1.

1 Vector Spaces

Review:
Let

x = (x1 , x2 ) R2 , t R
y = (y1 , y2 ) R2
z = (z1 , z2 ) R2

and dene

(1) x + y = (x1 , x2 ) + (y1 , y2 ) (vector addition)

= (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 ).

(2) t x = t (x1 , x2 ) = (tx1 , tx2 ). (scalar multiplication)

Then we have the following properties:

(1) x + y = y + x.

(2) x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z.
(3) There exists 0 s.t. x + 0 = x for each x.

(4) For each x, there exists y s.t. x + y = 0.

(5) For each x 1 x = x.

(6) For any a, b R, (ab) x = a (bx).

(7) For any a R, a (x + y) = a x + a y.

(8) For any a, b R, (a + b) x = a x + b x.

Definition:
A vector space V over F (R or C) consists a set on which two operations so that
for each pair of element x, y in V there is a unique element x + y in V and for
each element a in F and each element x in V there is a unique a x in V such
that the following conditions hold:
1. For all x, y V , x + y = y + x.

2. For all x, y, z V , x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z.
3. There exists an element in V denoted by 0 s.t. x + 0 = x for each x V .

4. For each x V , there exists y V , s.t. x + y = 0.

5. For each x V , 1 x = x.

6. For each pair of elements a, b F, for each x V , (ab) x = a (bx).

7. For each a F, for each pair of elements, x, y V , a (x + y) = a x + a y.

8. For each pair of a, b F, for each x V , (a + b) x = a x + b x.

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Remark:
The elements of the eld F are called scalars and the elements of the vector
space are called vectors.
Definition: [n-tuple]

1. (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) where the entries a1 , a2 . . . , an are elements of F (i.e. ai

F, for i = 1, 2 . . . , n) is called an n-tuple with entries from F.

2. Two n-tuples (a1 , a2 , , an ) and (b1 , b2 , , bn ) with entries from F are

called equal if ai = bi for i = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Example:

Fn = {all n-tuple with entries from F}

= {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) | ai F for i = 1, 2, . . . , n.}

We dene two operations:

u+v = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , . . . , an + bn )
cu = (ca1 , ca2 , . . . , can )

for u = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) Fn , v = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) Fn and c F. Then Fn is a

vector space over F.
Remark:
In this case, vectors in Fn may be written as column vectors

a1
a2

..
.
an

rather than as row vectors

(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ).

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Example: [Matrix]
1. An m n matrix with entries from F is a rectangular array of the from

a11 a12 . . . a1n
a21 a22 . . . a2n

.. .. .. .. ,
. . . .
am1 am2 . . . amn mn

where aij F for i = 1, 2, . . . , m and j = 1, 2, . . . , n.

2. The entries aij with i = j are called diagonal entries of the matrix.

3. Zero matrix 0,
0 0 ... 0
0 0 ... 0

0= .. .. .. .. .
. . . .
0 0 0
Mmn (F) = {A = (aij ) | A is an m n matrix over F}.
4. For A, B Mmn , A = B if and only if aij = bij for i = 1, 2, . . . , m and
j = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Example:
Dene:
(A + B)ij = Aij + Bij and (cA)ij = cAij
for A, B Mmn (F) and c F.
Then Mmn is a vector space over F
Example:
Let S = and

F(S, R) = {the set of all functions from S to R}

= {f | f : S R is a function}.

Two functions f and g in F(S, R) are called equal if f (s) = g(s) for all s S.
Dene two operations:

(f + g)(s) = f (s) + g(s) and (cf )(s) = cf (s) for all s S

for f, g F(S, R) and c R. Then F(S, R) is a vector space over R.

Definition:
A polynomial with coecients from F is an expression of the form

f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 ,

where n N {0} and each ak , called the coecient of xk , is in F.

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Definition:

1. If f (x) = 0, that is an = an1 = = a0 = 0, then f (x) is called the zero

polynomial.

2.
f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0
and
g(x) = bm xm + bm1 xm1 + + b1 x + b0
are called equal if m = n and ai = bi for i = 0, 1, . . . , n.
3. The degree of f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 is the largest
exponent of x with a nonzero coecient.

Example:
Let
{ }
Pn (F) = f | f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 , ai F .

For f, g Pn (F) with

f (x) = an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0

and
g(x) = bn xn + bn1 xn1 + + b1 x + b0 ,
dene

(f + g)(x) = (an + bn )xn + + (a1 + b1 )x + (a0 + b0 ),

(c f )(x) = (can )xn + + (ca1 )x + (ca0 ).

Then Pn (F) is a vector space over F.

Theorem: [Cancellation Law for Vector Addition]
If x, y and z are vectors in a vector space V s.t. x + z = y + z, then x = y.
Corollary:

1. The vector 0 in (VS 3) is unique.

2. The vector y in (VS 4) is unique.

Remark:
The vector y in (VS 4) is called the additive inverse of x and denoted by x.
Theorem:
Let V be a vector space over F. Then

1. 0 x = 0 for each x V .
2. (a) x = (a x) = a (x), for each a F and x V .

3. a 0 = 0, for each a F.