A TEXTBOOK OF

POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

By the Same Author :
l Thermal Engineering
l Engineering Thermodynamics
l Applied Thermodynamics
l Internal Combustion Engines
l Automobile Engineering
l Manufacturing Technology
(Manufacturing Processes and Machine Tools)
l Steam Tables with Mollier Diagram
 A TEXTBOOK OF

POWER PLANT
ENGINEERING
IN

SI UNITS

For

Engineering Students of Various Disciplines

and Competitive Examinations (GATE, UPSC, etc.)

By
Er. R.K. RAJPUT
M.E. (Hons.), Gold Medallist; Grad. (Mech. Engg. & Elect. Engg.) ;
M.I.E. (India) ; M.S.E.S.I. ; M.I.S.T.E. ; C.E. (India)
Recipient of :
Best Teacher (Academic) Award
Distinguished Author Award
Jawahar Lal Nehru Memorial Gold Medal
for an outstanding research paper
(Institution of EngineersIndia)
Principal (Formerly):
l Thapar Polytechnic College
l Punjab College of Information Technology
PATIALA

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A TEXTBOOK OF POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

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 Contents

Chapter Pages

INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS (xix)(xxiv)

1. INTRODUCTION ... 119
1.1. Energy and Power ... 1
1.2. Sources of Energy ... 1
1.2.1. Fuels ... 2
1.2.2. Energy stored in water ... 5
1.2.3. Nuclear energy ... 5
1.2.4. Wind power ... 5
1.2.5. Solar energy ... 6
1.2.6. Tidal power ... 6
1.2.7. Geothermal energy ... 7
1.2.8. Thermoelectric power ... 7
1.3. Principal Types of Power Plants ... 7
1.4. Combustion of Fuels ... 8
1.4.1. Combustion chemistry ... 8
1.4.2. How to convert volumetric analysis to weight analysis ? ... 9
1.4.3. How to convert weight analysis to volumetric analysis ? ... 9
1.4.4. Weight of air required for complete combustion of fuel ... 9
1.4.5. Excess air ... 9
1.4.6. Weight of carbon in flue gases ... 10
1.4.7. Weight of flue gas per kg of fuel burnt ... 10
Worked Examples ... 10
Highlights ... 17
Theoretical Questions ... 18
Unsolved Examples ... 18

2. POWER PLANT CYCLES ... 2057

2.1. Introduction ... 20
2.2. Classification of Power Plant Cycles ... 20
2.3. Carnot Cycle ... 20
2.4. Rankine Cycle ... 21
2.5. Modified Rankine Cycle ... 28
2.6. Reheat Cycle ... 31
2.7. Regenerative Cycle ... 35
2.8. Binary Vapour Cycle ... 40
2.9. Otto Cycle ... 44
2.10. Diesel Cycle ... 48
2.11. Dual Combustion Cycle ... 50
2.12. Gas Turbine Cycles ... 55
Highlights ... 55
Theoretical Questions ... 55
Unsolved Examples ... 56
(v)
 ( vi )

Chapter Pages

3. STEAM POWER PLANT ... 58217

3.1. Introduction ... 58
3.2 Classification of Steam Power Plants ... 59
3.3. Layout of a Modern Steam Power Plant ... 59
3.4 Essential Requirements of Steam Power Station Design ... 60
3.5. Selection of Site for Steam Power Station ... 60
3.6. Capacity of Steam Power Plant ... 62
3.7. Choice of Steam Conditions ... 62
3.8. Fuel Handling ... 63
3.8.1. Introduction ... 63
3.8.2. Requirements of good coal handling plant ... 63
3.8.3. Coal handling systems ... 64
3.8.4. Coal handling ... 64
3.8.5. Layout of a fuel handling equipment ... 68
3.9. Combustion Equipment for Steam Boilers ... 68
3.9.1. General aspects ... 68
3.9.2. Combustion equipment for solid fuelsselection considerations ... 69
3.9.3. Burning of coal ... 69
3.9.4. Burners ... 76
3.10. Fluidised Bed Combustion (FBC) ... 81
3.11. Ash Handling ... 82
3.11.1. Ash handling equipment ... 82
3.11.2. Ash handling systems ... 83
3.12. Dust Collection ... 85
3.12.1. Introduction ... 85
3.12.2. Removal of smoke ... 85
3.12.3. Removal of dust and dust collectors ... 86
3.12.4. Efficiency of dust collectors ... 88
3.12.5. Installation of dust collectors ... 88
3.12.6. Uses of ash and dust ... 88
3.12.7. General layout of ash handling and dust collection system ... 88
3.12.8. FlyashIts composition, disposal and applications ... 89
3.13. Chimney Draught ... 90
3.13.1. Definition and classification of draught ... 90
3.13.2. Natural draught ... 90
3.13.3. Chimney height and diameter ... 91
3.13.4. Condition for maximum discharge through a chimney ... 92
3.13.5. Efficiency of a chimney ... 93
3.13.6. Draught losses ... 93
3.13.7. Artificial draught ... 93
3.13.8. Forced draught ... 93
3.13.9. Induced draught ... 94
3.13.10. Balanced draught ... 94
3.13.11. Advantages of mechanical draught ... 94
3.13.12. Steam jet draught ... 94
Worked Examples ... 94
3.14. Boilers ... 97
3.14.1. Introduction ... 97
3.14.2. Classification of boilers ... 97
3.14.3. Comparison between fire-tube and water-tube boilers ... 98
3.14.4. Selection of a boiler ... 98
3.14.5. Essentials of a good steam boiler ... 98
 ( vii )

Chapter Pages
3.14.6. Boiler terms ... 99
3.14.7. Fire tube boilers ... 99
3.14.8. Water tube boilers ... 103
3.14.9. High pressure boilers ... 105
3.15. Accessories ... 111
3.15.1. Feed pumps ... 111
3.15.2. Injector ... 111
3.15.3. Economiser ... 112
3.15.4. Air preheater ... 113
3.15.5. Superheater ... 114
3.15.6. Steam separator ... 115
3.16. Feed Water Heaters and Evaporators ... 115
3.16.1. Feed water heaters ... 115
3.16.2. Miscellaneous heaters ... 117
3.16.3. Evaporators ... 117
3.16.4. Typical utility cycle layout ... 117
3.17. Performance of Boilers ... 118
3.17.1. Evaporative capacity ... 118
3.17.2. Equivalent evaporation ... 118
3.17.3. Factor of evaporation ... 119
3.17.4. Boiler efficiency ... 119
3.17.5. Heat losses in a boiler plant ... 119
3.18. Steam Nozzles ... 123
3.18.1. Introduction ... 123
3.18.2. Steam flow through nozzles ... 124
3.18.3. Discharge through the nozzle and conditions for its
maximum value ... 124
3.18.4. Nozzle efficiency ... 126
3.18.5. Supersaturated or metastable expansion of steam in a nozzle ... 127
3.19. Steam Turbines ... 130
3.19.1. Introduction ... 130
3.19.2. Classification of steam turbines ... 131
3.19.3. Advantages of steam turbine over the steam engines ... 132
3.19.4. Description of common types of turbines ... 132
3.19.5. Methods of reducing wheel or rotor speed ... 133
3.19.6. Difference between impulse and reaction turbines ... 135
3.19.7. Impulse turbines ... 135
3.19.8. Reaction turbines ... 140
3.19.9. Turbine efficiencies ... 142
3.19.10. Types of power in steam turbine practice ... 143
3.19.11. Energy losses in steam turbines ... 143
3.19.12. Steam turbine governing and control ... 144
3.19.13. Special forms of turbines ... 146
3.20. Steam Condensers ... 157
3.20.1. Introduction ... 157
3.20.2. Vacuum ... 157
3.20.3. Organs of a steam condensing plant ... 157
3.20.4. Classification of condensers ... 157
3.20.5. Jet condensers ... 157
3.20.6. Surface condensers ... 159
3.20.7. Reasons for inefficiency in surface condensers ... 160
3.20.8. Comparison between jet and surface condensers ... 161
3.20.9. Selection of condenser ... 161
 ( viii )

Chapter Pages

3.20.10. Sources of air in condensers ... 161

3.20.11. Effects of air leakage in condenser ... 161
3.20.12. Method for obtaining maximum vacuum in condensers ... 161
3.20.13. Vacuum measurement ... 162
3.20.14. Vacuum efficiency ... 162
3.20.15. Condenser efficiency ... 162
3.20.16. Determination of mass of cooling water ... 162
3.20.17. Heat transmission through walls of tubes of a surface
condenser ... 163
3.20.18. Methods of cleaning condenser tubes ... 163
3.21. Cooling Ponds and Cooling Towers ... 164
3.21.1. Introduction ... 164
3.21.2. River or sea ... 164
3.21.3. Cooling ponds ... 164
3.21.4. Spray ponds ... 165
3.21.5. Cooling towers ... 165
3.21.6. Dry cooling towers ... 167
3.21.7. Maintenance of cooling towers ... 168
3.22. Feed Water Treatment ... 176
3.22.1. Classification of impurities in water ... 176
3.22.2. Troubles caused by the impurities in water ... 177
3.22.3. Methods of feed water treatment ... 178
3.22.4. pH value of water ... 181
3.23. Piping System ... 181
3.23.1. Requirements of steam piping system ... 181
3.23.2. Materials used for pipes ... 182
3.23.3. Insulation of steam piping ... 182
3.23.4. Steam pipe fittings ... 182
3.23.5. Pipe expansion bends ... 183
3.24. Advantages and Disadvantages of Steam Power Plants ... 183
3.25. Miscellaneous ... 184
3.25.1. Plant arrangement ... 184
3.25.2. Useful life of steam power plant components ... 185
3.25.3. Steam power plant pumps ... 185
3.25.4. Cost of steam power plant ... 185
3.25.5. Comparison of various types of power plants ... 186
3.25.6. Thermal power stations in India ... 187
3.25.7. Indian boilers act ... 187
Additional/Typical Examples ... 191
Highlights ... 206
Theoretical Questions ... 207
Unsolved Examples ... 208
Competitive Examinations Questions ... 212

4. DIESEL ENGINE POWER PLANT ... 218264

4.1. Introduction ... 218
4.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Diesel Power Plants ... 218
4.3. Applications of Diesel Power Plant ... 219
4.4. Site Selection ... 219
4.5. Heat Engines ... 219
4.6. Classification of I.C. Engines ... 219
 ( ix )

Chapter Pages

4.7. Different Parts of I.C. Engines ... 220

4.8. Terms Connected with I.C. Engines ... 220
4.9. Four Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines ... 221
4.10. Two Stroke Cycle Diesel Engines ... 222
4.11. Comparison of Four Stroke and Two Stroke Cycle Engines ... 223
4.12. Comparison Between a Petrol Engine and a Diesel Engine ... 223
4.13. Essential Components of a Diesel Power Plant ... 224
4.13.1. Engine ... 224
4.13.2. Air intake system ... 224
4.13.3. Exhaust system ... 225
4.13.4. Fuel system ... 225
4.13.5. Cooling systems ... 228
4.13.6. Lubrication systems ... 232
4.13.7. Engine starting system ... 234
4.13.8. Governing system ... 235
4.14. Combustion Phenomenon in C.I. Engines ... 235
4.15. Delay Period (or Ignition Lag) in C.I. Engines ... 237
4.16. Diesel Knock ... 237
4.17. Cetane Number ... 237
4.18. Basic Designs of C.I. Engine Combustion Chambers ... 238
4.19. Supercharging ... 239
4.20. Operation of a Diesel Power Plant ... 241
4.21. Types of Diesel Engine used for Diesel Power Plants ... 241
4.22. Layout of a Diesel Engine Power Plant ... 242
4.23. Performance of I.C. Engines ... 242
Worked Examples ... 248
Highlights ... 260
Theoretical Questions ... 261
Unsolved Examples ... 261
Competitive Examinations Questions ... 263

5. GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS ... 265322

5.1. Gas TurbinesGeneral Aspects ... 265
5.2. Applications of Gas Turbine Plants ... 265
5.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Gas Turbine
Power Plants Over Diesel and Thermal Power Plants ... 266
5.4. Site Selection ... 266
5.5. The Simple Gas Turbine Plant ... 267
5.6. Energy Cycle for a Simple-Cycle Gas Turbine ... 267
5.7. Performance Terms ... 268
5.8. Classification of Gas Turbine Power Plants ... 268
5.9. Classification of Gas Turbines ... 268
5.10. Merits of Gas Turbines ... 268
5.11. Constant Pressure Combustion Gas Turbines ... 269
5.11.1. Open cycle gas turbines ... 269
5.11.2. Methods for improvement of thermal efficiency of open
cycle gas turbine plant ... 270
5.11.3. Closed cycle gas turbine (constant pressure or joule cycle) ... 273
5.11.4. Merits and demerits of closed cycle turbine over open cycle turbine ... 277
5.12. Constant Volume Combustion Turbines ... 277
5.13. Gas Turbine Fuels ... 278
 (x)

Chapter Pages

5.14. Effect of Operating Variables on Thermal Efficiency ... 278

5.15 Combination Gas Turbine Cycles ... 280
5.15.1. Combined gas turbine and steam power plants ... 280
5.15.2. Combined gas turbine and diesel power plants ... 281
5.15.3. Advantages of combined cycle ... 282
5.16. Operation of a Gas Turbine ... 282
5.17. Gas Turbine Power Plant Layout ... 283
5.18. Components of a Gas Turbine Power Plant ... 283
5.19. Various Arrangements of Gas Turbine Power Plants ... 285
5.20. Effect of Thermodynamic Variables on Air Rate ... 288
5.21. Free-Piston Engine Plant ... 289
5.22. Relative Thermal Efficiencies of Different Cycles ... 290
Worked Examples ... 291
Additional/Typical Examples ... 304
Highlights ... 319
Theoretical Questions ... 319
Unsolved Examples ... 319
Competitive Examinations Questions ... 321

6. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT ... 323394

6.1. Introduction ... 323
6.2. Application of Hydro-electric Plants ... 324
6.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydro-electric Plants ... 324
6.4. Selection of Site for a Hydro-electric Plant ... 324
6.5. Essential Features/Elements of Hydro-electric Power Plant ... 325
6.5.1. Catchment area ... 325
6.5.2. Reservoir ... 325
6.5.3. Dam ... 325
6.5.4. Spillways ... 328
6.5.5. Conduits ... 330
6.5.6. Surge tanks ... 331
6.5.7. Prime movers ... 333
6.5.8. Draft tubes ... 333
6.5.9. Powerhouse and equipment ... 334
6.6. Classification of Hydro-electric Power Plants ... 334
6.6.1. High head power plants ... 334
6.6.2. Medium head power plants ... 335
6.6.3. Low head power plants ... 335
6.6.4. Base load plants ... 336
6.6.5. Peak load plants ... 336
6.6.6. Run-of-river plants without pondage ... 336
6.6.7. Run-of-river plant with pondage ... 336
6.6.8. Storage type plants ... 336
6.6.9. Pumped storage plants ... 336
6.6.10. Mini and microhydel plants ... 337
6.7. Hydraulic Turbines ... 337
6.7.1. Classification of hydraulic turbines ... 337
6.7.2. Description of various types of turbines ... 338
6.7.3. Specific speed of a turbine ... 348
6.7.4. Efficiencies of a turbine ... 350
6.7.5. Cavitation ... 351
6.7.6. Performance of hydraulic turbines ... 352
 ( xi )

Chapter Pages

6.7.7. Governing of hydraulic turbines ... 354

6.7.8. Selection of turbines ... 356
6.8. Plant Layout ... 357
6.9. Hydro-plant Auxiliaries ... 357
6.10. Cost of Hydro-plant ... 357
6.11. Average Life of Hydro-plant Components ... 358
6.12. Hydro-plant Controls ... 358
6.13. Electrical and Mechanical Equipment in a Hydro-plant ... 358
6.14. Combined Hydro and Steam Power Plants ... 359
6.15. Comparison of Hydro-power Station with Thermal Power Stations ... 359
6.16. Underground Hydro-plants ... 360
6.17. Automatic and Remote Control of Hydro-station ... 361
6.18. Safety Measures in Hydro-electric Power Plants ... 361
6.19. Preventive Maintenance of Hydro-plant ... 362
6.20. Calculation of Available Hydro-power ... 362
6.21. Cost of Hydro-power ... 362
6.22. Hydrology ... 362
6.22.1. Introduction ... 362
6.22.2. The hydrologic cycle ... 363
6.22.3. Measurement of run-off ... 363
6.22.4. Hydrograph ... 364
6.22.5. Flow duration curve ... 365
6.22.6. Mass curve ... 366
6.23. Hydro-Power Development in India ... 366
Worked Examples ... 367
Highlights ... 389
Theoretical Questions ... 390
Unsolved Examples ... 390
Competitive Examinations Questions ... 392

7. NUCLEAR POWER PLANT ... 395431

7.1. General Aspects of Nuclear Engineering ... 395
7.1.1. Atomic structure ... 395
7.1.2. Atomic mass unit ... 396
7.1.3. Isotopes ... 397
7.1.4. Radioactivity ... 397
7.1.5. Nuclear radiation ... 397
7.1.6. Binding energy ... 399
7.1.7. Radioactive decay ... 399
7.1.8. Nuclear reactions ... 400
7.1.9. Nuclear cross-sections ... 401
7.1.10. Fertile materials ... 402
7.1.11. Fission of nuclear fuel ... 402
7.1.12. Nuclear fusion ... 404
7.1.13. Comparison of fission and fusion processes ... 404
7.2. Nuclear Power Systems ... 405
7.3. Nuclear Reactors ... 406
7.3.1. Introduction ... 406
7.3.2. Classification of nuclear reactors ... 406
7.3.3. Essential components of a nuclear reactor ... 407
7.3.4. Power of a nuclear reactor ... 410
7.4. Main Components of a Nuclear Power Plant ... 410
 ( xii )

Chapter Pages

7.5. Description of Reactors ... 410

7.5.1. Pressurised water reactor (PWR) ... 410
7.5.2. Boiling water reactor (BWR) ... 411
7.5.3. CANDU (Canadian-Deuterium-Uranium) reactor ... 412
7.5.4. Gas-cooled reactor ... 413
7.5.5. Liquid metal cooled reactors ... 414
7.5.6. Breeder reactor ... 415
7.6. Selection of Materials for Reactor Components ... 415
7.7. Metals for Nuclear Energy ... 417
7.8. Advantages of Nuclear Power Plants ... 419
7.9. Nuclear-Plant Site Selection ... 420
7.10. Application of Nuclear Power Plants ... 422
7.11. Economics of Nuclear Power Plants ... 422
7.12. Safety Measures for Nuclear Power Plants ... 424
7.13. Nuclear Power Plants in India ... 424
7.14. Future of Nuclear Power ... 425
7.15. Useful by-products of Nuclear Power Generation and Their Uses ... 425
Worked Examples ... 426
Highlights ... 429
Theoretical Questions ... 430
Unsolved Examples ... 431
Competitive Examinations Questions ... 431

8. COMBINED OPERATION OF DIFFERENT POWER PLANTS ... 432441

8.1. General Aspects ... 432
8.2. Advantages of Combined Operation of Plants ... 432
8.3. Load Division Between Power Stations ... 432
8.4. Hydro-electric (storage type) Plant in Combination with Steam Plant ... 434
8.5. Run-of-river Plant in Combination with Steam Plant ... 435
8.6. Pump Storage Plant in Combination with Steam
or Nuclear Power Plant ... 435
8.7. Co-ordination of Hydro-electric and Gas Turbine Stations ... 436
8.8. Co-ordination of Different Types of Power Plants ... 436
Worked Examples ... 437
Theoretical Questions ... 440
Unsolved Examples ... 440

9. ECONOMICS OF POWER GENERATION ... 442493

9.1. Introduction ... 442
9.2. Terms and Definitions ... 442
9.3. Principles of Power Plant Design ... 444
9.4. Location of Power Plant ... 444
9.5. Layout of Power Plant Building ... 445
9.6. Cost Analysis ... 445
9.7. Selection of Type of Generation ... 447
9.8. Selection of Power Plant Equipment ... 448
9.8.1. Selection of boilers ... 448
9.8.2. Selection of prime movers ... 448
9.8.3. Selection of size and number of generating units ... 449
9.9. Economics in Plant Selection ... 449
9.10. Factors Affecting Economics of Generation and Distribution of Power ... 451
9.11. How to Reduce Power Generation Cost ? ... 451
 ( xiii )
Chapter Pages
9.12. Power PlantUseful Life ... 451
9.13. Economics of Hydro-electric Power Plants ... 452
9.14. Economics of Combined Hydro and Steam Power Plants ... 452
9.15. Performance and Operating Characteristics of Power Plants ... 453
9.16. Economic Load Sharing ... 454
9.17. Tariff for Electrical Energy ... 455
9.17.1. Introduction ... 455
9.17.2. Objectives and requirements of tariff ... 455
9.17.3. General tariff form ... 456
Worked Examples ... 458
Additional/Typical Examples ... 482
Highlights ... 484
Theoretical Questions ... 485
Unsolved Examples ... 485
Competitive Examinations Questions ... 491

10. NON-CONVENTIONAL POWER GENERATION AND DIRECT ENERGY

CONVERSION ... 494535
10.1. Introduction to Energy and Energy Sources ... 494
10.1.1. Energy ... 494
10.1.2. Non-conventional energy sources ... 497
10.2. Wind Power Plants ... 497
10.2.1. Introduction ... 497
10.2.2. Characteristics of wind ... 497
10.2.3. Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy ... 497
10.2.4. Sources/Origins of wind ... 498
10.2.5. Wind availability and measurement ... 498
10.2.6. Wind power ... 499
10.2.7. Terms and definitions ... 500
10.2.8. Types of wind mills ... 501
10.2.9. Wind-electric generating power plant ... 502
10.2.10. Types of wind machines ... 503
10.2.11. Utilisation aspects of wind energy ... 503
10.2.12. Generating systems ... 504
10.2.13. Wind-powered battery chargers ... 505
10.2.14. Wind electricity in small independent grids ... 505
10.2.15. Wind electricity economics ... 505
10.2.16. Problems in operating large wind power generators ... 506
10.2.17. Considerations for selection of site for wind energy conversion systems ... 506
10.3. Tidal Power PlantsOcean Energy Conversion ... 506
10.3.1. Ocean energy sourcesGeneral aspects ... 506
10.3.2. Tidal power plants ... 506
10.3.3. Wave energy ... 508
10.3.4. Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) plant ... 509
10.4. Solar Power Plants ... 510
10.4.1. Solar energyGeneral terms and introduction ... 510
10.4.2. Collectors in various ranges and applications ... 511
10.4.3. Flat plate collectors ... 512
10.4.4. Focusing (or concentrating) collectors ... 513
10.4.5. Solar pond technology ... 513
10.4.6. Low temperature thermal power generation ... 514
10.4.7. Medium temperature systems using focusing collectors ... 516
10.4.8. High temperature systemssolar farm and solar power plant ... 516
 ( xiv )

Chapter Pages

10.5. Geothermal Power Plants ... 516

10.5.1. Geothermal energy ... 516
10.5.2. Geothermal sources ... 517
10.5.3. Geothermal power estimates ... 518
10.5.4. Environmental problems ... 518
10.5.5. Applications of geothermal energy ... 518
10.5.6. Advantages and disadvantages of geothermal energy over
other energy forms ... 518
10.5.7. Geothermal energy in India and abroad ... 518
10.6. Biogas Plants-Biomass ... 519
10.6.1. Introduction to biomass ... 519
10.6.2 Biomass conversion processes ... 519
10.6.3. Biogas plants ... 520
10.7. Direct Energy Conversion Systems ... 525
10.7.1. Thermoelectric conversion system ... 525
10.7.2. Thermionic conversion system ... 526
10.7.3. Photovoltaic power system ... 527
10.7.4. Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) system ... 529
10.7.5. Electrostatic mechanical generators ... 531
10.7.6. Electro gas-dynamic generators (EGD) ... 531
10.7.7. Fuel cells ... 532
10.7.8. Nuclear batteries ... 533
Highlights ... 534
Theoretical Questions ... 534
Competitive Examinations Questions ... 535

11. PLANT INSTRUMENTATION ... 536557

11.1. General Aspects ... 536
11.2. Classification of Instruments ... 536
11.3. Pressure Gauges ... 537
11.3.1. Pressure ... 537
11.3.2. Types of pressure measurement devices ... 537
11.3.3. Mechanical type instruments ... 537
11.3.4. Electrical transducers ... 540
11.4. Thermometers ... 541
11.4.1. Temperature ... 541
11.4.2. Temperature measuring instruments ... 541
11.5. Liquid Level Gauges ... 545
11.5.1. Gauge glass ... 545
11.5.2. Electrical level gauges ... 546
11.6. Flow Meters ... 547
11.7. pH Measuring Instruments ... 547
11.8. Gas Analysers ... 547
11.9. Humidity Measuring Instruments ... 550
11.10. Impurity Measuring Instruments ... 552
11.11. Speed Measuring Instruments ... 553
11.12. Steam Calorimeters and Fuel Calorimeters ... 553
11.12.1. Steam calorimeters ... 553
11.12.2. Fuel calorimeters ... 555
Highlights ... 557
Theoretical Questions ... 557
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Publisher : Laxmi Publications ISBN : 9788131802557 Author : R K Rajput

Type the URL : http://www.kopykitab.com/product/10480

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