6.2%
2
arsenopyrite. The concentrate is refractory as cyanidation of the untreated material resulted in
only 15%) gold recovery.
Table 3-2. Results of chemical analysis of the concentrate.
Au [g/t] Ag [g/t] Cu [%] Fe [%]

x As [%]
20.25 8.7 0.021 13.27 2.87
S T [%] s- [%]
2
C [%]
x Qnorg [ 0 /
] acid insol. [%]
13.36 13.06 6.01 0.85 60.57
59
Approximately 80 kg (dry weight basis) of the concentrate was shipped to UBC to serve as feed
for the biooxidation tests. The pulp density of this material as received was 43.6%. Microtrac
particle size analysis revealed the concentrate had a P of 30 microns.

80
3.2 Bacterial Leaching Experiments
Continuous bioleaching df the concentrate was accomplished using a 4-stage system. A mixed
stock culture of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, Thiobacillus thiooxidans, and Leptospirillum
ferrooxidans was chosen as inoculum for the leaching experiments. The culture had already
been growing on a pyrite/arsenopyrite ore in the Biohydrometallurgy Lab at UBC. A 200 ml
sample was used to inoculate a 2 litre tank containing OK media (Table 3-3) and the concentrate
at 20% pulp density. After 8 days, the contents of this tank served as inoculum for the 4-stage
system. A further three days of batch mode operation were required before continuous feeding
commenced on August 5th.
The system consisted of a 4 litre primary stage followed by three, 2 litre tanks in series (see
Figure 3-2). Thus the total working volume of the system was 10 litres. Each tank was kept
under constant agitation and aeration to ensure that the dissolved oxygen concentration remained
above 1 ppm. In addition, the sparging air was enriched with C0 to yield a 1% C0 -air mix to
2 2
provide sufficient carbon for rapid bacterial growth.
60
pH Control
Figure 3-2. Schematic of the continuous reactor.
The concentrate was repulped to a density of 20% and nutrients were added. For the first few
weeks these nutrients consisted of OK media. However, this addition was later reduced to that
recommended for the MINBAC process. Table 3-3 lists the composition of each medium.
61
Table 3-3. Nutrient media used during continuous operation. Allfiguresin kg/tonne
of concentrate, (from Silverman and Lundgren,1959; Pinches et al., 1994)
Compound OK MINBAC
(NH ) S0
4 2 4 12.00 4.28
KH P0
2 4 2.00 0.47
MgSCy7H 0 2 2.00 -
KC1 0.40 -
Ca(N0 ) -4H 0
3 2 2 0.04 -
The temperature within each tank was maintained at 35C by a 50 Watt immersion heater. The
heaters were controlled manually and adjusted each day, as necessary.
The primary stage was operated under pH control using a Cole Parmer pH/ORP controller
(model #5652-10). Under the conditions tested, the concentrate proved to be acid producing. As
a result, the controller activated a peristaltic pump that added a 20% lime slurry to the reactor. In
this manner, the pH was maintained within 0.1 of the set point. The pH controller was calibrated
each day using pH buffers 7 and 2. For the first few weeks the base used consisted of calcium
hydroxide (Ca(OH)). However, this was later replaced by limestone (CaC0 ), without
2 3
significant difficulty. The pH in the other three tanks was monitored, but not controlled.
The tanks were connected in cascade fashion, as shown in Figure 3-2. The working volume of
each tank was taken to require that the slurry level be maintained at the overflow height.
However, transfer solely by overflow was found to result in solids build up (Weston, 1996).
Furthermore, since the flow rate between tanks was relatively small -80 to 165 ml per hour
62
continuous transfer was not deemed practical. Instead, a timer was used to activate four separate
peristaltic pumps for 1 minute out of every 30 minutes.
Each day, the pH, redox potential, and temperature of each stage were recorded to provide an
indication of the "steadiness" of the system. In addition, flow rates into and out of the reactor
were monitored. Periodically, slurry samples were taken from each tank to determine pulp
density as well as iron and arsenic extraction.
When the system reached steady state, a mass balance period was initiated. During this time the
product was collected in a separate container. Slurry samples were again taken to determine pulp
density and metal extraction. The solid residues of these samples were sent to International
Plasma Laboratories (IPL) of Vancouver to be analyzed for iron, arsenic, sulfide, and total
sulfur. Analytical procedures are described in Appendix A. At the completion of the run, large
slurry samples (1.0L) were taken from the intermediate stages of the leach. These samples, along
with the product collected during the run, were filtered, washed, and repulped to serve as feed
for the cyanidation experiments.
3.3 C y a n i d a t i o n
Batch cyanidation experiments were carried out in order to study the cyanidation behavior of the
biooxidized solid products. Figure 3-3 illustrates the setup used to conduct these tests.
63
pH
Probe Temperature
Probe
LaJ
Pyrex Beaker
Rushton Turbine
Figure 3-3. Schematic of the cyanidation reactor.
3.3.1 Standard Cyanidation Tests
A standardized test was employed in order to compare the amenability of the various
intermediate and final products of bioleaching to cyanidation. For each test, a product sample
with a dry solids weight of 100 grams was re-pulped with de-ionized water to a pulp density of
30%. The slurry was then cyanide leached for 24 hours under vigorous agitation. All of the
experiments were conducted in a standard 600 mL Pyrex beaker (Figure 3-3).
Prior to cyanidation, the pH of the slurry was raised (to a range of 10.4-11.0) by the addition of
calcium hydroxide. This pH level was maintained throughout the leach to prevent the loss of
64
cyanide as HCN gas. The leach tests were carried out under ambient temperature, which ranged
from 20.4 to 22.6 C.
For all experiments, the initial concentration of sodium cyanide was 0.5 g/L. The concentration
of free cyanide was measured at 1, 3, 6, and 12 hours, and additional cyanide was added to bring
the concentration of NaCN back to 0.5 g/L. This determination was accomplished by titration
with silver nitrate (Harris, 1991). In this case, a 20 to 30 mL slurry sample was taken from the
reactor and centrifuged. A 10 mL sample of the supernatant was subsequently titrated using
0.05M AgN0 . The remaining solution and solids were returned to the system along with 10 mL
3
of deionized water. It is important to note that for all tests the concentration of cyanide in the
leach declined significantly between the sampling at 12 hours and the termination of the test,
because the test was not monitored during this period.
After 24 hours the leached slurry was filtered. The filtrate was analyzed for free cyanide and
thiocyanate. The latter determination consisted of acidifying the samples and sparging them with
nitrogen gas to drive off the free cyanide followed by silver nitrate titration with ferric nitrate as
the indicator. Finally, a solution sample was sent to IPL for gold analysis by fire assay.
The filtered solids were washed, air dried, and also sent to IPL for gold analysis by fire assay.
65
3.3.2 Cyanide Consumption Tests
In order to determine the parameters influencing cyanide consumption, various modifications
were made to the test setup previously described. For example, to determine the influence of
cyanide concentration tests were run at 0.25, 0.5, and 1.0 g/L NaCN. Similar adjustments were
made to evaluate temperature, pulp density, and stirring speed.
To better understand the role of pH, an alternate reactor was used (see Figure 3-4). In this case,
cyanidation tests were conducted in a sealed system to prevent the loss of cyanide as HCN gas
during runs where the pH ranged between 4 and 10. Furthermore, the headspace was filled with
oxygen gas in an attempt to ensure that the concentration of oxygen was not a limiting factor.
Gas Out
Gas in Sample Tube
Eh Probe PH
Probe
Sealed Lid
Pyrex
Flask
Stir Bar
Stir Plate
Figure 3-4. Schematic of the sealed cyanidation reactor.
66
In later runs this setup was modified to permit the sparging of 0 gas from the headspace of the
2
reactor back into the slurry. This was accomplished by adding a stainless steel tube with a
rubber sparge ring suspended below the slurry surface.
Finally, this setup was also used to determine the loss of cyanide gas (HCN) and ammonia
(NH) from the leach solution. In this case, air was pumped into the sealed headspace or beneath
3
the slurry surface and the off-gas sparged through a dilute NaOH (for HCN determination) or
H S0 (for NH ) solution.
2 4 3
67
4. Results and Discussion
The results of the experimental program are now presented and discussed. The first two sections
summarize the data collected during the bioleaching and cyanidation tests. Attempts to balance
cyanide inputs and outputs are discussed in Section 4.3, while Section 4.4 examines the
influence of leach parameters on cyanide consumption. A fifth section looks at several pre-
treatment trials, and the last section looks at the role of sulfur in cyanide consumption.
4.1 Bioleaching Results
The four-stage reactor system was started in batch mode on July 30 , 1997. The reactor was
th
inoculated with a mixed culture from the biohydrometallurgy lab at UBC. The culture was
thought to contain the chemolithotrophs Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, ThiobacUlus thiooxidans,
and Leptospirtilum ferrooxidans. Initial commissioning required the addition of 6M H S0 to

2 4
each reactor in order to lower the slurry pH to 1.8. After six days, the pH and Eh measurements
indicated that the bacterial culture had become established. Continuous operation commenced
on August 5 , 1998. Figure 4-1 summarizes the Eh and pH data collected during the 117 days
th
that the system was run.
68
35
residence
3.75
time (days) 4~
Figure 4-1. Eh and pH measurements for the four-stage reactor system. Upper lines
represent Eh; lower represent pH. SSI = steady state #1; T l = tank #1. Overall
reactor residence time is indicated by the scale at the bottom. The pH in Tank #1
was controlled at 1.8 until day 92, when the pH was lowered to 1.5.
During batch mode operation the Eh in all tanks rose rapidly to levels above 800 mV (SHE). As
expected, the Eh increased consistently between stages. Conversely, pH showed a decrease
between stages. The pH in the first tank was controlled at about 1.8 until day 92 when this
parameter was lowered to 1.5. As the chart indicates, pH control was not always successful. In
particular, the addition of lime as either calcium hydroxide or limestone proved problematic.
The reagent became clogged in the input lines on several occasions resulting in a pH well below
the set point. In contrast, at times the pH exceeded the target range; possibly due to drift in the
calibration of the monitoring probe or precipitates forming on the surface of the electrode. Steps
69
taken to rectify these concerns included daily flushing of the reagent lines with deionized water,
rinsing the pH electrode with a weak HC1 solution, and frequent re-calibration of the probe.
The four mass balance periods achieved during the run are indicated in Figure 4-1. These
periods were determined based on the apparent steadiness of the system in the three days
preceding them. The parameters used to make this decision included pH, Eh, pulp density,
temperature, and the flow rate between stages.
Steady State #1 ended prematurely as a result of two separate disruptions: (1) excessive lime
addition resulted in high pH's, and, subsequently, a significant drop in Eh, and (2) a mercury
thermometer broke in the fourth stage. Since, mercury is toxic to bacteria and also poses a safety
concern in the lab, the decision was made to terminate the mass balance period and remove the
fourth stage from the system. After thorough cleaning, the tank was refilled with fresh slurry and
inoculated.
The second mass balance period was the longest of the four, lasting for 10 days. Halfway
through this period, the fourth tank was permanently removed from the system. This was done
to reduce the overall residence time of the system without shortening the residence time of the
primary stage. The remaining two steady states used only three tanks in series.
Steady State #3 was the shortest mass balance period, lasting only 72 hours. Also, large slurry
samples (used for the cyanidation study) were not taken from the tanks, as it was thought that
this might delay reaching the fourth steady state. As figure 4-1 indicates, the residence time had
70
decreased dramatically by that point, so, despite their shorter times, large product samples were
generated by the last two steady states. Finally, at the completion of the fourth steady state, the
continuous run was terminated.
Figures 4-2 and 4-3 illustrate the change in iron and arsenic concentration between stages over
time. Iron concentrations are consistently higher in successive tanks, as expected. The arsenic
results are less clear than for iron, possibly due to difficulties encountered during analysis by
Atomic Absorption. Furthermore, the apparent inconsistency between tanks 1 and 2 on day 36
(see Figure 4-3) is likely due to a sample mix up.
"Si 20.0
c
_o
S 15.0
s
U
c
g 10.0
5.0
65 75 85
Time [days]
Figure 4-2. Change in iron concentration over the continuous run. T l = tank #1.
Numbers at top indicate mass balance periods. Tank #4 was removed from the
system on day 85.
71
8.0
Time [days]
Figure 4-3. Change in arsenic concentration over the continuous run. T l = tank #1.
Numbers at top indicate mass balance periods. Tank #4 was removed from the
system on day 85.
In general, a trend can be seen in both arsenic and iron towards higher extraction as the
continuous run progressed (although for iron this result begins to level off after about day 97).
This is particularly interesting as the overall residence time was shortened considerably over the
same period. Possible explanations for this result include the switch from lime to limestone on
day 47 and the lowering of the primary stage pH on day 92. Both of these changes may have
influenced the precipitation of basic ferric sulfates or ferric arsenate.
The results of the four steady states are now summarized. These results represent average values
for the measurements taken during the mass balance period. Temperature, Eh, and pH data were
collected daily, as stated in the methods section. However, the calculations for sulfide oxidation,
and iron and arsenic extraction, were based on only two measurements during Steady States #1,
72
#2, and #4 due to the expense of analysis. Steady State #3 involved only one such measurement
by operator oversight. The results of this mass balance period are included in this report, but
cannot be considered as reliable as the others. Appendix E contains a statistical interpretation of
the data collected.
4.1.1 Steady State #1
The first steady state was reached on September 9th. Operating parameters during this period are
listed in Table 4-1. Over the course of the run, pH, Eh, and temperature were measured each
day. In addition, slurry samples were collected at 4 and 72 hours. These samples were filtered
and analyzed to determine iron and arsenic extraction, and sulfide oxidation. The results of this
analysis are summarized in Table 4-2. Cyanidation experiments were conducted on the final
product as well as on large samples collected from the intermediate stages. The operating
conditions and results of these runs are shown in Table 4-3. It should be noted, however, that
actual gold extractions are slightly higher, as some of the gold was lost to intermediate sampling
for free cyanide.
73
Table 4-1. Operating conditions at Steady State #1.
Controlled Parameters
Stage 1 Residence Time 2 days
Total Residence Time 5 days
Stage 1 target pH 1.8
pH control by Ca(OH) 2
Nutrient addition OK
Temperature 35 C
Feed Pulp Density 20%
Run Time 96 hours
Table 4-2. Bioleach data summary for Steady State #1.
Measured parameters (averaged) Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
pH 1.81 1.32 1.17 1.07

Eh [mV] 785 845 871 893
temperature [C] 35.4 35.9 35.5 35.5
pulp density (%) 23.65 21.56 20.17 18.81
Ca(OH) cons.[kg/t-conc]
2 103 - - -
Analytical results (averaged) Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
sulfide oxidation [%] 61.9 76.8 86.7 93.2

iron extraction [%] 6.1 32.9 52.3 61.2
arsenic extraction [%] 4.7 41.9 75.7 82.6
residue analysis:
Fe [%] 9.21 7.13 5.05 4.38
As [%] 2.00 1.25 0.60 0.53
S [%] 0.23 0.29 0.29 0.29
S ' [%]
2
4.21 2.80 1.73 0.93
5.15 5.21 5.18 5.17
S04
S [%][
ST %] 9.76 8.61 7.52 6.64
74
Table 4-3. Cyanide leach data for Steady State #1.
Cyanidation parameters
pulp density 30%

NaCN cone* 0.5 g/L
temperature 20.4-22.6 C
leach time 24 hours
Cyanidation results Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Product
Au extraction [%] 91.9 88.9 91.2 93.8

NaCN consumed [kg/t-res.] 3.56 2.90 3.01 3.76
NaCN cons.[kg/t-conc] 4.03 3.00 2.91 3.31
Ca(OH) consumed [kg/t-conc] 65.8
2 44.7 32.3 17.1
* concentration maintained for first 12 hours, then lowed
a to decline
4.1.2 Steady State # 2
The second mass balance period commenced on October 24 , 1997. The operating conditions
th
selected in this case are listed in Table 4-4. Changes in process consisted of a shorter residence
time (3.75 days), a reduction in the nutrients used, and the replacement of calcium hydroxide
with calcium carbonate (limestone). Steady State #2 lasted for 240 hours. However, after 120
hours the 4 stage was removed from the system, and product was collected from the third
th
reactor. Data collection was the same as in Steady State #1 with the exception that slurry
samples were taken at 4, 76, 146, and 240 hours, and solid samples were not assayed for S and
S s04 in an effort to reduce analytical costs. The results are summarized in Table 4-5. Again,
cyanide leach tests were conducted on the washed solids. Results are shown in Table 4-6.
75
Stage 1 Residence Time 1.5 days
Total Residence Time 3.75 days
pH control by CaC0 3
Nutrient addition MinBac

Temperature 35 C
Run Time 240 hours
Measured parameters (averaged) Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
pH 1.79 1.35 1.17 1.07

Eh [mV] 793 828 859 879
temperature [C] 35.4 35.1 34.8 34.5
pulp density (%) 19.64 17.60 16.91 16.58
CaC0 cons, [kg/t-conc]
3 54.8 - - -
Analytical results (averaged) Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4
sulfide oxidation [%] 44.4 62.8 74.2 77.8

iron extraction [%] 24.7 55.5 69.0 76.4
arsenic extraction [%] 30.9 79.9 88.7 90.4
residue analysis:
Fe [%] 9.44 6.18 4.64 3.68
As [%] 1.78 0.60 0.41 0.35
s - [%]
2
6.97 5.21 3.78 3.27
S [%]T 10.44 8.41 7.20 5.51
76
pulp density 30%

NaCN cone* 0.5 g/L
leach time 24 hours
Cyanidation results Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Product
Au extraction [%] 87.3 90.7 89.4 89.4

NaCN cons.[kg/t-res] 4.26 4.27 4.45 4.28
NaCN cons.[kg/t-conc] 4.15 3.73 3.74 3.52
2 23.8 8.3 9.7
* concentration maintained for first 12 hours, then lowed
a to decline
After the second steady state, the pH was lowered to 1.5 in the first stage. Summaries of the
operating conditions and results are found in Tables 4-7 and 4-8. During this steady state no
intermediate samples were taken, thus cyanidation data is available only for the product. The
results are summarized in Table 4-9.
Stage 1 Residence Time 1.5 days
Total Residence Time 3.0 days

Temperature 35 C
Run Time 72 hours
77
Measured parameters (averaged) Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
pH 1.48 1.26 1.11

Eh [mV] 799 836 864
temperature [C] 34.7 34.7 34.6
pulp density (%) 17.86 17.30 16.32
3
43.7 - -
Analytical results Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
sulfide oxidation [%] 50.7 66.9 79.1

iron extraction [%] 49.2 64.0 80.5
arsenic extraction [%] 69.3 87.4 91.1
residue analysis:
Fe [%] 7.04 5.30 2.89
As [%] 2.47 0.80 0.42
s - [%]
2
6.47 4.43 2.97
S [%]T
9.05 7.51 6.03
pulp density 30%

NaCN cone* 0.5 g/L
temperature 21.4 C
leach time 24 hours
Cyanidation results Product
Au extraction [%] 90.7

NaCN cons.[kg/t-res] 4.26
NaCN cons. [kg/t-conc. ] 3.54
2
* concentration maintained for first 12 hours, then allowed to decline
78
The fourth, and final, steady state period commenced on November 19th, 1997, and ran for 120
hours. In this case, the residence time was lowered to 2 days. Parameters and results are
summarized in Tables 4-10 and 4-11. Cyanidation experiments were conducted on the final
product collected, as well as the intermediate stages. Results are summarized in Table 4-12.
Stage 1 Residence Time 1 day
Total Residence Time 2 days

Temperature 35 C
Run Time 120 hours
Measured parameters (averaged) Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
1.53 1.16 1.01

Eh [mV] 783 819 847
temperature [C] 35.0 35.4 35.4
pulp density (%) 18.44 17.47 16.45
3 30.8 - -
Analytical results (averaged) Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3
sulfide oxidation [%] 43.0 58.6 70.6

iron extraction [%] 34.7 53.3 66.2
arsenic extraction [%] 55.6 80.2 89.1
residue analysis:
Fe [%] 9.20 6.87 5.13
As [%] 1.26 0.60 0.43
s - [%]
2
8.37 6.36 4.84
S [%]T 10.27 8.62 7.18
79
pulp density 30%

NaCN cone* 0.5 g/L
leach time 24 hours
Cyanidation results Stage 1 Stage 2 Product
Au extraction [%] 87.4 83.1 91.0

NaCN cons.[kg/t-res] 3.16 3.14 4.32
NaCN cons.[kg/t-conc] 2.87** 2.70** 3.50
2 70.7 69.6
a
* concentration maintained for first 12 hours, then lowed to decline
**pH in these tests exceeded 11.0, possibly reducing cyanide consumption and gold extraction
4.2 Analysis of the Four Mass Balance Periods
From the results presented in the previous section, several important observations can be made.
The pulp density during Steady State #1 actually increased in the primary stage (see Figure 4-4).
Initially this result was thought to be due to a solids build up problem caused by plugging of the
transfer line between stages 1 and 2. However, lab analysis indicated that the concentration of
acid insoluble material (i.e. inert gangue material) decreased during this stage. Thus, there was a
net weight gain, which can only be attributed to the formation of an acid soluble precipitate.
Since calcium hydroxide was added to this stage, and analysis showed more than 5% sulfate
sulfur in the solids, this precipitate was thought to include gypsum. In addition, much of the
leached iron precipitated, likely as basic ferric sulfates, as iron extractions were found to be
80
consistently lower than sulfide oxidation. Interestingly, this increase in pulp density was not as
pronounced in the second mass balance period, probably because of the switch from lime to
limestone after the first steady state, and not observed at all in the 3rd and 4th steady states
where the pH in the first stage was lower. Thus, the precipitation of gypsum and basic ferric
sulfate is greatly affected by changes in pH, and the use of lime apparently resulted in high
localized pH's which intensified this problem.
25 T
a
a
3 10 -
SS #1
SS#2
SS#3
5+
SS#4
o 4
0 1 2 3 4
Tank # (0 = feed)
Figure 4-4. Change in pulp density between stages for the four steady states.
A further comparison can be made between the steady state periods by looking at the extent of
sulfide oxidation, and iron and arsenic extraction, in Figure 4-5.
81
100 -r
Tank # ( 0 = feed)
Figure 4-5. Comparison of sulfide oxidation, and iron and arsenic extraction, for
each steady state.
j
82
As expected, the 5 day residence time associated with the first mass balance period resulted in a
sulfide oxidation exceeding 90%. This number decreased in subsequent steady states as the
residence time was lowered. Indeed, the sulfide oxidation for steady state #4 was just over 70%.
However, iron and arsenic extractions appear to have actually increased with lower residence
times. In particular, the third steady state shows the highest numbers, possibly because it
employs the longer of the two residence times at the lower initial pH. Higher pH in thefirsttwo
stages of the system may have resulted in the hydrolysis and precipitation of Fe(III) and As(V).
In addition, the selective leaching of arsenopyrite over pyrite is also evident. The third mass
balance period resulted in 91.1% extraction of arsenic while only oxidizing 79.1% of the
sulfides. Interestingly, the fourth steady state yielded a sulfide oxidation of only 9% less than
that obtained in the third, despite a reduction in residence time of 33% (3 days to 2).
Cyanidation experiments conducted on the biooxidized product were successful in achieving
high gold extractions. Results ranged from a low of 83.1%, for stage 2 of Steady State #4, to
93.8%) for thefinalproduct of Steady State #1. The relationship between gold extraction and
sulfide oxidation is shown in Figure 4-6. In this respect, very little difference between stages
was observed. However, cyanidation of the untreated feed material liberated only 15.3% of the
gold, indicating the enormous influence of even 43% sulfide oxidation.
83
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
sulphide oxidation [%]
Figure 4-6. Gold extraction vs. sulfide oxidation. All tests under standard
conditions: ambient temperature; 30% pulp density; pH 10.4-11.0; [NaCN]= 0.
g/L. Note: actual extractions are slightly higher as some gold was lost to
intermediate solution sampling at 1, 3,6, and 12 hours.
The consumption of cyanide during the leach ranged from 2.5 to 4.2 kg per tonne of feed
material to the bioleaching system. Figure 4-7 plots cyanide consumption against sulfide
oxidation.
84
2-3
3-P
2-1 2-2 % *
2-P 1-P

1-1
-0 Vl
4-2
4 1-3
1-2
z
u
1 ! 1 1 !
1
1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
sulphide oxidation [%]
Figure 4-7. Cyanide consumption as a function of sulfide oxidation.

Numbers indicate steady state - stage number (P = product). All tests under
standard conditions: ambient temperature; 30% pulp density; pH 10.4-11.0;
[NaCN]= 0.5 g/L.
From the graph no clear trends are evident. Cyanide consumption appears to be relatively
similar between stages of the same steady state, with the possible exception of 4-P. Thus, the
influence of the primary stage (of biooxidation) pH or the extent of sulfide oxidation are not
apparent.
The cyanidation of the feed material was shown to generate a similar cyanide consumption as
the bioleached residues. This fact brings into question whether the bioleaching step has any
influence at all on the amount of reagent consumed. However, analysis of the leach solutions
indicates that thiocyanate (SCN") accounts for only 4% of the cyanide consumed by the feed
material, whereas this figure reaches as high as 77% for the bioleached solids. Therefore,
although the level of consumption may be comparable, the mechanisms involved are different.
85
Figure 4-8 illustrates the relationship between the percentage of total cyanide consumed to form
thiocyanate and sulfide oxidation.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
sulfide oxidation [%|
Figure 4-8. The percentage of NaCN consumed as SCN" plotted against sulfide
oxidation. The line separates the results of steady states 1 and 2 (primary stage
pH=1.8) from those obtained from steady states 3 and 4 (primary stage pH=1.5).
Here a trend is more clearly evident. Thiocyanate accounts for a greater fraction of the cyanide
consumed when more of the sulfide is oxidized. In addition, the lower pH associated with the
third and fourth steady states has resulted in a noticeable increase in the percentage of reagent
consumed in this manner. Residue assay of the composite product from Steady State #4
indicated an elemental sulfur content of 0.64%: double that found in the product of the first mass
balance period. However, Table 4-2 indicates that S formed in the early stages of the leach and
then remained constant, while SCN formation during cyanidation of these residues increases.
86
4.2.1 Lime Consumption
The consumption of lime varied greatly between the four mass balance periods. Table 4-13
compares the results by converting limestone to the equivalent weight of calcium hydroxide.
Table 4-13. Lime consumption for each of the four steady states. Note that the first
mass balance period used Ca(OH) while the others used CaC0 . Allfiguresin
2 3
kilograms of reagent per tonne of concentrate feed.
Steady State # Reagent Used Mass Consumed [kg/t] Equivalent Mass of

Ca(OH) [kg/t]
2
1 Ca(OH) 2 103 103

2 CaC0 3 54.8 40.6
3 CaC0 3 43.7 32.3
4 CaC0 3 30.8 22.8
The amount of lime added decreased considerably between thefirstand second steady states.
While the lower residence time accounts for some of this difference, precipitation at the surface
of the calcium hydroxide may have rendered some of the reagent unusable. Steady State #3 had
the same residence time as the previous mass balance period, but a lower primary stage pH
resulted in lower lime consumption. Finally, the fourth steady state employed this lower pH and
had the shortest residence time (and the lowest sulfide oxidation extent), resulting in even lower
lime requirement.
Lime consumption was also monitored during the cyanidation step. In this case, calcium
hydroxide was added to the repulped solids in order to bring the pH to between 10.4 and 11.0.
87
Reagent consumption ranged from a low of 4.40 kg/t for the unoxidized feed material, to 73.1
kg/t for the first stage of the fourth steady state. Figure 4-9 illustrates the relationship between
sulfide oxidation and lime consumption.
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
sulfide oxidation [%]
Figure 4-9. L i m e consumption as a function of sulfide oxidation for the cyanidation

experiments. C a ( O H ) was added to raise the p H of the slurry to between 10.4 and
2
11.0.
While the graph appears to indicate lower lime consumption with more complete oxidation, the
effect may also be due to leach tank pH. That is, cyanidation of tank 1 samples show higher
consumption because of precipitation of basic ferric sulfates at higher pH. These precipitates
may consume lime according to the reactions,
H30Fei(S04)2(OH)6 + 40H ->3FeOOH+2SOk~ +5H2O ( 4 _ 1 )
H3OF&(SO*)a (OH)e + 40H -> 3Fe(OH)s + 2SoT + IHiO ( 4

" 2 )
88
Subsequently, the dissolution of basic ferric sulfates at the lower pH's found in the downstream
tanks would explain the lower lime requirements associated with these residues.
4.2.2 Leaching Kinetics
The kinetics of gold dissolution during the cyanidation step were investigated using a product
sample from steady state #4 (test conditions: ambient temperature, 24 hr leach, 30% pulp
density, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0). In this case, intermediate solution samples were taken
at 1, 3, 6, and 12 hours and analyzed for gold, free cyanide, thiocyanate, and ICP-metals. Gold
extraction exceeded 92%, while the solids had a sodium cyanide consumption of 3.36 kg/tonne-
concentrate. Figure 4-10 illustrates the extraction curve for the run.
100 T - ,
time [hours]
Figure 4-10. Gold extraction vs time for cyanide leach of steady state 4 product.
Ambient temperature, 24 hr leach, 30% pulp density, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-
11.0.
89
The graph clearly indicates the rapid dissolution of the gold particles under the conditions tested.
Indeed, an extraction of over 93% is achieved after only 6 hours. Thus the liberated gold
particles must have been quite fine. The slight decline in extraction at 24 hours is thought to be
due to random experimental error associated with the analytical technique.
Figure 4-11 illustrates the kinetics of cyanide consumption. Analysis of the leach solution
indicated that most of the cyanide was consumed as thiocyanate and hexacyanoferrate. The
graph also indicates the formation of these products during the leach, and represents them as a
percentage of the total cyanide consumed. Interestingly, the iron is leached into solution rapidly
during the first couple of hours and then levels off. In contrast, the formation of thiocyanate
occurs steadily, throughout the leach.
90
time [hours]
Figure 4-11. Consumption of cyanide during a 24 hour leach test of Steady State #4
product. Ambient temperature, 30% pulp density, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0.
Based on the data presented in Figures 4-10 and 4-11, a simple method to reduce cyanide
consumption can be proposed. By shortening the leach time to 6-8 hours the cyanide
consumption can be cut in half, without affecting the gold extraction.
For ease of comparison, the remaining cyanidation tests summarized here used the product
material from steady state #4.
91
4.3 Cyanide Mass Balance
In an effort to better understand what was happening to the free cyanide during the leach,
attempts were made to accurately account for all of the cyanicides present. Based on the
literature, possible consumers were thought to include metal complexes with gold, silver,
copper, iron, nickel, and zinc, as well as thiocyanate and cyanate. Table 4-14 indicates the
cyanicides, their complexes, and the stoichiometric amount of cyanide they complex.
T a b l e 4-14. Possible cyanide consuming species, the most probable complex formed,
and the mass ratio of sodium cyanide complexed to species present.
Cyanicide Compound Formed NaCN Complexed [g/g]

Au Au(CN)- 2 0.50
Ag Ag(CN)" 2 0.91
Cu Cu(CN) " 3
2
2.31
Fe Fe(CN) 7 Fe(CN) -
3
6
4
6 5.27
Ni Ni(CN) "
4
2
3.34
Zn Zn(CN) " 4
2
3.00
S SCN" 1.53
0 2 OCN" 1.53
Mass balance results for one of the earlier experiments are shown in Table 4-15.
92
Table 4-15. Mass balance results for CN-4-P3: Steady State #4 product, ambient
temperature, 10% pulp density, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0.
metal cone, conversion NaCN cons.

[ppm] factor [ppm] % of total
Fe 6.62 5.27 34.85 3.74
Ni 0.22 3.34 0.73 0.08
Au 2.26 0.50 1.13 0.12
Ag 0.91 0.91 0.83 0.09

Zn 0.15 3.00 0.45 0.05
Cu 1.27 2.31 2.94 0.32
SCN- 460.13 0.84 388.35 41.64
OCN- 4.62 1.17 5.39 0.58
total = 434.67 46.61
From the table it is evident that a large portion of the cyanide consumed (-53%) is unaccounted
for. Part of this discrepancy can be attributed to losses associated with intermediate sampling at
1, 3, 6, and 12 hours. However, assuming a 10 ml sample size and a leach solution volume of
280 ml, the maximum loss would be 13.5%. Initial experiments also indicated that cyanate was
not a significant reservoir for cyanide. As a result, this species' rather lengthy assay procedure
was dropped from subsequent trials.
Further experiments yielded similar accounting problems. Results ranged from 24 to 93 % of the
cyanide consumed being accounted for. In comparison, cyanidation of the unoxidized feed
material resulted in only 7.6% of the cyanide being accounted for, with 4.6% of that reporting as
SCN". Generally, experiments conducted at higher pulp densities, or those in the sealed reactor,
showed a higher percentage of cyanide accounted for.
93
Several attempts were made to identify the source of the discrepancy. The possibility that a
cyanide precipitate was forming was investigated using both the feed material as well as the
oxidized product from Steady State #4. Wet samples of the leach residue were sent to Analytical
Service Laboratories (ASL) of Vancouver for total cyanide analysis. While cyanide was detected
in the oxidized sample, the solids accounted for a little more than 2% of the total consumed;
leaving more than 50% unaccounted for. Analysis of the cyanide leached feed material found no
detectable cyanide.
The possibility that cyanate was degrading and being lost from the solution as ammonia gas was
also investigated. In this case, the leach was carried out in a sealed reactor with air pumped into
the headspace, and the outflow air being passed through a 0.1 M H S0 strip solution. However,
2 4
even after 24 hours, the concentration of NH in the strip solution was less than 1 ppm.
3
Additional work considered the possible volatilization of HCN gas from the system. A similar
setup to that used in the ammonia measurements was employed except that the strip solution
consisted of 0.1 M NaOH. Experiments conducted by acidifying a standard cyanide solution in
the apparatus indicated that the strip solution was capable of removing cyanide from the off-gas.
However, a test conducted on the product material showed only trace concentrations of cyanide
in the strip solution.
94
A final modification to this setup was introduced when the air inlet to the sealed reactor was
moved to below the surface of the slurry. During this final run no intermediate samples were
taken to eliminate the error described earlier. The mass balance is shown in Table 4-16.
Table 4-16. Mass balance for the sealed reactor leach. Steady State #4 product,
ambient temperature, 10% pulp density, pH = 10.4-ll.O.Initial NaCN
concentration: l.Og/L (allowed to decline). No intermediate samples.
CN consumption
species cone, conversion NaCN cons.
[ppm] factor [ppm] % of total
Fe 176.99 5.27 931.85 95.09
Ni 0.12 3.34 0.40 0.04
Au 2.15 0.50 1.07 0.11
Ag 0.06 0.91 0.05 0.01

Zn 0.01 3.00 0.03 0.00
Cu 0.35 2.31 0.81 0.08
SCN- 39.20 0.84 33.08 3.38
OCN- 9.50 1.17 11.09 1.13
total = 978.39 99.84
Analysis of the strip solution again showed only trace concentrations of NaCN (<0.01g/L).
However, the results of the leach solution balance indicate a remarkably close agreement. Since
this number is much closer to 100% than previously observed, this run might be considered an
anomaly. Also of interest is the high concentration of iron reported. This result will be revisited
in section 4.4.5.
Thus, the objective of accounting for all of the cyanide during the leach was met with limited
success. In general, experiments run at higher pulp densities were able to account for more of
95
the cyanide than those run at lower densities. This effect may be attributable to lower
concentrations of iron and sulfur species at lower pulp densities. Reactions forming OCN" or
HCN would, however, proceed at the same rate. Similarly, sealed reactor runs showed better
accounting than those in an open vessel. The possibility that some losses occurred through HCN
gas may still be realistic, although not evident under the conditions tested. Other possibilities
include polycyanide complexes as well as complexes formed with proteins and other biological
macromolecules generated during the bioleaching step.
4.4 Effect of Leach Parameters on Cyanide Consumption
In addition to the bioleach and cyanidation tests summarized earlier, a number of experiments
were conducted in order to better understand the influence of various parameters on cyanide
consumption. For all of these experiments, the residue used was the product collected from the
fourth steady state. Results pertaining to pulp density, temperature, pH, cyanide concentration,
and stirring speed are now summarized.
4.4.1 Pulp Density
The influence of pulp density on cyanide consumption was studied by leaching at three different
densities: 10, 20, and 30%. Since cyanide concentration was maintained at 0.5 g/L in all tests,
the lower densities showed higher consumption per tonne of solids (see Figure 4-12). The
remaining tests in this series were carried out at 10% pulp density and as a result show higher
cyanide consumptions than those reported in the previous section.
96
time [hours]
Figure 4-12. Effect of pulp density on sodium cyanide consumption measured in kg/t.
Ambient temperature, 24 hr leach, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0.
Figure 4-13 considers the total cyanide consumed (in ppm) for the three different pulp densities.
As expected, the higher densities consume more reagent. Thus, the result shown in the figure
above may be attributed to losses that are independent of the solids (e.g. HCN and OCN") which
would be constant at any density.
97
2000
time [hours]
Figure 4-13. Effect of pulp density on sodium cyanide consumption measured in

ppm. Ambient temperature, 24 hr leach, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0.
Table 4-17. Comparison of cyanide consumption and % of cyanide consumed as

thiocyanate and hexacyanoferrate for three different pulp densities.
Pulp Density [%] NaCN Cons. [g/L] % NaCN as SCN % NaCN as Fe(CN) 6
10 0.93 41.64 3.74

20 1.32 48.88 3.02
30 1.85 43.23 18.93
Table 4-17 illustrates that at higher densities more of the cyanide consumed can be accounted
for, as described earlier. The distribution of iron- and sulfur-cyanide species yields no clear
trend. Further study examined the relationship between the mass-of-SCN": mass-of-solids ratio
and pulp density (see Figure 4-14). The graph indicates that cyanide is more readily consumed
98
in this form at lower pulp densities. A good linear fit is also evident, although more data is
necessary to confirm this result.
5.0 -r
0.0 -I 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
pulp density [%]
Figure 4-14. Relative thiocyanate formation. Ambient temperature, 24 hr leach, 0.5

g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0.
4.4.2 Temperature
The consumption of cyanide over time at three temperatures ranging from 19.4 to 40.0 C is
plotted in Figure 4-15. As expected, higher temperatures resulted in increased reagent
consumption.
99
time [hours]
Figure 4-15. Effect of temperature on sodium cyanide consumption. 10% pulp

density, 24 hr leach, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0.
Table 4-18 compares the gold extraction, cyanide consumption, and percent of cyanide as
thiocyanate for the three runs. As the temperature increased a greater portion of the cyanide
consumed could be accounted for as thiocyanate. Similarly, gold extraction also increased: from
94.0% to 95.6%.
100
Table 4-18. Comparison of gold extraction, cyanide consumption, and % of
cyanide consumed as thiocyanate for three different leach temperatures.
Temperature [C] Au extraction [%] NaCN Cons.[kg/tJ r

% NaCN as SCN
19.6 94.0 10.29 32.1
30.0 95.2 12.69 39.6
40.0 95.6 14.90 48.7
The concept of relative SCN" generation developed in the previous section was used again to
further examine the influence of higher temperatures. Figure 4-16 plots the log of this parameter
for the three runs. Again, a good fit is achieved, indicating that the reaction between cyanide and
sulfur is temperature dependent.
0.2 |
0.1 --
0.0 -I ! i 1 ! 1 1 j
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
temperature [C]
Figure 4-16. Effect of temperature on relative SCN" formation. 10% pulp density,
24 hr leach, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0.
101
4.4.3 pH
Sealed reactor experiments were carried out to measure the effect of low pH on cyanide
consumption. It was speculated that this parameter might influence the dissolution of
intermediate sulfur species, and, in turn, the consumption of cyanide as SCN". Figure 4-17
illustrates the results of first of these tests as well as the profile of a run done in the standard
setup (pH=10.6). The lower pH's resulted in very rapid consumption of the cyanide, initially
thought to be volatilization of HCN gas. However, ICP analysis of the leach solution indicated
enough iron to account for most of the loss as hexacyanoferrates (see Table 4-19).
10 T
time (hours]
Figure 4-17. Effect of pH on sodium cyanide consumption. Ambient temperature,

24 hr leach, initial [NaCN] = 1.0 g/L (allowed to decline), 10% pulp density.
102
Table 4-19. Comparison cyanide consumption and % of cyanide consumed as
thiocyanate and hexacyanoferrate at varying pH. (Note: virtually all cyanide was
consumed in each run; the difference in NaCN consumption is the result of reagent
lost during intermediate sampling.)
pH NaCN Cons. [kg/t ] res % NaCN as SCN % NaCN as Fe(CN) 6
7.8 8.84 4.62 74.28

9.8 8.67 16.41 75.28
10.6 7.78 30.19 1.66
Although less cyanide was consumed as SCN" at lower pH, this result alone cannot substantiate
a relationship. Since most of the cyanide was rapidly consumed by the iron in the first few
hours, there may not have been sufficient opportunity for SCN" to form.
4.4.4 Cyanide Concentration
Since commercial cyanidation processes operate over a range of reagent concentrations the
effect of this parameter was investigated. In this case, the standard leach at 0.5 g/L NaCN was
accompanied by runs at 1.0 and 0.25 g/L. The results of these trials are shown in Figure 4-18. As
expected, higher cyanide concentrations resulted in higher consumption.
103
14
time [hours]
Figure 4-18. The effect of cyanide concentration on consumption. Ambient

temperature, 10% pulp density, 24 hr leach.
Unfortunately, lower cyanide concentrations also resulted in lower gold extractions. As Table 4-
20 shows, at 0.25 g/L the recovery dipped below 90%. At the same time, the percentage of
cyanide consumed as SCN" also declined.
Table 4-20. Gold extraction and cyanide consumption for varying sodium cyanide
concentrations.
NaCN Au extraction NaCN NaCN NaCN
concentration [%] consumed consumed as consumed as
[g/L] [kg/t] SCN" [%] Fe(CN)[%]

6
0.25 89.9 7.50 26.4 7.82

0.5 94.0 10.29 32.1 1.62
1.0 95.2 13.33 34.8 1.68
104
4.4.5 Stirring Speed
The influence of stirring speed was also considered. It was proposed that less agitation might
slow the cyanide consuming reactions and thus limit reagent use. However, the reverse was
found to be true. As shown in Figure 4-19, lower speeds were found to yield higher
consumptions, particularly in the early stages of the leach.
time [hours]
Figure 4-19. Effect of stirring speed on sodium cyanide consumption. Ambient

temperature, 10% pulp density, 24 hr leach, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0.
Again, the explanation for this result seems to rest with iron. The analysis of the final leach
solutions showed that iron the concentration steadily decreased as the stirring speed increased
105
(see Figure 4-20). In comparison, thiocyanate concentrations were almost identical for each run.
This result, along with the profiles of the leach, suggest that some type of iron compound is
dissolving in the early stages. Since lower stirring speeds also reduce oxygen concentration in
solution, and the bioleach solids are likely to contain amorphous jarosites or other basic ferric
sulfates, a reductive leach is suspected. Equation 4-3 proposes a mechanism by which the
decomposition of jarosites might occur,
MFe (S0 ) (OH)

3 4 2 6 + 6H + 3e~ -> M + 3Fe + 2S0 " + 6H O
+ + 2+ 2
2 (4-3)
where M might represent H 0 , NH , or K . Possible reductants for this reaction include

3
+
4
+ +
reduced sulfur species such as sulfite or thiosulfate,
S - S 0 ~ - SO ' -> SO '

x 2
2 2 2
(4-4)
stirring speed [rpm]
Figure 4-20. Thiocyanate and hexacyanoferrate concentrations in cyanide leach

solutions at three stirring speeds. Ambient temperature, 10% pulp density, 24 hr
leach, 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH = 10.4-11.0.
106
Thus, the consumption of cyanide might be characterized as two distinct phases. Firstly, a
kinetically fast step dependent on the presence of iron in solution which, in turn, is affected by
E and ultimately, 0 concentration. And second, a slower, cyanide concentration dependent step
h 2
resulting in the formation of SCN".
From this perspective, the results obtained at low pH can now be explained. The sealed reactor
system was agitated by a stir bar, and thus was probably operating under reducing conditions
initially. Basic ferric sulfates were reductively decomposed, leached into solution, and
consumed most of the cyanide within the first few hours.
4.5 Sample Treatments
Based on the results obtained in the previous section, a number of sample treatments were
proposed in order to better characterize the cyanide consuming reaction mechanisms. The first
of these involved oven drying the slurry at a temperature of 110 C for 3 hours prior to
cyanidation. It was reasoned that this treatment might convert any polysulfides present to the
stable orthorhombic form of sulfur and thus limit the formation of SCN". In addition, the high
temperature would denature any viable molecules of the enzyme rhodanese. Figure 4-21
compares the results of this run with a control experiment.
107
12
time [hours]
Figure 4-21. Sodium cyanide consumption for a slurry sample treated at 110 C for
3 hours. Ambient temperature, 0.5 g/L NaCN, 10% pulp density, 24 hour leach, pH
10.4-11.0.
The graph indicates that initially the cyanide consumption rate is not affected. This is consistent
with the suggestion in the previous section that a period of rapid reagent loss at the start of the
leach results from basic ferric sulfate leaching. Later in the leach, however, the treated sample
proves to be less cyanide consuming. Furthermore, after 24 hours this sample had consumed
only 2.12 kilograms of sodium cyanide per tonne of concentrate as thiocyanate, compared with
3.43 kg NaCN for the control (see Table 4-21).
108
Table 4-21. Comparison of cyanide consumption and % of cyanide consumed as
thiocyanate and hexacyanoferrate for two sample treatments.
NaCN Cons. [kg/t res ] % NaCN as SCN % NaCN as Fe(CN) 6
control 10.29 33.35 1.62

heat pre-treatment 9.51 22.27 0.67
aeration 9.91 26.41 1.10
Another trial investigated the influence of aeration on the leach. Since a reductive basic ferric
sulfate leach is suspected, maintaining oxidizing conditions should result in lesser
hexacyanoferrate formation. Sparging air into the slurry was employed to ensure that the
concentration of dissolved oxygen was close to saturation. Figure 4-22 compares the results of
this run with the control.
12 T 1
time [hours]
Figure 4-22. The effect of aeration on sodium cyanide consumption. Ambient

temperature, 10 % pulp density, 0.5 g/L NaCN, 24 hour leach, pH 10.4-11.0.
109
As expected, the early part of the leach was characterized by lower reagent consumption. Assay
of the final filtrate showed that iron accounted for less than 2% of the cyanide consumed, while
generation of SCN" was not appreciably affected. However, the control experiment also resulted
in a low iron concentration in solution (see Table 4-21). Possibly an analytical error was
responsible for this discrepancy, although this was not confirmed.
The influence of aeration in controlling the loss of cyanide at low pH was investigated using the
sealed reactor. No calcium hydroxide was added to the slurry and an initial cyanide
concentration of 1.0 g/L was allowed to decline during the leach. Air was sparged from the
headspace of the reactor back into the slurry. An Eh probe verified that oxidizing conditions
were maintained throughout the leach with this parameter never falling below 445 mV (SHE).
Despite the seemingly favorable conditions, most of the reagent was consumed in the first hour.
Overall, 72% of the cyanide reported as Fe(CN) . A similar run was conducted, this time with an
6
average pH of 7.4, in which 75% of the cyanide was consumed as hexacyanoferrate. This result
indicates that both pH and E influence jarosite dissolution. Equation 4-4 is proposed to account
h
for jarosite dissolution under low pH, mildly oxidizing conditions:
MFe (SO,) (OH) +6H

3 2 6
+
-> M +3Fe + i+
+2S0 ~ +6H 0
2
2 (4-4)
Again, M represents H 0 , NH , or K .
3
+
4
+ +
110
In an effort to confirm the source of the iron in the leach as resulting from jarosite
decomposition, experiments were conducted on samples that had been pre-leached with
hydrochloric acid to remove jarosite. Here, a 300 g slurry sample from the product of Steady
State #4 was filtered and the wet solids were repulped with an equal mass of 4M HC1. Agitation
for 15 minutes was accomplished with a magnetic stirrer after which time the slurry was filtered
and washed, first with 4M HC1 and then deionized water. Finally, the solids were repulped with
deionized water.
The HC1 leach resulted in a sample mass loss of 13.7%. Experiments were conducted to
determine the cyanide consumption at varying pH. Two of these tests were conducted in the
sealed reactor as the pH was below the pK of cyanide. Because of the difficulty of adding
a
NaCN to the sealed reactor during the run, these tests consisted of adding cyanide to a
concentration of 1 g/L at time zero and allowing the concentration to decline after that. Figure
4-23 compares the relationship between hexacyanoferrate, thiocyanate, and the total cyanide
consumed during the leach.
Ill
11
Figure 4-23. The distribution of iron-cyanide and sulfur-cyanide species for tests
conducted at varying pH. All samples subjected to a 15 minute pre-leach in 4M
HC1,10% pulp density, ambient temperature, 24 hour leach, initial NaCN
concentration l.Og/L.
As the figure indicates, the lowest cyanide consumption occurred in the moderate pH range of
8.4. The concentration of thiocyanate increases with pH, while the reverse is true for the iron
cyanides. It is important to note that for all three runs much of the consumed cyanide was
unaccounted for (72-76%). In addition, gold extraction was poor at the lower pH's: 62.6% and
87.3% for pH 6.8 and 8.4, respectively, while the other run yielded 91.4%.
112
Titration of intermediate solution samples taken during the leach at pH 6.8 showed that almost
half of the free cyanide (0.47 g/L) was still in solution after 6 hours. However, poor recoveries
experienced during this run can be attributed to most of this cyanide being present as HCN . (aq)
This supports the suggestion by Fleming (1992) that gold complexation slows considerably
below pH 8.
Also of interest is the increase in hexacyanoferrate at lower pH. This is probably the result of
decomposition of basic ferric sulfates or iron hydroxides not eliminated in the pre-leach step.
The fact that more iron is leached at lower pH seems to confirm the influence of this parameter
on jarosite dissolution proposed earlier. Again, lower concentrations of SCN- are observed at
lower pH, but this may also be due to competition for reagent with iron species.
An Eh-pH diagram constructed for the iron-sulfur-cyanide-water system is shown in Figure 4-
24, and can be compared to the iron-sulfur-water system shown in Figure 2-8. Here, hydronium
jarosite, hematite, and magnetite have been included in the species present, and are represented
in regions A, B, and G, respectively. Above pH 2, hexacyanoferrates are predominant within
much of the H 0 stability region.

2
113
Figure 4-24. Eh-pH diagram for the Iron-Sulfur-Cyanide-Water system at 25 C.
Activity of all species: 1 M. (Drawn using the CSIRO thermochemistry program,
see Appendix D for thermodynamic data).
The diagram offers thermodynamic support for the assertion that the jarosites and other basic
ferric sulfates formed during the bioleaching step, as well as iron oxides that may form during
the neutralization, are being leached into solution. However, the influence of Eh and pH
observed in the leaching experiments is not substantiated here. Possibly these parameters have a
greater affect on the kinetics of jarosite dissolution. Also, it should be noted that the free energy
114
data used in the construction of this diagram is specific to crystalline jarosite, and not the
amorphous form suspected here.
4.6 Sulfur Balance
In an effort to identify the source of the thiocyanate present in the leach solution, analyses for
elemental sulfur, sulfide, and sulfate were performed on the leach residues of four of the
cyanidation experiments. From the Eh-pH diagram presented in Figure 4-25, the stability of the
sulfur species in the presence of a cyanide ligand can be seen. Area B indicates the stability
region for thiocyanate. This species is shown to be stable in solution across the entire range of
pH: from mildly oxidizing (low pH) to moderately reducing (high pH) conditions.
115
1.5 PLOT LABELS
TIP = 298.15 K
1S1 = 0.01 M
[CM = 0.01 M
STR3LE RRERS
H SOI <2-> IRQ)

B H S <-> CRQ)
C S <2-> IRQ)
D S C N <-> IRQ)
E H S OH <-> CRQ)
F H2 S IRQI
LIGHND BRERS
Rfl HCN (RQ)
BB CN <-> IRQ)
H20 STRBIL1TY LIMITS

1 OXYGEN
2 HYDROGEN
Figure 4-25. Eh-pH diagram for the Sulfur-Cyanide-Water system at 25 C.

Activity of aqueous species: 0.01 M. (Drawn using the CSIRO thermochemistry
program, see Appendix D for thermodynamic data).
In contrast, elemental sulfur is not thermodynamically stable in this system, and reacts with
cyanide, as follows,
5 + C A T -> SCN' (4-5)
(where for biooxodized residues, S may include biologically generated, hydrophobic, reactive
intermediate sulfur species). Using this reaction, and assuming all the consumed S is converted
to SCN", the total possible amount of thiocyanate generated was calculated for each of the four
runs. The results are shown in Table 4-22.
116
Table 4-22. Results of the S7SCN" balance. All tests 24 hours at ambient
temperature. Standard test: 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH~10.6, 30% pulp density. No lime:
sealed reactor run with no lime addition, pH~4.0, initial NaCN concentration 1.0
g/L (allowed to decline), 10% pulp density. Falling CN: initial NaCN concentration
1.0 g/L (allowed to decline), 10% pulp density, pH~10.6. Low pH: initial NaCN
concentration 1.0 g/L (allowed to decline), 10% pulp density, pH~7.4.
test descriDtion: s t a n d a r d test no lime fallina C N " low D H
s o l i d s w t [g] 101.41 32.30 31.19 31.45

s o l i d s S a s s a y [%] 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64
r e s i d u e w t [g] 103.25 32.30* 30.33 31.45*
r e s i d u e S a s s a y [%] 0.47 0.64 0.44 0.61
m a x i m u m possible
S C N " generated [ppm] 1253.22 0.00 426.89 60.36
actual S C N " assay fppml 834.12 17.42 370.41 20.33
intermediate slurry sampling during these runs resulted in lower final residue weight, in
order to account for S lost to sampling the initial weight is used here.
With the exception of the second test, where a small error associated with the assay procedure
might be at fault, a clear trend between the loss of S and the formation of SCN" is evident.
However, the amount of reactant consumed exceeds the product generated, particularly in the
standard test. Three possibilities exist to explain this result. Firstly, the elemental sulfur may be
involved in a second reaction which does not lead to thiocyanate. Conversely, the thiocyanate
may be precipitating, and thus not reporting to the leach solution (this occurrence would also
explain the difficulties in accounting for all of the CN" consumed during the leach). Finally, the
S might first be forming some other intermediate sulfur species, such as polysulfide (S ") which
2
x
117
then reacts to generate SCN". If the second reaction is slower than the first, then some of the
sulfur may be tied up in this intermediate form.
In addition, the possibility that sulfur intermediates may report as S must also be considered. It
is unclear where biologically formed sulfur granules, which contain both elemental sulfur and
polythionates, would show up under assay. Since the granules have a hydrophilic surface they
would not likely dissolve during boiling in perchloroethylene (the solvent used in the assays
reported here). Thus the granules, including some elemental sulfur, might be counted as sulfide.
From Figure 4-25 it can be seen that the formation of SCN" is thermodynamically favored over
sulfide or bisulfide under normal leaching conditions. The reaction of polysulfide with cyanide
is reported in the literature as follows (Flynn and Haslem, 1995),
CAT + S ~ -> SCN~

2
X +S " 2
(4-6)
Table 4-23 evaluates the possibility that sulfide is responsible for consumption of cyanide as
SCN". As with Table 4-22, the maximum thiocyanate that could be generated by the
disappearance of S" is compared with the assayed value.

2
118
Table 4-23. Results of the S 7SCN balance. All tests 24 hours at ambient
2
temperature. Standard test: 0.5 g/L NaCN, pH~10.6,30% pulp density. No lime:
sealed reactor run with no lime addition, pH~4.0, initial NaCN concentration 1.0
g/L (allowed to decline), 10% pulp density. Falling CN: initial NaCN concentration
1.0 g/L (allowed to decline), 10% pulp density, pH~10.6. Low pH: initial NaCN
concentration 1.0 g/L (allowed to decline), 10% pulp density, pH~7.4.
test d e s c r i p t i o n : s t a n d a r d test no lime fallina C N low p H
solids w t [g] 101.41 32.30 31.19 31.45

solids S " a s s a y [%]
2
4.80 4.80 4.80 4.80
residue w t [g] 103.25 32.30* 30.33 31.45*
r e s i d u e S " a s s a y [%]
2
4.30 4.91 4.81 4.48
m a x i m u m possible
SCN" generated [ppm] 3275.08 -221.34 246.77 643.84
actual S C N " a s s a y [ p p m l 834.12 17.42 370.41 20.33

intermediate slurry sampling during these runs resulted in lower final residue weight, in
order to account for S" lost to sampling the initial weight is used here.
2
Unlike the results for the S7SCN" balance, no trend is particularly evident here. As a result, it is
difficult to conclude by these methods what intermediate sulfur species might be present or how
they influence cyanide consumption.
A final experiment was designed to identify if a soluble sulfur species might play an
intermediate role in SCN" formation. Three product samples were leached (10% pulp density,
ambient temperature) for 12 hours at different pH's (8, 10, 12). No cyanide was added, and the
pH was controlled with 1M NaOH. After the leach the slurry was filtered. Sodium cyanide was
added to the filtrate to a concentration of 1 g/L. This solution was agitated for 1 hour, and then
analyzed for free cyanide and thiocyanate. As only trace amounts of thiocyanate were detected
(see Table 4-24), it appears unlikely that a soluble intermediate is involved.
119
Table 4-24. Results of the NaOH leach. Ambient temperature, 10% pulp density, 12
hour duration. Slurry was then filtered, sodium cyanide added to the filtrate, and
agitated for 1 hour.
Leach pH NaCN added [ppm] SCN" concentration [ppm]
8 1000 10.2
!0 1000 19.6
12 1000 67.5
Thus, it is reasoned that the cyanide must be reacting with an insoluble sulfur species. The
identity of that species, however, is not clearly evident. The intermediate sulfur compounds
predicted by the literature are difficult to identify by curre.t assay methods, so their presence,
and whatever role they might play, is uncertain.
120
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
Based on the results summarized in the previous section, a number of conclusions may be
drawn.
Firstly, bioleaching has been shown to be an effective means of pretreating the refractory gold
concentrate used in this study. High gold extractions were observed for residence times as low
as 2 days.
Selective leaching of arsenopyrite over pyrite was observed. Since the gold was closely
associated with the former mineral, high extractions were possible even when the extent of
sulfide oxidation dropped below 50%.
The sodium cyanide consumption associated with this ore was found to be 2.7-12.1 kg/t-
concentrate under the conditions tested. Most of this reagent was accounted for as thiocyanate
and hexacyanoferrate.
The formation of hexacyanoferrate was found to account for between 2 and 95% of the cyanide
consumed depending on the leach conditions. Possible sources for the iron include basic ferric
sulfate precipitates or iron oxides, where the latter is in turn formed from the decomposition of
jarosites under basic conditions. The reaction to generate Fe(CN) was observed to occur
6
121
rapidly, at the beginning of the leach. Furthermore, reducing conditions, as well as low pH, were
shown to result in a higher proportion of the cyanide being consumed as hexacyanoferrate.
Thiocyanate represented the largest single consumer of cyanide under most conditions:
accounting for up to 77% of the reagent consumed. In contrast to iron, the reaction with sulfur
occurred slowly, over the course of the leach. Key parameters for this reaction were found to be
pulp density, temperature, and cyanide concentration. Since the kinetics of gold leaching were
observed to be quite rapid, shorter leach times might be an effective method of reducing
consumption in this manner. Finally, the source of the reactive sulfur was likely to be S or an
intermediate species closely associated with, and reporting under present assay methods as,
elemental sulfur.
A number of other cyanide consuming reactions were not found to occur in significant quantity
for the concentrate tested. These include metal cyanide complexes of copper, zinc, and nickel. In
addition, the formation of cyanate was not detected at anything more than trace levels, nor was
ammonia found as a by-product of cyanate decomposition. The formation and subsequent loss
from the. system of hydrogen cyanide was not observed under normal conditions of pH between
10.4 and 11.0.
Mass balance results for cyanide indicated that in most cases a large fraction of the cyanide was
unaccounted for. This discrepancy may be the result of problems encountered with the
experimental setup, or formation of polycyanide complexes and other difficult to detect cyanide
species.
122
5.1 Recommendations
A number of recommendations for future work are also proposed:
1. Further study on other biooxidized concentrates, as well as pure minerals, to compare
with the results obtained here.
2. Development of a standard cyanidation test apparatus. That is, a closed vessel system
that will allow for adequate aeration and agitation, as well as monitoring of
temperature, Eh, 0 concentration, and control of pH.

2
3. Development of a cyanidation test procedure specific to identifying key parameters.
Trying to maintain constant NaCN concentrations is impractical (and usually
impossible) for the residues in question. Rather, a procedure of adding a known
concentration of cyanide at the start, and then monitoring the rate of consumption,
may prove more useful.
4. The application of modeling to cyanide consumption. For biooxidized residues,
however, this is likely to be difficult until their composition (particularly sulfur
intermediates) can be accurately characterized.
123
5. The use of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) may prove useful in studying
the oxidation products at the bacteria-mineral interface, if difficulties in sample
preparation can be overcome.
6. For the specific concentrate studied here, the application of biooxidation can be
pursued in a number of ways. Bioleaching with even shorter residence times and at
lower pH's may be possible. Also, the use of a lime pre-treatment (Hackl and Jones,
1997) coupled with a shorter leach time, may result in a significant reduction in
cyanide consumption.
124
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132
A P P E N D I X A - Analytical Methods
Residue Analysis
Sulfur Species
Determination of elemental sulfur (S), sulfate sulfur (S ), sulfide sulfur (S"), and total sulfur
S04
2
(S ) was accomplished by a standard wet chemistry method. The solids are washed in
T
perchloroethelyne to remove S. The solution is analyzed by precipitating the sulfur as barium
sulfate (BaS0 ). S
4 SQ4 is then be removed from the solids by selective dissolution in Na C0
2 3
solution. Again, the sulfur is precipitated as BaS0 . Finally, the solids are assayed for S" the
4
2
same method. Total sulfur determination is accomplished by the same method, except that the
steps to remove S and S SQ4 are not taken.
Metals
Analysis of solid residues for iron and arsenic were done by acid digestion and titration.
Solution Analysis
Metals
Analysis for iron and arsenic in bioleach solutions were accomplished by atomic absorption
using a Unicam 929 AA Spectrometer. To determine iron, copper, silver, zinc, and nickel,
solution samples from the cyanidation experiments were sent to IPL for inductively coupled
plasma (ICP) assay.
133
Gold
Analysis of cyanide leach solutions for gold were carried out by IPL using a fire assay method.
Free Cyanide
Free cyanide is defined as that which is dissociated from the unstable cyanides under alkaline
conditions and is available for complexation with metal species. The most common method for
determining free cyanide is by titration with silver nitrate (AgN0 ). In this method, the end point
3
can be determined turbidimetrically or by the use of an indicator. However, the turbidity of the
solution, caused by the precipitation of dicyanoargentate, is not easily detected and therefore
subject to bias (Lenahen and Murray-Smith, 1986). The indicators on the other hand, can be
affected by the presence of heavy metals. Copper and iron cyanide complexes may interfere with
the end point. For this work rhodanine was used as the indicator.
An alternative method of free cyanide determination is by an amperometric technique
(Crundwell, 1991; Crundwell and Jensen, 1994). This method employs measuring the current of
a cyanide soluble electrode (e.g. gold, silver, copper) and comparing it against that of a calomel
reference electrode. The rate of dissolution, and hence the current, varies linearly with the
concentration of free cyanide. This technique is suitable for automated process control
applications as it can provide continuous measurement of a slurry without the need for filtration.
Also, there is little interference from other species such as halides and chlorides. However, the
probe has to be calibrated, against silver nitrate titration, for sample tested.
134
Finally, the concentration of CN" ions can be determined indirectly using atomic adsorption. In
this case, the solution sample is contacted with silver wool to form the silver cyanide species,
Ag(CN)". Then, the solution is analyzed for silver concentration, and compared with the
2
original value. From this value the concentration of cyanide ion is calculated.
Total Cyanide
The total cyanide in solution includes the total available cyanide described previously as well as
the metallocyanide complexes. The standard method for determining total cyanide involves
phosphoric acid digestion of the sample to break down the complexes formed with metals such
as silver, gold, copper, cadmium, mercury, nickel, lead, iron, and zinc. The sample is then
distilled for two hours and the evolved hydrogen cyanide gas is absorbed into a solution of
sodium hydroxide. Finally, the NaOH solution is then analyzed for CN" by the titration or ion
selective electrode methods described previously.
Cyanate
Analysis of cyanate, CNO", is accomplished using an ammonia electrode (Standard Methods).
First, the background ammonia level is recorded using the calibrated probe. Then a sample is
acidified and heated in a water bath to 90oC. Hydrolysis of the cyanate ion proceeds as follows:
INaCNO + H S0 + 4H 0^> (NH )S0 + 2NaHC0

2 4 2 4 4 3
The concentration of ammonia in the sample can then be measured, the initial reading
subtracted, and the concentration of cyanate back calculated.
135
Thiocyanate
The concentration of cyanide is determined by titration with silver nitrate at low pH using ferric
nitrate as an indicator. Interference from free cyanide can be eliminated by sparging the acidified
solution with nitrogen gas prior to analysis (UBC lab standard method).
136
A P P E N D I X B - T h e r m o d y n a m i c Data
All Eh-pH diagrams were generated using the CSIRO thermochemistry program. The use of
molarity instead of activity for the construction of the diagrams was deemed acceptable as the
concentration of aqueous species were generally quite low (<0.01 M). Note: the Fe-S-CN-H20
diagram uses activities of all species as 1 because the program was unable to generate a diagram
at lower concentrations.
Formula State Description AG [kJ/mol]

0
Au c 0.0
Au(CN)" aq 2 285.8
Au(CN)" aq 4 804.3
Au0 " 3
3 aq -51.8
HAu0 " aq 2
3 -124.2
H2Au0" aq 3 -218.3
Au(OH) aq 3 -283.4
Au(OH) c 3 -316.9
CN" aq 172.4
HCN aq 119.7
Fe c 0.0
Fe 2+
aq -91.4
Fe 3+
aq -16.7
FeOOH c goethite -487.4
Fe 0 2 3 c hematite -742.2
Fe 0 3 4 c magnetite -1015.5
Fe(OH) c 2 -486.6
Fe(OH) c 3 -696.5
H Fe (S0 ) (OH)
3 c3 jarosite4 2 -3230.1
6
FeS 2 c pyrite -166.9

FeS c pyrrhotite -100.4
S c 0.0
s-
2
aq 86.3
HS" aq 12.1
HS 2 aq -27.9
S0 " 2
4 aq -744.6
HS0" 4 aq -756.0
S0 " 2
3 aq -486.6
SCN" aq 92.68
references: Bard et al., 1985; Lowson, 1982
137
A P P E N D I X C - Sample Calculations
Bioleaching
pulp density
mass of dry solids

pulp density = * 100%
mass oj slurry
for example, for Tank #1, Steady State #1, 4hr:
25.47e
pulp density = 1 Q 9 1 2 g * 100% = 23.34%
lime consumption
total Ca(OH) added 2

Ca(OH) consumed =
2
total solids processed
for example, for Tank #1, Steady State #1:
Ca(OH) .consumed = f- = \03.\ / = \03.\ / s

kg
kg
1.60kg
iron extraction
mass of iron in solution I litre of slurry

iron extraction = * 100%)
total mass oj iron(solutwn + solids) I litre of slurry
where,
mass of iron in solution pulpdensity slurrydensity

= solutionassayWA * (1 ) *
litre oj slurry 138 100 solutiondensity
mass of iron in solids solidsassay[%] * pulpdensity * slurrydensity
litre of slurry 10
(2.028^*(1-^)*^)
iron extraction = 9.05% 12334* 1.184 *
1 0 % = 6 A 6 %
] 0 0
(2.028 / *Q-
8
L )* )+
V V
100 J
U2V 10
arsenic extraction
Calculation of arsenic extraction followed the same format as that for iron extraction.
sulfide oxidation
2_ (solids/ \
%S in oxidized sample ^ / ml slurry /f eed
sulfide oxidation = ( 1 - ( _ o2 )*( 7 ) * 100

%S in feed ,gsolid*/ \
K
/ slurry
ml J s 0 m p l e
4.40% ( 2 8
' % > 2) .
sulfide oxidation = ( 1 - ^ * ^2139/ ' ^ ^ 1 0 0 % = 5 6 . 9 %
Cyanidation
cyanide consumption
139
cyanide added - cyanide left - cyanide lost during sampling
cyanide consumed 7
mass oj solids
for example, for CN-1-1:
(.120+.077+.060+.055+.081) - ( . 0 3 . *0.240J - ((.18+.25+.27+.16)*.010

g /y gt/ L
NaCN cons.= - ; 0~\m = 3 - 6 6
percent cyanide consumed as SCN-
SCN'assay[ppm] ^glmol NaCN ^_ innn/
%NaCN consumed as SCN~ = , *; 7 7 ^ 7 " * 100%

n
J
CN assay[ppm\ g I mo I SCN
for example, for CN-1-1:
1441_ 49.01 , o/
%NaCN consumed as SCN~ = , " *P
n ,/ * 100% = 77.4%
140
A P P E N D I X D - Sample Data
CONTINUOUS REACTOR LOG S S # 1

September 9 to 1 3 , 1 9 9 7
Tankl
Speed Air Flow
Time (hr) Temp (C) PH Eh (mV) D02
Date (rpm) (Lpm)
9-Sep 0 35.0 1.87 791 839 1.46
10-Sep 24 35.5 1.91 789 4.41 840 1.51
11-Sep 48 35.1 1.72 791 3.87 897 1.48
12-Sep 72 33.7 1.78 792 899 1.38
13-Sep 96 37.9 1.78 762 900 1.53
avg 35.4 1.81 785
Tank 2
Speed Air Flow
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) pH Eh (mV) D02
(rpm) (Lpm)
9-Sep 0 35.0 1.24 844 837 0.97
10-Sep 24 36.0 1.38 842 3.77 826 0.87
11-Sep 48 36.3 1.33 844 4.52 885 1.02
12-Sep 72 36.6 1.33 850 887 1.05
13-Sep 96 35.5 1.32 843 895 1.08
avg 35.9 1.32 845
Tank 3
Eh - corr Speed Air Flow
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) PH D02
(mV) (rpm) (Lpm)
9-Sep 0 35.0 1.03 872 834 1.02
10-Sep 24 34.9 1.25 871 5.26 819 1.02
11-Sep 48 35.6 1.22 870 4.74 823 0.95
12-Sep 72 36.2 1.19 875 828 1.08
13-Sep 96 35.8 1.18 869 841 1.13
avg 35.5 1.17 871
Tank 4
Eh - corr Speed A i r Flow
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) pH D02
(mV) (rpm) (Lpm)
9-Sep 0 34.0 0.89 893 883 1.00
10-Sep 24 36.2 1.10 893 6.11 875 1.05
11-Sep 48 36.1 1.11 890 5.88 881 1.02
12-Sep 72 35.3 1.13 896 883 1.05
13-Sep 96 36.0 1.10 895 1.05
avg 35.5 1.07 893
141
CONTINUOUS REACTOR LOG SS#2
O c t o b e r 20 t o 2 4 , 1 9 9 7
Tankl
Speed Air Flow
Time (hr) Temp (C) PH Eh (mV) D02 (Lpm)
Date (rpm)
20-Oct 0 35.7 1.86 798 4.23 823 1.56
21-Oct 24 36.7 1.73 794 832 1.56
22-Oct 48 34.1 1.85 793 4.26 832 1.56
23-Oct 72 35.3 1.73 794 845 1.48
24-Oct 96 34.9 1.86 793 843 1.48
avg 35.3 1.81 794
Tank 2
Speed Air Flow
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) PH Eh (mV) D02 (Lpm)
(rpm)
20-Oct 0 35.2 1.29 824 2.24 847 0.95
21-Oct 24 35.0 1.37 831 849 0.9
22-Oct 48 33.9 1.33 835 1.95 844 0.9
23-Oct 72 34.8 1.33 830 856 0.95
24-Oct 96 34.8 1.35 827 840 0.97
avg 34.7 1.33 829
Tank 3
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) PH D02 (Lpm)
(mV) (rpm)
20-Oct 0 35.5 1.12 853 3.31 864 1.02
21-Oct 24 35.1 1.14 859 861 0.95
22-Oct 48 34.2 1.15 862 3.71 862 0.9
23-Oct 72 34.3 1.17 862 870 0.95
24-Oct 96 33.7 1.16 860 854 0.97
avg 34.6 1.15 859
Tank 4
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) pH D02 (Lpm)
(mV) (rpm)
20-Oct 0 34.3 1.03 876 4.13 862 1.02
21-Oct 24 35.1 1.01 880 865 1.00
22-Oct 48 33.4 1.06 883 4.53 864 1.00
23-Oct 72 34.0 1.06 880 874 0.97
24-Oct 96 35.6 1.04 878 857 1.00
avg 34.5 1.04 879
142
CONTINUOUS REACTOR LOG SS#2a
O c t o b e r 25 t o 3 0 , 1997
Tank 1
Speed A i r Flow
Time (hr) Temp(C) PH Eh (mV) D02
Date (rpm) (Lpm)
25-Oct 0 34.0 1.73 797 834 1.53
26-Oct 24 35.3 1.71 796 3.74 847 1.51
27-Oct 48 35.9 1.80 790 836 1.51
28-Oct 72 35.5 1.78 790 3.49 842 1.61
29-Oct 96 34.9 1.77 791 848 1.61
30-Oct 120 36.0 1.83 794 838 1.56
avg 35.5 1.78 792
Tank 2
Speed Air Flow
Date Time (hr) Temp(C) PH Eh (mV) D02
(rpm) (Lpm)
25-Oct 0 34.3 1.32 826 835 1.00
26-Oct 24 34.2 1.35 827 1.94 852 0.97
27-Oct 48 35.8 1.39 830 849 0.97
28-Oct 72 35.1 1.37 826 1.77 848 1.05
29-Oct 96 35.7 1.32 834 871 1.02
30-Oct 120 36.6 1.39 823 853 1.05
avg 35.5 1.36 828
Tank 3
Eh - corr Speed A i r Flow
Date Time (hr) Temp(C) PH D02
(mV) (rpm) (Lpm)
25-Oct 0 33.7 1.14 858 872 0.97
26-Oct 24 35.9 1.16 854 2.99 868 0.97
27-Oct 48 36.2 1.21 859 864 1.00
28-Oct 72 34.2 1.17 859 3.54 860 1.08
29-Oct 96 34.5 1.15 864 874 1.10
30-Oct 120 34.0 1.22 864 863 1.08
avg 35.0 1.18 860
143
November 5 to 8,1997
Tankl
Speed Air Flow
Time (hr) Temp (C) pH Eh (mV) D02 (Lpm)
Date (rpm)
5-Nov 0 34.5 1.42 800 841 1.61
6-Nov 24 34.3 1.46 801 3.77 836 1.56
7-Nov 48 34.6 1.49 804 846 1.48
8-Nov 68 35.2 1.53 792 854 1.48
avg 34.7 1.48 799
Tank 2
Speed A i r Flow
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) PH Eh (mV) D02 (Lpm)
(rpm)
5-Nov 0 34.9 1.27 836 863 1.05
6-Nov 24 35.7 1.26 836 2.83 855 1.00
7-Nov 48 35.9 1.25 837 862 0.97
8-Nov 68 32.1 1.24 834 882 0.97
avg 34.7 1.26 836
Tank 3
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) PH D02
(mV) (rpm) (Lpm)
5-Nov 0 34.8 1.13 865 865 1.10
6-Nov 24 35.6 1.12 865 4.89 861 1.10
7-Nov 48 35.5 1.11 865 864 0.97
8-Nov 68 32.6 1.07 862 882 1.00
avg 34.6 1.11 864
144
N o v e m b e r 19 t o 2 4 , 1 9 9 7
Tankl
Speed Air Flow
Time (hr) Temp (C) PH Eh (mV) D02 (Lpm)
Date (rpm)
19-Nov 0 38.3 1.56 781 845 1.71
20-Nov 24 34.9 1.46 781 2.86 841 1.63
21-Nov 48 34.1 1.47 785 847 1.66
22-Nov 72 33.8 1.63 782 3.68 841 1.68
23-Nov 96 34.1 1.47 785 848 1.68
24-Nov 120 34.9 1.58 783 3.48 855 1.51
avg 35.0 1.53 783
Tank 2
Speed A i r Flow
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) PH Eh (mV) D02 (rpm) (Lpm)
19-Nov 0 36.8 1.11 816 860 1.10
20-Nov 24 35.1 1.18 814 2.09 852 1.10
21-Nov 48 34.7 1.08 820 852 1.10
22-Nov 72 33.8 1.27 820 1.43 856 1.10
23-Nov 96 35.4 1.17 817 857 1.10
24-Nov 120 36.5 1.15 826 2.71 863 1.10
avg 35.4 1.16 819
Tank 3
Date Time (hr) Temp (C) PH D02 (Lpm)
(mV) (rpm)
19-Nov 0 35.3 0.95 847 863 1.1
20-Nov 24 34.8 1.03 844 4.14 863 1.02
21-Nov 48 35.1 0.94 849 865 1.05
22-Nov 72 35 1.09 848 3.41 864 1.05
23-Nov 96 35.2 1.01 845 862 1.05
24-Nov 120 36.9 1.03 849 3.92 877 1.05
avg 35.4 1.01 847
145
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A P P E N D I X E - Statistical Analysis
This section examines the steady state assay data by evaluating the coefficient
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1-T2 7.49 6.76 7.13 0.266 0.516 7.24
1-T3 5.03 5.06 5.05 0.000 0.021 0.42
1-T4 4.29 4.47 4.38 0.016 0.127 2.91
2-T1 9.50 9.37 9.44 0.008 0.092 0.97
2-T2 6.32 6.04 6.18 0.039 0.198 3.20
2-T3 5.10 4.18 4.64 0.423 0.651 14.02
2-T4 3.95 3.40 3.68 0.151 ,0.389 10.58
4-T1 9.34 9.05 9.20 0.042 0.205 2.23
4-T2 7.05 6.69 6.87 0.065 0.255 3.71
4-T3 5.35 4.90 5.13 0.101 0.318 6.21
arsenic 1-T1 2.04 1.96 2.00 0.003 0.057 2.83

1-T2 1.35 1.15 1.25 0.020 0.141 11.31
1-T3 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.000 0.000 0.00
1-T4 0.57 0.48 0.53 0.004 0.064 12.12
2-T1 1.84 1.72 1.78 0.007 0.085 4.77
2-T2 0.51 0.69 0.60 0.016 0.127 21.21
148
2-T3 0.39 0.42 0.41 0.000 0.021 5.24
2-T4 0.34 0.35 0.35 0.000 0.007 2.05
4-T1 1.43 1.08 1.26 0.061 0.247 19.72
4-T2 0.61 0.58 0.60 0.000 0.021 3.57
4-T3 0.40 0.45 0.43 0.001 0.035 8.32
1-T1 4.40 4.01 4.21 0.076 0.276 6.56

1-T2 3.06 2.53 2.80 0.140 0.375 13.41
1-T3 2.02 1.43 1.73 0.174 0.417 24.19
1-T4 1.00 0.86 0.93 0.010 0.099 10.64
2-T1 7.12 6.82 6.97 0.045 0.212 3.04
2-T2 5.78 4.64 5.21 0.650 0.806 15.47
2-T3 4.36 3.19 3.78 0.684 0.827 21.92
2-T4 3.39 3.15 3.27 0.029 0.170 5.19
4-T1 8.48 8.25 8.37 0.026 0.163 1.94
4-T2 6.39 6.33 6.36 0.002 0.042 0.67
4-T3 4.98 4.69 4.84 0.042 0.205 4.24
1-T1 9.82 9.70 9.76 0.007 0.085 0.87

1-T2 8.50 8.71 8.61 0.022 0.148 1.73
1-T3 7.41 7.62 7.52 0.022 0.148 1.98
1-T4 6.53 6.74 6.64 0.022 0.148 2.24
2-T1 9.93 10.94 10.44 0.510 0.714 6.84
2-T2 8.22 8.59 8.41 0.068 0.262 3.11
2-T3 7.35 7.04 7.20 0.048 0.219 3.05
2-T4 5.53 5.49 5.51 0.001 0.028 0.51
4-T1 10.43 10.11 10.27 0.051 0.226 2.20
4-T2 8.62 8.61 8.62 0.000 0.007 0.08
4-T3 7.36 6.99 7.18 0.068 0.262 3.65
Ss04 1-T1 5.03 5.26 5.15 0.026 0.163 3.16

1-T2 4.91 5.50 5.21 0.174 0.417 8.02
1-T3 4.78 5.58 5.18 0.320 0.566 10.92
1-T4 4.98 5.35 5.17 0.068 0.262 5.07
1-T1 0.24 0.22 0.23 0.000 0.014 6.15

1-T2 0.31 0.26 0.29 0.001 0.035 12.41
1-T3 0.30 0.28 0.29 0.000 0.014 4.88
1-T4 0.30 0.27 0.29 0.000 0.021 7.44
149
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THE BIOOXIDATION AND CYANIDATION OF A REFRACTORY

ARSENICAL GOLD CONCENTRATE:

B.A.Sc. University of British Columbia, 1996

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER OF APPLIED SCIENCE

THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES

Department of Metals and Materials Engineering

We accept this thesis as conforming

THE UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

Lyn Jones, 1998

department or by his or her representatives. It is understood that copying or

Department of f^}iA<, tv*\J {jjitr^j

A significant drawback to the application of biooxidation as a pretreatment for refractory gold

concentrates is the problem of high cyanide consumption. The presence of cyanicides in

was controlled at 1.5. Sulfide oxidation ranged from 70% to 93%.

4. Results and Discussion 68

5. Conclusions and Recommendations 121

Works Cited 125

Figure 2-1. Eh-pH diagram for the Au-CN-H 0 system at 25 C

Eh: potential [mV]

SHE: standard hydrogen electrode reference

P : mesh or grind size that results in 80% passing

tpd: tonnes per day

Lpm: litres per minute

expertise of Mike Timmins and Mike Noble, are greatly appreciated.

Sciences and Engineering Research Council and Placer Dome Inc.

encapsulated within a gangue mineral, or adsorbed on carbonaceous matter. In many instances

contain less than 10 g of gold per tonne of ore.

anywhere from 6% to 40% (Haines and van Aswegen, 1990).

stringent environmental regulations make this a rather tenuous option.

successfully implemented on a commercial scale.

sulfide minerals by a mixed culture of iron- and sulfur-oxidizing microorganisms. Leaching

and the liberation of thefinelydisseminated gold particles.

nature of the process.

capable of adapting rapidly to changes in process parameters. However, the stability of

biooxidized residues, particularly with respect to arsenic, are also of concern.

profitable in North America, where concentrate gold grades are lower.

consumption. As a result, this thesis endeavors to better understand this phenomenon.

To accomplish this goal, the project has three principal objectives:

1. To generate a representative biooxidized product using a multi-stage,

continuous, bench-scale rector.

2. To investigate the influence of process parameters such as pH, temperature, and

cyanide concentration on cyanide consumption.

3. To identify the mechanisms responsible for the consumption of cyanide, and to

propose ways to mitigate this effect.

three. Finally, some conclusions are drawn, and recommendations made.

a cyanidation circuit (Jha, 1987).

gold particles from the leach prior to cyanidation.

The dissolution of gold in a cyanide solution proceeds according to Eisner's equation:

1991). Thus, the equations are as follows:

2Au + 4CN- + 0 + 2H 0 -> 2Au(CN) + 20H' + H 0

2Au + 4CN~ + H 0 2 2 2Au(CN) + 40H~

Similar equations can be written for silver.

pH of the cyanide circuit well above 9.21, the pK of the reaction.

however, as the concentration of CN" declines.

conventional, well aerated system.

impractical in most situations.

of copper, zinc, and antimony (Bhappu, 1990).

(HOOSOy), which in turn oxidizes the cyanide.

2CN~ + <9 2 2CNCT (2-6)

elemental sulfur with cyanide is as follows:

CN~ +|5 g -+SCN~ (2-7)