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JA310101-002 ISBN 0-88487-488-5 Printed in Germany

ii Meteorology (Rev Q407)

PREFACE_______________________

As the world moves toward a single standard for international pilot licensing, many nations have
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publication, JAR-FCL 1 (Aeroplanes).

The JAA regulations specify that all those who wish to obtain a JAA ATPL must study with a
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The next three pages contain a list and content description of all the volumes in the ATPL series.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) iii

ATPL Series
Meteorology (JAR Ref 050)
The Atmosphere Air Masses and Fronts
Wind Pressure System
Thermodynamics Climatology
Clouds and Fog Flight Hazards
Precipitation Meteorological Information

General Navigation (JAR Ref 061)

Basics of Navigation Dead Reckoning Navigation
Magnetism In-Flight Navigation
Compasses Inertial Navigation Systems
Charts

Radio Navigation (JAR Ref 062)

Radio Aids Basic Radar Principles
Self-contained and Area Navigation Systems
External-Referenced Basic Radio Propagation Theory
Navigation Systems

Airframes and Systems (JAR Ref 021 01)

Fuselage Hydraulics
Windows Pneumatic Systems
Wings Air Conditioning System
Stabilising Surfaces Pressurisation
Landing Gear De-Ice / Anti-Ice Systems
Flight Controls Fuel Systems

Powerplant (JAR Ref 021 03)

Piston Engine Engine Systems
Turbine Engine Auxiliary Power Unit (APU)
Engine Construction

Electrics (JAR Ref 021 02)

Direct Current Generator / Alternator
Alternating Current Semiconductors
Batteries Circuits
Magnetism

iv Meteorology (Rev Q407)

 Instrumentation (JAR Ref 022)
Flight Instruments
Automatic Flight Control Systems
Warning and Recording Equipment
Powerplant and System Monitoring Instruments

Principles of Flight (JAR Ref 080)

Laws and Definitions Boundary Layer
Aerofoil Airflow High Speed Flight
Aeroplane Airflow Stability
Lift Coefficient Flying Controls
Total Drag Adverse Weather Conditions
Ground Effect Propellers
Stall Operating Limitations
CLMAX Augmentation Flight Mechanics
Lift Coefficient and Speed

Performance (JAR Ref 032)

Single-Engine Aeroplanes Not certified under JAR/FAR 25
(Performance Class B)
Multi-Engine Aeroplanes Not certified under JAR/FAR 25
(Performance Class B)
Aeroplanes certified under JAR/FAR 25 (Performance Class A)

Mass and Balance (JAR Ref 031)

Definition and Terminology
Limits
Loading
Centre of Gravity

Flight Planning (JAR Ref 033)

Flight Plan for Cross-Country
Flights
ICAO ATC Flight Planning
IFR (Airways) Flight Planning
Jeppesen Airway Manual
Meteorological Messages
Point of Equal Time
Point of Safe Return
Medium Range Jet Transport
Planning

Air Law (JAR Ref 010)

International Agreements Air Traffic Services
and Organisations Aerodromes
Annex 8 Airworthiness of Facilitation
Aircraft Search and Rescue
Annex 7 Aircraft Nationality Security
and Registration Marks Aircraft Accident Investigation
Annex 1 Licensing JAR-FCL
Rules of the Air National Law
Procedures for Air Navigation

Meteorology (Rev Q407) v

 Human Performance and
Limitations (JAR Ref 040)
Human Factors
Aviation Physiology and Health Maintenance
Aviation Psychology

Operational Procedures (JAR Ref 070)

Operator Low Visibility Operations
Air Operations Certificate Special Operational Procedures
Flight Operations and Hazards
Aerodrome Operating Minima Transoceanic and Polar Flight

Communications (JAR Ref 090)

Definitions
General Operation Procedures
Relevant Weather Information
Communication Failure
VHF Propagation
Allocation of Frequencies
Distress and Urgency
Procedures
Aerodrome Control
Approach Control
Area Control

vi Meteorology (Rev Q407)

 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1
The Atmosphere

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 1-1

Definition of the Atmosphere........................................................................................................................ 1-1
Properties of the Atmosphere ...................................................................................................................... 1-1
Composition of the Atmosphere................................................................................................................... 1-1
Water (H2O) ................................................................................................................................................. 1-3
The Water Cycle .......................................................................................................................................... 1-3
Particles and Dust ........................................................................................................................................ 1-3
Carbon Dioxide (CO2).................................................................................................................................. 1-4
Structure of the Atmosphere ........................................................................................................................ 1-4
Troposphere................................................................................................................................................. 1-4
Tropopause.................................................................................................................................................. 1-5
Stratosphere ................................................................................................................................................ 1-7
Stratopause.................................................................................................................................................. 1-7
Mesosphere ................................................................................................................................................. 1-7
Mesopause .................................................................................................................................................. 1-7
Thermosphere.............................................................................................................................................. 1-7
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) .................................................................................................... 1-8
ISA deviation................................................................................................................................................ 1-9
Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA) .................................................................................................................. 1-9
Answers to ISA deviation questions ........................................................................................................... 1-10

CHAPTER 2
Pressure and Pressure Systems

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 2-1

Atmospheric Pressure.................................................................................................................................. 2-1
Measuring Atmospheric Pressure ................................................................................................................ 2-2
Mercury Barometer ...................................................................................................................................... 2-3
Aneroid Barometer ....................................................................................................................................... 2-3
Units of Measurement .................................................................................................................................. 2-3
Pressure Variation ....................................................................................................................................... 2-4
Horizontally .................................................................................................................................................. 2-4
Diurnally ....................................................................................................................................................... 2-4
Vertically ...................................................................................................................................................... 2-5

CHAPTER 3
Temperature

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3-1

Temperature Scales..................................................................................................................................... 3-1
Celsius ......................................................................................................................................................... 3-1
Kelvin ........................................................................................................................................................... 3-1
Fahrenheit.................................................................................................................................................... 3-1
Conversion Factors ...................................................................................................................................... 3-1
Measurement of Temperature...................................................................................................................... 3-2
Heating of the Atmosphere .......................................................................................................................... 3-3
Solar Radiation ............................................................................................................................................ 3-3
Terrestrial Radiation..................................................................................................................................... 3-4
Conduction................................................................................................................................................... 3-4
Convection ................................................................................................................................................... 3-4
Advection ..................................................................................................................................................... 3-4
Latent Heat of Condensation ....................................................................................................................... 3-4
Diurnal Variation of Temperature ................................................................................................................. 3-5
The Greenhouse Effect ................................................................................................................................ 3-7

Meteorology (Rev Q407) vii

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CHAPTER 4
Water in the Atmosphere

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 4-1

Water States and Latent Heat ...................................................................................................................... 4-1
Evaporation .................................................................................................................................................. 4-1
Melting ......................................................................................................................................................... 4-1
Sublimation .................................................................................................................................................. 4-2
Condensation ............................................................................................................................................... 4-2
Freezing ....................................................................................................................................................... 4-2
Saturation..................................................................................................................................................... 4-2
Humidity ....................................................................................................................................................... 4-2
Absolute Humidity ........................................................................................................................................ 4-3
Saturation Content ....................................................................................................................................... 4-3
Relative Humidity ......................................................................................................................................... 4-3
Humidity Mixing Ratio .................................................................................................................................. 4-3
Water Vapour Pressure................................................................................................................................ 4-4
Super-saturation........................................................................................................................................... 4-4
Saturation and Dewpoint.............................................................................................................................. 4-4
Condensation Level ..................................................................................................................................... 4-6
Diurnal Variation of Humidity........................................................................................................................ 4-6
Saturation Vapour Pressure Curve .............................................................................................................. 4-7
Measurement of Humidity ............................................................................................................................ 4-8
Psychrometer ............................................................................................................................................... 4-8
Humidity Method .......................................................................................................................................... 4-9
Answers to Exercises................................................................................................................................. 4-10

CHAPTER 5
Density

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 5-1

The Ideal Gas Laws ..................................................................................................................................... 5-1
Boyles Law.................................................................................................................................................. 5-2
Charless Law............................................................................................................................................... 5-2
The Gas Equation ........................................................................................................................................ 5-2
Effect of Water Vapour on Air Density.......................................................................................................... 5-3
Variation of Surface Air Density with Latitude .............................................................................................. 5-3
Variation of Air Density with Height .............................................................................................................. 5-4
Variation of Air Density with Latitude and Height ......................................................................................... 5-4
Diurnal Variation of Density.......................................................................................................................... 5-5
Density Altitude ............................................................................................................................................ 5-6
Calculating Density Altitude ......................................................................................................................... 5-6
Effect of Density on Aircraft Performance .................................................................................................... 5-7
Answers to Exercises................................................................................................................................... 5-8

viii Meteorology (Rev Q407)

 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 6
Pressure Systems

Pressure Systems ........................................................................................................................................ 6-1

Pressure Values........................................................................................................................................... 6-1
Standard Pressure ....................................................................................................................................... 6-1
QFE.............................................................................................................................................................. 6-1
QNH ............................................................................................................................................................. 6-1
QFF.............................................................................................................................................................. 6-1
QNE ............................................................................................................................................................. 6-1
Isobar ........................................................................................................................................................... 6-1
Isallobar ....................................................................................................................................................... 6-1
Comparison between QNH and QFF ........................................................................................................... 6-2
Summary...................................................................................................................................................... 6-3
Depressions ................................................................................................................................................. 6-4
Vertical Cross Section of a Depression........................................................................................................ 6-5
Anticyclones................................................................................................................................................. 6-7
Vertical Cross Section of an Anticyclone...................................................................................................... 6-8
Troughs...................................................................................................................................................... 6-10
Ridges........................................................................................................................................................ 6-10
Cols............................................................................................................................................................ 6-11
Movement of Pressure Systems ................................................................................................................ 6-11
Synoptic charts .......................................................................................................................................... 6-11

CHAPTER 7
Altimetry

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 7-1

Pressure Calculations .................................................................................................................................. 7-2
Correcting for Temperature.......................................................................................................................... 7-6
Mountain Flying.......................................................................................................................................... 7-12
Calculation of Minimum Useable Flight Level ............................................................................................ 7-12

CHAPTER 8
Stability

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 8-1

Lapse Rates and Adiabatic Processes......................................................................................................... 8-1
The Environmental Lapse Rate.................................................................................................................... 8-1
Adiabatic Processes .................................................................................................................................... 8-2
The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate ..................................................................................................................... 8-2
The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate ........................................................................................................... 8-2
Stability of the Air ......................................................................................................................................... 8-3
Absolute Stability ......................................................................................................................................... 8-3
Absolute Instability ....................................................................................................................................... 8-4
Conditional Instability ................................................................................................................................... 8-5
Neutral Stability............................................................................................................................................ 8-5
Summary of Stability .................................................................................................................................... 8-6
Convective or Potential Instability ................................................................................................................ 8-7

Meteorology (Rev Q407) ix

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 9
Clouds

Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................... 9-1

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 9-1
Cloud Types ................................................................................................................................................. 9-1
Cloud Formation........................................................................................................................................... 9-2
Convective Clouds ....................................................................................................................................... 9-2
Frontal Clouds.............................................................................................................................................. 9-3
Orographic Clouds ....................................................................................................................................... 9-3
Altocumulus Lenticularis .............................................................................................................................. 9-4
Cap Cloud .................................................................................................................................................... 9-4
Turbulence Clouds ....................................................................................................................................... 9-5
Convergence Clouds.................................................................................................................................... 9-6
Cloud types - Pictures .................................................................................................................................. 9-7
Stratus ......................................................................................................................................................... 9-7
Stratocumulus ............................................................................................................................................. 9-8
Cumulus ....................................................................................................................................................... 9-9
Cumulonimbus ........................................................................................................................................... 9-10
Altostratus .................................................................................................................................................. 9-11
Cirrus ........................................................................................................................................................ 9-10
Cirrostratus ................................................................................................................................................ 9-13
Cirrocumulus .............................................................................................................................................. 9-14
Summary of Cloud Type and Characteristics ............................................................................................. 9-15

CHAPTER 10
Precipitation

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 10-1

Precipitation Processes.............................................................................................................................. 10-1
Bergeron Theory (The Ice Crystal Effect)................................................................................................... 10-1
Coalescence Theory (Capture Effect))....................................................................................................... 10-2
Intensity of Precipitation ............................................................................................................................. 10-2
Continuity of Precipitation .......................................................................................................................... 10-2
Precipitation Types..................................................................................................................................... 10-3
Hail............................................................................................................................................................. 10-4

x Meteorology (Rev Q407)

 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 11
Thunderstorms

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 11-1

Conditions .................................................................................................................................................. 11-1
Trigger Actions........................................................................................................................................... 11-1
Thunderstorm Classification....................................................................................................................... 11-1
Heat/Airmass Thunderstorms .................................................................................................................... 11-2
Convection ................................................................................................................................................. 11-2
Orographic Uplift ........................................................................................................................................ 11-2
Advection ................................................................................................................................................... 11-2
Convergence.............................................................................................................................................. 11-2
Frontal Thunderstorms............................................................................................................................... 11-2
Identification of Thunderstorms.................................................................................................................. 11-3
Stages of Development.............................................................................................................................. 11-3
Growth Stages ........................................................................................................................................... 11-3
Mature Stage ............................................................................................................................................. 11-3
Dissipating Stage ....................................................................................................................................... 11-4
Supercell Thunderstorms ........................................................................................................................... 11-5
Movement of Thunderstorms ..................................................................................................................... 11-5
Squall Lines ............................................................................................................................................... 11-5
Hazards...................................................................................................................................................... 11-5
Turbulence and Windshear ........................................................................................................................ 11-5
Gust Front .................................................................................................................................................. 11-6
Microbursts ................................................................................................................................................ 11-6
Hail............................................................................................................................................................. 11-7
Icing ........................................................................................................................................................... 11-8
Lightning .................................................................................................................................................... 11-8
Static .......................................................................................................................................................... 11-8
Water Ingestion.......................................................................................................................................... 11-8
Tornadoes.................................................................................................................................................. 11-9
Pressure Variation ..................................................................................................................................... 11-9
Weather Radar........................................................................................................................................... 11-9
Avoidance Criteria.................................................................................................................................... 11-10

CHAPTER 12
Visibility

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 12-1

Types of Visibility Reduction ...................................................................................................................... 12-1
Types of Visibility ....................................................................................................................................... 12-1
Meteorological Visibility.............................................................................................................................. 12-1
Runway Visual Range................................................................................................................................ 12-1
Oblique Visibility......................................................................................................................................... 12-2
Measurement of Visibility ........................................................................................................................... 12-2
Measurement of Runway Visual Range ..................................................................................................... 12-3
RVR Reporting........................................................................................................................................... 12-3
Visibility While Flying.................................................................................................................................. 12-4
Types of Fog .............................................................................................................................................. 12-6
Radiation Fog............................................................................................................................................. 12-6
Advection Fog ............................................................................................................................................ 12-7
Steaming Fog (Artic Sea Smoke)............................................................................................................... 12-8
Frontal Fog................................................................................................................................................. 12-8
Hill Fog....................................................................................................................................................... 12-9
Other Reducers of Visibility...................................................................................................................... 12-10
Smoke Fog (Smog) .................................................................................................................................. 12-10
Dust and Sand ......................................................................................................................................... 12-10
Precipitation ............................................................................................................................................. 12-10
Visual Illusions ......................................................................................................................................... 12-11
Shallow Fog ............................................................................................................................................. 12-11
Rain Showers........................................................................................................................................... 12-11

Meteorology (Rev Q407) xi

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 12 (continued)

Layer Cloud.............................................................................................................................................. 12-11

Rain Effects.............................................................................................................................................. 12-11

CHAPTER 13
Icing

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 13-1

Conditions .................................................................................................................................................. 13-1
Effects of Icing............................................................................................................................................ 13-1
Icing Definitions.......................................................................................................................................... 13-2
Supercooled Water Droplets ...................................................................................................................... 13-3
Size of Supercooled Water Droplets .......................................................................................................... 13-3
Freezing Process ....................................................................................................................................... 13-3
Types of Icing............................................................................................................................................. 13-4
Clear Ice..................................................................................................................................................... 13-4
Rime Ice..................................................................................................................................................... 13-4
Mixed Ice.................................................................................................................................................... 13-5
Rain Ice...................................................................................................................................................... 13-5
Hoar Frost .................................................................................................................................................. 13-5
Factors Affecting the Severity of Icing........................................................................................................ 13-6
Engine Icing ............................................................................................................................................... 13-7
Piston Engine Icing .................................................................................................................................... 13-7
Jet Engine Icing.......................................................................................................................................... 13-9
Ice Protection ............................................................................................................................................. 13-9

CHAPTER 14
Wind

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 14-1

Terms Associated with Wind ...................................................................................................................... 14-2
Forces Acting upon the Air ......................................................................................................................... 14-2
The Pressure Gradient Force..................................................................................................................... 14-3
The Geostrophic Force .............................................................................................................................. 14-3
The Geostrophic Wind ............................................................................................................................... 14-5
The Geostrophic Wind Scale ..................................................................................................................... 14-7
The Gradient Wind ..................................................................................................................................... 14-7
Winds Near the Equator ............................................................................................................................. 14-9
The Surface Wind ...................................................................................................................................... 14-9
Diurnal Variation of the Surface Wind ...................................................................................................... 14-10
Measurement of Surface Wind................................................................................................................. 14-11
Isallobaric Effect....................................................................................................................................... 14-11

CHAPTER 15
Local Winds

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 15-1

Land and Sea Breezes............................................................................................................................... 15-1
Sea Breeze ................................................................................................................................................ 15-1
Land Breeze............................................................................................................................................... 15-2
Operational Implications of the Land and Sea Breezes ............................................................................. 15-2
Katabatic and Anabatic Winds ................................................................................................................... 15-3
Mountain Wind ........................................................................................................................................... 15-3
Valley Wind ................................................................................................................................................ 15-4
Foehn Wind/Effect...................................................................................................................................... 15-5
Valley/Ravine Wind .................................................................................................................................... 15-6
Headland Effect.......................................................................................................................................... 15-7

xii Meteorology (Rev Q407)

 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 15 (continued)

Low-Level Jet............................................................................................................................................. 15-7

Nocturnal Jet.............................................................................................................................................. 15-7
Valley Inversion.......................................................................................................................................... 15-8
Coastal Jet ................................................................................................................................................. 15-8
Low Level Jet in Front of an Extra-Tropical Cold Front .............................................................................. 15-8

CHAPTER 16
Air Masses

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 16-1

Origin and Classification ............................................................................................................................ 16-1
Modification of Air Masses ......................................................................................................................... 16-2
Air Masses Affecting Europe...................................................................................................................... 16-3
Arctic .......................................................................................................................................................... 16-3
Polar........................................................................................................................................................... 16-3
Tropical ...................................................................................................................................................... 16-5
Air Mass Summary..................................................................................................................................... 16-5

CHAPTER 17
Fronts and Occlusions

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 17-1

Types of Front............................................................................................................................................ 17-1
Quasi-Stationary Front ............................................................................................................................... 17-1
Cold Front .................................................................................................................................................. 17-2
Warm Front ................................................................................................................................................ 17-2
Pressure Situation at a Front ..................................................................................................................... 17-2
Semi-Permanent Fronts of the World......................................................................................................... 17-3
Arctic Front................................................................................................................................................. 17-3
Polar Front ................................................................................................................................................. 17-3
Mediterranean Front .................................................................................................................................. 17-3
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) ................................................................................................... 17-4
Characteristics of Fronts ............................................................................................................................ 17-4
Warm Front ................................................................................................................................................ 17-4
Cold Front .................................................................................................................................................. 17-5
Polar Front Depressions ............................................................................................................................ 17-6
Weather Associated with the Polar Front Depression ................................................................................ 17-9
Occlusions ............................................................................................................................................... 17-12

CHAPTER 18
Upper Winds

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 18-1

Thermal Wind Component ......................................................................................................................... 18-1
Calculating the Thermal Wind Component................................................................................................. 18-2
Upper Wind ................................................................................................................................................ 18-3
Global Upper Winds ................................................................................................................................... 18-5
Jet Streams................................................................................................................................................ 18-5
Common Jet Streams ................................................................................................................................ 18-6
Sub Tropical Jet Stream............................................................................................................................. 18-6
Polar Front Jet Stream ............................................................................................................................... 18-8
Winds Around a Polar Front Depression.................................................................................................... 18-9
Clear Air Turbulence .................................................................................................................................. 18-9
Identification of Jet Streams..................................................................................................................... 18-10
Contour Charts......................................................................................................................................... 18-10

Meteorology (Rev Q407) xiii

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 19
Windshear and Turbulence

Windshear .................................................................................................................................................. 19-1

Definitions and the Meteorological Background ......................................................................................... 19-1
Definition .................................................................................................................................................... 19-1
Low Altitude Windshear ............................................................................................................................. 19-1
Meteorological Features............................................................................................................................. 19-2
Thunderstorms ........................................................................................................................................... 19-2
Frontal Passage ......................................................................................................................................... 19-2
Inversions................................................................................................................................................... 19-3
Turbulent Boundary Layer.......................................................................................................................... 19-3
Topographical Windshears ........................................................................................................................ 19-3
The Effects of Windshear on an Aircraft in Flight ....................................................................................... 19-4
Techniques to Counter the Effects of Windshear ....................................................................................... 19-8
ICAO Definitions....................................................................................................................................... 19-11
Nature of Turbulence ............................................................................................................................... 19-11
Turbulence, Meteorological Factors ......................................................................................................... 19-11
Thermal Turbulence ................................................................................................................................. 19-12
Mechanical/ Frictional Turbulence............................................................................................................ 19-12
Mountain Waves ...................................................................................................................................... 19-12
Flight Over and in the Vicinity of High Ground ......................................................................................... 19-12
Conditions ................................................................................................................................................ 19-13
Visual Detection of Mountain Waves........................................................................................................ 19-13
Turbulence ............................................................................................................................................... 19-15
Turbulence at Low and Medium Levels.................................................................................................... 19-15
Turbulence in the Rotor Zone .................................................................................................................. 19-15
Turbulence in Waves ............................................................................................................................... 19-15
Turbulence at High Levels (near and above the tropopause) .................................................................. 19-15
Turbulence Near the Jet Stream .............................................................................................................. 19-15
Turbulence in the Stratosphere ................................................................................................................ 19-15
Downdraughts .......................................................................................................................................... 19-15
Icing ......................................................................................................................................................... 19-16
Flying Aspects.......................................................................................................................................... 19-16
Low Altitude Flight.................................................................................................................................... 19-16
High Altitude Flight ................................................................................................................................... 19-16
Inversions................................................................................................................................................. 19-17
Marked Temperature Inversion ................................................................................................................ 19-17

xiv Meteorology (Rev Q407)

 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 20
Non-Frontal Pressure Systems

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 20-1

Low, Cyclone or Depression, and Trough .................................................................................................. 20-1
Secondary Depression............................................................................................................................... 20-2
Icelandic Low ............................................................................................................................................. 20-2
The Origin Of Low Pressures And Weather ............................................................................................... 20-4
Orographic or Lee Side Lows or Troughs .................................................................................................. 20-4
Thermal Depressions ................................................................................................................................. 20-5
Instability Lows........................................................................................................................................... 20-6
Mediterranean Low .................................................................................................................................... 20-6
Polar Lows ................................................................................................................................................. 20-7
Baltic Sea Cyclones ................................................................................................................................... 20-7
Cells of Cold Air Aloft (Cold Pools) ............................................................................................................ 20-7
Anticyclone or High, and Ridge or Wedge ................................................................................................. 20-8
Nature of a High......................................................................................................................................... 20-8
High Pressure Systems.............................................................................................................................. 20-9
Subtropical Highs (Warm Anticyclones) ..................................................................................................... 20-9
Continental Highs (Cold Anticyclones) ....................................................................................................... 20-9
High Pressures And High Pressure Ridges (Or Wedges) In Series Of Traveling Depressions................ 20-10

CHAPTER 21
Meteorological Services

Meteorological Services ............................................................................................................................. 21-1

Pre-Flight Briefing ...................................................................................................................................... 21-1
High Altitude Observations......................................................................................................................... 21-1
Surface Observations................................................................................................................................. 21-2
Wind Direction and Speed ......................................................................................................................... 21-2
Visibility ...................................................................................................................................................... 21-2
Weather ..................................................................................................................................................... 21-2
Clouds ....................................................................................................................................................... 21-3
Temperature and Dewpoint........................................................................................................................ 21-3
Air Pressure ............................................................................................................................................... 21-3
Accuracy of Meteorological Measurement or Observation......................................................................... 21-4
Marked Temperature Inversion .................................................................................................................. 21-4
Windshear Alerting..................................................................................................................................... 21-4
Windshear Reporting Criteria..................................................................................................................... 21-5
Aircraft Reports .......................................................................................................................................... 21-5
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT)........................................................................................................................ 21-5
Airframe icing ............................................................................................................................................. 21-6
Aviation Weather Broadcasts..................................................................................................................... 21-6

Meteorology (Rev Q407) xv

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 22
Aviation Weather Messages

Aviation Weather Messages ...................................................................................................................... 22-1

METAR, SPECI and TREND ..................................................................................................................... 22-1
Codes ........................................................................................................................................................ 22-1
METAR and SPECI.................................................................................................................................... 22-1
TREND....................................................................................................................................................... 22-3
Weather Codes (ww) ................................................................................................................................ 22-4
Runway Sate Group................................................................................................................................... 22-5
TAF ............................................................................................................................................................ 22-6
Codes......................................................................................................................................................... 22-6
AIRMET, SIGMET and Special Air Report ................................................................................................. 22-7
AIRMET ..................................................................................................................................................... 22-7
SIGMET ..................................................................................................................................................... 22-7
Special Air Report ...................................................................................................................................... 22-7
Phenomenon Codes for AIRMET/SIGMET/Special Air Report .................................................................. 22-9
GAMET ...................................................................................................................................................... 22-9
GAFOR .................................................................................................................................................... 22-10
Volcanic Ash Advisory.............................................................................................................................. 22-10
Aerodrome Warning ................................................................................................................................. 22-11
Example Reports...................................................................................................................................... 22-12
METAR and SPECI.................................................................................................................................. 22-12
TAF .......................................................................................................................................................... 22-12
SIGMET ................................................................................................................................................... 22-13
AIRMET ................................................................................................................................................... 22-14
Special Air Report .................................................................................................................................... 22-14
GAMET .................................................................................................................................................... 22-15
GAFOR .................................................................................................................................................... 22-16
Aerodrome Warning ................................................................................................................................. 22-16

CHAPTER 23
The Synoptic Chart

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 23-1

Synoptic Chart without Station Circles ....................................................................................................... 23-1
Synoptic Chart with Station Circles ............................................................................................................ 23-3
The Station Circle Decode ......................................................................................................................... 23-5
Pressure (1 oclock) ................................................................................................................................... 23-5
Pressure Tendency (3 o'clock)................................................................................................................... 23-5
Past Weather (5 o'clock) ............................................................................................................................ 23-6
Additional Past Weather Symbols .............................................................................................................. 23-6
Low Cloud or Vertical Visibility (6 o'clock) .................................................................................................. 23-7
Vertical Visibility ......................................................................................................................................... 23-7
Dewpoint (7 o'clock) ................................................................................................................................... 23-7
Visibility (9 o'clock Outer Position) ............................................................................................................. 23-7
Present Weather (9 o'clock Inner Position) ................................................................................................ 23-8
Weather in the Past Hour But Not at the Time of Observation ................................................................... 23-9
Surface Air Temperature or Dry Bulb Temperature (11 o'clock) .............................................................. 23-10
Medium Level Cloud (12 o'clock Lower Position)..................................................................................... 23-10
High Level Cloud (12 o'clock Upper Position) .......................................................................................... 23-11
Total Cloud Cover (Shown in the Centre of the Circle) ............................................................................ 23-12
Surface Wind............................................................................................................................................ 23-12

xvi Meteorology (Rev Q407)

 Table of Contents

CHAPTER 24
Upper Air Charts

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 24-1

The Significant Weather Chart ................................................................................................................... 24-1
Information Box.......................................................................................................................................... 24-3
Height of the Tropopause........................................................................................................................... 24-4
Weather Areas and Active Volcanoes........................................................................................................ 24-4
Jet streams and CAT Areas ....................................................................................................................... 24-5
Upper Wind and Temperature Chart .......................................................................................................... 24-7
Information Box.......................................................................................................................................... 24-9
Wind and Temperature Information ......................................................................................................... 24-10
Average Wind and Temperature .............................................................................................................. 24-11

CHAPTER 25
Climatology The World Climate

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 25-1

Ideal Global Circulation .............................................................................................................................. 25-1
Rotation of the Earth .................................................................................................................................. 25-2
Idealised Pressure Zones .......................................................................................................................... 25-3
The Earths Tilt........................................................................................................................................... 25-3
Pressure Zones.......................................................................................................................................... 25-4
Equatorial Low (Trough)............................................................................................................................. 25-4
Sub-Tropical Highs .................................................................................................................................... 25-4
Temperate Low .......................................................................................................................................... 25-4
Polar High .................................................................................................................................................. 25-4
Prevailing Surface Winds ........................................................................................................................... 25-4
Westerly Winds .......................................................................................................................................... 25-4
Easterly Winds ........................................................................................................................................... 25-5
Climatic Zones ........................................................................................................................................... 25-5
Equatorial Climate (0 to 10 Latitude)....................................................................................................... 25-5
Tropical Transition Climate (10 to 20 Latitude)........................................................................................ 25-5
Arid Sub-Tropical (20 to 35 Latitude) ...................................................................................................... 25-5
Mediterranean Climate (35 to 40 Latitude) .............................................................................................. 25-6
Disturbed Temperate (40 to 65 Latitude) ................................................................................................ 25-6
Polar Climate (65 to 90 Latitude)............................................................................................................. 25-7
Modifications to the Idealised Circulation ................................................................................................... 25-7
Global Temperature Distribution ................................................................................................................ 25-7
Mean Sea Level Temperatures January ................................................................................................. 25-7
Mean Sea Level Temperature July ......................................................................................................... 25-8
Seasonal Variations in Temperature .......................................................................................................... 25-8
Upper Air Temperature Distribution ........................................................................................................... 25-9
World Pressure Distribution ....................................................................................................................... 25-9
Mean Sea Level Pressure January ....................................................................................................... 25-10
Mean Sea Level Pressure July ............................................................................................................. 25-11
Upper Winds ............................................................................................................................................ 25-12
Mean Upper Wind January ................................................................................................................... 25-12
Mean Upper Wind July.......................................................................................................................... 25-13
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) ................................................................................................. 25-14
ITCZ January ........................................................................................................................................ 25-14
ITCZ July............................................................................................................................................... 25-15
Stability and Moisture Content of the ITCZ .............................................................................................. 25-15
ITCZ Weather .......................................................................................................................................... 25-15
Inter Tropical Front (ITF/FIT).................................................................................................................... 25-15
Low Level Winds ...................................................................................................................................... 25-17
Low Level Winds January ..................................................................................................................... 25-17
Low Level Winds July............................................................................................................................ 25-18
Climatic Summary .................................................................................................................................... 25-19

Meteorology (Rev Q407) xvii

Table of Contents

CHAPTER 26
Climatology Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 26-1

Europe and the Mediterranean................................................................................................................... 26-1
Africa.......................................................................................................................................................... 26-7
Asia ............................................................................................................................................................ 26-9
The Indian Monsoon ................................................................................................................................ 26-11
The Far East Monsoon............................................................................................................................. 26-13
North America .......................................................................................................................................... 26-15
South America.......................................................................................................................................... 26-15
Australia ................................................................................................................................................... 26-16
Ocean Currents........................................................................................................................................ 26-17
Cold Water Coast..................................................................................................................................... 26-18
Warm Water Coast................................................................................................................................... 26-18
Summary of the Local Winds of the World ............................................................................................... 26-18

CHAPTER 27
Climatology Tropical Revolving Storms and Tornadoes

Tropical Revolving Storm (TRS)................................................................................................................. 27-1

Characteristics ........................................................................................................................................... 27-2
Visual Indications of the Advance of the TRS ............................................................................................ 27-6
Tornado...................................................................................................................................................... 27-6
Tropical Revolving Storm Areas................................................................................................................. 27-8

CHAPTER 28
Climatology Regional Climatology

Europe ....................................................................................................................................................... 28-1

Mediterranean ............................................................................................................................................ 28-6
North Atlantic and North America............................................................................................................... 28-8
Africa........................................................................................................................................................ 28-13
Asia .......................................................................................................................................................... 28-17
Australia and the Pacific........................................................................................................................... 28-19
South America and the Caribbean ........................................................................................................... 28-22

xviii Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
Meteorology is the study of the Earths atmosphere and the physical processes that occur within
it.

The study of Meteorology is important for the pilot because the atmosphere is the medium
through which the aircraft moves. It is essential to know what conditions are present along a route
and at the departure, destination and alternate aerodromes. Also knowledge of the processes in
which weather forms is useful for predicting what conditions may occur during flight.

DEFINITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The term atmosphere refers to the gaseous envelope that surrounds the Earth. It is held to the
Earth by the force of gravity. This gaseous envelope moves with the rotation of the Earth and
extends from the surface of the planet up to the boundary of space.

PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere acts as a fluid and is a poor conductor of heat.

Due to the extent of the volume of air, variations are found both horizontally and vertically in the
following properties:

Pressure
Temperature
Density
Humidity

Later chapters cover each of these properties in detail.

COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The density of the atmosphere decreases with altitude. This does not affect the composition up to
an altitude of at least 60 km. Ozone and some trace elements are affected by the chemical
reactions in the upper reaches towards 60 km.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 1-1

Chapter 1 The Atmosphere

Above 70 km the lower force of gravity causes the atmospheric composition to vary with height.
The following percentages show the composition of dry air in the lower levels:

Nitrogen: 78.09%
Oxygen: 20.95%
Argon: 0.93%
Carbon Dioxide: 0.03%

The graph below represents this composition:

Figure 1.1 The composition of the air

Other trace elements include:

Neon
Helium
Krypton
Xenon
Hydrogen
Methane
Iodine
Nitrous Oxide
Ozone
Sulphur Dioxide
Nitrogen Dioxide
Ammonia
Carbon Monoxide

The above list is background information and neednt be memorised.

The composition of dry clean air shown above does not allow for the effects of water in the
atmosphere (up to 4% in volume), dust and smoke, or carbon dioxide.

1-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

The Atmosphere Chapter 1

WATER (H2O)
Water can assume all three physical states in the atmosphere, the solid state (ice), the liquid
state (water), and the gaseous state (water vapour).

Water is unique in that it can readily change from one state to another and can co-exist in all
three states.

THE WATER CYCLE

Figure 1.2 The water cycle

The water cycle starts when solar radiation strikes moist ground or a water surface. Parts of the
water then evaporates and becomes vapour in the air. The concentration of water vapour is
greatest in the lower parts of the atmosphere because of higher temperatures.

At some point the water vapour in the air will normally condense and turn into water droplets.
These may become visible to the eye as mist, fog or clouds from which precipitation may fall back
to complete the cycle.

Clouds and the precipitation make up part of what is commonly known as weather.

PARTICLES AND DUST

Solid particles in the atmosphere are sand and dust, salt (from the oceans) and man-made
polluters like soot and smoke.

These solid particles can restrict visibility, for example as haze or sand storms.

The amount of solid particles in the air varies, but the existence of these particles is of
fundamental importance to processes such as condensation and the formation of ice as they are
the nuclei onto which the water vapour will condensate or freeze.
Meteorology (Rev Q407) 1-3
Chapter 1 The Atmosphere

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

Carbon dioxide is to be found both naturally in the atmosphere and as a waste product from
burning fossil fuels (carbon compounds). A large part of the carbon dioxide, which is released into
the air, is returned to natures own circulation via the oceans.

Carbon dioxide plays a large role in the heating of the atmosphere and global warming as it
absorbs energy that is being radiated from the Earth.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE

There are five layers in the atmosphere. Outwards from the surface these are the troposphere,
stratosphere, mesosphere, ionosphere, and exosphere, however, the ionosphere and exosphere
are sometimes combined into the thermosphere.

Figure 1.3 Temperature distribution in the atmosphere

TROPOSPHERE
The troposphere extends from the surface up to an average height of 11 km. The temperature at
the top of the troposphere is always lower than near the ground giving an average decrease in
temperature with increasing altitude.

It is an area of relatively low stability where the over-turning of air is frequent. It holds virtually all
the water vapour in the atmosphere and is the layer where most of the weather and flying occurs.

The troposphere contains over 75% of the mass of the total atmosphere.

1-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

The Atmosphere Chapter 1

TROPOPAUSE
The boundary separating the troposphere and the stratosphere is called the tropopause. It is
characterised by an isothermal layer, i.e. the temperature is constant.

The height of the tropopause varies with the temperature in the troposphere. As air is heated it
expands and when it is cooled down it will become denser and contract. Generally one may say
that over areas where there is lots of sunshine and heating the height of the tropopause will
increase and vice versa.

Since the air is generally colder over the poles than over the Equator the tropopause is lowest
over the poles (approximately 23 000 ft or 7 km) and highest over the equator (approximately
53 000 ft or 16 km).

Figure 1.4 Height of the tropopause

Figure 1.4 shows how the height of the tropopause is greater over the Equator than over the pole
(the left hand globe) while the centre and right hand globe shows how the height of the
tropopause over a specific area vary throughout the year being lowest during the coldest part of
the year (winter) and highest during the warmest part of the year (summer).

In addition to the seasonal variations, the height of the tropopause also varies with the
atmospheric pressure. When the atmospheric pressure increases, the air will expand thus forcing
the tropopause further away from the Earth. The opposite will happen when the atmospheric
pressure decreases resulting in the height of the tropopause to decrease.

Although the surface temperature is higher around the Equator than the poles, the temperature at
the tropopause will be lower over the Equator than over the poles since the temperature on
average reduces with increasing altitude and it has a greater distance over which it will decrease
over the Equator.

Typically, the temperature at the tropopause is -50C over the poles and -80C over the Equator.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 1-5

Chapter 1 The Atmosphere

Figure 1.5 Tropopause

The height of the tropopause doesnt decrease steadily from the Equator towards the poles but
tend to decrease in segments leaving breaks or folds in the tropopause. There are two main
breaks, one at about 40 latitude and one at about 60 latitude. A third break may be found
around 55 latitude, as shown in Figure 1.5.

These breaks can often cause strong winds in the area just below the tropopause in the vicinity of
the breaks which are classified as jet streams.

Latitude Winter Summer

0 56 000 ft 55 000 ft
10 55 000 ft 52 000 ft
20 52 000 ft 51 000 ft
30 45 000 ft 47 000 ft
40 38 000 ft 43 000 ft
50 35 000 ft 38 000 ft
60 33 000 ft 35 000 ft
70 29 000 ft 31 000 ft
80 25 000 ft 29 000 ft
Table 1.1 Height of the tropopause

Table 1.1 below shows the approximate height of the tropopause at various latitudes in winter
and summer. Note that at low latitude (around the Equator) the actual changes are slightly
different to the general theory due to the nature of the seasons in that area.

1-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

The Atmosphere Chapter 1

STRATOSPHERE
The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to approximately 50 km above the surface of the
Earth.

Some flying occurs in the lower parts of the stratosphere, so this lower part, together with the
troposphere, may be referred to as the aviation atmosphere.

The stratosphere is relatively stable. Initially, the isothermal layer in the tropopause remains until
the temperature starts to increase due to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation by ozone in the
upper part. The temperature by the stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere
and the mesosphere, is around 0C.

The concentration of ozone varies with the latitude, being greater over the poles than the
Equator. Therefore, the stratosphere is warmer at higher latitudes.

Generally there is no, or very limited, vertical movement of air in the stratosphere. However,
strong horizontal winds may occur.

MESOSPHERE
In the mesosphere, temperature again decreases with height. The lowest temperature of
approximately -90C occurs between 80 and 90 km which is the mesopause.

THERMOSPHERE
This is the outermost layers of the atmosphere that holds the ionosphere in its lower regions and
the exosphere in its upper regions (at heights greater than 700 km).

The thermosphere is characterised by an increase in temperature with height. At 200 km the

temperature is generally 600C. At times of sunspot activity it can be up to 2000C.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 1-7

Chapter 1 The Atmosphere

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (ISA)

Since the conditions within the atmosphere are continuously changing and since aeroplane
performance amongst other things varies with the different conditions the designers realised that
a standard day would be helpful to use as a reference for all calculations. This standard day is
defined in the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and is based on approximate average
values throughout the year for the entire globe. The values defined in ISA are shown in table 1.2.

Temperature 15C
Mean Sea Level (MSL) Pressure 1013.25 hPa
Density 1225 g/m3
From MSL to 11 km Temperature decreases at 1.98C
(36 090 ft) per 1000 ft (6.5C per km)
Tropopause at 11 km
Temperature -56.5C
(36 090 ft)
From 11 km to 20 km
Temperature constant at -56.5C
(65 617 ft)
From 20 km to 32 km Temperature rises with height at
(104 987 ft) 0.3C per 1000 ft (1C per km)
Table 1.2 ISA values

The pressure is defined to decrease at a certain rate where a certain pressure is found at a
certain level as shown in table 1.3.

Pressure level Pressure altitude (flight level)

200 hPa 40 000 ft (FL 400)
300 hPa 30 000 ft (FL 300)
500 hPa 18 000 ft (FL 180)
700 hPa 10 000 ft (FL 100)
1013.25 hPa MSL
Table 1.3 Standard pressure levels

Since very few days throughout a year, if any, have all the same conditions as defined in ISA,
deviation from the ISA conditions has to be applied in order to work out the correct performance
or indications. This means we use the ISA conditions from table 1.2 as our reference and apply a
correction for the difference between the ISA conditions and the actual conditions.

When calculating the ISA deviation, which is described on the following page, there are a couple
of important things to remember:

The temperature at MSL is +15C and not 0C, which is often forgotten.
The ISA temperature never gets below -56.5C.
A temperature lapse rate of 2C/1000 ft is accurate enough for these calculations.

1-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

The Atmosphere Chapter 1

ISA DEVIATION
ISA deviation is the difference between the ISA temperature at a level and the actual temperature
at the same level.

The ISA deviation will be either a positive or negative number depending on whether it is warmer
or colder than the ISA temperature. For example, the ISA temperature at a level is -25C but an
aeroplane flying at that level measure an outside air temperature of -30C. The actual
temperature is 5C lower than the ISA temperature which given as an ISA deviation would be ISA
-5C. On the other hand, if the ISA temperature is -25C and the actual temperature is ISA +5C,
the outside air temperature is -20C.

Example 1: You are flying at 30 000 ft. The outside air temperature is -50C. What is the ISA
deviation?

Answer 1: The ISA temperature would be 15C (30 000 ft x 2C 1000 ft) = -45C. The
ISA deviation is -50C (-45C) = -5C

Example 2: You are flying at 22 000 ft. The ISA deviation is +10C. What is the outside air
temperature?

Answer 2: The ISA temperature would be 15C (22 000 ft x 2C 1000 ft) = -29C. The
outside air temperature is -29C + 10C = -19C

Table 1.4 is given as a practice of doing ISA calculations. Answers can be found in table 1.5.

Ambient ISA
Height (ft) temperature (C) Temperature (C) ISA Deviation
10 000 -10
17 000 -12
-35 +8
-60 -7
38 000 +10
8000 -16
-49 +22
-33 -18
Table 1.4 ISA calculation practice

JET STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (JSA)

The Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA) is often used by engine manufacturers. It assumes a mean
sea level temperature of +15C. The temperature then lapses at 2C per 1000 ft to infinity which
means there is no tropopause in the JSA.

So an aircraft at 40 000 ft with an outside air temperature of 65C would have:

An ISA temperature deviation of 8.5C

A JSA temperature deviation of 0C

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 1-9

Chapter 1 The Atmosphere

ANSWERS TO ISA DEVIATION QUESTIONS

Height (ft) Ambient ISA ISA Deviation

temperature (C) Temperature (C)
10 000 -10 -5 -5
17 000 -31 -19 -12
25 000 -27 -35 +8
34 000 -60 -53 -7
38 000 -46.5 -56.5 +10
8000 -16 -1 -15
32 000 -27 -49 +22
15 000 -33 -15 -18
Table 1.5 Answers to questions in table 1.4

1-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
Chapter 1 introduced the concept of the atmosphere as a fluid. The fluidity of the air means that it
tends to flow from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure same way as water will
flow from high to low ground. It is these pressure differences and the consequent movement of air
that are the main cause of weather.

An understanding of pressure and pressure systems is vital for pilots.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Air is made up of particles that, small as they are, are nevertheless under the force of gravity. The
surface will support the weight of the air vertically above it.

Figure 2.1 Volume of air and air pressure

Figure 2.1 shows a column of air with the same horizontal cross section throughout. The pressure
will be the highest on the ground as the entire column of air molecules is being acted upon by the
gravity. The area s1 is slightly higher up which means the column height above it is only equal to
h1, i.e. less molecules to be acted upon by gravity giving lower pressure at s1. For s2 the height
of the column above is only equal to h2 which means even less molecule above to be acted upon
by gravity giving even less pressure at s2.

This means that the pressure always decreases with increasing altitude, although the rate of
change may vary.
Meteorology (Rev Q407) 2-1
Chapter 2 Atmospheric Pressure

MEASURING ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
The SI unit for force is Newton (N). Pressure is unit of force per unit of area, with the SI unit of
pressure being Newton per square metre (N/m2). The average pressure at MSL is 100 000 N/m2,
however, pressure is not normally expressed in N/m2 but hectopascal (hPa), millibars (mb),
millimetres of mercury (mmHg) or inches of mercury (inHg).

N/m2 and Pascal are interchangeable and in order to have a slightly more practical number,
hectopascal (100s of Pascal) is being used. ISA pressure at MSL is 1013.25hPa (or 101 325
Pascal). This is the worldwide standard for reporting pressure in meteorology.

100 000 N/m2 is equal to 1 bar. However, since the variations in atmospheric pressure are
relatively small, using bar would be very inaccurate unless using 3 decimal places so to make the
numbers better, millibars (one 1000th of a bar), were being introduced. ISA pressure at MSL is
1013.25 mb. hPa and mb are therefore interchangeable. Only a few countries still use millibars,
one of them being the UK.

Measuring pressure as a column of mercury (see mercury barometer later in this chapter) is
very common as it is very accurate. Unless the scale has been made into hPa or mb, the
pressure will be measured as a height from a datum and expressed as either millimetres or
inches of mercury depending on whether the country uses metric or imperial measurements
respectively. ISA pressure at MSL is 760 mmHg or 29.92 inHg. These units may be found in
some countries, for example mmHg in Russia and inHg in the USA.

To calculate between hPa or mb and mmHg or inHg the following formula may be used:

Pressure (hPa or mb) 1013.25 hPa (or mb) = Pressure (inHg) 29.92 inHg

Pressure (hPa or mb) 1013.25 hPa (or mb) = Pressure (mmHg) 760 mmHg

Example 1 Convert 986 hPa into mmHg:

986 hPa x 29.92 inHg 1013.25 hPa = 28.50 inHg

Example 2 Convert 783 mmHg into hPa:

783 mmHg x 1013.25 hPa 760 mmHg = 1043.91 hPa

2-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Atmospheric Pressure Chapter 2

MERCURY BAROMETER

Figure 2.2 Mercury barometer

A 1 metre tube filled with mercury is upturned in a reservoir of mercury as shown in figure 2.2.
Atmospheric pressure is exerted on the surface of the mercury in the reservoir. The mercury in
the tube will stabilise at 760 mm (29.92 in) above the reservoir at MSL in ISA conditions. The
height of the mercury in the tube will increase if the pressure increases and decrease if the
pressure decreases.

The mercury barometer must have a correction for ambient temperature as the height of the
mercury will vary with the temperature as the mercury expands or contracts with increasing or
decreasing temperature respectively.

ANEROID BAROMETER

Figure 2.3 Aneroid barometer

Another way of measuring pressure is by using the aneroid barometer. This consists of a partially
evacuated capsule that expands and contracts as the air pressure outside the capsule changes.
A scale indicates these changes by using a system of linkages. Figure 2.3 shows the basic ideas
behind the system.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 2-3

Chapter 2 Atmospheric Pressure

PRESSURE VARIATION
Pressure varies diurnally, horizontally and vertically.

DIURNALLY

Figure 2.4 Diurnal variation of pressure

Figure 2.4 shows that pressure has a twelve-hour oscillation period. In one day there are two high
peak pressure values, which occur at around 1000 and 2200 hours and there are two low peak
pressure values, around 1600 and 0400 hours. The difference between the high and low value is
very small in temperate latitudes (only about 1 hPa), but may be more significant at tropical and
sub-tropical latitudes (about 3 hPa).

When predicting a trend in the pressure and weather pattern this diurnal variation has to be taken
into account.

HORIZONTALLY
In addition to the diurnal pressure variation the pressure will also vary between different places on
the Earth, even if they are at the same level. This pressure difference will cause wind which again
can cause changing weather.

2-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Atmospheric Pressure Chapter 2

VERTICALLY
As previously stated, the pressure always decreases with increase of height. In ISA conditions we
assume that the surface pressure is 1013.25 hPa. From this we can calculate the pressure for
any height in the ISA atmosphere.

Pressure altitude (flight level) Pressure level

40 000 ft (FL 400) 200 hPa
30 000 ft (FL 300) 300 hPa
18 000 ft (FL 180) 500 hPa
10 000 ft (FL 100) 700 hPa
MSL 1013.25 hPa
Table 2.1 Pressure variation with height

In table 2.1 we can see that the rate of change of pressure decrease with increasing altitude. For
a 10 000 ft altitude change when starting at MSL the pressure will decrease by approximately 300
hPa. However, for the same altitude increase when starting at 30 000 ft the pressure will
decrease with about 1/3rd of the pressure change by MSL, i.e. 100 hPa.

For calculations involving pressure changes of less than 50 hPa, the following formula can be
used to calculate the change of height for a change of pressure:

H = 96 X T P

Where:
H = Height change in feet
T = Mean temperature in Kelvin (K)
P = Pressure in hectopascal

Example: Using the values for ISA MSL.

T = 15C + 273 K = 288 K

P = 1013.25 hPa

H = (96 288 K) 1013.25 hPa = 27.3 ft

Therefore, at mean sea level, 1 hPa change of pressure equals 27.3 ft change of height

Height change per

Height
hPa
MSL 27 ft
2000 ft amsl 30 ft
20 000 amsl 50 ft
40 000 amsl 100 ft
Table 2.2 Pressure rate of change

NOTE: Unless otherwise specified in the question, use 27 ft/hPa in the exam.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 2-5

Chapter 2 Atmospheric Pressure

2-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
Temperature is one of the most important variables that affect the atmosphere. The temperature
changes that occur on the surface of the Earth initiate both vertical air movements (may lead to
cloud development) and horizontal air movement (wind).

According to ISA the temperature has a steady decrease with height. However, in the actual
atmosphere it may be constant with height (isothermal) or increase with height (inversion).

TEMPERATURE SCALES
There are three scales of measurement for temperature. These are:

CELSIUS
The Celsius scale is the international standard for reporting temperature in aviation and most
commonly used in other reports as well. It is based on the freezing point of water being 0C and
the boiling point of water in ISA conditions being 100C.

KELVIN
The Kelvin scale does not have units, but intervals of the scale are equal to 1C. The scale starts
with 0K at absolute zero, which is where all molecules stop moving completely (273C). The
freezing point of water is 273K and the boiling point is 373K.

Some calculations in aviation are based on Kelvin.

FAHRENHEIT
In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water is 32F and the boiling point of water is 212F.
This scale is normally not used in aviation meteorology but you must be familiar with it.

CONVERSION FACTORS
To convert from Celsius to Fahrenheit: F = (C x 9/5) + 32

To convert from Fahrenheit to Celsius: C = (F 32) x 5/9

To convert from Celsius to Kelvin: K = C + 273

To convert from Kelvin to Celsius: C = K 273

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 3-1

Chapter 3 Temperature

MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
Surface temperatures are measured using mercury thermometers housed in a Stevenson screen.
This is a louvred wooden box that allows air to circulate around the thermometers but protects
them from draughts and direct sunlight. It is held 4 ft above the ground so that the temperature
will not be adversely affected by the ground temperature.

Figure 3.1 Typical Stephenson screen

High level temperatures are measured using a radiosonde, a radio transmitter that is carried high
into the atmosphere (up to 150 000 ft) by a helium balloon and sends back continuous readings
of pressure, temperature and humidity to stations on the ground.

3-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Temperature Chapter 3

HEATING OF THE ATMOSPHERE

The atmosphere is heated, either directly or indirectly, by the following processes:

Solar radiation (indirectly)

Terrestrial radiation (directly)
Conduction (directly)
Convection
Advection
Latent heat of condensation

SOLAR RADIATION
Radiation from the sun is of the short-wave (high frequency) type.

Nearly all the radiation passes through the atmosphere without heating it. Most of the ultra-violet
radiation is absorbed by the ozone in the stratosphere and more of the radiation is reflected by
the surface of the Earth (water and snow reflects more than forests with dense vegetation) and
the atmosphere (clouds in particular). The amount of reflection will amount to about 40% of the
total energy arriving from the sun.

The radiation does not heat the atmosphere directly but heats the surface of the Earth which then
in turn will heat the atmosphere. This process is called insolation.

The amount of insolation depends on the angular elevation of the sun and the type of surface.
The more directly above the surface the sun is, the greater the insolation as less of the energy
will bounce off the surface when the energy waves hits it (like a snooker ball hitting the edge of
the table at an angle). There is least reflection when the energy waves hit the surface at right
angles.

ANGULAR ELEVATION OF THE SUN

The angular elevation of the sun depends on the time of day, latitude and season. For the time of
day, the sun will be at its highest position above the horizon at midday, local mean time.

As shown in figure 3.2, the latitude will also influence the degree of insolation. Considering an
ideal Earth where the Equator is parallel to the plane of the ecliptic, the sun will only be directly
above a position on the Equator. Further away from the Equator the energy waves from the sun
will hit the Earth at a more acute angle and therefore the insolation will reduce and there will be
more atmosphere to attenuate the solar energy.

Figure 3.2 Insolation versus season and latitude

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 3-3
Chapter 3 Temperature

Since on the real Earth the Equator is not parallel to the plane of the ecliptic the insolation will
also vary with season. As shown in figure 3.2 the angle between the Equator and the plane of the
ecliptic (or the rotational axis of the Earth and the plane of the ecliptic) is 23.5 and the sun will
reach its extremities on the 21st of December (S23.5) and 21st of June (N23.5). This in turn
causes the seasons as the warmest place will vary North and South of the Equator depending on
the time of the year.

This fact is essential to keep in mind when it comes to global climatology which is covered at the
end of this book.

The tilt of the rotational axis of the Earth also leads to the polar areas (North of N66.5 and South
of S66.5, Arctic and Antarctic Circle respectively) will either have no sun at all during the winter or
24 hours sunlight during the summer for that hemisphere.

TERRESTRIAL RADIATION
The energy from the solar radiation which is absorbed by the surface of the Earth is emitted as
long-wave (low frequency) radiation.

This is the main method by which the atmosphere is heated. However, air itself is almost
transparent also to the long wave radiation from the sun but water vapour will absorb and re-emit
some of the energy lessening the amount of cooling.

CONDUCTION
Conduction occurs when two bodies are touching one another. Heat passes from the warmer
body to the colder body. For example, heat passes from a warm ground surface to the air.

At night, the ground cools quickly due to lack of insolation from the sun. The air in contact with the
ground loses heat by conduction. As air is a poor conductor of heat, air at a higher level will keep
a fairly constant temperature and is therefore likely to become warmer than the air close to the
ground, which results in a temperature inversion.

CONVECTION
The vertical movement of air is called convection. As air is heated by conduction or radiation, it
becomes less dense and tends to rise. This will then supply the upper levels of the troposphere
with warmer air (despite cooling while it is rising, as will be explained in chapter 8).

ADVECTION
Advection is the horizontal movement of air. The movement is caused by variations in pressure,
which in turn creates wind that will transport air from one place to another where the air initially
will keep its characteristics, including temperature.

LATENT HEAT OF CONDENSATION

When water changes its state from vapour to liquid, energy or latent heat will be released to the
surrounding air. This in turn will affect the temperature of the air where the condensation occurs.
The processes around thermodynamics are covered more in depth in chapter 4.

3-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Temperature Chapter 3

DIURNAL VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE

Despite the maximum of insolation occurring at noon, the warmest time of the day will be a
couple of hours past this (1400 1500 local mean time). This is due to the slow emission of
energy from the Earth compared to the rate of supply from the sun. Although the amount of
insolation will reduce after noon, the rate of radiation from the Earth will still be lower than the rate
of supply from the sun facilitating higher temperatures to be reached. Once past this time the
amount of insolation is lower than the energy the Earth is losing through radiation, thus it starts
getting colder.

As figure 3.3 also shows, the coldest time of the day is after sunrise (about 30min after). This is
due to the fact that when the sun comes above the horizon nearly all the energy is reflected which
means the insolation initially will be lower than the radiation from the Earth, which means the
Earth is still losing energy. However, as the sun get higher, the amount of insolation will
eventually be greater then the energy loss through radiation and the surface will start heating
again.

Figure 3.3 Idealised diurnal variation of temperature

THE EFFECT OF CLOUD COVER ON DIURNAL VARIATION

A cloud cover may block for most of the radiation from the sun thus greatly reducing the amount
of insolation. The energy will partly be reflected and partly absorbed by the tops of the clouds.
This means that the ground will not be heated as much and therefore the atmosphere will not be
heated either.

However, as mentioned earlier, water vapour and droplets (of which the clouds consist) absorb
and re-emits the radiation from the Earth. This means that most of the energy radiated from the
Earth will be contained between the clouds and the Earth keeping a fairly constant temperature
below the clouds.

At night, the same processes will occur, with energy being exchanged between the ground and
the clouds and back to the ground again leading to a fairly constant temperature.

The overall effect is to reduce the diurnal variation.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 3-5

Chapter 3 Temperature

THE EFFECT OF WIND ON DIURNAL VARIATION

During the day, wind causes surface air to be mixed with cooler air above. The amount of time
that any air is in contact with the warm ground is short, so the maximum temperature of the air
near the surface is lower than when compared to calm conditions.

During the night, terrestrial radiation leads to a reduction in air temperature close to the ground.
Any wind causes mixing of the cold surface air with warmer air above. Therefore, the minimum
temperature of the air above the surface at night is not as low as it would be in calm conditions.

Also, if the wind is coming from a particular direction, where the temperature may be considered
constant (e.g. the sea) the temperature in the areas affected by that wind will be fairly constant.

The overall effect is to reduce diurnal variation.

THE EFFECT OF SURFACE ON DIURNAL VARIATION

How much a surface heats up when exposed to insolation depends on its specific heat. The
specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by 1C.

Some examples of surfaces listed in the order of increasing specific heat follows:

1. Bare rock/stone
2. Concrete
3. Dry soil
4. Wet soil
5. Oceans
6. Snow surfaces

Those surfaces that take a long time to heat up also lose their heat very slowly, so the diurnal
variation over the sea is minimal but is much greater over the land.

Not only does water have a much higher specific heat than land, but due to the movement of the
sea surface, the energy is spread to a depth of several metres both by the solar energy
penetrating to a certain depth of the water and the nature of the ocean currents. Over land on the
other hand, solar radiation does not penetrate into the substance and will only heat up the very
top layer. Since the Earth is also a poor conductor of heat it will take a long time for the energy to
reach beyond a depth of some centimetres.

It is important to understand the different temperature properties of sea and land as these greatly
influence the weather as will be described later in the book.

SUMMARY
In summary, greatest diurnal variation can be found over the land, with clear skies and no wind.

Least diurnal variation can be found over the sea and over the ice caps, when skies are cloudy
and it is windy.

3-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Temperature Chapter 3

THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT

Water vapour and carbon dioxide are transparent to short wavelength radiation, but they are less
permeable to long wavelengths. This means they allow solar radiation to reach the surface, but
do not allow all of the terrestrial radiation to leave the atmosphere and go back into space.

This leads to an increase of temperature at ground level, a process called the greenhouse effect,
since the glass in a greenhouse works in a similar way.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 3-7

Chapter 3 Temperature

3-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
Most water in the atmosphere is in the form of water vapour, which is water in its gaseous state.
This water cannot be seen. In order for water to become visible in the form of clouds, mist, or fog
it must turn into water droplets or ice crystals.

WATER STATES AND LATENT HEAT

Water can exist in three basic states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (water vapour). When
changing from one state to another, energy or latent heat is either released or absorbed.

Figure 4.1 Water change of energy state

EVAPORATION
This is the change of state from a liquid to a gas. Gas is a higher energy state than liquid so latent
heat is absorbed during this process.

Evaporation can take place at any temperature above absolute zero, but the rate of evaporation
is greater at higher temperatures.

MELTING
This is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. Liquid is a higher energy state than solid so
latent heat is absorbed during this process.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 4-1

Chapter 4 Water in the Atmosphere

SUBLIMATION
Sometimes a substance can turn directly from a solid to a gas or from a gas to a solid without
passing through the intermediate liquid state. The term sublimation can be used to describe this
process in both directions. The change from gas to solid, however, can also be referred to as
deposition.

Latent heat is absorbed when a solid turns to a gas.

Latent heat is released when a gas turns to a solid. This process is important in the formation of
frost, hail, and some airframe icing.

CONDENSATION
This is the change of state from a gas to a liquid. Liquid is a lower energy state so latent heat is
released.

Condensation nuclei must be present in order for condensation to occur in the atmosphere.
Condensation nuclei are tiny particles of hygroscopic (water attracting) material, such as dust and
pollution.

FREEZING
This is the change of state from a liquid to a solid. Solid is a lower energy state so latent heat is
released.

For the freezing to occur, freezing nuclei are required, similar to those for condensation. Without
them, the water droplets in the atmosphere become supercooled, which means they remain as a
liquid state despite the temperature being below freezing (0C). However, they will freeze when
hitting a freezing nucleus. An aircraft flying through the area of supercooled droplets will act as
the nucleus and droplets hitting the airframe will freeze onto it causing icing.

SATURATION
As water evaporates into the air, there comes a point in which the air can no longer accept any
more water vapour. The amount of vapour that air can hold is dependent on its temperature.

The higher the temperature, the more water vapour the air can hold.

When the air contains the maximum amount of water vapour it can hold, it is described as being
saturated.

The air can reach saturation in two ways, either by increasing the amount of water vapour or
cooling the air as cold air holds less water vapour than warm air.

HUMIDITY
Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the air. It is often expressed as a percentage
and is known as relative humidity.

4-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Water in the Atmosphere Chapter 4

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY
Absolute humidity is the actual mass of water in a given volume of air and is generally expressed
in g/m3.

SATURATION CONTENT
Saturation content is the maximum mass of water a given volume of air can hold expressed as
g/m3.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Relative humidity is an expression of how much water vapour is in the air, expressed as a
percentage of the maximum amount the air could hold at that temperature and pressure. Hence:

AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOUR IN THE AIR X 100 %

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) =
MAXIMUM AMOUNT OF WATER VAPOUR THE AIR CAN HOLD

ABSOLUTE HUMIDITY X 100 %

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) =
SATURATION CONTENT

Example: If the absolute humidity is 12 g/m3 and the saturation content is 26 g/m3, what is
the relative humidity?

Relative Humidity = (12 x 100 %) 26 = 46.2%

Please attempt the following simple RH calculations. The answers can be found at the end of the
chapter:

Exercise 1:

Absolute Humidity Saturation Content Relative Humidity

(g/m3) (g/m3) (%)
6 20
34 45
14 30
Table 4.1 Humidity calculation practice

HUMIDITY MIXING RATIO

Humidity mixing ratio (HMR) is similar to absolute humidity but is the mass of water in a certain
mass of air. The unit for this is therefore g/kg rather than g/m3.

Typically, the HMR is between 5 and 50 g/kg in temperate latitudes.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 4-3

Chapter 4 Water in the Atmosphere

HMR FOR SATURATION CONTENT / SATURATION MIXING RATIO

The saturation mixing ratio (SMR) is the HMR when the parcel of air is saturated. Hence relative
humidity can also be expressed as:

HMR X 100 %
RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) =
HMR FOR SATURATION CONTENT

WATER VAPOUR PRESSURE

This is the part of the atmospheric pressure that is exerted by the water vapour present. When
the air is saturated, the water vapour pressure is called saturation vapour pressure. The dewpoint
depends on the vapour pressure. The lower the vapour pressure, the lower the dewpoint.

As altitude increases the overall pressure decreases which means the water vapour pressure will
also decrease. This leads to the dewpoint decreasing as well. If air is forced to rise, the reduction
of pressure within the parcel of air will give a dewpoint lapse rate of about 0.5C per 1000 ft gain
in height.

The relative humidity may also be found using water vapour pressure.

WATER VAPOUR PRESSURE x 100 %

RELATIVE HUMIDITY (RH) =
WATER VAPOUR PRESSURE FOR SATURATION

SUPER-SATURATION
As mentioned earlier, condensation only occurs if there are condensation nuclei present. If no
nuclei are present, then the water remains as vapour and the air is described as super-saturated.
This means there can conceivably be a relative humidity greater than 100%.

SATURATION AND DEWPOINT

The graph below shows the HMR for saturation plotted against the temperature in C. The higher
the temperature, the larger the amount of water the air can hold. However, the relationship is not
linear, it is logarithmic as shown in figure 4.2..

4-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Water in the Atmosphere Chapter 4

30

25
HMR for Saturation in g/kg

20

15

10

0
-30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
Temperature in degrees C

Figure 4.2 HMR for saturation content vs. temperature

It follows that if a parcel of air contains a certain amount of water vapour and is cooled, it will be
able to hold less water vapour. If it continues to cool, it eventually reaches a point where the
amount of vapour it can hold is equal to the amount it is actually holding. The air is said to be
saturated.

The temperature at which this occurs is called the dewpoint. A parcel of air at 20C with a HMR of
7 g/kg (as seen on the graph) is not saturated. Air at 20C can hold up to 14 g/kg.

What happens if air is cooled to 10C? Based on the graph, the HMR for saturation is 7 g/kg.
Therefore, the air is saturated the relative humidity is 100%. So the dewpoint for air containing
7 g/kg is 10C.

Cooling the air beyond this point results in water vapour condensing to become droplets, which
causes clouds, fog/mist, or dew.

Relative humidity also has an effect on the rate of evaporation. Evaporation does not occur if the
air is saturated. Warmer air can take more vapour so is less likely to be saturated. However,
evaporation can still occur if the air above the liquid is cold, especially if there is a breeze to take
away the saturated air and replace it with dry air.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 4-5

Chapter 4 Water in the Atmosphere

Note: The term dry air is used to describe any air that is not saturated. So, even air with
a RH of 99% is still dry. Completely dry air, that is air with an RH of 0%, does not
occur in the atmosphere.

Using the graph above answer the following questions:

Exercise 2: The HMR is 4 g/kg. The temperature is 20C. What is the RH?

Exercise 3: The HMR is 15 g/kg. What is the dewpoint?

Exercise 4: The dewpoint is 18C. The RH is 40%. What is the HMR?

CONDENSATION LEVEL
When unsaturated air is cooled, it eventually reaches its dewpoint and water vapour condenses
out as water droplets.

Air will be subject to adiabatic cooling if it starts rising. The process behind adiabatic cooling and
rising air is described in chapter 8. However, as the air is cooling if it starts rising there is a
chance it will be cooled to its dewpoint and reach saturation. Any water vapour will then condense
and a cloud has been formed.

DIURNAL VARIATION OF HUMIDITY

Assuming the absolute humidity of the air remains constant, the relative humidity varies as the
temperature varies. Cold air can hold less water, so just after dawn, when temperature is at its
lowest RH is at its highest. This is why mist and fog are most likely to form around dawn.

Throughout the day as the temperature increases with increased insolation, the relative humidity
decreases, dropping to its lowest value at about 1400 1500 local mean time when the air
temperature is at its greatest.

After this, the temperature starts to drop again, so the RH starts to rise.

4-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Water in the Atmosphere Chapter 4

SATURATION VAPOUR PRESSURE CURVE

12

10

8
Vapour Pressure in hPa

Ice
6
Water

0
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10
Temperature in degrees C

Figure 4.3 Saturation vapour pressure curve

Saturation vapour pressure depends on a number of factors. The graph above shows that the
saturation vapour pressure is higher over water than over ice.

Other factors affecting saturation vapour pressure are:

1. Higher above a curved surface than a flat surface

2. Higher over clean water than a salt solution
3. Higher around a supercooled droplet than an ice crystal

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 4-7

Chapter 4 Water in the Atmosphere

MEASUREMENT OF HUMIDITY
PSYCHROMETER

DRY BULB WET BULB

MUSLIN
CLOTH

DISTILLED
WATER

Figure 4.4 Principle of a dry and wet bulb hygrometer

To calculate humidity and dewpoint, a psychrometer or wet and dry bulb hygrometer is used.

This apparatus consists of two mercury thermometers. One, the dry bulb thermometer, is an
ordinary thermometer that measures the air temperature. The other, the wet bulb thermometer,
has a piece of muslin cloth wrapped around the bulb. The other end of this cloth is dipped in a
container of distilled water.

As the water evaporates from the cloth, latent heat is drawn from the immediate surroundings.
This causes the wet bulb temperature to be lower than the dry bulb temperature. The wet bulb
temperature is the lowest temperature to which the air can cool by evaporation.

Note that if the air is already saturated, no evaporation occurs and the two readings are the
same. In this case the temperature displayed will also be the dewpoint.

The two figures obtained can be used to look up the dewpoint, RH, and HMR from tables.

An approximation of the dewpoint can be made using the following method:

1. Subtract the wet bulb temperature from the dry bulb temperature.
2. Subtract this figure (the wet bulb depression) from the wet bulb temperature.

4-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Water in the Atmosphere Chapter 4

Example: Dry Bulb Temperature 20C

Wet Bulb Temperature 15C

Wet Bulb Depression = 20C 15C = 5C

Dewpoint Temperature = 15C 5C = 10C

Exercise 5:

Dry Bulb Temperature (C) Wet Bulb Temperature (C) Dewpoint (C)
22 15
18 10
12 3
Table 4.2 Dewpoint calculation practice using dry and wet bulb temperature

HUMIDITY METHOD
Another method of approximating the dewpoint is from the RH and air temperature. The formula
is:

(100 RH)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TEMPERATURE AND DEWPOINT =
5

Example: The temperature is 23C and the relative humidity is 80%. What is the dewpoint?

Difference = (100 80) 5 = 4C

Dewpoint = 23C - 4C = 19C

Test your understanding of the formula by completing the following table:

Exercise 6:

Air Temperature (C) Relative Humidity (%) Dewpoint (C)

18 70
12 4
85 2
Table 4.3 Dewpoint calculation practice using relative humidity and air temperature

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 4-9

Chapter 4 Water in the Atmosphere

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1:
Absolute Humidity Saturation Content Relative Humidity
(g/m3) (g/m3) (%)
6 20 30
15.3 34 45
14 46.7 30
Table 4.4 Answer to questions in table 4.1
Exercise 2: 28.6%

Exercise 3: 21C

Exercise 4: 4.8 g/kg

Exercise 5:
Dry Bulb Temperature (C) Wet Bulb Temperature (C) Dewpoint (C)
22 15 8
18 14 10
21 12 3
Table 4.5 Answers to questions in table 4.2
Exercise 6:
Air Temperature (C) Relative Humidity (%) Dewpoint (C)
18 70 12
12 60 4
5 85 2
Table 4.6 Answers to questions in table 4.3

4-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume. Density in the atmosphere is usually
expressed as grams per cubic metre (g/m3). It may also be expressed as a percentage of the
standard surface density. This is called relative density.

Example 1: As chapter one detailed, the standard surface density is 1225 g/m3.
Hence if the actual density is 900 g/m3, the relative density would be:

900 100 = 73.47%

1225

Example 2: If the actual density is 1500 g/m3 what is the relative density?

1500 100 = 122.45%

1225

A third way in which density may be expressed is as density altitude. This is described later in the
chapter.

THE IDEAL GAS LAWS

An ideal gas is one that is incompressible and without viscosity. The atmosphere is assumed to
be an ideal gas. There are several gas laws that apply.

In the next few formulae, the following key applies:

P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature
= Density

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 5-1

Chapter 5 Density

BOYLES LAW
At constant temperature, as the pressure of gas increases, its volume must decrease. Therefore,
the pressure is inversely proportional to volume:

1
P
V

To remove the proportional sign, use:

Constant
P=
V
so:
PV = Constant
or:
P1V1 = P2V2

CHARLESS LAW
At constant pressure, if the temperature of a gas increases, the gas expands. In other words, its
volume increases. The temperature is proportional to volume:

TV

To remove the proportional sign, use:

V = Constant x T
so:
V
= Constant
T
or:
V1 V2
=
T1 T2

THE GAS EQUATION

Combining Boyles and Charless laws, the gas equation becomes (where R is the gas constant):

PV = RT

5-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Density Chapter 5

Density can also be a part of the equation. In an ideal gas, as volume increases, density
decreases. This is due to the same mass of air being contained in a larger volume.

So:

1

V

Substituting this into the ideal gas equation:

P
= RT

Re-arranging to make density the subject of the equation:

P
=
RT

So, maintaining a constant temperature: if pressure goes up, density goes up. Providing the
pressure is constant, an increasing temperature results in decreasing density.

EFFECT OF WATER VAPOUR ON AIR DENSITY

Water vapour is less dense than air: approximately 5/8 of the density of dry air. Therefore, all other
things being equal, the density is lower in more humid atmospheres. This difference is usually
insignificant and can be ignored for aviation purposes. In the tropics, however, where it can be
very humid, it can make a large difference.

VARIATION OF SURFACE AIR DENSITY WITH LATITUDE

Air density is lowest with low pressure and high temperature. So in the equatorial regions, density
at the surface is low.

High pressure and low temperature equates to high density. Examples of this can be found at the
poles or at the centre of a large land mass in winter (e.g. Siberia).

So, in general, density increases with increasing latitude.

The lowest density can be found at an aerodrome that is not only hot and high, but humid. An
example is Nairobi, which is very close to the equator, so experiences high temperatures and
humid conditions. It is also at an elevation of about 5500 ft, so has all the attributes that contribute
to low density.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 5-3

Chapter 5 Density

VARIATION OF AIR DENSITY WITH HEIGHT

As height increases, both the temperature and pressure decrease. Based on the gas laws, a
decrease in temperature will lead to an increase in density and a decrease in pressure leads to a
decrease in density. This, however, does not mean that the density remains constant with
increasing altitude (decreasing pressure and temperature) since pressure and density decrease
at different rates.

The pressure decreases with approximately 10 hPa for a 300 ft increase in altitude close to MSL.
This will produce a reduction in density of about 1%. However, a similar height increase would
cause a drop in temperature of approximately 0.6C. This would lead to an increase in density of
about 0.3%.

Therefore, the density will have an overall decrease with increasing altitude. This is because the
reduction in density due to reducing pressure is greater than the increase in density caused by
the reducing temperature.

Typical density values with increasing altitude would be:

20 000 ft Density is 50% of the surface value.

40 000 ft Density is 25% of the surface value.
60 000 ft Density is 10% of the surface value.

VARIATION OF AIR DENSITY WITH LATITUDE AND HEIGHT

As already mentioned, the air density at the surface tends to increase with increased latitude and
density decreases with increased height. Now its time to bring those two factors together.

Consider two columns of air of equal heights as shown in figure 5.1. Both columns have the same
pressure at the base, and one column is of cold air and the other warm.

Figure 5.1 Columns of different temperature with equal surface pressure

The cold air has a higher density, so as height increases there is a greater reduction in mass and
the change in pressure is greater. Conversely, the warm air is less dense, so there is a small
reduction of mass above as height increases. The change in pressure is less, so pressure at the
top of the cold column is lower than at the top of the warm column.
5-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Density Chapter 5

This is important when considering global patterns in density. At the Equator, the surface air
temperature is high and the pressure low, giving a relatively low density at the surface. At the
poles, the surface air temperature is low and the pressure high giving a relatively high density at
the surface.

However, because of the high temperatures around the Equator, the pressure and therefore the
density will decrease relatively slowly with increasing altitude. This means that, above the
Equator, the density at high altitude will be relatively high.

Over the poles, pressure, and therefore density, decreases relatively quickly with increasing
altitude. This results in a relatively low density at high altitude above the poles.

Due to these different density lapse rates the density will be approximately the same for all
latitudes at an altitude of 26 000 ft.

Figure 5.2 Variations of density with latitude

DIURNAL VARIATION OF DENSITY

Density is highest when temperatures are lowest, which occurs just after dawn. It is at its lowest
at about 1500 LMT when temperatures are highest.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 5-5

Chapter 5 Density

DENSITY ALTITUDE
The density altitude at which you are flying is the pressure altitude in the International Standard
Atmosphere at which that density would occur.

If it is warmer than ISA, your density altitude is higher than your pressure altitude and vice versa
for colder than ISA conditions.

Figure 5.3 Density altitude

According to ISA, the density at MSL is 1225 g/m3 and at 10 000 ft 1000 g/m3. Referring to figure
5.3, the warmer column of air has been heated such that the air density at the surface has
decreased to 1000 g/m3, which is the same as the density at 10 000 ft in ISA conditions. This
means that the density altitude at MSL in the warm air is 10 000 ft.

CALCULATING DENSITY ALTITUDE

Figure 5.4 Temperature deviation vs. density altitude

Density altitude differs from pressure altitude by 118.8 ft per 1C deviation from ISA. In the JAR
exams it is sufficient to use 120 ft per 1C deviation from ISA. Add the difference to the pressure
altitude if warmer than ISA, subtract if colder.
5-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Density Chapter 5

Example: The pressure altitude is 20 000 ft. The ISA deviation is +4C. What is the density
altitude?

It is warmer than ISA so the difference must be added.

Density altitude = 20 000 ft + (120 ft/C x 4C) = 20 480 ft

Exercise 1:

The pressure altitude is 15 000 ft. The ISA deviation is -5C. What is the density altitude?

Exercise 2:

The pressure altitude is 8000 ft. The ambient temperature is 9C. What is the density altitude (use
a lapse rate of 2C/1000 ft)?

Exercise 3:

The density altitude is 26 000 ft. The ISA deviation is +8C. What is the pressure altitude?

EFFECT OF DENSITY ON AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE

Low density reduces the performance of engines and aerofoils.

Engines work by accelerating air backwards in order to produce thrust. Less dense air has lower
mass. The lower the mass, the less thrust the engine produces.

The production of lift by aerofoils such as the wings also depends on the density. The formula for
lift is:
L = V2 S CL
Where:
L = Lift
= Density
V = True Airspeed
S = Surface area of the aerofoil
CL = Coefficient of lift

The amount of lift produced is directly proportional to the density. If density is low decreasing the
lift will also decrease, with all other factors being constant.

Density must be considered when calculation take-off and landing performance. The aircraft must
produce enough lift to counteract the weight and as stated above, lift decrease with decreasing
density. This means an aeroplane must increase its take-off and landing speeds, which will lead
to greater take-off and landing distances. Another option is to reduce the weight of the aircraft to
enable it to take-off and land on a given runway as the speeds could be lower.

At an airport such as Nairobi, aeroplanes often have to operate with reduced weight at the hottest
time of the day.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 5-7

Chapter 5 Density

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
Exercise 1:

Density altitude = 15 000 - (120 5) = 14 400 ft

Exercise 2:

ISA temp for 8000 ft = 15 (2 8) = -1C. ISA deviation is therefore +10C.

Density altitude = 8000 + (120 10) = 9200 ft

Exercise 3:

Density altitude = Pressure altitude + (ISA deviation 120)

Hence:
Pressure altitude = Density altitude (ISA deviation 120)
= 26 000 (8 120) = 25 040 ft

5-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Pressure systems as shown on charts are areas around which the isobars (see definition below)
form some sort of patterns. These patterns may often take the shape of concentric circles. There
are basically two types of pressure systems, high pressure areas (anticyclones) and low pressure
areas (depressions).

PRESSURE VALUES
There are certain pressure values that may be encountered, all of which must be learnt and
preferably understood.

STANDARD PRESSURE
Standard pressure is 1013 hPa, according to ISA as defined by ICAO.

QFE
QFE is the pressure at a meteorological station or at the datum level of an aerodrome (usually the
highest useable point on the landing area). Since it is generally not possible to place a measuring
device at this point on the aerodrome, it is usually measured elsewhere with corrections applied
for the height difference between the measuring point and the aerodrome datum. These
corrections take into account the prevailing temperature.

QNH
QNH is the QFE corrected to MSL assuming ISA conditions.

QFF
QFF is the QFE corrected to MSL using actual outside air temperature and assuming an
isothermal layer between the station and MSL.

QNE
QNE is indicated altitude at touchdown with reference to the standard pressure surface (1013
hPa), i.e. pressure altitude. QNE is sometimes used to indicate an altimeter setting of 1013 hPa.

ISOBAR
An isobar is a line joining places of equal pressure which is found on certain weather charts.

ISALLOBAR
An isallobar is a line joining places of equal pressure tendency which is found on certain weather
charts. The pressure tendency is given as hPa/hr or equivalent.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 6-1

Chapter 6 Pressure Systems

COMPARISON BETWEEN QFE, QNH AND QFF

Comparison between QFE, QNH and QFF can be expected in the JAA Meteorology exams.
However, accurate calculations of QFF do not seem to be required. Since QNH and QFF are
calculated using ISA or actual conditions respectively, they will differ in other than ISA
temperatures provided the QFE is not measured at MSL.

At MSL, QFE, QNH and QFF will all be identical in any condition.

For stations that are not at MSL there will be a difference between QFE and QNH/QFF. The
difference between QFE and QNH will always be the same for a given station. QNH and QFF will
be the same in ISA conditions, however, when the temperature is different from ISA, there will be
a difference between QNH and QFF.

Figure 6.1 QFE vs. QNH vs. QFF for a station above MSL

Figure 6.1 shows an aerodrome with an elevation of 540 ft above MSL with the QFE at the
aerodrome being 998 hPa. QNH, which is always calculated using ISA conditions, may be
calculated using 27 ft/hPa over 540 ft giving a 20 hPa change. Since MSL, and therefore QNH
reference level, is below the aerodrome level, the 20 hPa pressure difference must be added to
the QFE giving a QNH of 1018 hPa.

To calculate the QFF, actual conditions are being used. Since the centre column has ISA
conditions, both QFF and QNH will be the same.

The left hand column of air is warmer than ISA. The air is less dense so the pressure change is
less over the same change of height. This results in the pressure change from QFE to QFF being
less than 20 hPa, making the QFF lower than the QNH.

The right hand column of air is colder than ISA. The air is denser so the pressure change is
greater over the same change of height. This results in the pressure change from QFE to QFF
being greater than 20 hPa, making the QFF higher than the QNH.
6-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Pressure Systems Chapter 6

Figure 6.2 shows what happens with an aerodrome 810 ft below MSL and a QFE of 1035 hPa.
Since MSL and therefore the QNH and QFF reference levels are above aerodrome level both of
them will always be lower than the QFE.

Figure 6.2 QFE vs. QNH vs. QFF for a station below MSL

The pressure difference between aerodrome level and MSL is 30 hPa giving a QNH of 1005 hPa
with a QFE of 1035 hPa.

The left hand column of air is warmer than ISA. The air is less dense so the pressure change is
less over the same change of height. This results in the pressure change from QFE to QFF being
less than 30 hPa, making the QFF higher than the QNH.

The right hand column of air is colder than ISA. The air is denser so the pressure change is
greater over the same change of height. This results in the pressure change from QFE to QFF
being greater than 30 hPa, making the QFF lower than the QNH.

SUMMARY
Table 6.1 shows a summary of the relationship between QFE, QNH and QFF in the various
scenarios. This way of presenting the relationship may also be used in the JAA exams.

Also, beware that unless elevation is given (above/below MSL), QFE vs. QNH/QFF cannot be
determined and, unless temperature deviation from ISA is given and elevation can be
determined, the relationship between QNH and QFF cannot be determined.

Aerodrome below MSL Aerodrome at MSL Aerodrome above MSL

Warm QFE > QFF > QNH QFE < QFF < QNH
ISA QFE > QNH = QFF QFE = QNH = QFF QFE < QNH = QFF
Cold QFE > QNH > QFF QFE < QNH < QFF
Table 6.1 Summary of the QFE, QNH and QFF relationship

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 6-3

Chapter 6 Pressure Systems

DEPRESSIONS
If we get a point from which the pressure will increase as we move horizontally in any direction
from this point we have a low pressure centre or a depression.

As seen on Figure 6.3, the depression is seen as an X indicating the centre with an L and the
lowest pressure value to be found in the centre somewhere in the vicinity. The isobars
surrounding the centre are typically roughly circular and fairly close together covering a relatively
small area.

Figure 6.3 Typical depression

The air within the depression will ascend (which makes the pressure drop in the first place) and
air will flow towards the depression along the surface of the Earth. This inflow of air will converge
in the centre, trying to equalise the pressure and fill up the depression. When the rising air
reaches the tropopause it cannot rise any further and will flow out, or diverge, along the
tropopause. Depending on the rate of this outflow, a relatively high pressure may form at
tropopause level, as shown in figure 6.4.

Figure 6.4 Depression with high pressure at altitude

6-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Pressure Systems Chapter 6

VERTICAL CROSS SECTION OF A DEPRESSION

Depressions may be subdivided into warm and cold depressions. In general one can say that
depressions are characterised by pressure levels that are bulging downwards or hanging. The
difference will become apparent when looking at the vertical cross section of the system. The
main difference is the density of the air and how that affects the distance between the pressure
levels (or isobars) in the vertical. As already seen, the pressure is decreasing faster with
increasing altitude in lower temperatures. Whether a depression is classed as warm or cold
depends on the temperature (or density) of the air within the system compared to the surrounding
areas.

A warm depression will have warmer air in the centre than the surrounding area with subsequent
greater distance between the pressure levels. Also, in the warm depression the outflow of air at
high altitude will tend to be slower than the supply of rising air which means the pressure at
altitude tends to increase. Therefore, a warm depression tends to weaken with increasing altitude
and may turn into a high pressure at altitude. Figure 6.5 shows a typical vertical cross section of a
warm depression.

A warm depression may also be referred to as a thermal low.

Figure 6.5 Typical warm depression

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 6-5

Chapter 6 Pressure Systems

A cold depression will have colder air in the centre than the surrounding area with subsequent
shorter distance between the pressure levels. Also, in the cold depression the outflow of air at
high altitude will tend to be greater than the supply of rising air which means the pressure at
altitude also tends to decrease. Therefore, a cold depression tends to deepen (or intensify) at
altitude. Figure 6.6 shows a typical vertical cross section of a cold depression.

Figure 6.6 Typical cold depression

A cold depression may also be referred to as a dynamic low.

Due to the rising air in the depression clouds tend to form and typical weather is described in
table 6.2.

Cloud Full cover from near the surface to the tropopause.

Generally continuous light or moderate. Heavy showers and
Precipitation
thunderstorms possible because of the unstable nature of the air.
Visibility Good out of precipitation but poor in precipitation.
Temperature Mild.
Winds Depends on the pressure gradient of the isobars but normally strong.
Table 6.2 Typical weather in a depression

6-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Pressure Systems Chapter 6

ANTICYCLONES
If we get a point from which the pressure will decrease as we move horizontally in any direction
from this point we have a high pressure centre or an anticyclone.

As seen on Figure 6.7, the anticyclone is seen as an X indicating the centre with an H and the
highest pressure value to be found in the centre somewhere in the vicinity. The isobars
surrounding the centre may be roughly circular and reasonably well spaced. The anticyclone will
cover a large geographical area compared to a typical depression and may be said to have a
slack pressure gradient (little pressure variation over a large distance).

Figure 6.7 Typical anticyclone

The air within the anticyclone will subside (or descend), which is the cause of the pressure rise on
the surface. The subsiding air will diverge and flow out from the centre when it hits the surface of
the Earth. As the air subsides from tropopause level, the pressure at high altitude tends to drop
causing a relatively low pressure at high altitude and an inflow of air as shown in figure 6.8. The
rate of this inflow will influence the magnitude of the pressure drop at high altitude.

Figure 6.8 Anticyclone with low pressure at altitude

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 6-7
Chapter 6 Pressure Systems

VERTICAL CROSS SECTION OF AN ANTICYCLONE

Anticyclones may, in the same manner as depressions, be subdivided into warm and cold
anticyclones. In general one can say that depressions are characterised by pressure levels that
are bulging upwards or just bulging. As with the depressions, it is the influence of the temperature
in the centre of the system and the resulting distance between the pressure levels in the vertical,
which decides its properties.

A warm anticyclone will have warmer air in the centre than the surrounding area with subsequent
greater distance between the pressure levels. Also, in the warm anticyclone the inflow of air at
high altitude tend to be greater than the outflow at the surface which will reduce the pressure
reduction at high altitude or maybe lead to an increase of pressure. Therefore, a warm
anticyclone tends to strengthen with increasing altitude. Figure 6.9 shows the typical vertical
cross section of a warm anticyclone.

Figure 6.9 Typical warm anticyclone

6-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Pressure Systems Chapter 6

A cold anticyclone will have colder air in the centre than the surrounding area with subsequent
shorter distance between the pressure levels. Also, in the cold anticyclone the inflow of air at high
altitude tends to be lower than the subsidence in the centre leading to a decreasing pressure at
higher altitude. Therefore, a cold anticyclone tends to weaken with altitude and may turn into a
depression at high altitude. Figure 6.10 shows the typical vertical cross section of a cold
anticyclone.

Figure 6.10 Typical cold anticyclone

The subsidence normally stops any clouds forming and typical weather is described in table 6.2.
However, there may be some cloud and precipitation at the edge of the system.

Cloud None because of the warming effect of subsidence.

Precipitation None.
Visibility In summer, hazy conditions can occur. In winter, foggy conditions.
Temperature Depends on the type. Hot in summer, cold in winter.
Winds Light.
Table 6.3 Typical weather in an anticyclone

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 6-9

Chapter 6 Pressure Systems

TROUGHS
If the isobars around a low becomes elongated in one direction into a V-shape a trough has
formed. The pressure along the axis of the trough (centre line) is lower than when moving away
from the axis. A trough will often form with frontal activity, in particular cold fronts.

Whether the trough is frontal or not, there will be increased lifting along its axis because of
convergence. As the air flows along the isobars inertia will make it difficult for the air to change
direction fast enough to make the turn which means that air will be forced to rise as it cannot flow
towards higher pressure or into the ground.

1002 1004
1000
998
996

Centre line

Figure 6.11 Typical shape of a trough

The weather associated with a trough will typically be similar to that found in the depression but
often more severe because of the increased lifting caused by the convergence. If there is no
particular frontal activity, there will often be a line of cumuliform clouds along the axis of the
trough.

Generally the winds will be gusty and the visibility good except in precipitation.

RIDGES
Ridges are an extension from a high pressure system. They are more rounded than troughs;
more like a U shape.

Figure 6.12 Typical shape of a ridge

Ridges are often found between two polar front depressions (see later chapters). They provide
periods of good weather.

Ridge weather is very similar to anticyclone weather and will have light winds and will often give
improving weather as a ridge may frequently form after a depression.

6-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Pressure Systems Chapter 6

COLS
A col is a region of very little pressure variation between two highs and two lows. Winds are
therefore very light and the air remains mostly stationary, so it remains in contact with the ground
for an extended period of time.

Figure 6.13 Typical position of a col

In the summer, extended contact with the hot ground can lead to instability cloud and
thunderstorms. During the winter, extended contact with the cold ground can result in the
formation of fog or low stratus.

MOVEMENT OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS

Anticyclones tend to be long lived (up to 6 months) and move quite slowly. Depressions move
more quickly and generally only last about 14 days. Cols generally get quickly absorbed into other
systems, lasting only a few days.

SYNOPTIC CHARTS
A synoptic chart depicts, among other things, the pressure situation at a particular time (normally
0000 UTC, 0600 UTC, 1200 UTC and 1800 UTC). On the chart we can see areas of higher and
lower pressure from which it is possible to determine wind direction and strength which again can
be used to predict how the pressure systems and weather move.

Figure 6.14 shows an example of a synoptic chart covering Europe and the North Atlantic
showing pressure systems (areas of high and low pressure) and isobars. In addition fronts are
also shown. A more in depth explanation of the synoptic chart is given in chapter 23.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 6-11

Chapter 6 Pressure Systems

Figure 6.14 Example of a synoptic chart

6-12 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
INTRODUCTION
THE ALTIMETER
The altimeter is basically an aneroid barometer calibrated to show a pressure difference as an
altitude. The reference pressure is what is being chosen as the altimeter pressure setting, which
has a scale ranging from 950 hPa to 1050 hPa.

It is calibrated according to the ISA atmosphere which means it assumes there is a set pressure
lapse rate with change of altitude (distance between the pressure levels) from the reference
which has been chosen. However, as described in earlier chapters, the pressure lapse rate with
change of altitude will vary with the temperature.

ALTIMETER SETTING
There are mainly three altimeter settings that are being used, all depending on whether an
indication of altitude, height above aerodrome level or flight level is required. These are QNH,
QFE or standard pressure setting (1013 hPa) respectively.

If the pressure (QNH or QFE) is outside the scale of the altimeter, standard setting will be used
and QNE used as reference for touchdown and height above the aerodrome.

ALTIMETER ERRORS
Since the altimeter may have different altimeter settings, there is scope for error if the wrong
pressure setting has been chosen or when flying using the standard pressure setting when the
MSL or aerodrome level pressure deviates from 1013 hPa. Also, since the altimeter is calibrated
to ISA conditions it will be subject to errors in other than ISA conditions.

This means there are two main errors, namely pressure error and temperature error. Pressure
error is when the altimeter setting is other than the QNH or QFE, which are the only two pressure
settings which makes it possible to relate the indicated altitude to the surface of the Earth. The
temperature error will occur when the temperature in a column of air deviates from ISA.

As a result of these errors, there may often be a difference between indicated altitude (as read off
the altimeter), true altitude (the actual distance between the aircraft and MSL) and height (the
actual distance between the aircraft and the ground below).

The altimeter will only show correct in any condition in the following scenarios:

In ISA conditions with correct QNH or QFE set. The indication is altitude or height above
aerodrome level respectively.
At MSL with the correct QNH or QFE set. The indication is 0 ft with either set.
At the level of an aerodrome or station from where the QNH or QFE has been obtained
and set. The indication is aerodrome or terrain elevation or 0 ft respectively.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 7-1

Chapter 7 Altimetry

PRESSURE CALCULATIONS
Altimetry calculations with pressure errors can be expected in the JAA Meteorology exam. Unless
otherwise specified in the question, 27 ft/hPa should be used for the pressure error calculations.
Also, it is highly recommended to make sketches in order to apply corrections and errors the
correct way.

It is important to make clear whether the question ask for indicated altitude or true altitude or
height before starting the calculations. Unless one of them can be determined to be constant, it is
impossible to get a correct answer.

Generally, for the pressure error, the following rules may be applied, assuming flying with a
constant altimeter setting. When flying towards lower pressure, the following applies:

True altitude will decrease when flying at a constant indicated altitude.

Indicated altitude will increase when flying at a constant true altitude.
The altimeter can be said to over-read, i.e. indicating higher that the aircraft actually is.
This gave rise to the following aide-memoire, high to low, beware below.

When flying towards higher pressure, the following applies:

True altitude will increase when flying at a constant indicated altitude.

Indicated altitude will decrease when flying at a constant true altitude.
The altimeter can be said to under-read, i.e. indicating lower than the aircraft actually is.

On the following pages there are some example questions. All of them are connected to pressure
errors and possible calculations connected to them.

Example 1 shows how to calculate the QNH when given the QFE and elevation of an aerodrome.
Example 2 shows how to calculate the height of an aircraft when given the QNH and QFE for the
aerodrome and the indicated altitude of the aircraft.
Example 3 shows how to calculate the effect of changing pressure on indicated altitude with a
given altimeter setting.
Example 4 shows how to calculate the effect of changing pressure on height when flying at a
constant indicated altitude with a given altimeter setting.
Example 5 shows how to calculate indicated altitude when flying at a constant true altitude with a
given altimeter setting, QFE and aerodrome level.

7-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Altimetry Chapter 7

Example 1: An aerodrome has an elevation of 351 ft. The QFE is reported as 999 hPa. What
is the approximate QNH?

The change of pressure equivalent to 351 ft is: 351 ft 27 ft/hPa = 13 hPa

The airfield is above MSL, making the QNH: 999 hPa + 13 hPa = 1012 hPa

Figure 7.1 Illustration for example question 1

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 7-3

Chapter 7 Altimetry

Example 2: An aircraft is flying at an indicated altitude of 3500 ft with an altimeter setting of

1010 hPa. A nearby aerodrome reports a QFE of 988 hPa and a QNH of 1010
hPa. Assuming ISA temperature, what is the height of the aircraft?

Since the altimeter setting is the same as the QNH and the temperature is
according to ISA, indicated altitude and true altitude are the same. Elevation of
the aerodrome may be found using the difference between QFE and QNH.

Aerodrome elevation is: (1010 hPa 988 hPa) x 27 ft/hPa = 594 ft

The height of the aircraft is: 3500 ft 594 ft = 2906 ft

Figure 7.2 Illustration for example question 2

7-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Altimetry Chapter 7

Example 3: An aircraft is parked at an aerodrome overnight. When it arrived the previous

evening the QNH of 1020 hPa was set, however, the next day the QNH is
reported to be 1010 hPa. What is the indicated altitude with the QNH from the
previous evening set?

Indicated altitude, when the aircraft landed, was equal to the aerodrome
elevation.

The change of altitude equivalent to 10 hPa is: 10 hPa x 27 ft/hPa = 270 ft

Since the pressure is lower, the distance from the aircraft to the 1020 hPa
pressure surface is greater, which means the indicated altitude has increased by
270 ft giving an indicated altitude of aerodrome elevation + 270 ft.

Figure 7.3 Illustration for example question 3

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 7-5

Chapter 7 Altimetry

Example 4: An aircraft is flying at 500 ft indicated altitude with an altimeter setting of 1035
hPa. The altimeter setting was obtained as the QFE for an aerodrome. The
aircraft flies to another area with the same terrain elevation where the QFE is
1021 hPa without changing the altimeter setting. What is the height of the aircraft
over this area assuming ISA temperature?

The change of altitude equivalent to 14 hPa is: 14 hPa x 27 ft/hPa = 378 ft

Since the aircraft is flying towards lower pressure, the height will decrease.

The new height of the aircraft is: 500 ft 378 ft = 122 ft

Figure 7.4 Illustration for example question 4

7-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Altimetry Chapter 7

Example 5: An aircraft is flying at a constant true altitude of 6000 ft. A nearby aerodrome with
an elevation of -162 ft reports a QFE of 1037 hPa. Assuming ISA temperature
and the no pressure changes within the area, what is the indicated altitude if the
altimeter setting is standard?

There are two ways to calculate this, one which goes via QNH and one where
the QFE is used. Either of them will lead to the same answer and it is personal
choice which one is used. Both will be shown here, starting with via QNH.

The change of pressure equivalent to 162 ft is: 162 ft 27 ft/hPa = 6 hPa

The airfield is below MSL, making the QNH: 1037 hPa 6 hPa = 1031 hPa

The change of altitude equivalent to 18 hPa is: 18 hPa x 27 ft/hPa = 486 ft

Since the altimeter setting (1013 hPa) is lower than the QNH (1031 hPa), the
altimeter pressure reference level is closer to the aircraft than MSL making the
indicated altitude lower than the true altitude.

The indicated altitude is: 6000 ft 486 ft = 5514 ft

Using QFE and omitting calculating via QNH, the calculation is:

The change of altitude equivalent to: 24 hPa x 27 ft/hPa = 648 ft

The indicated altitude is: 6000 ft (648 ft 162 ft) = 5514 ft

Figure 7.5 Illustration for example question 5, calculating via QNH

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 7-7

Chapter 7 Altimetry

CORRECTING FOR TEMPERATURE

In addition to calculating pressure errors, calculation of temperature errors can also be expected
in the JAA Meteorology exam.

As for the pressure error calculations, it is important to make clear whether the question asks for
indicated altitude or true altitude or height before starting the calculations. Unless one of them
can be determined to be constant, it is still impossible to get a correct answer.

The temperature error differs slightly from the pressure error in the way that its magnitude will
depend on two things. The temperature deviation from ISA and the vertical distance between the
aircraft and the level of the meteorological station, at which the pressure used for calculating the
QNH, was obtained.

The level of the meteorological station is referred to as the reference station from now on.

In addition to this, whether the aircraft is flying above or below the reference station. Figure 7.6
shows the effect of the temperature error for an aircraft flying at a constant indicated altitude
above the reference station with the QNH or QFE as altimeter setting.

Figure 7.6 Temperature error with constant indicated altitude

For an aircraft flying above the reference station and flying with a constant altimeter setting, the
temperature error will have the following effects. When flying towards lower temperatures
(colder), the following applies:

True altitude will decrease when flying at a constant indicated altitude.

Indicated altitude will increase when flying at a constant true altitude.
The altimeter can be said to over-read, i.e. indicating higher that the aircraft actually is.
This gave rise to the following aide-memoire, warm to cold, dont be bold.

7-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Altimetry Chapter 7

When flying towards higher temperatures (warmer), the following applies:

True altitude will increase when flying at a constant indicated altitude.

Indicated altitude will decrease when flying at a constant true altitude.
The altimeter can be said to under-read, i.e. indicating lower than the aircraft actually is.

Normally, this meteorological station is an aerodrome but in some mountainous areas high
elevation stations may be used in order to minimise the temperature error for aircraft flying in the
area, using an area QNH.

An example can be a region with 20 000 ft mountains and valleys around MSL 2000 ft
elevation. If an aircraft wants to fly at 22 000 ft to clear the mountains but uses a QNH from an
aerodrome in a valley, the temperature error will be large since the distance from the reference
station is large. However, if the aircraft use a QNH which is calculated from a station on a
mountain, the distance between the reference station and the aircraft is much less which means
the temperature error is also greatly reduced.

Using these high altitude stations as reference station, however, throws another issue into the
temperature error. As stated earlier, the altimeter will only show correct in all temperatures at the
level of the station from where the QNH was calculated. If this station is on a mountain it means
that the aircraft may be flying below the reference station if flying in valleys, and in this case the
temperature error will be reversed (much in the same fashion as QNH vs. QFF for a station above
or below MSL in non-ISA conditions).

Figure 7.7 Effect of temperature error when flying below the pressure reference

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 7-9

Chapter 7 Altimetry

For an aircraft flying below the reference station and flying with a constant altimeter setting, the
temperature error will have the following effects. When flying towards lower temperatures
(colder), the following applies:

True altitude will increase when flying at a constant indicated altitude.

Indicated altitude will decrease when flying at a constant true altitude.
The altimeter can be said to under-read, i.e. indicating lower that the aircraft actually is.

When flying towards higher temperatures (warmer), the following applies:

True altitude will decrease when flying at a constant indicated altitude.

Indicated altitude will increase when flying at a constant true altitude.
The altimeter can be said to over-read, i.e. indicating higher than the aircraft actually is.

To calculate the temperature error, two formulae may be used. Both are interchangeable so it is
down to personal preference which one is being used.

4% per 10C deviation from ISA

or
4 feet per 1000 feet per 1C deviation from ISA

Following from here there are three example calculations on how to calculate with the
temperature error.

Example 1 shows how to calculate the height above an aerodrome given the indicated altitude,
temperature deviation and aerodrome elevation.
Example 2 shows how to calculate the indicated altitude for flying above the reference station
given the true altitude and temperature.
Example 3 shows how to calculate the indicated altitude for flying below the reference station
given true altitude, aerodrome elevation and temperature.

Example 1: An aircraft is flying at a constant indicated altitude of 16 000 ft on an altimeter

setting of 975 hPa. An aerodrome at elevation 480 ft reports a QNH of 975 hPa.
The temperature in the area is ISA -13C. What is the height of the aircraft above
the aerodrome?

First, the distance between the aircraft and the reference station must be
determined and then that distance can be inserted into one of the temperature
error formulae. Since it is colder than standard, true altitude will be lower than
indicated altitude and the error must be subtracted from indicated altitude.

Distance from the reference station: 16 000 ft 480 ft = 15 520 ft

Temperature error: 4 ft x (15 520 ft 1000 ft)/C x 13C = 807 ft

The true altitude is: 16 000 ft 807 ft = 15 193 ft

The height above the aerodrome is: 15 193 ft 480 ft = 14 713 ft

7-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Altimetry Chapter 7

Example 2: An aircraft is flying at a constant true altitude of 8500 ft and above the sea. A
nearby coastal aerodrome with elevation 25 ft reports a QNH of 1007 hPa and a
temperature of +24C. With an altimeter setting of 1007 hPa and assuming the
same general conditions in the area, what is the indicated altitude?

Here the distance between the aircraft and the reference station is 8500 ft,
however, the temperature deviation from ISA needs to be determined to
complete the formula for temperature error. Since it is warmer than standard,
indicated altitude will be lower than true altitude, thus the temperature error must
be subtracted from true altitude.

Temperature deviation from ISA: (+24C) (+15C) = +9C

Temperature error: 4 ft x (8500 ft 1000 ft)/C x 9C = 306 ft

The indicated altitude is: 8500 ft 306 ft = 8194 ft

Example 3: An aircraft is flying at a true altitude of 200 ft and above the sea. A nearby
aerodrome at elevation 3500 ft reports a QNH of 1032 hPa and a temperature of
-12C. Assuming the same general conditions in the entire area, what is the
indicated altitude with the QNH set as the altimeter setting?

The important fact to realise here is that the aircraft is flying below the reference
station. This means that the effect of the temperature error will be reversed. First,
the temperature deviation from ISA has to be calculated which then can be put
into the formula together with the distance from the aircraft to the reference
station. Since it is colder than standard, the aircraft is below the reference station
and flying at a constant true altitude, the temperature error must be subtracted.

Temperature deviation from ISA: (-12C) ((+15C) (+7C)) = -20C

Temperature error: 4 ft x ((3500 ft 200 ft) 1000 ft)/C x 20C = 264 ft

The indicated altitude is: 200 ft 264 ft = -64 ft

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 7-11

Chapter 7 Altimetry

MOUNTAIN FLYING
In strong winds when the air is blowing across a mountain range there is less space for the air to
flow through the gap between the top of the mountains and the tropopause compared to the
surrounding areas. This means there will be a venturi effect where the velocity of an airflow will
increase if the area through which it flows decreases. Bernoulli defined a theorem which states
that if the dynamic pressure (i.e. the velocity of the airflow) increases the static pressure will
decrease (since the total pressure is constant).

This fact will introduce an additional pressure error when flying in the vicinity of the mountain as
there will be an area of lower pressure. Also as the air is forced across the mountains it will
gather on the windward side, thus increasing the pressure slightly there. This means that aircraft
flying on a pressure setting obtained from a station on the windward side or slightly downwind on
the leeward side will experience an altimeter which over-reads.

A standard has been determined to correct for this effect in various wind speeds which must be
added to indicated altitude to maintain the desired true altitude. This correction will come in
addition to any pressure error and/or temperature error.

< 30 kt no addition
31 40 kt add 500 ft
41 50 kt add 1000 ft
51 60 kt add 1500 ft
> 60 kt add 2000 ft

CALCULATION OF MINIMUM USABLE FLIGHT LEVEL

Another aspect of altimetry is calculation of the minimum usable flight level. In order to simplify
the vertical separation between aircraft, above a certain altitude everyone will fly using the same
altimeter setting, namely standard or 1013 hPa. The indicated altitude is then referred to as flight
level (FL), which is in hundreds of feet (i.e. 10 000 ft = FL 100).

Since the QNH more often than not deviates from 1013 hPa, flying at a flight level will introduce a
pressure error and it is therefore important to allow for this in order to ensure adequate terrain
clearance. This is why flight level is normally not to be used below 3000 ft above MSL or 1000 ft
above terrain if higher.

TRANSITION ALTITUDE
The changeover from flying on QNH to flying on 1013 hPa happens above the transition altitude.
When climbing through this altitude, the pilot should change the altimeter setting from QNH to
1013 hPa. It is usually published and may vary from place to place and between countries (e.g.
the UK is using transition altitude between 4000 ft and 7000 ft but the USA has a uniform
transition altitude of 18 000 ft for the entire country).

TRANSITION LEVEL
The changeover from flying on 1013 hPa to flying on QNH happens below the transition level.
When descending through this flight level, the pilot should change the altimeter setting from 1013
hPa to QNH. Transition level will vary with the pressure (QNH) in order to allow for the pressure
error. When flying at transition level, which is the lowest usable flight level, the aircraft is to be
guaranteed at or above transition altitude to ensure terrain clearance or separation to aircraft
flying below using QNH.
When calculating transition level the following has to be ensured:

7-12 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Altimetry Chapter 7

The difference between QNH and 1013 hPa to calculate indicated altitude when flying at
the transition altitude (true altitude) with 1013 hPa altimeter setting.
Prescribed terrain clearance is obtained and maintained at this altitude.
Allowing for a temperature error if the air temperature deviates from ISA.
Rounding up the indicated altitude at the transition altitude (true altitude) with 1013 hPa
altimeter setting to the nearest 500 ft.

As transition level is rounded up to the nearest 500 ft, it is likely that there is a gap between
transition altitude and transition level. This is called the transition layer. Some countries specify a
minimum height for this layer, Norway being one of them, where the transition layer shall be
minimum 1000 ft.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 7-13

Chapter 7 Altimetry

7-14 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
The stability of the atmosphere is found by comparing the temperature between a parcel of air,
which is being forced to rise, with the temperature of the air which is surrounding that parcel of air
in its new position. As air is moving vertically (whether forced or not) it is subject to adiabatic
processes which is the basic cause of this temperature difference between the parcel of air and
the surrounding air.

This possible temperature difference is of great importance when it comes to assessing the type
of weather to expect. If the parcel of air becomes warmer than the surrounding air it will act like a
hot air balloon and continue to rise under its own power, which can create large clouds and
associated weather. On the other hand, if the parcel of air becomes colder than the surrounding
air it will sink back towards its origin and therefore limit any cloud formation. Since clouds can
have a great impact on the progression of a flight, an understanding of the general concepts
behind the stability is essential for a professional pilot.

LAPSE RATES AND ADIABATIC PROCESSES

Lapse rates in connection with stability are said to be positive when the temperature is
decreasing with increasing altitude and negative in an inversion. Thus, a large lapse rate is one
where the temperature decrease rapidly with increasing altitude. There are three lapse rates in
connection with stability, the environmental lapse rate (ELR), the dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)
and the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR).

A fourth lapse rate may also have an influence, which is the lapse rate for dew point.

Value
1.98C per 1000 ft
ELR
0.65C per 100 m
3C per 1000 ft
DALR
1C per 100 m
1.8C per 1000 ft
SALR
0.6 per 100 m
Dew point lapse rate 0.5C per 1000 ft
Table 8.1 Lapse rate values to be used in the JAA Meteorology exam

ENVIRONMENTAL LAPSE RATE

The environmental lapse rate, or ELR, is the actual vertical temperature profile for the
atmosphere above a given point on the surface of the Earth. This will continuously vary as air of
different temperatures is moving around and the air is cooled and heated during the day.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 8-1

Chapter 8 Stability

ADIABATIC PROCESSES
An adiabatic process involves a change of temperature without exchanging any energy with the
surroundings. What causes the temperature change is a change of pressure. If air is compressed,
the energy, which is required to compress the air, is transferred to the air itself and comes out as
heat. A typical example of this is a bicycle pump, where the piston and casing will become heated
by the heating, compressed air inside. On the other hand, if air is given the chance to expand, it
will spend energy to perform this expansion which means the temperature will decrease.

In the atmosphere this happens when air moves vertically. As described earlier, the air pressure
always decreases with increasing altitude. This means that if a parcel of air is forced to rise, the
pressure of the surrounding air is gradually decreasing. In turn, this will lead to the parcel of air
expanding. As it expands energy is being spent, which means the temperature of the parcel of air
will decrease.

The opposite will happen to air which is forced to descend. As altitude is decreasing, the pressure
of the surrounding air will increase and compress the descending air. This will lead to a
temperature increase within the parcel of air.

Since air is a poor conductor of heat, the parcel of air will not be affected by the temperature of
the surrounding air as it moves vertically. Neither will the surrounding air be affected by the
temperature of the rising air.

THE DRY ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE

When unsaturated air is forced to ascend or descend it will, as previously mentioned, cool with
increasing altitude or heat with decreasing altitude respectively. The DALR is the amount by
which the air will change its temperature for a given altitude change, provided the air is
unsaturated. The common value is found in table 8.1.

THE SATURATED ADIABATIC LAPSE RATE

If the air is saturated and the water in the air changes its state from vapour to liquid, the water will
release latent heat. This heat will then affect the lapse rate of the parcel of air. For air that is
ascending and cooling, this release of latent heat will make the air cool more slowly. On the other
hand, if air is descending and heating, it will be able to hold more moisture and some of the water
in liquid state will now evaporate, thus absorbing heat. This absorption of heat will make the air
heat more slowly.

This effect of water changing state as the air is either ascending (cooling) or descending
(heating), gives the reason for the third lapse rate, the SALR. The SALR will always be lower than
the DALR because of this.

However, since the amount of released or absorbed heat depends on the amount of water
changing state, air with high temperature will have a lower SALR than air with low temperature.
This means that the SALR will be slightly variable, but generally is lower in tropical regions
(towards 0.5C per 1000 ft) than in the polar regions (towards 2.5C per 1000 ft). The SALR will
also gradually increase towards the DALR with increasing altitude since the air becomes colder
and holds less moisture that will condense.

8-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Stability Chapter 8

THE STABILITY OF THE AIR

As there is a difference between the random ELR and the (for the purpose of this) fixed SALR
and DALR, it is very likely that a parcel of air will have a different temperature to the surrounding
air as determined by the ELR. This means it is the ELR that decides whether the air is stable (air
that has been lifted sinks back), unstable (air that has been lifted continues to rise) and
conditionally unstable (air that has been lifted sinks back or continues to rise depending on
whether it is saturated).

ABSOLUTE STABILITY
The air is absolutely stable when any parcel of air, which is forced to rise, will sink back down
when the lifting force is removed. This will happen when the parcel of air is colder than the
surrounding air, which is when the lapse rate for the rising air is higher than the surrounding air.
Thus, when the ELR is lower than both the DALR and the SALR, any rising parcel of air will cool
faster than the surrounding air (whether saturated or not) and, therefore, sink back down once the
lifting force is removed.
DALR SALR ELR 1C/1000 ft

+11C
4000 ft +3C +7.8C

+12C
3000 ft +6C +9.6C

+13C
2000 +9C +11.4C

+14C
1000 ft +12C +13.2C

+15C +15C

Dry air Saturated air

Figure 8.1 Absolute stability

Figure 8.1 shows a stable situation between the surface and 4000 ft and a surface temperature of
+15C. The scale on the right is the ELR which is 1C per 1000 ft as the temperature decrease
with 4C over a 4000 ft increase in altitude. The left column shows unsaturated air being forced to
rise to 4000 ft cooling by the DALR, thus cooling faster than the surrounding air. The centre
column shows saturated air cooling by the SALR, also cooling faster than the surrounding air.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 8-3

Chapter 8 Stability

ABSOLUTE INSTABILITY
The air is absolutely unstable when any parcel of air, which is forced to rise, will continue to rise
under its own power when the lifting force is removed. This will happen when the parcel of air is
warmer than the surrounding air, which is when the lapse rate for the rising air is lower than the
surrounding air. Thus, when the ELR is greater than both the SALR and the DALR, any rising
parcel of air will cool slower than the surrounding air (whether saturated or not) and, therefore,
continue to rise under its own power when the lifting force is removed.
DALR SALR
ELR 5C/1000 ft

0C
4000 ft +8C +12.8C

3000 ft +11C +14.6C +5C

+10C
2000 ft +14C +16.4C

1000 ft +17C +18.2C +15C

+20C +20C

Dry air Saturated air

Figure 8.2 Absolute instability

Figure 8.2 shows an unstable situation between the surface and 4000 ft and a surface
temperature of +20C. The scale on the right is the ELR which is 5C per 1000 ft as the
temperature decrease with +20C over a 4000 ft increase in altitude. The left column shows
unsaturated air being forced to rise to 4000 ft cooling by the DALR, thus cooling slower than the
surrounding air. The centre column shows saturated air cooling by the SALR also cooling slower
than the surrounding air.

8-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Stability Chapter 8

CONDITIONAL INSTABILITY
The final state of stability is conditional instability. This occurs when the state of stability is
decided by whether the air is saturated (which is the condition required to get instability). When
the air is unsaturated, it will cool by the DALR, which is greater the lapse rate for the surrounding
air, and therefore the air will sink back down once the lifting force is removed. When the air is
saturated, it will cool by the SALR, which is lower than the lapse rate for the surrounding air,
making the air rise under its own power when the lifting force is removed.
DALR SALR
ELR 2C/1000 ft

+12C
4000 ft +8C +12.8C

+14C
3000 ft +11C +14.6C

+16C
2000 ft +14C +16.4C

+18C
1000 ft +17C +18.2C

+20C +20C

Dry air Saturated air

Figure 8.3 Conditional instability

Figure 8.3 shows a conditional unstable condition between the surface and 4000 ft with a surface
temperature of +20C. The scale on the right is the ELR which is 2C per 1000 ft as the
temperature decrease with 8C over 4000 ft increase in altitude. The left column shows
unsaturated being forced to rise to 4000 ft cooling by the DALR, thus cooling faster than the
surrounding air. The centre column shows saturated air cooling by the SALR, however, since this
is lower than the ELR, the rising air will now cool slower than the surrounding air.

Attention should be drawn to the fact that this is called conditional instability which sometimes
may be referred to as stable when dry.

NEUTRAL STABILITY
Neutral stability exists when the ELR is equal to either the DALR or the SALR.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 8-5

Chapter 8 Stability

SUMMARY OF STABILITY

Figure 8.4 Relationship between SALR and DALR and state of stability

Figure 8.4 shows the state of stability which a given layer of air will have for a given ELR if the
ELR is superimposed onto the graph. Temperature is the horizontal axis and altitude the vertical.

The ELR is greater than both

Absolute instability ELR > DALR > SALR
the SALR and the DALR

The ELR is between the DALR

Conditional instability DALR > ELR > SALR
and the SALR

The ELR is less than both the

Absolute stability DALR > SALR > ELR
DALR and the SALR

Table 8.2 Summary of stability

Based on what has been explained above, certain conclusions may be made with regard to the
change of stability with change of the ELR as described in table 8.3. This is essential knowledge
for understanding the later parts of the meteorology syllabus.

Alteration to a layer of air giving

Alteration to the ELR
this result
Heating of the upper part of the layer
Increasing
Decreasing or
stability
Cooling of the lower part of the layer

Cooling of the upper part of the layer

Decreasing
Increasing or
stability
Heating of the lower part of the layer
Table 8.3 Altering the state of stability

The stability may also be affected by the amount of humidity as the SALR decreases with
increasing water content which again makes it more likely to be lower than the ELR.
8-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Stability Chapter 8

CONVECTIVE OR POTENTIAL INSTABILITY

Convective or potential instability is what happens to the stability within an airmass when it is
moving from one place to another. It is likely that the temperature of the surface will vary as it
moves across various type surfaces. This may affect the temperature at the lower parts of the
layer and, therefore, affect the stability of the airmass. The alterations to the stability will be
according to table 8.3.

Another feature that may affect the stability within the airmass is whether it will be forced to pass
high ground. There will be a difference to the stability if parts of the airmass are saturated. Figure
8.5 shows a situation where an airmass which is 5000 ft deep is forced across high terrain of
8000 ft. The lower part of the airmass is saturated which means that it will cool by the SALR while
the upper part of the airmass is unsaturated and will cool by the DALR. This means the lower part
will cool slower and less than the upper part across the 8000 ft which, in turn, will make the ELR
increase. The increase of the ELR will result in less stable conditions.

25 24
= 1C

ELR 3.4C/1000 ft
unstable 5000 ft

Cools
at the 30 12
DALR =18C
8000 ft

Cools
at the
SALR
Unsaturated air

25C

5000 ft ELR 1C/1000 ft

initially stable

30C
Saturated air

Figure 8.5 Decreasing stability

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 8-7

Chapter 8 Stability

Figure 8.6 shows very much the same scenario, however, now the lower part of the airmass is
unsaturated and the upper part saturated. This means that the upper part will cool slower than the
lower part and the ELR will, therefore, decrease. A decreasing ELR will lead to more stable
conditions.
14 12=
2C

ELR 0.8C/1000 ft
stable 5000 ft

Cools
at the 30 24
SALR =6C
8000 ft

Cools
at the
DALR
Saturated air

14C

5000 ft ELR 3.2C/1000 ft

initially unstable

30C
Unsaturated air

Figure 8.6 Increasing stability

8-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you to Ashley Gibbs for the use of his photographs.

INTRODUCTION
Whenever the air reaches saturation, water vapour will change state to water droplets or ice
crystals, which will be visible to the eye. If this occurs above the ground a cloud may be formed.
The stability of the atmosphere is among the factors which will decide what type of cloud will be
formed. Also, depending on the temperature where the cloud forms, it may consist of water
droplets, ice crystals or a combination.

The main types of clouds are stratiform, cumuliform and cirriform. See table 9.1 for the main
differences.

Cloud
State of stability Composition
classification
Cirriform N/A Ice crystals only
Water droplets
Cumuliform Unstable
and/or ice crystals
Water droplets
Stratiform Stable
and/or ice crystals
Table 9.1 Cloud classification vs. state of stability and composition

The average lifetime of a cloud is 15 20 minutes, but cumulonimbus clouds can last 2 3 hours.

Flying conditions within clouds may vary greatly between the different cloud types, but as a
general rule, clouds may give poor visibility, turbulence, icing and precipitation.

CLOUD TYPES
There are several types of cloud, and most of them are named depending on how they were
formed, the altitude at which they may be found and whether they indicate stable or unstable
conditions. There are three main categories, which are based on the height bands in which they
are found. These are high level, medium level and low level clouds.

There are a couple of cloud types which are found over more than one height band which may be
classified as a fourth category, but they all tend to have their base within the low level clouds
band.

Table 9.2 shows an overview of the different cloud types split into the level where they are found.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 9-1

Chapter 9 Clouds and Cloud Formation

Height
Cloud name Code Remarks
band

High 45 000 ft Cirrus CI

level to Cirrocumulus CC
clouds 16 500 ft Cirrostratus CS
There are two sub-types of altocumulus:
- Altocumulus lenticularis, which are
associated with mountain waves.
Medium 23 000 ft
Altocumulus AC - Altocumulus castellanus, which are
level to
associated with medium level
clouds 6500 ft instability, e.g. inflow of cold air at
medium levels.
Altostratus AS
The base is usually found in the low level
Cumulus CU band, however, the cloud may have a
large vertical extent.
The base is usually found in the low level
Low 6500 ft Cumulonimbus CB band, however, the cloud will have a large
level to vertical extent.
clouds the surface Stratus ST
Stratocumulus SC Also called turbulence cloud.
The base is usually found in the low level
Nimbostratus NS band, however, the cloud may have a
large vertical extent.
Table 9.2 Overview of cloud types

CLOUD FORMATION
In order for a cloud to form, as mentioned above, the air has to reach saturation. The most
common way for that to happen is when air is rising and cooling adiabatically until reaching
dewpoint. This will then be the cloud base. The cloud tops will mostly be determined by the
stability of the atmosphere and the cause of the lifting.

The typical lifting actions causing clouds are:

Convection
Frontal uplift
Orographic uplift
Turbulence
Convergence

CONVECTIVE CLOUDS
Convective clouds form as a result of convection, which is the vertical movement of air. If the
ground is heated by the sun on a clear summer day, the air close to the ground will be heated by
conduction and may therefore begin to rise. As it rises it will be cooled adiabatically and,
depending on the spread between temperature and dewpoint and the depth of the unstable layer,
it may reach saturation and the cloud will form.

Convective clouds will be cumuliform as they form as a result of instability.

9-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Clouds and Cloud Formation Chapter 9

As stated in chapter 8, the dewpoint will reduce with 0.5C per 1000 ft while the rising air will cool
at the DALR. After condensation the air will cool by the SALR and continue to rise until reaching a
stable layer, which will determine the top of the cloud.

Figure 9.1 Cloud formation by convection

In connection with unstable conditions and cumuliform clouds mammatus clouds may form. They
have a pouch like appearance and will be found hanging from the base of the cumuliform cloud.

FRONTAL CLOUDS
When air of a different temperature replaces an airmass which has been over an area, it may
create a front. Depending on whether the replacing air is warmer or colder than the original
airmass it will become stable or unstable. If the replacing airmass is warmer, it will create a warm
front where the air is cooled from below, thus becoming stable and creating stratiform clouds. If
the replacing air is colder, is it heated from below and therefore becoming less stable or unstable
and cumuliform clouds will form.

The processes associated with fronts and frontal systems are explained in depth in chapter 17.

OROGRAPHIC CLOUDS
Orographic clouds form as a result of air being forced to rise above high ground. As seen in
chapter 8, the stability within the airmass may change during this process. This will lead to either
stable conditions and stratiform clouds forming, or unstable conditions with cumuliform clouds.
The orographic cloud may take the conceal the high ground if the air reach saturation as it
ascends along the rising ground or be above the high ground and slightly downwind of the high
ground.

However, the main bulk of cloud will often be found on the windward side with less cloud and
drier conditions on the downwind side as the air will lose moisture as it condenses out on the
windward side and there may be a slight tendency for the air to sink on the downwind side.
Meteorology (Rev Q407) 9-3
Chapter 9 Clouds and Cloud Formation

ALTOCUMULUS LENTICULARIS
There is one particular cloud which is associated with high ground, altocumulus lenticularis, which
may form above the crest of the high ground and the crest of mountain waves (if present) as
shown in figure 9.2.

Figure 9.2 Altocumulus lenticularis

The altocumulus lenticularis forms in stable conditions and they will have a lens-like shape.

CAP CLOUD
If the cloud covers or enclose the high ground it is called a cap cloud as shown in figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3 Cap cloud

9-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Clouds and Cloud Formation Chapter 9

TURBULENCE CLOUDS
Turbulence clouds, or stratocumulus, form in a turbulent, stable layer. If the wind is strong
enough, even over a relatively smooth surface as the sea, the airflow will be disturbed and
turbulence will form. The turbulence will lift parcels of air from the lower part of the layer and force
parcels of air to descend. The air that is lifted will cool adiabatically and the air that is descending
will heat adiabatically. These parcels of air will mix with the environmental air and cause a
lowering temperature at the top of the layer and an increase in the lower part of the layer.

The cooling in the top of the layer may be sufficient to reach saturation and, therefore,
condensation. Contributing to this may be the parcels of air being lifted are humid from a wet or
damp surface, adding humidity to the cooling air at the top of the layer. There will be little vertical
development of the clouds as they will not form above the turbulence layer since the air is stable.
A typical turbulence situation is shown in figure 9.4.

Figure 9.4 Turbulence cloud

Note that, in figure 9.4, the arrow indicating the cooling of the ascending air according to the
DALR applies to the air before the clouds have formed. When the clouds have formed it will be
cooling according to the SALR within the cloud layer. The same applies for the arrow indicating
the heating of the descending which is according to the DALR before the cloud has formed.

Flying conditions will be turbulent within and below the cloud layer.

If the air above the turbulent layer is unstable, the clouds forming will be cumuliform which may
turn into large cumulus depending on the depth of the unstable layer. Between the larger cumulus
there will often be ragged stratocumulus or stratus fractus.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 9-5

Chapter 9 Clouds and Cloud Formation

If the turbulence is at medium level, altocumulus or altocumulus castellanus may form. The
altocumulus castellanus is a good sign of medium level instability which may later deepen and
cause development of cumulonimbus clouds. Typical altocumulus castellanus are shown in figure
9.5.

Figure 9.5 Altocumulus castellanus

CONVERGENCE CLOUDS
Convergence of air, which occurs in depressions and troughs, where forced lifting occur as a
result of it. This will generally lead to clouds with large vertical extent which are most likely of the
cumuliform type.

9-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Clouds and Cloud Formation Chapter 9

CLOUD TYPES - PICTURES

STRATUS, ST

Figure 9.6 Layer of low stratus

Stratus (ST) is a layer cloud with large horizontal extent but little vertical development. It generally
has a very low cloud base (below 1000 ft) and covers the whole sky. The typical depth is
1000 - 1500 ft. The base can be quite diffuse with veils hanging down beneath the cloud.

It is a turbulence cloud, often found in the warm sector of polar front depressions. It can also be
formed when low fog lifts.

ST consists of water droplets that are sub-zero in winter but are not very dense, so light to
moderate icing can be expected. Precipitation may occur as drizzle, freezing drizzle, or snow
grains.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 9-7

Chapter 9 Clouds and Cloud Formation

STRATOCUMULUS, SC

Figure 9.7 Layer of stratocumulus

A stratocumulus (SC) cloud is a stratiform cloud caused by turbulence. It can be found between
heights 1000 ft and 6500 ft. As it is formed by turbulence, light to moderate turbulence when
flying in or below the cloud might be expected. Conditions are calm above the cloud.

Like stratus, this cloud consists of water droplets, so light to moderate icing, drizzle, freezing
drizzle, or snow grains can be expected. In addition, ice pellets and, from the thicker
stratocumulus, intermittent rain or snow might be expected. Heavy snowfall can be experienced
in winter.

9-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Clouds and Cloud Formation Chapter 9

CUMULUS, CU

Figure 9.8 Layer of fair weather cumulus

This photo features heap clouds, which are clouds that generally have greater vertical than
horizontal extent. They are formed convectively and the base can be found between 3000 and
7000 ft in the summer and 700 and 4000 ft in the winter. The tops can extend to 25 000 ft.

Cumulus clouds consist of water droplets, which are supercooled above the freezing level.

Precipitation can be present when the cloud has a vertical extent greater than 10 000 ft. It can
take the form of rain or snow showers.

When the cloud becomes towering without being iced (cirrus forming) at the top, it is called
towering cumulus (TCU).

Strong vertical currents can be present and larger cumuliform clouds should be avoided.
Moderate to severe icing conditions can be encountered, but because the time taken to traverse
the cloud is usually short, any ice build up tends to be small.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 9-9

Chapter 9 Clouds and Cloud Formation

CUMULONIMBUS, CB

Figure 9.9 Well developed cumulonimbus

Cumulonimbus is a towering cumulus cloud with a top that has turned into cirrus. This is called
the anvil and extends in the direction of the wind. The anvil is fibrous and diffuse in appearance.

This cloud is very hazardous to aircraft. It is very dense and consists of water droplets of varying
sizes, so moderate to severe icing may be expected. Moderate to severe turbulence is also likely.

CB can give precipitation in the form of rain or snow showers and hail.

Due to the severe weather conditions associated with this cloud, it is discussed in detail in a
separate chapter on thunderstorms.

9-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Clouds and Cloud Formation Chapter 9

ALTOSTRATUS, AS

Figure 9.10 Layer of altostratus

Altostratus is similar to nimbostratus but is less deep and less dense. This type of cloud can
cover the whole or a major part of the sky and is an indication of the approach of a warm front.

Altostratus contains water droplets and ice crystals, therefore, it can cause light to moderate
icing. Light to moderate turbulence can also be expected. Precipitation can take the form of
continuous or intermittent rain or snow.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 9-11

Chapter 9 Clouds and Cloud Formation

CIRRUS, CI

Figure 9.11 Layer of cirrus

Cirrus is a thin wispy cloud. It is associated with the approach of a warm front. It can also indicate
the line of a jet stream.

It consists of ice crystals and does not produce icing or precipitation. Likewise, there is no
turbulence.

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Clouds and Cloud Formation Chapter 9

CIRROSTRATUS, CS

Figure 9.12 Layer of cirrostratus

Cirrostratus is a sheet-like cloud, sometimes with a wispy veil underneath. It causes a bright ring
around the sun and the moon, known as the halo phenomenon. It is associated with warm fronts.

Like cirrus, it consists of ice crystals and does not produce icing, precipitation, or turbulence.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 9-13

Chapter 9 Clouds and Cloud Formation

CIRROCUMULUS, CC

Figure 9.13 Layer of cirrocumulus

Cirrocumulus is divided into smaller cloud elements that look like the scales of a mackerel. It is
formed when there is turbulence within cirrus or cirrostratus.

Cirrocumulus consists of ice crystals and occasionally freezing water droplets. There is no icing
or precipitation. There may be light turbulence.

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 Clouds and Cloud Formation Chapter 9

SUMMARY OF CLOUD TYPE AND CHARACTERISTICS

Cloud Type Height Composition Turbulence Icing Visibility Significance

Cirrus CI 16 500 ft to Ice crystals Nil Nil 1000 m + Found 400 to 600
45 000 ft nm ahead of a warm
front
Cirrostratus CS 16 500 ft to Ice crystals Nil Nil 1000 m + Found 400 to 600
45 000 ft nm ahead of a warm
front
Cirrocumulus CC 16 500 ft to Ice crystals Light Nil 1000 m + Found 400 to 600
45 000 ft nm ahead of a warm
front when
turbulence exists
Altocumulus AC 6500 ft to Water Light to Light to 20 to Turbulence cloud
23 000 ft droplets and moderate moderate 1000 m
ice crystals
Altostratus AS 6500 ft to Water Light to Light to 20 to Warm front 200 nm
23 000 ft droplets and moderate moderate 1000 m ahead. Merges with
ice crystals NS as the front is
approached
Nimbostratus NS Ground level to Water Moderate Moderate 10 to 20 m Warm front very
6500 ft. Can be droplets but to severe to severe close
10 000 ft to can be ice
15 000 ft crystals at
merging into medium
AS at higher levels
levels
Stratocumulus SC 1000 ft to 6500 Water Light to Light to 10 to 30 m Turbulence cloud
ft droplets moderate moderate
Stratus ST Ground level to Water Nil to light Occasion 10 to 30 m Turbulence cloud
6500 ft droplets ally light
to
moderate
Cumulus CU 1000 ft to Water Moderate Moderate Less than Instability cloud.
25 000 ft droplets and to severe to severe 20 m Large CU may
ice crystals develop into CB
Cumulonimbus CB 1000 ft to Water Moderate Moderate 10 to 20 m Instability cloud
45 000 ft droplets and to severe to severe
ice crystals
Altocumulus 6500 ft to Water Moderate Moderate 20 to An indication of
castellanus 23 000 ft droplets and to severe to severe 1000 m unstable air at mid
ice crystals levels; can indicate
approaching CB
Altocumulus 6500 ft to Water Moderate Moderate 20 to Associated with
Lenticularis 23 000 ft droplets and to severe to severe 1000 m mountain waves
ice crystals
Table 9.3 Summary of cloud types and their properties

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 9-15

Chapter 9 Clouds and Cloud Formation

9-16 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
Clouds can consist of a combination of water droplets, supercooled water droplets, and ice
crystals. Individual water droplets and ice crystals are very small and light, and due to upcurrents
in the clouds, they do not fall as precipitation on their own.

If they combine with other water droplets or ice crystals they become progressively heavier. If the
upcurrents in the cloud are not strong enough to support their weight they fall as precipitation.

It follows that the stronger the upcurrents are, the heavier the droplet or crystal has to be in order
for precipitation to occur. So the largest droplets fall from convective clouds such as cumulus and
cumulonimbus.

PRECIPITATION PROCESSES
There are two theories concerning the formation of precipitation. These processes are not
mutually exclusive and, given the right conditions, may both occur within the same cloud.

BERGERON THEORY (THE ICE CRYSTAL EFFECT)

Where sub-zero conditions occur, both ice crystals and water droplets may be present. Water
vapour may sublimate onto the ice crystals. Collision with supercooled droplets allows the crystal
to grow in size.

Once the crystal reaches a sufficient size, it falls as precipitation. The type of precipitation
depends on the temperature of the air through which it falls. If sufficiently warm, the crystal melts
and falls as a rain droplet. If not, it might fall as snow.

The difference in saturation vapour pressure between ice and water is greatest at approximately
-12C, so clouds reaching this temperature produce precipitation. Snow has a relatively low rate
of fall, so a cloud thickness of 1500 to 3000 ft is sufficient if the temperature at the cloud top is
approximately -8C to -12C.

If supercooled water droplets fall through colder air they might freeze and form freezing rain. This
is common with nimbostratus clouds on a warm front. The droplets fall through the front into
colder air.

In dense clouds such as cumulonimbus, there may be a sufficient concentration of supercooled

water droplets for them to freeze onto ice crystals to form a snow pellet.

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Chapter 10 Precipitation

COALESCENCE THEORY (CAPTURE EFFECT)

The Bergeron Theory requires part of the cloud to be below 0C, so ice crystals are present. In
many clouds in lower latitudes, no part of the cloud is below 0C yet precipitation still falls. The
Coalescence Theory covers this scenario.

In the cloud there are water droplets of varying sizes. The larger, heavier droplets fall faster and
collide with smaller droplets on their way down. When the droplets become sufficiently heavy,
they fall as precipitation.

INTENSITY OF PRECIPITATION
The intensity of precipitation is determined either by volume or depth per time unit. Table 10.1
gives an overview for various types of precipitation.

Rainfall Rate (mm per hour) Snow Accumulation

Rain Rain/Hail Showers (cm per hour)

Slight < 0.5 <2 < 0.5

Moderate 0.5 to 4 2 to 10 0.5 to 4
Heavy >4 10 to 50 >4
Violent > 50
Table 10.1 Intensity of precipitation

CONTINUITY OF PRECIPITATION
Continuity of precipitation is described using the three terms described below.

Showers
Showers are of short duration and are associated only with convective clouds, that is,
cumulus and cumulonimbus.

Intermittent
Intermittent is associated with layer clouds. Precipitation falls from time to time with short
breaks.

Continuous
Continuous precipitation is that which falls for periods of an hour or longer without breaks.
Continuous precipitation is also associated with layer clouds.

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Precipitation Chapter 10

PRECIPITATION TYPES
Table 10.2 describes the different types of precipitation and the cloud types from which they fall.

Precipitation Type Cloud Type Comments

Drizzle ST or SC Diameter: 0.2 to 0.5 mm
Freezing Drizzle Visibility: 500 to 3000 m
Snow Grains Imperceptible impact.
Drizzle does not make a splash on the ground.
Rain (continuous) Thick AS and NS Diameter: 0.5 to 5.5 mm
Visibility: 3000 to 5.5 km
1000 m in heavy rain
Perceptible impact:
Drops have to be large to overcome the up-
currents in the cloud in order to fall.
Larger drops break up into smaller drops as the
rain falls.
Snow (continuous) Thick AS and NS Grains/Needles: < 1 mm diameter
Pellets: 2 to 5 mm diameter
Flakes:
A collection of crystals greater than 4 mm in
diameter. The lower the temperature the smaller
the flake size.

Surface temperature must be < 4C for snow to

reach the ground before melting.

Hail CB Diameter: 5 to 50 mm
Weight: up to 1 kg
Height: up to 48 000 ft

Rain (intermittent) Thick AS and SC

Snow (intermittent)
Rain Showers Heavy CU and
Snow Showers CB
Sleet A mixture of rain and snow or snow that has
partially melted in the descent.
Sleet falls when the temperature is between + 5C
to + 6C
Soft Hail, or CB Small rounded pellets of less than 5 mm diameter
Graupel Can be the early stage of hail growth
Ice Pellets SC Diameter: < 5 mm
Transparent pellets either spherical or rounded.
Table 10.2 Types of precipitation

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Chapter 10 Precipitation

HAIL
Hail forms by the ice crystal effect when there are updraughts stronger than 10 m/s.

Hail can cause serious damage to an airframe, especially with larger hailstones. Table 10.3
summarises the strength of updraughts required to produce stones of various sizes and masses.

Vertical Speed Type of Hail Diameter Weight

10 m/s Small Hail (Graupel) < 5 mm 1g
20 m/s Hail (Grle) 2 cm 9g
30 m/s 6 cm 80 g
40 m/s 10 cm 370 g
70 m/s 14 cm 1 kg
Table 10.3 Hail size

In the UK and Northern Europe, the updraughts in thunderstorms are rarely strong enough to
allow the hailstones to grow to any appreciable size. Large hailstones are more likely to be
encountered in heat air mass thunderstorms in tropical locations.

10-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
It is estimated that every day there are about 44 000 thunderstorms across the planet.

Thunderstorms develop from well-developed cumulonimbus clouds. Not all cumulonimbus clouds
develop into thunderstorms, however. The features described in this chapter apply to very active
CBs as well as actual thunderstorms.

CONDITIONS
Thunderstorms are most likely to occur with the following combination of conditions:

1. An environmental lapse rate greater than the SALR through a depth of at least 10 000 ft
and extending to above the freezing level.
2. Sufficient water vapour to provide early saturation and to form and maintain the cloud.
3. A trigger action to start the lifting process. This can take several forms.

TRIGGER ACTIONS
There are five different possible trigger actions:

1. Convection
2. Orographic uplift
3. Advection
4. Convergence
5. Frontal lifting (generally in association with cold fronts and occlusions)

THUNDERSTORM CLASSIFICATION
Thunderstorms are generally classified as one of two types:

1. Heat or airmass in this case the trigger action is one of the first four above.
2. Frontal the trigger action is the fifth in the list.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 11-1

Chapter 11 Thunderstorms

HEAT/AIRMASS THUNDERSTORMS
CONVECTION
Although heat/airmass thunderstorms can form with one of four triggers, convection is the most
likely one. Since surface heating is greater in the summer, statistically these thunderstorms are
more likely in the summer. They are also more likely during the day and over land and tend to be
isolated, especially if they have formed in a cold air mass. The cold air mass thunderstorms tend
to dissipate in the evening.

Thunderstorms that form in a warm air mass may form a multicell structure. A multicell
thunderstorm is a cluster of CBs where various cells at differing stages interact. The
downdraughts from dissipating and mature cells spread out as a flow of cold air along the ground.
If the ground is warm, the cold air becomes more unstable and the warm air ahead will be forced
to rise as the cold air undercuts it. This ascent of air may be sufficient to trigger off the formation
of a new cumulonimbus.

This process can continue into the late evening.

OROGRAPHIC UPLIFT
With orographic uplift, thunderstorms can occur at any time of the day or night, in summer and in
winter. If the uplift is over a range of hills they may occur in a line formation. Thunderstorms are
formed when the conditions are unstable or conditionally unstable.

Orographic processes may enhance an existing thunderstorm that moves over the obstruction.

ADVECTION
With advection, storms can occur in the day or at night, in summer or in winter. In summer, they
can be caused by maritime air from a cold sea passing over the warm land and being heated
from below. However, the more common case is in winter, when cold, moist air moves over a
progressively warmer sea. A prime example of this would be polar maritime air moving south. The
process then becomes similar to the convective case above.

CONVERGENCE
The fourth type of trigger is convergence. This can be in association with low pressures or non-
frontal troughs. Time of day and year depends on the type of low. The different types of lows are
discussed in a later chapter.

When associated with a trough, thunderstorms can form in a line along the centre line of the
trough and can cause difficulties for a pilot trying to avoid them.

FRONTAL THUNDERSTORMS
Frontal thunderstorms are more frequent in winter due to the increased frequency in the passage
of fronts. They can form over land or sea, by day or night, and are associated with both cold
fronts and occluded fronts.

Because they are associated with a front, these thunderstorms tend not to be isolated but to form
in a line. They can be embedded in other clouds and are difficult to identify, especially when
formed on an occlusion in which there are significant layer clouds present.

They are often accompanied by squall lines, which is a line of thunderstorms formed just ahead of
the front.

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Thunderstorms Chapter 11

IDENTIFICATION OF THUNDERSTORMS
A thunderstorm cloud, whether of the air mass or frontal type, usually consists of several self-
contained cells, each in a different state of development. New and growing cells can be
recognised by their cumuliform shape with clear-cut outline and cauliflower top. The tops of more
mature cells appear less clear-cut and are frequently surrounded by fibrous cloud.

Development of cells is not always seen since other clouds may obscure the view. In frontal or
orographic conditions, extensive layer cloud structures may obscure a view of the development of
cumulonimbus cells, or altocumulus castellanus.

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
There are three stages in the development of a cumulonimbus or thunderstorm, summarised in
figure 11.1.

40 000

30 000
Altitude (feet)

Updraught
20 000

10 000

Updraught
5000

Updraught
Downdraught Downdraught
0
GROWTH STAGE MATURE STAGE DISSIPATING STAGE
Figure 11.1 Stages of development for a cumulonimbus

GROWTH STAGE
In this stage, several small cumulus clouds combine together to form a large cumulus of about
5 nm across. Strong updraughts are present, typically on the order of 1000 fpm, but can be as
great as 4000 fpm.

Air is drawn in from the sides and underneath the cloud, replacing the lifting air within the cloud.

This stage lasts approximately 15 to 20 minutes.

MATURE STAGE
The mature stage is characterised by the onset of precipitation. This precipitation is produced by
the combination of ice crystals and water droplets. The precipitation causes downdraughts of
approximately 2000 3000 fpm.

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Chapter 11 Thunderstorms

The updraughts are still present, increasing to as much as 10 000 fpm, though 5000 fpm is a
more typical figure. Tops can reach the tropopause, which can be in excess of 50 000 ft in low
latitudes.

Cloud tops can rise by as much as 5000 fpm. The tops of the clouds are affected by a stronger
upper wind which causes it to tilt in the direction of the wind.

This mixture of updraughts and downdraughts causes strong turbulence within and below the
cloud.

The downdraughts are colder than the surrounding air when they reach the base of the cloud,
due to some water droplets evaporating and latent heat being absorbed. Once clear of the base
of the cloud, they warm at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate and remain colder than the
surrounding air.

This combined with the absorption of latent heat intensifies the temperature difference between
the downdraughts and the environment and causes the downdraught to descend even more
rapidly.

This strong downdraught of cold air reacts with the ground and causes a gust front extending up
to 17 nm ahead of the storm. Also at this stage, there may be roll (rotor) clouds, which are
stratocumulus caused by turbulence.

Other hazards associated with this stage, such as microbursts and lightning, are discussed later
in this chapter.

The mature stage lasts approximately 20 30 minutes.

DISSIPATING STAGE
This stage commences when the local supply of moisture is no longer sufficient to support the
storm.

The stage is characterised by the appearance of an anvil. This occurs when the cloud top
reaches the tropopause and is spread out by the strong upper winds to form a flat-topped anvil
shape. This anvil is part of a cirrus cloud.

The cloud at this stage can be referred to as cumulonimbus capillatus.

Updraughts cease and the cloud starts to dissipate as the downdraughts remove the moisture
from the cloud. The precipitation diminishes and the downdraughts are too strong to support roll
clouds. Lightning might still occur.

The dissipating stage lasts about 30 minutes but the cloud can persist for 2 to 3 hours.

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Thunderstorms Chapter 11

SUPERCELL THUNDERSTORMS
Supercell thunderstorms are severe local storms that form when there is a deep layer of
instability, preferably from the ground to the tropopause and the air holds large amounts of water
vapour.

In the mature stage of these storms there are severe updraughts and downdraughts, which can
give rise to very violent weather such as torrential rain, large hail, strong winds, and even
tornadoes. The mature stage can last for several hours.

MOVEMENT OF THUNDERSTORMS
Thunderstorms formed in a col or slack pressure gradient tend to move erratically, but generally
thunderstorms move with the wind at the 700 hPa level, which is equivalent to approximately
10 000 ft.

Supercell thunderstorms in the northern Hemisphere tend to move 20 to the right of the 500 hPa
(18 000 ft) wind.

SQUALL LINES
Squall lines are usually formed in the warm air mass ahead of a cold front. Squall phenomena are
most frequent during the evening and early night. They are not very common in western Europe.
Squall lines are more common over large continental areas such as eastern Europe or, more
frequently, North America. A squall line with thunderstorms also contains hail, and tornadoes can
occur.

Although the CB along the squall can seem very small and insignificant compared to the frontal
clouds behind, in reality the most intense weather phenomena are caused by squalls.

HAZARDS
TURBULENCE AND WINDSHEAR
Turbulence is moderate to severe in thunderstorms, caused by updraughts and downdraughts
within the cloud. Gusts associated with thunderstorms can cause vertical displacements of up to
5000 ft. The effects can be felt up to 40 miles away.

Severe turbulence can be encountered several thousand feet above the cloud tops, as well as
within and below the cloud. Flying within a few thousand feet of the top of a cumulonimbus should
be avoided.

Windshear is a more sustained change in windspeed or direction. It is, therefore, likely to be more
dangerous, especially on the approach where the effect on an aircrafts airspeed can have
serious consequences. In the most extreme cases changes of as much as 80 kt in speed and 90
in direction can be experienced within a layer of only a few hundred feet.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 11-5

Chapter 11 Thunderstorms

GUST FRONT
Some thunderstorms may have a well defined area of cold air flowing out from a downdraught in
all directions, but tending to lead the storm along its line of movement. A gust front might extend
out 24 to 32 km from the storm centre and can be felt from the surface to about 6000 ft. The cold
air undercuts warm air and windshear may be associated with it.

This gust front can be quite distant from the cloud and without precipitation it does not show up
on weather radar and can therefore be quite unexpected. Occasionally there may be roll cloud
associated with it.

Figure 11.2 Development of the gust front

MICROBURSTS
Microbursts are strong downdraughts of air that descend from the centre of the cumulonimbus
with speeds up to 60 kt down to levels as low as 300 ft. They are typically less than 5 km across
and last from 1 to 5 minutes.

As the downdraughts approach the ground, the air splays out in all directions. Figure 11.3 shows
an aircraft approaching the area of a microburst below a cumulonimbus.

11-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Thunderstorms Chapter 11

Figure 11.3 Effects of a microburst

There are two types of microburst: wet and dry. The wet type has large amounts of precipitation
associated with it so shows up well on weather radar. In the dry type any precipitation has
evaporated before reaching the ground, so is less easy to identify. Some virga may show up on
radar.

Dry microbursts are generally the more severe type and tend to be associated with heat airmass
thunderstorms over dry near-desert regions. The evaporation of the precipitation absorbs latent
heat and enhances the downdraughts.

HAIL
Hail can be encountered in the cloud, below the cloud, and beneath the anvil. Since it is not
possible to tell whether or not a given storm produces hail, for avoidance purposes it is safer to
assume that it will. The stronger the lifting and the greater the moisture content, the greater the
chance of hail.

Hail can be up to 14 cm in diameter and can be encountered up to 45 000 ft, producing severe
skin damage with even a short exposure.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 11-7

Chapter 11 Thunderstorms

ICING
Any flight in cloud or precipitation can result in icing when the temperatures are below zero. Icing
can occur down to temperatures as low as -40C. Icing is more severe near the base of the cloud
where the droplets are larger. This is discussed more thoroughly in the chapter on Icing.
Carburettor icing is also a risk and can occur in the temperature range -10C to +30C.

LIGHTNING
Various processes can lead to different charges separating within a cumulonimbus.

In a cumulonimbus, hail can collide with water droplets and ice crystals in the cloud. This results
in a net transfer of positive ions from the warmer hail to the colder supercooled water droplet or
ice crystal. This results in the positively charged ice crystal/water droplet moving upward in
updraughts and the negatively charged hail falling downward with gravity.

As a water droplet falls within a cloud it gathers speed. Once it reaches about 9 m/s it starts to
split. Larger parts of the split droplet become positive and smaller parts become negative. The
small negative parts are lifted higher up the cloud than the larger positive parts.

Supercooled water droplets might also freeze onto hail. Tiny splinters of ice break off, become
negatively charged and ascend within the cloud.

These processes result in a net charge difference within the cloud. Once this reaches a potential
difference of about 3 million volts per metre over a distance of about 50 metres, a discharge of
current, lightning, takes place.

Most lightning occurs within 10C (approximately 5000 ft) of the freezing level.

Hazards associated with lightning are temporary blindness caused by the flash, interference with
compasses and other instruments, and possible airframe damage.

STATIC ELECTRICITY
Static electricity causes interference on LF, MF, HF, and VHF radio equipment. In severe cases a
visible discharge may occur, called St. Elmos Fire, which is a purple light around windscreen
edges, wing tips, propellers, and engine nacelles. Although not dangerous in itself it is an
indication that the air is highly charged and lightning is likely.

WATER INGESTION
Turbine engines have a limit to the amount of water they can ingest. If the updraught velocity in
the thunderstorm approaches or exceeds the terminal velocity of the falling raindrops, very high
concentrations of water may occur. It is possible that these concentrations can be in excess of
the quantity of water turbine engines are designed to ingest, which could result in flame-out
and/or structural failure of one or more engines.

To eliminate the risk of engine damage or flame-out, it is essential to avoid severe storms. During
an unavoidable encounter with extreme precipitation, the recommendation is to follow the severe
turbulence penetration procedure contained in the approved aircraft flight manual, with special
emphasis on avoiding thrust changes unless excessive airspeed variations occur. Water can exist
in large quantities at high altitudes even where the ambient temperature is as low as -30 C.

11-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Thunderstorms Chapter 11

TORNADOES
Tornadoes are associated with severe thunderstorms. They form with massive convergence in a
trough with sharply inclined isobars. Differing wind directions give a rotating twist and the lifted air
becomes a spiral.

They are very localised less than 300 metres across and the lifting can be so strong that it
can pick up water from a sea surface or dust from the land. Wind speeds in the vortex can reach
200 kt.

If the funnel does not touch the ground it is called a funnel cloud; if it does touch, it is called a
tornado.

Tornadoes are common in the United States but rare in the UK and Europe.

PRESSURE VARIATIONS
Pressure variations can cause the given QNH/QFE to be in error, sometimes by as much as
1000 ft. Local gusts can aggravate the problem and VSIs are also subject to errors. Aircraft
should be flown for attitude rather than altitude.

WEATHER RADAR
Weather radar is provided to enable pilots to avoid thunderstorms and is designed to detect areas
of heavy precipitation.

The strength of the echo is not necessarily an indication of the strength of the associated
turbulence. Radar return intensities may be misleading because of attenuation resulting from
intervening heavy rain. This may lead to serious underestimation of the severity of the rainfall in a
large storm, and an incorrect assumption of where the heaviest rainfall is likely to be
encountered.

The echo from that part of an area of rain furthest from the radar is relatively weaker and the
actual position of the maximum rainfall at the far edge of the storm area is further away than
indicated on the radar display, sometimes by distances up to several miles. Additionally, a storm
cell beyond may be completely masked.

The high rate of growth of thunderstorms and the danger of flying over or near to the tops both of
the main storm and the small convective cells close to it must be considered when using weather
radar for storm avoidance.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 11-9

Chapter 11 Thunderstorms

AVOIDANCE CRITERIA
When using weather radar the avoidance criteria to be used are shown in table 11.1.

Echo Characteristics
Flight Altitude Shape Intensity Gradient of Rate of Change
Intensity
0 to 20 000 ft Avoid by 10 nm Avoid by 5 nm Avoid by 5 nm Avoid by 10 nm
echoes with echoes with echoes with echoes showing
hooks, fingers, sharp edges or strong gradients rapid change of
scalloped edges strong intensity of intensity shape, height or
or other intensity
protrusions
20 to 25 000 ft Avoid all echoes by 10 nm
25 to 30 000 ft Avoid all echoes by 15 nm
Above 30 000 ft Avoid all echoes by 20 nm
Table 11.1 Weather radar avoidance criteria

General rules:

If a storm cloud has to be overflown, maintain at least 5000 ft vertical separation from the
cloud tops.
If the aircraft has no weather radar, avoid any storm cloud by 10 nm that is tall, growing
rapidly, or has an anvil top.
Avoid flying under a CB overhang.

11-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
Visibility is a measurement of atmospheric clarity. Reduction in visibility can be caused by:

Water droplets, such as cloud, fog, or rain.

Solid particles, such as sand, dust, or smoke.
Ice, such as crystals, hail, or snow.

Poor visibility is more common in stable conditions, for example, beneath an inversion. Visibility is
generally better upwind of towns and industrial areas, away from the atmospheric pollutants.

TYPES OF VISIBILITY REDUCTION

In aviation, the cause of a reduction in visibility is only reported when the visibility is 5000 metres
and below. The causes of the visibility reduction are defined as:

Mist Caused by very small water droplets and a relative humidity of more than 95%. The
visibility is between 1000 m and 5000 m.
Fog Caused by very small water droplets and a relative humidity very close to 100%. The
visibility is less than 1000 m.
Haze Caused by solid particles such as sand, dust, or smoke. The visibility is 5000 m or below
with no lower limit.

TYPES OF VISIBILITY
METEOROLOGICAL VISIBILITY
Meteorological visibility is also known as Meteorological Optical Range (MOR) and is the furthest
horizontal distance on the ground that an observer with normal eyesight can recognise a dark-
coloured object. At night, lights of known power are used. Readings are taken at a persons eye
level.

RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE

Runway Visual Range (RVR) is the maximum distance in the direction of take-off or landing at
which a pilot in the threshold area at 15 ft above ground can see marker boards by day, or
runway lights by night. It is only used when the meteorological visibility is less than 1500 metres
or when fog is reported or forecast.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 12-1

Chapter 12 Visibility

OBLIQUE VISIBILITY
When flying at altitude, slant visibility is the maximum distance a pilot can see to a point on the
ground. The oblique visibility is the distance measured along the ground from the point directly
beneath the aircraft to the furthest point the pilot can see, as shown in figure 12.1.

DOWNWARD SLANT
VISIBILITY VISIBILITY

OBLIQUE
VISIBILITY

Figure 12.1 Visibility from an aircraft

MEASUREMENT OF VISIBILITY
BY DAY
Measurement by day is made by reference to suitable landmarks at known distances from the
observing position.

BY NIGHT
Measurement by night is done by using a suitable arrangement of lights of known power as a
substitute for landmarks.

If this is not possible, the Golds Visibility Meter can be used. A variable filter in the viewing
mechanism adjusts until light is no longer seen and the reading off the meter gives an equivalent
daylight visibility.

12-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Visibility Chapter 12

MEASUREMENT OF RUNWAY VISUAL RANGE

HUMAN OBSERVER
When an observation of runway visual range is taken by a human observer, the observer is
positioned 76 metres from the centreline of the runway in the touchdown area. The observer
sights the number of marker boards or lights in the appropriate direction. Then, the number of
observed boards or lights is converted into a distance and reported. Human reporting is
inaccurate at the maximum and minimum reporting ranges and visibilities < 100 m and > 1200 m
are unlikely to be reported.

INSTRUMENT REPORTING
Instrument reporting is done with an instrument called a transmissometer, which consists of a
projector and a receiver.

Figure 12.2 Transmissometer, principle

The receiver contains photoelectric cells which measure the opacity of the air and give an
equivalent daytime visibility.

RVR REPORTING
Three transmissometers are positioned alongside the runway giving three readings, one for
touchdown, one from the mid-point, and one for the stop-end of the runway.

RVR is reported in increments of 25 m up to 200 m, 50 m up to 800 m, and 100 m over 800 m.

Sometimes not all three readings are transmitted. The touchdown reading is always reported but
the mid-point and stop-end values may be omitted if certain conditions are met. If one reading is
omitted, the second figure in the group must be specified as the mid-point or stop-end value.

The conditions for the omission of midpoint and stop-end RVR values are:

a. They have equal to or greater values than the touchdown value.

b. They are above 400 metres.
e.g. 300/500/600 would be reported as R 300.
300/350/500 would be reported as R 300 mid-point 350.

c. They are 800 metres or greater.

e.g. 900/850/950 would be reported as R 900.
900/850/750 would be reported as R 900 stop-end 750.

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Chapter 12 Visibility

VISIBILITY WHILE FLYING

EFFECT OF SUN AND MOON
Visibility is reduced looking into the sun due to the harsh glare of the strong rays. Conversely,
looking into the moon may improve visibility at night as it casts a gentle light on water surfaces
and other ground based features.

WITH A DEEP HAZE LAYER

When flying within the layer at different heights the slant visibility stays the same. When flying
higher, the vertical component of the slant visibility increases, so the horizontal component, that is
oblique visibility, decreases.

Figure 12.3 The effect of flying within a haze layer

Conversely, while flying above the layer flying higher increases oblique visibility.

12-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Visibility Chapter 12

Figure 12.4 The effect of flying above a haze layer

WITH A SHALLOW FOG LAYER

If the fog is shallow the pilot may be able to see the airfield quite clearly from directly above it.
Once the pilot descends and turns onto final, visibility may be much poorer looking through the
horizontal extent of the fog instead of the depth. It is important, therefore, to heed the visibility
readings given by the tower even if your own observations are different.

Figure 12.5 The effect of a layer of shallow fog

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Chapter 12 Visibility

TYPES OF FOG
RADIATION FOG
At night, the ground loses its heat by radiation. The ground becomes cold and cools the air in
contact with it. If this lowers the air temperature below the dewpoint, water vapour condenses out
as droplets. For radiation fog to form, the following requirements have to be met:

Clear sky which increases the rate of terrestrial radiation. A light cover of high clouds
cover (up to 4/8 cover of cirrus) is said to not affect the rate of terrestrial radiation.
High relative humidity so that only a little cooling will be required for the air to reach
saturation.
A light wind of 2 to 8 kt which mixes the air bringing warmer air from above to the surface
to be cooled and thickening the fog.

Radiation fog is most common in autumn and winter when there is a long night giving the land
time to cool. It occurs at night and early morning after a prolonged period of cooling. It doesnt
occur over the sea as the sea has insufficient diurnal variation. It forms first in the valleys due to
katabatic effect and is common in anticyclones, ridges, and cols where the air remains in contact
with the ground for a prolonged period.

Dispersal of the fog can occur by:

The increase of insolation during the course of the morning, raising the temperature
above the dewpoint and evaporating the fog away from the base.
The increase of thermal turbulence during the morning which lifts the fog to form low
stratus.
An increase of cloud cover preventing the loss of radiation from the lower atmosphere
and raising the temperature of the air above the dewpoint.
Replacement of the air mass with a drier air mass by advection.

Figure 12.6 Effects of wind on the formation of radiation fog

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Visibility Chapter 12

ADVECTION FOG
Advection fog forms when warm moist air flows over a cold surface. It can occur over land or sea.
Conditions necessary for it to form are:

A wind of up to 15 kt (20 kt over the sea).

A high relative humidity so little cooling is required to bring the air to saturation.
The cold surface over which the air moves must have a temperature lower than the
dewpoint of the warm moist moving air.

Advection fog is common over land areas in winter and early spring when the land is colder than
the sea and over sea areas in late spring and early summer when the land becomes warmer than
the sea.

Figure 12.7 The formation of advection fog

This type of fog is much more persistent than radiation fog and can last several weeks. Examples
are the coast of Newfoundland and the Kamchatka peninsula where the temperature difference
between land and sea is extreme.

Dispersal comes when there is a change of airmass or an increase in windspeed beyond that
described in the conditions above.

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Chapter 12 Visibility

Some types of advection fog experienced in and around the UK are:

Thaw Fog These fogs occur over land surfaces in winter and spring when severe frost or
snowfall gives way to milder Atlantic air from the southwest.

Haar Frequent in the spring and early summer off the Northeast coast of the UK. The
sea is at its coldest having been cooled gradually through the winter months.
Warm air from the continent passes over the colder sea.

Sea Fog Common in the approaches to the English Channel during the spring and early
summer when the sea is still cool. If the wind speed is over 25 kt then the fog will
lift into ST.

STEAMING FOG (ARCTIC SEA SMOKE)

Steaming fog occurs at very high latitudes over sea areas such as around Iceland, Greenland,
and Norway. It is similar to advection fog in that the airmass is moving but in this case it is a cold
moist air mass passing over a warmer sea.

Figure 12.8 The forming of arctic sea smoke

Normally this would lead to convection and the formation of cumuliform cloud. However, in this
case the air is too cold and stable for sufficient lifting to occur. Instead, the small amount of lifting
and evaporation from the sea leads to saturation and fog formation.

At such high latitudes the water content is likely to be ice crystals giving the fog a white
appearance which is the reason for its nickname of Arctic Sea Smoke.

FRONTAL FOG
Frontal fog is associated with warm fronts and warm occlusions. Precipitation from the clouds
forming above the frontal surface falls into the colder air below. As the warmer droplets fall
through the cold and direr air, they will start evaporating adding moisture to the cold air.
Additionally, the precipitation wets the ground and the moisture then evaporates into the air just
ahead of the front aiding saturation.

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Visibility Chapter 12

Figure 12.9 Formation of frontal fog

This may produce a band of fog up to 200 nm wide that travels just ahead of the front as shown in
the diagram.

HILL FOG
Hill fog is really stratiform cloud that forms when there is orographic lifting in stable conditions.

A nice example is the tablecloth effect on Table Mountain in Cape Town, South Africa as shown
in figure 12.10.

Figure 12.10 Example of hill fog or orographic clouds

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 12-9

Chapter 12 Visibility

OTHER VISIBILITY REDUCERS

SMOKE FOG (SMOG)
Smoke fog is a combination of ordinary water droplet fog and solid particles. It occurs in industrial
cities when there is an inversion layer preventing air from lifting and removing the pollutants. In
addition, the particles may aid as condensation nuclei assisting the formation of fog.

DUST AND SAND

Dust is a solid particle less than 0.08 mm in diameter. Sand is between 0.08 mm and 0.3 mm in
diameter. Winds can carry these particles aloft causing dust or sand storms.

In dust storms, the wind is upwards of 15 kt and the dust can rise to up to 15 000 ft agl. In sand
storms, the winds are upwards of 20 kt but these remain within a few feet of the surface due to
the weight of the particles.

Both types tend to be daytime phenomena as wind strengths are usually insufficient at night.

Visibility in dust or sand storms is generally less than 1000 m.

PRECIPITATION
Smaller water droplets have a worse effect on the visibility than the larger ones. The greatest
effect is caused by snow. Heavy snow can lower the visibility to 50 m and possibly even less if it
is blowing or drifting.

VISUAL ILLUSIONS
SHALLOW FOG
If the pilot enters a shallow fog layer on descent it can give the illusion that the aircraft has
pitched up. If the pilot believes this illusion and pitches the nose down, a very dangerous situation
can arise, especially if this happens on the approach to land.

RAIN SHOWERS
A rain storm moving toward the aircraft can give the illusion of the horizon moving lower which
may lead to the pilot to reduce the power or lower the nose.

LAYER CLOUD
In the absence of a well-defined horizon, the pilot may orientate himself with respect to layer
clouds. If the layer clouds are not parallel to the ground, the orientation to a false horizon will
cause banking.

RAIN EFFECTS
Rain can have two opposing effects:

1. Rain falling between the aircraft and visual landmarks such as the runway lights will
diffuse the light and make the objects or runway lights appear further away than they
really are. The pilot might perceive this as being low on approach.
2. Rain on the windscreen can make runway lights bloom, making the runway appear closer
than it really is. The pilot might perceive this as being high on approach and may make
adjustments to the aircrafts power and/or attitude which will result in undershooting the
runway.
12-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
INTRODUCTION
Ice accretion can have serious implications for performance and handling of aircraft. Modern
aircraft are equipped with efficient anti-icing and de-icing equipment. However, these systems
may become inoperative or icing conditions may be so severe that these systems become unable
to cope.

Even if these systems operate perfectly there is quite a significant fuel cost in running the
systems. The preferred approach would be to avoid the conditions in which severe icing may
occur. It is necessary for the pilot to understand the conditions and the risks associated with icing.

CONDITIONS
Ice forms on an airframe if the following three conditions are present:

1. Water is present in a liquid state.

2. The ambient air temperature is below 0C.
3. The airframe temperature is below 0C.

EFFECTS OF ICING
The detrimental effects of icing can include the following:

AERODYNAMIC
Ice forms mostly on the leading edges of the airframe and aerofoils. This spoils the aerodynamic
shape of the airframe and leads to:

Reduced lift (up to 30%)

Increased drag (up to 40%)
Increased weight

The increased weight coupled with loss of lift leads to an increased stalling speed. The added
weight and increased drag results in greater fuel consumption.

In addition, ice accumulation may lead to control surfaces becoming jammed, especially where
ice has broken off in chunks from other surfaces and become lodged.

WEIGHT
The rate of accumulation of ice is rarely constant across the airframe. This inconsistency may
lead to a shifting centre of gravity which causes instability and difficulty controlling the aircraft.

Uneven ice build-up on propellers can lead to severe engine vibration and possible engine
damage.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 13-1

Chapter 13 Icing

INSTRUMENTS
Ice may block the pitot and static inlets leading to gross instrument errors in the altimeter,
airspeed indicator, vertical speed indicator and Machmeter.

The safety implications of this are far-reaching.

OTHER EFFECTS
Other miscellaneous effects include:

Skin damage from chunks of ice breaking off propellers

Obscuration of windscreens
Increased skin friction and associated performance effects
Radio interference due to ice build-up on aerials
Landing gear deployment/retraction problems if ice forms in gear wells or freezes gear
doors closed

ICING DEFINITIONS
Any pilot encountering unforecast icing should report the time, location, level, intensity, icing type,
and aircraft type to the ATS unit they are in contact with. The following definitions are the
reporting definitions for levels of icing:

TRACE
Ice becomes perceptible; rate of accumulation slightly greater than the rate of sublimation. It is
not hazardous. De-icing/anti-icing equipment is not used unless ice is encountered for more than
one hour.

LIGHT
The rate of accumulation might create a problem if flight in this environment exceeds one hour.
Occasional use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment removes/prevents accumulation. It does not
present a problem if anti-icing equipment is used.

Note: The ICAO definition of light icing is: Change of heading or altitude not considered
necessary.

MODERATE
The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially hazardous and
the use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment, or diversion, is necessary.

Note: The ICAO definition of moderate icing is: Change of heading or altitude considered
desirable.

SEVERE
The rate of accumulation is such that de-icing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or control the
hazard. Immediate diversion is necessary.

Note: The ICAO definition of severe icing is: Immediate change of heading and/or altitude
necessary.

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Icing Chapter 13

SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS

In order for a droplet of water to freeze, it not only must be below freezing point, but there must
be a freezing nucleus present. This could take the form of salt, dust, pollen, or smoke particles.
There are less freezing nuclei than condensation nuclei. Hence it is a frequent occurrence that a
droplet cools to a temperature below zero but there is no freezing nucleus available. When this
occurs, the droplet stays in liquid form even though it is below zero. It is then referred to as a
supercooled water droplet. These droplets can exist in temperatures as low as -40C.

Most icing is caused by aircraft colliding with these droplets while in cloud or fog. As the droplet
touches the airframe its surface tension breaks down and it starts to freeze.

SIZE OF SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS

There are two factors dictating the size of the supercooled water droplets in a cloud.

First, consider the type of cloud. Layer clouds only have small water droplets, so when these
become supercooled they remain small. Cumuliform clouds can have small and large water
droplets, so the size of the droplets when supercooled varies.

The second factor is temperature. Once the temperature drops below -20C, large supercooled
droplets freeze, regardless of the lack of a freezing nucleus. So even in cumuliform cloud, if the
temperature drops below -20C, only small supercooled droplets will be present.

LARGE SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS

In summary, large supercooled water droplets occur:

1. In cumulus and cumulonimbus from 0C to -20C.

2. In nimbostratus at temperatures from 0C to -10C.
3. If the nimbostratus has been enhanced by orographic uplift, between 0C and -20C.

SMALL SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS

In summary, small supercooled water droplets occur:

1. In cumulus and cumulonimbus from -20C to -40C.

2. In nimbostratus at temperatures from -10C to -40C.
3. If the nimbostratus has been enhanced by orographic uplift, between -20C and -40C.
4. In stratus, stratocumulus, altostratus and altocumulus from 0 to -40C.

Note: Supercooled water droplets do not occur in the cirriform clouds as they consist of ice
crystals.

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Chapter 13 Icing

FREEZING PROCESS
When a supercooled water droplet impacts an airframe, not all of it freezes instantly. The fraction
that freezes instantly depends on the temperature of the droplet.

For every degree below zero, 1/80 of the droplet will freeze on impact. So if the temperature is
-20C, 1/4 will freeze on impact; if the droplet is -40C, 1/2 will freeze on impact.

So with a warmer droplet, the freezing process is slower. As a fraction of the droplet freezes,
latent heat is released which delays the freezing of the remainder of the droplet. This allows the
liquid part to flow over the airframe (called flowback) and freeze more gradually.

Also, the size of the droplet is important. Large droplets tend to retain latent heat better, so
freezing is delayed even more, allowing a greater spread of the droplet. This will determine the
type of ice which will be forming.

TYPES OF ICING
CLEAR ICE (GLAZE ICE)
Clear ice, or glaze ice, forms when large supercooled droplets impact with an airframe. When the
droplet impacts the airframe it does not freeze instantly. It starts to freeze and as a result some
latent heat is released. This raises the temperature slightly, allowing the water to flow over the
airframe before subsequently freezing. This results in a clear coating of ice which adheres
strongly to the surface of the aircraft.

Clear ice is a very serious form of icing which is heavy and difficult to remove. Uneven formation
on propellers can lead to vibration and chunks breaking off and causing skin damage.

The weight addition, which can be uneven, leads to stability and control problems and the aerofoil
shape is spoiled. Because of this, clear ice is usually described as moderate to severe.

Since large droplets only occur in cumulus, cumulonimbus and nimbostratus this type of ice is
only found in those clouds, and only in the temperature range 0C to -20C.

RIME ICE
This forms from impact with small supercooled droplets. When the droplet impacts, there will be
little or no flowback as most of the droplet freezes instantly.

Air becomes trapped between the droplets causing the ice to be opaque or cloudy. It is a granular
coating which is generally easy to remove. It can cause some loss of the aerofoil shape and an
increase in surface friction. It can also cause blockage of air intakes.

Usually rime icing is classed as light to moderate as build up is generally light enough for anti-
icing measures to cope.

This type of icing can occur in any cloud where there are small supercooled droplets. Hence it will
occur in layer clouds at any temperature below zero (except cirriform clouds which consist of ice
crystals). It will also occur in cumuliform clouds where temperatures are below -20C.

Rime ice may also occur in freezing fog.

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Icing Chapter 13

MIXED ICE
This is a combination of clear ice and rime ice and occurs where both types of water droplets are
present. This applies to clouds where the temperature is close to the transition between small and
large supercooled droplets. This will be within a few degrees of:

1. -20C for cumulus and cumulonimbus.

2. -10C for nimbostratus.
3. -20C for nimbostratus enhanced by orographic uplift.

RAIN ICE
This type of icing is very severe and very similar to clear ice. It is common beneath a warm front
or a warm occlusion, when precipitation falls from the clouds above the frontal surface. The warm
rain falls into colder air and becomes supercooled. If the aircraft is above the freezing level on the
cold side of the front, the airframe is below zero and the droplets strike the airframe and form ice
in the same way as described above in the section on clear ice.

The colder the air is below the front, the more common this type of icing becomes. Hence, it is a
common occurrence over large land masses such as North America and Central Europe, but is
much rarer over the UK where the temperatures are milder.

Figure 13.1 Freezing precipitation

HOAR FROST
This type of icing occurs when air is cooled to the temperature at which saturation occurs and the
airframe is below 0C. The frost forms by sublimation, that is, water vapour turns directly to ice
without passing through the liquid state.

Note that the temperature to which the air must be cooled for saturation to occur is called the frost
point in this situation, rather than the dewpoint.

It is a white crystalline deposit of the kind you find on your car on a cold morning.

It can occur on the ground when the aircraft is parked, or during flight.
Meteorology (Rev Q407) 13-5
Chapter 13 Icing

The correct conditions for hoar frost formation occur when an aircraft takes off from an aerodrome
at a sub-zero temperature and climbs through an inversion into warm moist air. Likewise, if an
aircraft descends from a very cold region into a warm moist layer, the same conditions will be
present.

This causes similar problems to those caused by rime ice.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SEVERITY OF ICING

SIZE OF SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS
As discussed above, larger supercooled droplets cause more severe icing of the clear type, and
small supercooled droplets cause rime ice, which is less serious. The size of the droplets
depends on the type of cloud and the ambient temperature as shown in table 13.1.

Type Severity Conditions

Clear / Glaze Ice Moderate to severe Caused by large supercooled droplets,
hence only found in cumuliform clouds such
as CU and CB, and also in NS and ACC
which have heap-type characteristics.
Rime Ice Light to moderate Caused by small supercooled droplets. In
layer clouds from 0C to -10C. In
cumuliform clouds from -20C to -40C.
Light Caused by small supercooled droplets. In
layer clouds from -10C to -40C.
Nil N/A In CI, CS and, CC (only ice crystals are
present).
Table 13.1 Summary of types of ice accretion

CONCENTRATION OF SUPERCOOLED WATER DROPLETS

The higher the concentration of supercooled droplets, the more serious the icing risk. Upcurrents
are stronger in the convective clouds, hence able to support a higher concentration of droplets.
This increases the risk in these clouds.

There is a higher concentration of droplets at the base of the cloud. This is for two reasons. First,
gravity tends to increase the density lower down. Second, the base is where condensation
commences, where the temperature is higher so the water content of the moist air is greater.

OROGRAPHIC UPLIFT
Where clouds have formed orographically, or existing clouds have been enhanced by lifting
against a hill or mountain, uplift is stronger, so the cloud can support a higher concentration of
water droplets, and also a greater size of droplet. For both these reasons, icing tends to be more
severe.

CLOUD BASE TEMPERATURE

The higher the temperature, the greater the amount of water vapour the air can hold. If the cloud
starts to form at a high temperature, the moisture content will be greater making the concentration
of droplets greater. Upcurrents result in the concentration of water droplets at all levels of the
cloud being greater so the icing will be more severe.

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Icing Chapter 13

AEROFOIL SHAPE
Air flowing around thin, low-drag aerofoils tends to follow the shape quite closely, whereas air
flowing around thick, high-drag aerofoils tends to be deflected away from the surface more.
Hence, supercooled water droplets are more likely to adhere to the thin aerofoil shape.

Aircraft with low-drag aerofoils tend to fly at a higher speed, and so they impact with more
droplets in a given amount of time.

This may be offset by kinetic heating effect, more details of which are given below. If the skin
temperature is raised to above zero, no icing will occur.

KINETIC HEATING
As an aircraft travels through the air it experiences kinetic heating of its surface which is related to
its true airspeed. The formula is as follows:

2
TAS
Temperature Rise (C) = ( 100 )
If the true airspeed is 300 kt, the temperature rise will be 9C.

If this raises the temperature to above zero, no ice will form. However, it also has the potential to
worsen the effect of icing. If the temperature were a low sub-zero temperature and was heated to
a temperature which was still below zero, this may lead to increased flowback and a greater
likelihood of clear ice.

It is important to be aware that kinetic heating may worsen the effect of icing.

ENGINE ICING
Icing can occur in both piston and turbine engines. The types of icing and conditions for formation
differ between the engine types. Icing can occur to a much higher temperature in piston engines
than in turbine engines.

PISTON ENGINE ICING

IMPACT ICING
Impact icing occurs in the intake area of the engine. It forms by direct impact of supercooled
water droplets with the surface, in much the same way as airframe icing. Temperatures need to
be sub-zero for this to occur.

FUEL ICING
Fuel icing is caused by water in the fuel freezing in the pipes and reducing or preventing fuel flow
to the engine. Again, the temperature needs to be below zero.

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Chapter 13 Icing

CARBURETTOR ICING

Figure 13.2 Carburettor icing

This is the only form of icing which may form when the ambient temperature outside the aircraft is
above zero. It is caused by two things:

1. Latent heat being absorbed from the surroundings as fuel evaporates.

2. As air passes through the venturi its speed increases, but its pressure, and therefore its
temperature, go down.

The temperature reduction can be in excess of 30C. So even at quite high temperatures the air
may be cooled to a temperature below zero. If the air has sufficient moisture, content icing
occurs.

The effects can be more severe if a low throttle setting is used with the carburettor butterfly only
partially open. A total blockage may occur.

Carburettor icing is common on warm, humid days as the moisture content of the induction air is
high.

Indications that the conditions for carburettor ice formation may be present include wet ground or
dew, reduced visibility from mist or fog, proximity to clouds, or precipitation.
13-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Icing Chapter 13

JET ENGINE ICING

As for piston engines, the problem of fuel icing in the supply pipes exists.

Impact icing may accumulate in the intakes of a jet engine. If this breaks off, it can cause blade
damage.

In the early intake stages, there is a pressure reduction which can lead to adiabatic cooling on the
order of 5C. This is a particular problem if the aircraft is at high revs, such as on approach or
climb-out.

In potential icing conditions, use engine igniters to help prevent failures. If there is precipitation or
the outside air temperature is less than 10C, engine anti-icing systems should be switched on.

ICE PROTECTION
ANTI-ICING
Anti-icing measures are designed to prevent the formation of ice, including:

Kill-frost paste applied to the leading edges.

Heated windscreen and pressure head.
Hot air system on leading edges and tailplane.
Hot air system on engine cowling lips and spinner.
Anti-icing fluids.

DE-ICING
De-icing measures are designed only to remove ice after it has formed, not to prevent its
formation. Examples are:

De-icing fluids.
Pulsating rubber boots.
Hot air systems.
Electrical heating systems.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 13-9

Chapter 13 Icing

13-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
Wind is the horizontal movement of air over the surface of the Earth due to forces acting upon it.
It is expressed as a wind velocity, which is a combination of direction and speed. It is important to
remember that the direction given is always that from which the wind is blowing.

Calm 20 kt, further additions up to 45 kt

1 to 2 kt 50 kt

5 kt 60 kt

10 kt 65 kt, further additions as

necessary

15 kt

The wind is depicted as a straight line coming from the periphery of a circle. The examples above
show a wind direction of 090.

The wind speed is normally given in knots. Other units used are kilometres per hour and metres
per second.

Direction is usually given in T. Exceptions to this are in an ATIS or verbally from the control
tower, where wind direction is given in M. This is because runway direction is magnetic, enabling
the pilot to calculate the wind components if the wind speed is also given in magnetic.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 14-1

Chapter 14 Wind

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH WIND

Veer is a change of direction in a clockwise direction.

Back is a change of direction in an anti-clockwise direction.

Figure 14.1 Description of veering and backing wind

Gust is a sudden increase in wind speed lasting a few seconds.

Squall is a wind speed increase of at least 16 kt to a uniform speed of at least 22 kt lasting for at
least one minute. Squalls are often associated with CBs.

Lull is a decrease in wind speed lasting from a few seconds to a few minutes.

Gale is a mean surface wind of 34 kt or more, or gusting to 43 kt or more.

Hurricane is a wind with a mean surface value of 63 kt or more.

Wind Gradient is the gradual change in wind velocity between the surface and the top of the
friction layer.

Gust factor is calculated by the following formula:

(Maximum gust speed minimum lull speed)

Gust factor = X 100%
Mean wind speed

For example: A wind averaging 35 kt with gusts to 50 kt and lulls of 20 kt would have a gust
factor of:
(50 kt 20 kt)
Gust factor = X 100% = 86%
35 kt

FORCES ACTING UPON THE AIR

There are two main forces acting upon the air. These are:

1. The Pressure Gradient Force.

2. Geostrophic Force.

14-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Wind Chapter 14

There is a third force, friction, which acts close to the surface. The thickness of the friction layer
varies.

THE PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE

The Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) is the force that initiates movement of air. If there is a region
of high pressure adjacent to a region of low pressure, the air flows from the high pressure to the
low pressure. If there were no other forces acting, this would continue until the two pressures
were equal, resulting in no more pressure gradient.

PGF

H L

1004 hPa 1002 hPa 1000 hPa 998 hPa

Figure 14.2 The principle of pressure gradient force

Figure 14.2 shows the pressure in hPa. As seen in the diagram, the PGF acts at right angles to
the isobars.

Calculate it using the following equation: PGF = dp (dn x )

dp = the pressure difference between two points

dn = the horizontal distance between the two points
= air density

THE GEOSTROPHIC FORCE

This is also referred to as the Coriolis Force.

Geostrophic force is due to the rotation of the Earth and the law of inertia. The Earth rotates at a
fixed speed. At the Equator, the line of latitude with the largest circumference, objects on the
Earth move faster than those at higher latitudes, because they have to travel a longer distance in
the same amount of time.

In figure 14.3 the thick horizontal arrows show how a position on the Earth moves in a given time
at the Equator and at two temperate latitudes, one in the northern hemisphere and the other in
the southern hemisphere.

All objects or air close to the surface of the Earth move with the Earth as it rotates. This also
means that the object or air moves with the rotational speed of the Earth at that point or latitude.
The surface of the Earth rotates at a higher speed at the Equator than closer to the poles as the
surface is further away from the axis of rotation.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 14-3

Chapter 14 Wind

Four different situations are shown. Arrow A shows movement away from the Equator in the
northern hemisphere and arrow B shows the same, but in the southern hemisphere. Arrow C
shows movement towards the Equator in the northern hemisphere and arrow D shows the same,
but in the southern hemisphere.

For arrow A, a parcel of air leaves the point represented by the start of the thick horizontal arrow
at the Equator and travels due north. As it travels, the point on the ground from which it left and
the point on the ground for which it is aiming move due to the rotation of the Earth.

I could be expected that the parcel of air ends up at the point of the arrowhead at the higher
latitude, that is, the initial aiming point after following a path represented by the dashed line.
However, due to inertia the parcel of air moves at the speed of objects at the Equator, so travels
further East than expected, following a path represented by the thick diagonal arrow.

Hence, the parcel of air appears to have turned right in the Northern Hemisphere.

Looking at the southern hemisphere, arrow B, it can be seen that the parcel of air appears to turn
left.

Looking at arrows C and D, the same rules apply for the northern and southern hemispheres
respectively with movement towards the Equator.

A C

B D

Figure 14.3 The effect of geostrophic (coriolis) force in the northern and southern hemisphere

14-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Wind Chapter 14

In summary, due to Coriolis effect, objects appear to turn right in the Northern Hemisphere, and
left in the Southern Hemisphere.

Geostrophic force (GF) can be calculated using the following equation:

GF = 2 V sin

Where:

= The angular rotation of the earth

= Air density
v = Wind speed
= Latitude

Note that the pressure gradient force must initiate movement of a parcel of air before geostrophic
force can come into play. Geostrophic force has no effect on a stationary parcel of air.

As the geostrophic force is proportional to sin , it is zero at the Equator and a maximum at the
poles. Within 15 of the Equator geostrophic force is negligible.

THE GEOSTROPHIC WIND

As already discussed, movement of air is initiated by the pressure gradient force. The air is then
affected by the geostrophic force. The geostrophic force initially acts at right angles to the
pressure gradient force, so produces a resultant wind that is at an angle between the two.

However geostrophic force is now no longer at right angles to the wind, and so acts from the
resultant wind as shown in figure 14.4. This process continues until the pressure gradient force
and the geostrophic force are acting in opposite directions and are in balance.

PGF
GW
1004

GF

1012

Figure 14.4 Principle of geostrophic wind

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 14-5

Chapter 14 Wind

The resultant wind is now at right angles to the pressure gradient force. In the northern
hemisphere it will be 90 to the right of the pressure gradient force, in the southern hemisphere
90 to the left.

This resultant wind is called the geostrophic wind and flows parallel to the straight isobars as
shown in figure 14.4. It gives rise to Buys Ballots law, which states:

In the Northern Hemisphere with your back to the wind, the low pressure is on your left.

Note that the opposite is true for the southern hemisphere.

This wind does not take the third force, friction, into account and is taken to be the wind just
above the friction layer.

The equation for geostrophic force applies:

GF = 2 V sin

Since pressure gradient force and geostrophic force are now in equilibrium, the following is also
true:

PGF = 2 V sin

The formula can be re-arranged to make V the object as follows:

PGF
V=
2 sin

Hence the windspeed (V) is proportional to the pressure gradient force and inversely proportional
to the latitude. Therefore as latitude decreases, the windspeed increases. This continues until
about 15 form the Equator, where the equation breaks down due to the negligible geostrophic
force.

If the windspeed at a certain latitude is known, the windspeed at another latitude, assuming the
same isobar spacing, can be calculated using the relationship described above. The derived
formula is as follows:

VLAT A sin LAT A = VLAT B sin LAT B

In summary, the conditions for the geostrophic wind are:

Above the friction layer.

Greater than 15N/S.
A pressure system that is not changing rapidly.
Straight and parallel isobars.

14-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Wind Chapter 14

THE GEOSTROPHIC WIND SCALE

Consider the formula for windspeed again:
PGF
V=
2 sin

Since the wind speed is varying with the pressure gradient force, which in itself varies with the
isobar spacing, the isobar spacing may be used to find the geostrophic wind speed. A scale
called the geostrophic wind scale may be printed on the chart. This scale will either apply for a
given latitude or will include a correction for latitude. The scale is logarithmic.

100 50 30 20 15 10 5 kt

Figure 14.5 Geostrophic wind scale for a given latitude

To find the windspeed for a given point, measure the distance between successive isobars
passing through that point, and compare this to the scale. Align your measured distance with the
left end of the scale but read the speed off from the right. In the example above the isobars are
well spaced, giving a speed of about 18 kt. The closer the isobars, the stronger the wind.

THE GRADIENT WIND

The geostrophic wind only applies to straight parallel isobars. When dealing with curved isobars
the situation becomes slightly more complicated.

Consider circular pressure systems. In the northern hemisphere the pressure gradient force and
geostrophic force act opposite to each other, and the resultant wind is 90 to the right of the
pressure gradient force.

However, the wind follows the curved isobars so the air starts to rotate around the centre of the
system.

This rotation brings an additional force into play, called centrifugal force. This is a force acting
outwards from the centre of the system.

Fog figures 14.6 and 14.7, the following key applies:

CF Centrifugal force
PGF Pressure gradient force
GF Geostrophic force
GW Gradient wind

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 14-7

Chapter 14 Wind

GW

CF

L
PGF GF

Figure 14.6 Forces for wind around a low in the northern hemisphere

In the case of a low pressure system, centrifugal force opposes the pressure gradient force,
hence the resultant wind speed is lower than the geostrophic wind for the same isobar spacing.
This is termed sub-geostrophic. If a geostrophic wind scale is used it will over-read.

The resultant wind is called the gradient wind, and blows anti-clockwise around a low pressure
system in the northern hemisphere.

H
GF PGF

CF

GW

Figure 14.7 Forces for wind around a high in the northern hemisphere

In the case of a high pressure system, centrifugal force supports the pressure gradient force,
hence the resultant wind speed is higher than the geostrophic wind for the same isobar spacing.
This is termed super-geostrophic. If a geostrophic wind scale is used it will under-read.

The gradient wind blows clockwise around a high pressure system in the northern hemisphere.

14-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Wind Chapter 14

WINDS NEAR THE EQUATOR

At latitudes less than 15 the formula for geostrophic wind breaks down due to the low value of
the geostrophic force. With straight isobars the wind tends to flow across the isobars from high to
low pressure.

However, with curved isobars the situation is different. In some situations the centrifugal force
becomes so large that it balances the pressure gradient force. When this happens, the wind is
said to be cyclostrophic. Examples are in a tropical revolving storm or a tornado.

THE SURFACE WIND

Both the geostrophic and the gradient wind act above the friction layer. The third force, friction,
must be taken into account in this layer.

The friction layer is said to be below 2000 ft over a smooth surface.

The strength of the frictional force depends on the following factors:

The roughness of the landscape the rougher the landscape, the greater the friction;
Stability of the air an unstable air mass creates thermal turbulence. This causes the
slow surface wind to interact with faster higher winds, resulting in increased wind speed
at the surface;
Season in summer the turbulence layer is thicker over land due to surface heating. The
same effect will be seen as above;
Type of system the layer is thicker in low pressure than in high;
Windspeed the higher the windspeed, the greater the resulting frictional effect.

Friction between the moving air and the surface slows the air down. As the wind speed decrease,
the geostrophic force will also decrease.

Figure 14.8 2000 ft wind (left) vs. surface wind (right)

In figure 14.8, the FF vector is the friction force and SW vector is the surface wind.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 14-9

Chapter 14 Wind

If the geostrophic force reduces then pressure gradient force and geostrophic force will no longer
be in balance. Pressure gradient force dominates making the surface wind deflect towards the
pressure gradient force, i.e. towards low pressure. As seen in figure 14.8, this will be a backing in
the northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere the wind will veer. In both cases the
surface wind will be slower than the 2000 ft wind.

Note: The above process applies equally to the wind around curved isobars.

The number of degrees of deflection and the reduction in windspeed for different situations are
shown in the table 14.1.

Speed of Surface Wind

Deflection of Surface
as a % of the 2000 ft
Wind from 2000 ft wind
wind
Over the Sea 15 75%
Over the Land by Day 30 50%
Over the Land by Night 45 25%
Table 14.1 Surface wind vs. 2000 ft wind

DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE SURFACE WIND

The following paragraphs describe the diurnal variation of winds at different heights. Note that
these are for the northern hemisphere. In the southern hemisphere the speed changes are the
same but changes of direction are opposite.

SURFACE WIND
During the day, surface heating causes turbulent mixing and an increase in wind speed at the
surface. During night the air cools down, turbulence ceases, and the friction has full effect.

Night to day Veer and increase

Day to night Back and decrease

Over land from night to day the surface wind approximately doubles and veers by about 15.
Windspeeds are highest at around 1500 hours as this is when there is greatest surface heating.
Windspeeds are lowest at around 0600 hours when temperatures are lowest.

1500 FT WIND
By day 1500 ft lies within the friction layer, hence is affected by friction. By night it lies above the
layer so is not affected.

Night to day Back and decrease

Day to night Veer and increase

2000 FT WIND
2000 ft is generally above the friction layer by day and by night, hence the little diurnal variation.

Night to day Little variation

Day to night Little variation
14-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Wind Chapter 14

MEASUREMENT OF SURFACE WIND

At an airport, wind is measured by placing the sensors 10 metres above an even-ground surface.
This prevents false readings caused by surges due to ground obstacles or uneven ground. The
wind vane is a simple device giving direction as shown in figure 14.9.

Wind Vane

270

360

180

90
Figure 14.9 Wind vane

The most common wind velocity sensor is the cup anemometer, shown in figure 14.10. Pressure
tube anemometers may also be used. The cup anemometer tends to under-read the value of
gusts and over-read the average wind speed due to its inertia.

3-CUP
ANEMOMETER

Figure 14.1 3-cup anemometer

ISALLOBARIC EFFECT
If the pressure gradient changes, the three forces of PGF, GF, and centrifugal force are
temporarily out of balance. The wind tends to flow across the isobars from high to low until
balance is restored. An Isallobar is a line joining places that have an equal rate of pressure
change, hence the term isallobaric effect.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 14-11

Chapter 14 Wind

14-12 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter explored lower winds which come about as a result of pressure differences
on a large scale. In this chapter more localised wind effects will be explored.

These tend to become apparent when the pressure gradient is slack or when the same air mass
remains in contact with the ground for an extended period, such as in a stable high pressure
system.

LAND AND SEA BREEZES

These winds are common when there is an anticyclone with a light pressure gradient on a clear
sunny day.

SEA BREEZE
During the day, the land heats up more quickly than the sea. The air in contact with the land
heats up and rises by the process of convection which leads to a decrease in pressure at the
surface and an increase in pressure at approximately 1000 2000 ft agl.

This causes air at that height to move over the sea. Air then descends over the sea causing an
increased pressure at the surface of the sea. Air then flows from the slightly higher pressure over
the sea surface to the lower pressure over the land surface and creates the sea breeze.

Figure 15.1 Sea breeze circulation

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 15-1
Chapter 15 Local Winds

Sea breezes are typically 10 to 15 kt in temperate latitudes and extend to about 10 nm either side
of the coastline. In tropical areas they can be slightly stronger and extend to 40 or 50 nm inland.

Initially the wind will be at right angles to the coastline but as insolation increases throughout the
day the wind will extend further from the coast and due to this longer fetch coriolis effect comes
into play. This causes a veering in the northern hemisphere and a backing in the southern
hemisphere.

LAND BREEZE
After sunset the land starts to cool down much more rapidly than the sea. This leads to a reversal
of the above situation. The sea surface experiences a lower pressure and the land a higher
pressure. The wind now blows from the land to the sea.

Figure 15.2 Land breeze circulation

The temperature difference between land and sea is less at night so the land breeze is weaker
than the sea breeze, typically half the speed (about 5 kt in temperate latitudes), and only extends
to about 5 nm out to sea.

OPERATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE LAND AND SEA BREEZES

At coastal airfields, the landing and take-off direction is reversed from day to night if the runway is
at right angles to the coast. During the day landing/take-off will be towards the sea and at night
towards the land.

Coastal airfields with runways running parallel to the coast experience crosswinds when the sea
and land breeze are well-established.

Fog off the coast can be blown inland during the day reducing visibility at coastal airfields.

Lifting of air over land by the sea breeze can cause small cumulus clouds to form which assist
pilots in the identification of coastlines.

15-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Local Winds Chapter 15

KATABATIC AND ANABATIC WINDS

These winds occur on hillsides and valley sides and tend to form in slack pressure gradients.

MOUNTAIN WIND
During the night a hillside cools down rapidly. The air in contact with it is cooled by conduction
and becomes more dense than the free air next to it. It therefore flows down the hillside.

Figure 15.3 Mountain wind

The mountain wind, which is a katabatic wind, is more apparent if the sky is clear as radiation is
greater. If the slope is snow covered this also assists.

The air remains in contact with the ground at all times and does not warm adiabatically. The
average speed is about 10 kt.

If this wind occurs in a valley cold air collects at the bottom increasing the likelihood of fog or
frost.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 15-3

Chapter 15 Local Winds

VALLEY WIND
The valley wind, which is an anabatic wind, is the opposite of the mountain wind and occurs
during the day on slopes which are subject to direct sunlight. As insolation increases, the air in
contact with the land warms up, becomes less dense and flows up the slope.

The valley wind is typically weaker than the mountain wind with a wind speed of about 5 kt since
it flows against the force of gravity.

Figure 15.4 Valley wind

15-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Local Winds Chapter 15

FOEHN WIND/EFFECT
The foehn wind was named for a warm dry wind that occurs in the Alps. There are several other
winds in other parts of the world which are caused by the same effect, such as the Chinook,
which flows down the east side of the Rocky Mountains.

The foehn wind occurs when air is forced to rise up a mountain side in stable conditions. It cools
initially at the DALR until it reaches saturation. At this point, cloud starts to form and the air
continues to rise, but now cools at the SALR.

Once it reaches the top of the mountain it starts to flow down the other side. Initially it warms at
the SALR but quickly becomes unsaturated as much of its moisture has already been lost. It then
warms at the DALR.

Since the cloud base is higher on the lee side, the air at the base on that side will be warmer than
on the windward side. The difference can be as much as 20C.

8000 ft - 0C 0C

6000 ft - 3C 3C

4000 ft - 6C 9C

2000 ft - 9C 15C

0 ft - 15C 21C
Figure 15.5 Foehn wind, principle

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 15-5

Chapter 15 Local Winds

VALLEY/RAVINE WIND
When wind blows against a mountain barrier it finds its progress impeded. If there is a gap or
valley it is forced to flow through this. The restriction acts like a venturi and the wind speeds up.
Wind speeds of 70 kt can be experienced.

The combination of high wind speeds and rough terrain can result in turbulence at low level. An
additional hazard results from the fact that small changes in the general direction of the wind can
lead to sudden reversals in direction of the ravine wind.

Figure 15.6 Valley/ravine wind, principle

15-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Local Winds Chapter 15

HEADLAND EFFECT
Where the 2000 ft wind blows parallel to the coast around a headland or cape the isobars push
together causing an increase in pressure gradient and hence an increase in wind speed.

Figure 15.7 Headland effect, principle

LOW-LEVEL JET
A Low Level Jet (LLJ) is defined as a narrow, horizontal band of relatively strong wind (usually
between 20 and 80 kt) located between 500 to 5000 feet AGL. They are often several hundred
miles long and a few hundred miles wide. There are four common types of LLJ.

NOCTURNAL JET
When the ground cools quickly, an inversion may build, and the wind quickly slows along the
surface by friction. However above the inversion, the wind is not affected by friction, and the cold
calm air along the ground serves as a gliding layer.

The result is a strong wind, just above the inversion. Maximum wind speed is usually attained
about 4 8 hours after sunset, the time depending on the latitude. The wind abates when
insolation and convection destroys the inversion layer.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 15-7

Chapter 15 Local Winds

VALLEY INVERSION
Often accentuated in mountainous regions where cold air drains into the bottom of a valley, valley
inversions create an elevated stable layer and surface inversion. Wind speeds of more than 50 kt
are sometimes reported above such inversions.

Figure 15.8 Warm wind over a valley inversion

COASTAL JET
Water temperature differentials along many coasts around the world create elevated inversions or
shallow frontal zones where low level jet (LLJ) phenomena occur. These LLJ can persist both day
and night for as long as the temperature differentials last.

LOW LEVEL JET IN FRONT OF AN EXTRA-TROPICAL COLD FRONT

A large temperature contrast across a cold front can create a similar wind phenomenon as the
shallow coastal front and a pronounced LLJ forms ahead of a cold front inside the warm air mass.

15-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
Air masses are large volumes of air with properties of humidity and temperature which remain almost
constant in the horizontal.

This phenomenon of more or less constant properties arises from the fact that the air in air masses
remains stationary over its source for an extended period of time. This essentially means that air
masses originate only in high pressure areas, as low pressures tend to be temporary features.

ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION

Air masses are initially classified by the latitude from which they originate. This gives us three main
types:

Tropical
Polar
Arctic

They are further subdivided depending on whether they originate over sea or land:

Maritime
Continental

This gives us five main air masses:

1. Tropical continental
2. Tropical maritime
3. Polar continental
4. Polar maritime
5. Arctic

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 16-1

Chapter 16 Air Masses

Figure 16.1 Air masses in Europe

Tropical air originates in the sub-tropical high pressure zones. An example of continental tropical air
would be the air mass which originates in North Africa.

Maritime tropical air originates in the permanent high pressures over the oceans. In the North Atlantic
this is the Azores high. There is an equivalent high pressure in the North Pacific.

Continental polar air originates in the high pressures over large land masses, hence this air mass is
mainly a winter phenomenon. Examples of sources are Siberia and North America.

Maritime polar air originates in the north of the North Atlantic and North Pacific.

Arctic air originates over the North Polar ice cap. Since the region is ice covered, arctic air is not
subdivided into continental and maritime. In the southern hemisphere there is an Antarctic air mass
originating over the South Polar ice cap.

MODIFICATION OF AIR MASSES

As the air masses pass over other regions as they travel away from their sources, their properties
alter. In general, the following rules apply:

An air mass passing over a warmer area:

Becomes warmer.
Becomes more unstable.
Experiences a reduction in relative humidity.

An air mass passing over a colder area:

Becomes colder.
Becomes more stable.
Experiences an increase in relative humidity.
16-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Air Masses Chapter 16

AIR MASSES AFFECTING EUROPE

We have introduced the various types of air masses. The next sections go into more detail about the
kind of weather conditions that these air masses bring to Europe.

ARCTIC
Originating over the North Polar ice cap, the arctic air mass is very cold and stable at the source. It
has a low absolute humidity and low relative humidity.

It is more common in the winter and moves south if there is a high pressure to the west of the UK and
a low pressure to the east.

H L

Figure 16.2 Airflow between an anticyclone and a depression

As an arctic air mass moves south toward Scotland, it becomes warmer and more unstable. It also
picks up moisture from the sea to the north of Scotland. Over land, large cumulus will form bringing
very cold weather, snow showers, and possible blizzards.

If it occurs in summer, there will be rain showers and the region will experience a marked drop in
temperature.

POLAR
POLAR MARITIME
A maritime polar air mass is cold and stable at its source, with a low absolute humidity but a high
relative humidity.

The air mass which comes to the UK originates in the far North Atlantic in the Greenland/Iceland
areas. As it moves south over the sea it becomes heated in the lower layers and becomes unstable. It
also picks up moisture.

Once it reaches the UK it produces unstable weather with cumulus, cumulonimbus with heavy
showers, and sometimes thunderstorms and hail.

Visibility is generally good outside of cloud and showers.

At night in winter the clouds clear and radiation can lead to an inversion and radiation fog.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 16-3

Chapter 16 Air Masses

RETURNING POLAR MARITIME

This is maritime polar air that has reached the UK via an indirect route. It occurs when the air gets
deflected by a low pressure system in the North Atlantic.

This results in the air first travelling to the south of the North Atlantic before changing direction and
approaching the UK from the south-west.

The result is that the air becomes unstable as it travels south. Once it has turned north the lower
layers become stable, but the upper layers remain unstable.

In summer, convection can break through the lower stable layer resulting in Cu, Cb, and
thunderstorm activity, with hail and heavy showers.

POLAR CONTINENTAL
A continental polar air mass is mainly a winter phenomenon which originates in Siberia. It is very cold,
stable, and dry. It brings a cold easterly wind to the UK, with mainly good visibility except for some
occasional industrial smoke from Northern Europe.

If the air mass originates from further north it may pass over the North Sea on its way to the UK. In
this case it will become unstable and increasingly moist, resulting in cumulus clouds and heavy
showers on the east coast of England and Scotland.

The conditions are not as severe as those associated with maritime polar as the air mass has a much
shorter sea passage.

In the summer, the high pressure over Siberia replaces low pressure as the land mass heats up. Air
originating in this area is then generally referred to as continental tropical.

Occasionally there may be a high pressure over Scandinavia. This results in an air mass passing
over the North Sea. This sea will now be colder than the surrounding land areas, so the air mass will
become cooled and more stable. It will absorb moisture as it passes over the sea.

This results in what is referred to as Haar conditions on the coast of east Scotland and north-east
England. These conditions are very low stratus with drizzle, advection fog, and bad visibility. In the
northeast of England, these conditions are colloquially termed Sea Fret.

16-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Air Masses Chapter 16

TROPICAL
TROPICAL MARITIME
A maritime tropical air mass originates in the Azores high in the south of the North Atlantic. It is warm
and stable with a high absolute humidity and a moderate relative humidity.

As it moves northeast, it cools and becomes more stable with increased relative humidity.

On reaching the south-west coast of the UK it produces low stratus and stratocumulus with drizzle
and poor visibility. Advection fog occurs over the land areas in winter and early spring and sea areas
in late spring and early summer.

In summer the increased insolation and convection clears the low cloud resulting in clear skies and
good visibility, with occasional fair weather cumulus.

TROPICAL CONTINENTAL
A continental tropical air mass originates in North Africa and south-east Europe, plus Siberia in the
summer. It is a warm dry air mass which brings clear dry weather with generally good visibility.
Occasionally, some dust haze comes north from the Sahara region.

Occasionally the air mass picks up some moisture over the Mediterranean and becomes unstable but
this moisture is lost as showers over France.

AIR MASS SUMMARY

ARCTIC
Normally winter only

Source Region Conditions at Modifications Weather

Source
North Polar Ice Temperature Moves south and is Arrives over Europe as
Cap Cold heated from below, extremely cold, moist and
becoming unstable unstable
Relative Humidity
Low Evaporation from sea CU or CB give heavy snow
causes increased showers, possibly TS on
dewpoint and relative North and northeast facing
Absolute Humidity humidity coasts
Low

Inland clear and cold

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 16-5

Chapter 16 Air Masses

POLAR MARITIME
Summer

Source Region Conditions at Modifications Weather

Source
Sea areas Temperature The air mass is heated as Widespread CU and CB
around Iceland Cold it moves south-east activity overland with
and Greenland moderate to heavy
Relative Humidity It becomes unstable over showers of rain or hail
High a great depth
Moderate to severe icing
Moisture evaporates from and turbulence in cloud
Absolute
Humidity the ocean so relative
Low humidity increases Visibility good outside
cloud

Winter

Source Region Conditions at Modifications Weather

Source
Sea areas Temperature The air mass is heated as Day
around Iceland Cold it moves southeast to a As for the summer but
and Greenland greater extent than in more severe. Strong gusts
Relative Humidity summer and squalls common
High
Becomes unstable over a Night
great depth Clear skies with possible
Absolute
Humidity radiation fog
Low Moisture evaporates from
the ocean so relative
humidity increases

16-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Air Masses Chapter 16

RETURNING POLAR MARITIME

Summer

Source Region Conditions at Modifications Weather

Source
Sea areas Temperature As the air moves south it Day
around Iceland Cold becomes unstable over a Warmer than average
and Greenland, great depth temperatures with a
with a low Relative Humidity relatively high relative
pressure to the Continuous evaporation humidity
west of Ireland High
raises the dew point and
the relative humidity Insolation heats up the land
Absolute Humidity remains high
Low surfaces

The depression west of As air moves over the

Ireland drags the air mass heated surfaces it becomes
in an anticlockwise unstable leading to the
direction towards Europe development of CU and CB

The movement into colder CB produce widespread TS

regions stabilises the air and showers which are
mass in the lower layers most marked in the
and leaves the upper afternoon
layers unstable
Visibility moderate to good

Night
Convective activity stops

CU may spread into SC

Visibility moderate

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 16-7

Chapter 16 Air Masses

RETURNING POLAR MARITIME

Winter

Source Region Conditions at Modifications Weather

Source
Sea areas Temperature As the air moves south it As for the tropical maritime
around Iceland Cold becomes unstable over a although medium level
and Greenland, great depth instability may be
with a low Relative Humidity encountered
pressure to the Continuous evaporation
west of Ireland High
raises the dew point and CB formation over
the relative humidity mountains
Absolute remains high
Humidity
Low Medium level AC
The depression west of castellanus may be
Ireland drags the air mass apparent
in an anti-clockwise
direction toward Europe

The movement into colder

regions stabilises the air
mass in the lower layers
and leaves the upper
layers unstable

16-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Air Masses Chapter 16

POLAR CONTINENTAL
Normally winter only

Source Region Conditions at Modifications Weather

Source
Siberia, Temperature Moves over the cold If the airflow is from the
Northern Europe Cold winter land of Europe and East via continental
and Scandinavia remains cold, dry, and Europe, the weather is very
Relative Humidity stable cold and very dry with no
precipitation
Low
If the air passes over the
relatively warm North Sea If the airflow is over the
Absolute the air is heated from North Sea, CU and CB
Humidity below, thus decreasing may develop and give
Low the stability and the showers on the East coast
absolute humidity of the UK
increases
(In the summer the air
mass is rare. With a high
pressure over Scandinavia
in early summer a north-
easterly flow occurs. The
air is dry, warm, and
stable, leading to Haar
conditions)

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 16-9

Chapter 16 Air Masses

TROPICAL MARITIME
Summer

Source Region Conditions at Modifications Weather

Source
The Azores high Temperature As it moves northeast Advection fog likely over
Warm toward Europe, the air the sea
is cooled from below,
Relative Humidity increasing the stability Warm moist conditions with
Mod some ST or SC, visibility
Continual evaporation moderate or poor
gives a high dew point
Absolute Humidity and high relative
High humidity

Winter

Source Region Conditions at Modifications Weather

Source
The Azores high Temperature As it moves northeast Extensive low ST and SC
Warm toward Europe the air is giving continuous drizzle or
cooled from below, light rain
Relative Humidity increasing stability
Mod Temperatures above the
Continual evaporation seasonal average, with
gives a high dew point moderate to poor visibility
Absolute Humidity and high relative
High humidity Advection fog forms if the
air flows over a snow
covered surface. This flow
can also cause a general
thaw

16-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Air Masses Chapter 16

TROPICAL CONTINENTAL
All seasons, but more common in the summer

Source Region Conditions at Modifications Weather

Source
North Africa and Temperature Moves north and is Hot, dry conditions
southeast Warm cooled from below
Europe becoming more stable Sometimes hazy with dust
Relative Humidity from the Sahara
Low Movement overland
keeps the humidity low Some cloud and
Absolute Humidity precipitation over France if
Low the air mass picks up
moisture and becomes
unstable over the
Mediterranean

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 16-11

Chapter 16 Air Masses

16-12 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter discussed air masses, where the properties of temperature and humidity
are relatively constant in the horizontal throughout the air mass.

Also discussed was how the properties of air masses differ from those of other air masses. The
boundary between two air masses with different properties is called a front.

Fronts can produce quite active weather. This chapter discusses the characteristics of various
types of front.

TYPES OF FRONT
Where two air masses meet, the warmer air is less dense and rises up over the colder air. This
gives a sloping frontal surface.

Initially this chapter explores the three main types of front.

QUASI-STATIONARY FRONT
Where there is little frontal movement, and neither air mass can be said to be replacing the other,
it is termed a quasi-stationary front. Figure 17.1 shows this situation along with the synoptic
symbol used on charts for the quasi-stationary front.

Figure 17.1 Quasi-stationary front

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Chapter 17 Fronts and Occlusions

COLD FRONT
Where cold air replaces warm air, it is called a cold front. Figure 17.2 also shows the synoptic
symbol used on charts to represent a cold front.

Figure 17.2 Cold front

WARM FRONT
Where warm air replaces cold air it is called a warm front. Figure 17.3 also shows the synoptic
symbol used on charts to represent a warm front.

Figure 17.3 Warm front

PRESSURE SITUATION AT A FRONT

As an aircraft flies from a warm air mass into a cold air mass across a front, if it maintains the
same true altitude then the colder air means higher density and hence higher pressure.

Figure 17.4 shows the view from above as an aircraft flies along an isobar towards the front.
Once it crosses the front, the pressure increase means that the isobars have changed orientation.
They bend towards the low pressure.

The greater the temperature change at the front, the greater the change in direction of the
isobars. As the isobars determine the direction of the wind, a greater change in wind direction
should be expected when the temperature change is greater.

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Fronts and Occlusions Chapter 17

Figure 17.4 Change of wind direction when crossing a front

SEMI-PERMANENT FRONTS OF THE WORLD

In both hemispheres there are several semi-permanent or quasi-stationary fronts.

ARCTIC FRONT
This is the boundary between arctic and polar air and is found at latitudes above 65.

POLAR FRONT
A polar front is the boundary between polar and tropical air. It is found between latitudes 35 and
65 in the northern hemisphere and at around 50 in the southern hemisphere.

During the winter the polar front stretches from Florida to southwest UK. In the summer it retreats
North, stretching from Newfoundland to the North of Scotland.

In this region, a phenomenon called the polar front depression arises. This is the major factor in
the weather patterns found in the UK and Europe.

MEDITERRANEAN FRONT
This front only exists in the winter when there is low pressure in the Mediterranean. It is the
boundary between polar continental or polar maritime air and tropical continental air.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 17-3

Chapter 17 Fronts and Occlusions

INTER-TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (ITCZ)

Originally called the inter-tropical front, the inter-tropical convergence zone was renamed since it
is not really a front. It is a boundary zone around 300 nm wide between tropical air masses on
either side of the heat equator. Since both masses are tropical, the word front is misleading
hence the name change.

It is also sometimes referred to as the Equatorial trough or just the heat equator.

The ITCZ is discussed in considerably more detail in the chapters on climatology.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FRONTS
This section explores characteristics of the warm front and the cold front, including the likely
weather to expect.

WARM FRONT
A warm front occurs when warm air replaces cold air. It rides up over the cold air forming a
sloping frontal surface with an average gradient of about 1:150.

Since warm air is less dense, its progress is retarded by the cold dense air ahead of it. Therefore,
the front travels at about 2/3 of the geostrophic wind speed that would otherwise be expected
from the isobar interval along the front.

Figure 17.5 Geostrophic wind speed behind a front

The gentle slope of the front means that lifting will not be strong enough to form cumuliform cloud.
Instead, layer cloud will form. Approaching the front from the cold air side layer clouds appear in
the following order: Cirrus, cirrostratus, altostratus, nimbostratus and stratus.

The result is a progressively lowering cloud base. The cirrus cloud will be seen up to 600 nm in
advance of the surface position of the front.
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Fronts and Occlusions Chapter 17

No precipitation will be experienced prior to reaching the altostratus where virga, which is
precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground, may occur. As the nimbostratus
approaches the precipitation will become continuous moderate or heavy.

Figure 17.6 Vertical cross-section of a typical warm front

As the front approaches, the pressure drops, but once it passes the fall will be arrested. However,
since the air behind the front is warmer, it settles to a lower value than that preceding the front.

The wind veers, but since the passage of the system is quite slow, this change tends to be
gradual over some time.

COLD FRONT
A cold front occurs when cold air replaces warm air. The cold air undercuts the warm air because
it is more dense and its progress is not impeded by the warm air it replaces. Therefore, it moves
at the geostrophic wind speed.

The cold front is much steeper, averaging about 1:50. Sometimes it becomes vertical and even
bulges out into the warm air forming a nose-like protrudence.

Cold front lifting is much greater hence this front produces cumuliform cloud such as cumulus and
cumulonimbus with possible thunderstorm activity. There may be layers of altostratus,
altocumulus and some cirrus extending behind the main bulk of clouds associated with the cold
front.

Since the slope is much steeper than that of the warm front, the band of associated cloud only
spans up to about 200 nm.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 17-5

Chapter 17 Fronts and Occlusions

Figure 17.7 Vertical cross-section of a typical cold front

As the front approaches, the pressure drops due to the rising air, but after its passage it rises
again and settles at a greater value than that preceding the front since the air is now colder.

Wind direction changes over a much shorter passage of time than that of the warm front. Hence
strong windshear tends to be associated with active cold fronts.

POLAR FRONT DEPRESSIONS

These originate from the polar front. At the front the pressure is lower as the warm air rises up
over the cold air. Moving away from the front on either side the pressure increases.

Obeying Buys Ballots Law the wind flows along the isobars with the low pressure to the left. As
the figure 17.8 illustrates the wind on either side of the front flows in opposite directions.

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Fronts and Occlusions Chapter 17

Figure 17.8 Airflow along the polar front

This situation causes friction which leads to the formation of waves or ripples along the front.
Since the size of the ripples increase with increasing wind speed, the warm air bulges into the
cold side of the polar front as shown in figure 17.9.

Figure 17.9 Warm air bulging into the cold side

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 17-7

Chapter 17 Fronts and Occlusions

More warm air flows into the depression, causing the depression to deepen.

Figure 17.10 Deepening depression

The result is a system shaped like a shark fin, with a warm front followed by a cold front. The tip
of the shark fin is a low pressure centre.

Growth of a polar front depression takes about four days. The depression dies away as it fills
which typically takes ten days.

Figure 17.11 Typical polar front depression

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Fronts and Occlusions Chapter 17

The system moves in an easterly direction under the influence of the westerly upper winds,
forming an overall picture like that shown on the synoptic chart in figure 17.12. This is known as a
westerly wave.

Figure 17.12 Typical succession of polar front depressions in the North Atlantic

WEATHER ASSOCIATED WITH THE POLAR FRONT

DEPRESSION
INTRODUCTION
As a polar front depression passes over a point, the first weather experienced will be that
associated with a warm front followed by the cold front arrives. The width of the warm sector
between the warm front and the cold front varies and the weather within it will vary with the width.
Some time after the cold front has passed, the weather tends to clear and settle.

Figure 17.13 Vertical cross-section of a typical polar front depression

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Chapter 17 Fronts and Occlusions

WARM FRONT
The weather associated with the passage of the warm front is summarised in table 17.1.

Warm Front
In Advance At the Passage In the Rear

Pressure Steady fall Fall arrested Little change or slow

fall
Wind Backing slightly and Veer and decrease Steady direction
increasing
Temperature Steady or slow rise Rise Little change
Dewpoint Rise in precipitation Rise Steady
Relative Humidity Rise in precipitation May rise further if not Little change, may be
already saturated saturated
Cloud CI, CS, AS, NS in Low ST ST, SC may persist
succession, perhaps some CI
increasing to 8 oktas
often with ST below
Weather Light continuous Precipitation eases Dry or intermittent
precipitation from AS or stops precipitation
becoming moderate
continuous from NS
Visibility Good except in Poor, often mist or Moderate or poor,
precipitation fog mist or fog may
persist
Table 17.1 Weather associated with a typical warm front

WARM SECTOR
The weather in the warm sector depends on the stability of the air. If the air is stable it is called a
kata-front, with mainly stratiform clouds as shown in figure 17.14.

Figure 17.14 Clouds associated with a typical kata-front.

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Fronts and Occlusions Chapter 17

If the air is unstable it is called an ana-front with more vertical development of the clouds and
more likely cumuliform clouds as shown in figure 17.15.

Figure 17.15 Clouds associated with a typical ana-front

COLD FRONT
The weather associated with the passage of the cold front is summarised in the table 17.2.

Cold Front
In Advance At the Passage In the Rear

Pressure Fall Sudden rise Rise continues more

slowly
Wind Backing and Sudden veer, Further squalls before
increasingly perhaps squall settling
becoming squally
Temperature Steady, but falling in Sudden fall Little change, variable
pre-frontal rain in showers
Dewpoint Little change Sudden fall Little change
Relative Humidity Rise in pre-frontal Remains high in Rapid fall as
precipitation precipitation precipitation ceases,
variable in showers
Cloud ST or SC, AC, AS CB, CU sometimes Lifting rapidly
then CB AS, AC and CI
Weather Some rain, perhaps Heavy rain or Heavy rain or snow for
thunder snow, perhaps hail usually a short period,
and thunder sometimes more
persistent, then fine
Visibility Moderate or poor, Good except in Becomes very good
perhaps fog showers well behind the front
Table 17.2 Weather associated with a typical cold front

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 17-11

Chapter 17 Fronts and Occlusions

OCCLUSIONS

Figure 17.16 Typical polar front depression

Consider the typical polar front depression as shown in figure 17.16 with a warm front followed by
a cold front. As previously mentioned, the cold front moves at a speed equivalent to the
geostrophic wind speed while the warm front moves at a speed of approximately 2/3 of the
geostrophic wind speed. As the polar front depression travels east across the North Atlantic, the
cold front gains on the warm front, progressively narrowing the warm sector between the two
fronts. Eventually it catches up with the warm front, as shown in figure 17.17.

A
B

Figure 17.17 Typical occlusion

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Fronts and Occlusions Chapter 17

The point at which the two fronts meet is called the occlusion point and the part where the cold
front has caught up with the warm front is called the occlusion. There are two types of occlusions,
the warm occlusion and the cold occlusion.

Which type of occlusion occurs depends on the relative temperatures of the air masses ahead of
the warm front (marked A in figure 17.17) and behind the cold front (marked B in figure 17.17). If
the air at ahead of the warm front (A) is colder than the air behind the cold front (B), it is a warm
occlusion. If the air behind the cold front (B) is colder than the air ahead of the warm front (A), it is
a cold occlusion. The warm sector will always have the warmest air.

Both air masses are in fact part of the same air mass, the polar air. However, as an air mass
travels, its characteristics are changed by the surface over which it passes.

During the summer in the UK, the most common type of occlusion is the cold occlusion. This is
because the air ahead of the warm front has spent a greater length of time over the warmer land,
but the air behind the cold front has much more recently been over the cold sea.

Conversely, in winter, the sea is warmer than the land, thus the warm occlusion is the common
type.

Figure 17.18 shows the synoptic symbols used to indicate warm occlusions and cold occlusions
on charts. The occluded part of the front will have a magenta colour with altering warm and cold
front symbols. However, as many charts are in black and white there is also another way to
determine whether it is a warm occlusion or a cold occlusion. For a warm occlusion, the occlusion
is a continuation of the warm front. For a cold occlusion, the occlusion is a continuation of the
cold front.

Figure 17.18 Synoptic symbol for warm occlusion and cold occlusion
Meteorology (Rev Q407) 17-13
Chapter 17 Fronts and Occlusions

WARM OCCLUSION

Figure 17.19 Vertical cross-section of a typical warm occlusion

Figure 17.19 shows the vertical cross section of a typical warm occlusion where the cold front is
climbing up along the surface of the warm front. The warm sector will no longer touch the ground.
The cumuliform clouds associated with the cold front will have gradually less vertical extent and
become embedded in the clouds associated with the warm front. Once the front passes, the
weather will be more typical to what may be expected in a warm sector.

COLD OCCLUSION

Figure 17.20 Vertical cross-section of a typical cold occlusion

Figure 17.20 shows the vertical cross section of a typical cold occlusion where the cold front
undercuts the warm front. The warm sector will no longer touch the ground. The cumuliform
clouds will remain with the stratiform clouds gradually embedding them. Once the front passes,
the weather will be more typical to what may be expected behind a cold front.

BACK BENT OCCLUSION

As the polar front depression travels, the occluded section can lag behind, in which case it may
bend back on itself. This can give a region of intense weather at the two occluded sections and
the low pressure between them.

Figure 17.21 Typical back bent occlusion

17-14 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
INTRODUCTION
The chapter on wind introduced the concepts of the geostrophic wind. The formula for
geostrophic wind speed is:

PGF
V=
2 sin

Just like lower winds, the upper winds are caused by the same forces: pressure gradient force,
geostrophic force and cyclostrophic force.

This means that the geostrophic wind formula also applies to upper winds. Since the wind speed
is inversely proportional to air density, wind speed would be expected to increase as height
increases because of the decrease in density.

For example, the density at 20 000 ft is approximately half that at the surface, thus doubling the
wind speed.

THERMAL WIND COMPONENT

INTRODUCTION
The following diagram shows two columns of air, one cold, and one warm. The surface pressure
is the same in both cases in the example we have used 1020 hPa.

Pressure falls more quickly over cold air and less quickly over warm air, so the air pressure over
the cold air would be expected to be lower than that at the same height over the warm air.

1010 hPa 1009 hPa

1020 hPa 1020 hPa

Figure 18.1 Thermal wind component, principle

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 18-1
Chapter 18 Upper Winds

Buys Ballots Law may be used to determine the resulting wind direction:

In the northern hemisphere with your back to the wind, the low pressure is on your left.

Hence, in figure 18.1, the wind must be blowing off the page. This gives a new law similar to Buys
Ballots Law:

In the northern hemisphere with your back to the upper wind, the cold air is on your left.

In the southern hemisphere the cold air will be on the right.

CALCULATING THE THERMAL WIND COMPONENT

To calculate the thermal wind component use the following formula:

Temperature gradient per 100 nm x altitude difference (ft)

Thermal wind speed =
1000

Note: This formula is only valid for the 50 latitude. For other latitudes, multiply the answer by
sin 50 sin Latitude.

8000 ft

24C 18C

200 nm

Figure 18.2 Example for thermal wind speed calculation

For example, to calculate the thermal wind component based on figure 18.2, the temperature
gradient is 3C/100 nm and the thickness of the layer is 8000 ft. This will give a thermal wind
component of:
3 x 8000
= 24 kt
1000

The direction of the thermal wind component depends on the relative positions of the cold and
warm air masses.

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Upper Winds Chapter 18

UPPER WIND
If the geostrophic wind was calm, the upper wind at any level would simply be the thermal wind
component over the layer between that level and 2000 ft.

Geostrophic Thermal wind

wind component

Upper wind
Figure 18.3 Vector diagram for the geostrophic wind, thermal wind component and upper wind

If there is a geostrophic wind, then the upper wind will be the vector sum of the geostrophic wind
and the thermal wind component. Resolve this graphically by vectors or by using the CRP-5.

Continuing on from the previous example, assume a geostrophic wind of 040 20 kt with cold air
to the North, in the northern hemisphere. The following steps show how to calculate the upper
wind for 10 000 ft using a CRP-5.

STEP 1 The cold temperature is to the North. Using Buys Ballots Law, with the wind from
behind, the low temperature is on the left. The wind direction must be from 270.

STEP 2 Having already calculated the thermal wind speed as 24 kt, the thermal wind
component is 270 24 kt.

STEP 3 Set the 2000 ft wind velocity using the zero line.

Figure 18.4 Geostrophic wind of 040 20 kt

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 18-3

Chapter 18 Upper Winds

STEP 4 Set the thermal wind component. The origin of the thermal wind component is the
end of the geostrophic wind component.

Figure 18.5 Thermal wind component of 270 24 kt

STEP 5 Move the end of the thermal wind component to the centreline and read off the
wind at 10 000 ft as 325 19 kt.

Figure 18.6 10 000 ft wind read off as 325 19 kt

Note: If the geostrophic and the thermal wind component are in opposite directions, the
wind first decreases in speed as height increases, becoming calm before
reversing in direction and increasing in speed.

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Upper Winds Chapter 18

GLOBAL UPPER WINDS

The diagram below shows the Earth with warm air over the Equator and a decreasing
temperature as we move towards the poles. In the northern hemisphere the wind keeps the low
temperature to its left, in the southern hemisphere it keeps the low temperature to its right. In both
hemispheres this gives a westerly wind.

Figure 18.7 Forming of global upper winds based on basic principles

Due to local effects, the upper wind around the Equator and over the poles may be easterly.

JET STREAMS
INTRODUCTION
A jet stream is a wind greater than 60 kt in speed, which manifests itself as a long corridor of wind
with typical dimensions of 1500 nm in length, 200 nm in width and 12 000 ft in depth.

They are caused by large, horizontal temperature differences.

Figure 18.8 Cross section of a typical jet stream

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 18-5
Chapter 18 Upper Winds

The wind speed is fastest in the core and decreases with movement away from the core.

80 kt
60 kt
100 kt
120 kt

Figure 18.9 Typical distribution of wind speeds associated with a jet stream

Speeds in excess of 100 kt are quite common, but it is rare for jet streams to be faster than
200 kt. However, jets of 300 kt have been reported on occasion. These extreme examples tend to
occur in the Far East Asia and Japan area.

COMMON JET STREAMS

Table 18.1 shows the common global, semi-permanent jet streams.

Latitude Pressure Level

Polar front jet stream 45 to 65 N/S 300 hPa 30 000 ft
Sub-tropical jet stream 20 to 40 N/S 200 hPa 45 000 ft
Equatorial jet stream 10 to 15 N/S 100 hPa 55 000 ft
Polar jet stream 70 to 80 N/S 50 hPa 75 000 ft
Table 18.1 Semi-permanent jet streams

Extensive knowledge of the equatorial and the polar jet stream are not required for the ATPL
studies.

SUB-TROPICAL JET STREAM

The sub-tropical jet streams occur above the sub-tropical anti-cyclones and are caused by the
circulation of the Hadley cells. The Hadley cells are a circulation which starts with lifting over the
heat equator due to surface heating. When the air reaches the tropopause it flows away from the
Equator to higher latitudes.

At approximately 30 latitude, the air is cooled such that it starts to descend, forming the sub-
tropical anti-cyclones. It then flows along the surface back towards the low pressure at the heat
equator or the low pressure along the polar fronts.

Figure 18.2 shows the circulation of air on the Earth.

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Upper Winds Chapter 18

Polar
cell

Ferrel
cell

Hadley
cell

Figure 18.10 Global circulation of the air

The sub-tropical jet stream forms when air from the Hadley cells meet air from the Ferrel cell. Due
to the large amount of air, not all of it is able to descend which means that some of it is forced to
flow horizontally. In the northern hemisphere the geostrophic force will deflect it the right and in
the southern hemisphere the geostrophic force will deflect it to the left.

In both cases this results in a westerly jet.

PGF GF
PLAN VIEW

PGF NH

GF
Heat equator

Heat
equator
SH

Figure 18.11 The forming of the sub-tropical jet streams

The sub-tropical jet streams exist all year round but move as the heat equator moves. In the
winter they are found between 25 and 40 latitude and in the summer are found between 40
and 45 latitude.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 18-7

Chapter 18 Upper Winds

POLAR-FRONT JET STREAM

Like the name suggests, a polar-front jet stream occurs on the polar front. Figure 18.12 shows the
position of the jet stream in cross section and in plan view.

Figure 18.12 Typical polar front depression and associated jet stream

Figure 18.13 Vertical cross-section of a polar front depression and associated jet stream

Figure 18.13 shows that the jet stream forms in the warm (tropical air) just below the tropopause.
In figure 18.12 the jet stream appears to be in cold sector. However, it is the surface position of
the fronts that is shown. Since the frontal surface is a slope, the jet stream is in the warm air.

Unlike the sub-tropical jet stream, the polar front jet stream is not in a constant westerly direction.
It follows the patterns of the polar front depressions and forms a zig-zag shape which is westerly
on average.

They are less permanent than the sub-tropical jets, tending to die out a bit in the summer.
Average speeds in the summer are 60 kt and in the winter, 80 kt.

Like the sub-tropical jet stream, the polar front jet streams change position with the movement of
the heat equator. Approximate positions are between 40N and 65N and at around 50S.

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Upper Winds Chapter 18

WINDS AROUND A POLAR FRONT DEPRESSION

This chapter has explored the polar front depression and the pattern of isobars around it. The
2000 ft wind follows the isobars in an anti-clockwise direction around the low pressure centre, as
shown in figure 18.14.

Figure 18.14 Winds associated with a typical polar front depression

Super-imposed onto this is the polar front jet stream, which obeys the rule of always keeping the
cold air to its left. As a result, the 2000 ft wind and the upper wind often come from different
directions. This is summarised in table 18.2.

Position 2000 ft wind Upper wind Trend

Ahead of the warm front South-westerly North-westerly Veer and increase
In the warm sector Westerly Westerly Increase
Behind the cold front North-westerly South-westerly Back and increase
Table 18.2 Winds associated with a typical polar front depression

CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE

There are large changes in wind speed over a short distance associated with a jet stream. This
causes turbulence known as clear air turbulence (CAT) since it is not caused by ground or
clouds. The most severe CAT is found level with the core of the jet on the cold air side. A
secondary area of severe CAT is found above the core, above the warm air tropopause.

Figure 18.15 CAT areas in relation to the jet stream

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 18-9
Chapter 18 Upper Winds

If CAT associated with a polar front jet stream in the northern hemisphere is experienced, turning
South and descending will bring the aircraft into the warm air and away from the strongest
turbulence.

IDENTIFICATION OF JET STREAMS

It is usually impossible to identify a jet stream visually. However, if the air is moist, there may be a
trail of cirrus cloud associated with the jet stream, as shown in figure 18.16.

Figure 18.16 Trail of cirrus indicating a jet stream

Due to the high velocity of the air, the pressure will decrease and therefore the temperature will
also decrease around the jet stream. This may cool the air to its dewpoint causing water vapour
to sublimate into ice crystals.

CONTOUR CHARTS
For lower winds, synoptic charts may be used where the wind can be determined from the
isobars. However, for upper winds a different system must be used to include the thermal wind
component. Rather than using a chart for mean sea level or a given height above it showing the
different pressure systems and associated isobars, charts with constant pressure are used. The
constant pressure chart may also be referred to as a contour chart. They will have lines joining
places of equal height above mean seal level, where the pressure value for the chart is found,
drawn on them. These lines of constant height are called isohypses.

This is useful for high altitude flying as flights are conducted at flight levels/pressure altitudes, that
is, the aircraft flies maintaining a constant ambient pressure.

Pressure (hPa) Equivalent Pressure

Altitude (feet)
700 10 000
500 18 000
300 30 000
250 34 000
200 39 000
150 53 000
Table 18.3 Typical pressure values for contour charts

The isohypses may have the heights expressed in one of two ways, either in 100s of feet (hecto
feet) or 10s of metres (decametres). Also, the contour chart may have isotachs, joining places of
equal wind speed, and temperature values or isotherms, joining places of equal temperature.

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Upper Winds Chapter 18

A line with a low value means that the pressure value for the chart is found at a lower height,
whereas a high value means the pressure is found at a greater height. As can be seen from the
following diagram, this means that areas of low contour heights are areas of low pressure.

31 000 ft

< 300 hPa > 300 hPa

30 000 ft

300 hPa
29 000 ft

Figure 18.17 Variation of the 300 hPa pressure surface

Since the wind follows Buys Ballots law, it flows along the isohypses with the low height to its left
in the northern hemisphere. The wind speed may be determined by the distance between the
isohypses, the closer they are together the stronger the wind speed will be.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 18-11

Chapter 18 Upper Winds

18-12 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

WINDSHEAR
The following meteorological factors can cause windshear:

1. Inversions
2. Mountain waves and rotors
3. Katabatic winds (fall winds)
4. Sea breeze fronts
5. Air mass fronts
6. CB cloud
7. Low level jet
8. Jet streams

DEFINITIONS AND THE METEOROLOGICAL BACKGROUND

In discussing windshear it is not easy to find a definition which satisfies both meteorologist and
pilot. At its simplest, windshear is a change in wind direction and/or speed in space, including
updraughts and downdraughts. Despite the emphasis on the windshear hazard in recent years,
there are still some who argue that aviators have lived with windshear since the dawn of aviation,
seeing it as an extreme form of wind gradient, which would itself fit this definition.

DEFINITION
Variations in vector wind along the aircraft flight path of a pattern, intensity, and duration so as to
displace an aircraft abruptly from its intended path requiring substantial control action.

LOW ALTITUDE WINDSHEAR

Low altitude windshear is windshear along the final approach path or along the runway and along
the takeoff and initial climb out flight path.

Further refinement offers:

Vertical windshear as the change of horizontal wind vector with height, as might be
determined by two or more anemometers at different heights on a mast;
Horizontal windshear as the change of horizontal wind vector with horizontal distance as
might be determined by two or more anemometers mounted at the same height at
different points along a runway;
Updraught/downdraught shear as changes in the vertical component of wind with
horizontal distance.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 19-1

Chapter 19 Windshear and Turbulence

Setting aside the basic windshear definition above, the other definitions allow for changes of
vector wind from the relatively minor event upwards. The essence of the windshear with which
this chapter is concerned is spelt out by the basic definition with its emphasis on abrupt
displacement from the flight path and the need for substantial control action to counteract it.

A windshear encounter is a highly dynamic and potentially uncomfortable event; to think of

windshear as an aggravated form of wind gradient is unwise. Windshear can strike suddenly and
with devastating effect, sometimes beyond the recovery powers of experienced pilots flying
modern and powerful aircraft. An encounter may cause alarm, a damaged landing gear, or a total
catastrophe. The first and most vital defence is avoidance.

METEOROLOGICAL FEATURES
The most potent examples of windshear are associated with thunderstorms (cumulonimbus
clouds), but windshear can also be experienced in association with other meteorological features
such as the passage of a front, a marked temperature inversion, a low-level wind maximum, or a
turbulent boundary layer. Topography or buildings can exacerbate the situation; particularly in a
strong wind.

THUNDERSTORMS
The chapter on Meteorological Notes describes thunderstorm formation and how the wind flows
in and around the thunderstorm which causes the most severe windshears. Diagrams do no
justice to the violence of totally dynamic and unpredictable thunderstorms with turbulence, hail,
windshear, and lightning as separate or joint hazards. Shears and draughts may strike from all
angles and are certainly not limited to the horizontal or vertical; an assessment of the aircrafts
actual angle of attack relative to some thunderstorm wind flows is difficult to make, which in turn
makes the risk of a stall harder to gauge. This is significant if a thunderstorm is encountered on
the approach or following take-off.

FRONTAL PASSAGE
Fronts, whether warm, cold, or occluded, vary in strength. It is only well developed active fronts,
with narrow surface frontal zones and with marked temperature differences between the two air
masses, which are likely to carry a risk of windshear.

Warning signs to look out for include sharp changes in wind direction indicated on the weather
charts by an acute angle of the isobars as they cross the front, a temperature difference of 5 C
or more across the frontal zone, and the speed of movement of the front, especially if 30 kt or
more.

It should be mentioned that windshear is possible in fronts which are slow moving, stationary or
even reversing direction. The passage of a vigorous cold front poses the greater risk though,
relative to a warm front, as the period of windshear probability is likely to be much shorter and
occurs just after the surface passage of the front. With a warm front, the effect precedes the
passage and is more prolonged.

To illustrate the potential severity of frontal windshear, there is the case of a twin jet aircraft
caught by the passage of a cold front while flaring to land. Within about ten seconds, the wind
shifted from 230 10 kt to 340 16 kt, so that a 10 kt crosswind from the left and slight tail wind
changed to an 8 kt crosswind from the right with 14 kt headwind. The pilot, finding directional
control for landing to be difficult, wisely carried out a missed approach from a very low level.

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Windshear and Turbulence Chapter 19

This is a classic case of horizontal windshear. A sea-breeze front may occasionally present a
hazard, for example if it impinges on a thunderstorm it may significantly alter the outflow from the
storm. A catastrophic accident in the USA in 1975 involved such a feature.

INVERSIONS
Vertical windshear is nearly always present in the boundary layer, but this normally involves a
gradual change in the wind with which pilots are well familiar. A hazard exists, however, when an
unexpectedly strong vertical shear develops.

This can occur broadly in two situations:

A low-level jet (more accurately referred to as a low-level wind maximum) can form just
below the top of, or sometimes within, a strong radiation inversion which may develop at
night under clear skies. Other low-level jets may develop in association with a surface
front, particularly ahead of cold fronts;
On occasions, low-level inversions develop and decouple a relatively strong upper flow
from layers of stagnant or slow moving air near the surface. Windshear may be
pronounced across the interface.

TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER

Within the boundary layer, turbulence becomes a windshear hazard in two different situations:

Strong surface winds are generally accompanied by large gusts and lulls (horizontal
windshear). Roughly speaking, the stronger the mean wind, the greater the gust or lull.
Thermal turbulence (updraughts and downdraughts) is caused by intense solar heating of
the ground, which is more common in hot countries, but can occur anywhere on a hot
sunny day.

TOPOGRAPHICAL WINDSHEARS
Either natural or man-made features affect the steady state wind flow and cause windshears of
varying severity. The strength and direction of the wind relative to the obstacle are significant and
a change of direction of relatively few degrees may appreciably alter the residual effect. The flow
of wind across a mountain range is a simple large scale example, with waves and possibly a rotor
forming on the leeside.

Wind blowing between two hills or along a valley, or even between two large buildings may be
funnelled, thus changing direction and increasing in speed, or a strong flow may be heavily
damped. Either way, this creates the possibility for shear, with sudden changes of wind vector
becoming a hazard.

Usually local effects become well known and predictable, with warnings given on aerodrome
approach plates (e.g. Gibraltar). Large airport buildings adjacent to busy runways can create
hazardous local effects and typical windshear problems, such as loss of airspeed and abrupt
crosswind changes, causing upsets to airliner-size aircraft which have been near to major
accidents.

On smaller aerodromes, lines of trees can mask the wind and cause problems at a late stage in
the approach. These incidents usually contribute to a pilots experience, but damaged landing
gear can result from wind effects of greater significance than a steep wind gradient or low-level
turbulence alone.

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Chapter 19 Windshear and Turbulence

THE EFFECTS OF WINDSHEAR ON AN AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT

Windshear affects aircraft in many different ways and during an encounter the situation is
constantly changing, especially during the more dynamic thunderstorm windshears. Particular
types of aircraft vary in their reaction to a given shear; a light high-wing piston-engined aircraft
may react in a totally different way to a swept-wing four-engine jet. It is not easy to describe the
effects in general terms, as they do not apply universally. The notes which follow only attempt to
describe stylised windshears and their progressive effects. Windshear can, of course, be
encountered at any height and the effects will be similar. The windshear encounter at low level
which is a great hazard; it is this which must be borne in mind when the effects are described.

An understanding of windshear is difficult, unless the relationship of an aeroplane in a moving air

mass to its two reference points is appreciated. One reference is the air mass itself, the other is
the ground. In a windshear encounter it is not only the magnitude of the change of wind vector
that counts but the rate at which it happens.

For example, an aeroplane at 1000 ft agl may have a headwind component of 30 kt, but the
surface wind report shows that the headwind is only 10 kt on the runway. That 20 kt difference
may taper off evenly with the effect of a reasonable wind gradient. However, it may be noticed
that the 20 kt differential still exists at 300 ft and the change, when it comes, will clearly be far
more sudden and its effects more marked. Shear implies a narrow borderline and the 20 kt of
wind speed may well be lost over a vertical distance of 100 ft as the aircraft descends from 300 to
200 ft.

Figure 19.1 Effect of a negative windshear

If the pilot wanted a stabilised approach speed of 130 kt, the power would be set according to
conditions, providing the required airspeed and rate of descent.

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Windshear and Turbulence Chapter 19

On passing through the shear line, the loss of airspeed is sudden, but the inertia of the aircraft at
first keeps it at its original groundspeed of 100 kt and power is needed to accelerate the aircraft
back to its original airspeed. This takes time; meanwhile the aircraft having lost 20 kt of airspeed,
sinks faster as a substantial amount of lift has also been lost.

The headwind was a form of energy and when it dropped 20 kt, an equivalent amount of energy
loss occurred. One source available to balance that loss is engine power; this arrests the
increased rate of descent and starts the process of accelerating back to the approach reference
speed.

Figure 19.2 Effect of a positive windshear

The opposite effect can be illustrated using similar conditions, but seen from the point of view of
an aeroplane taking off. Initially take-off along the runway and into the second segment of the
climb, with a 10 kt headwind, the wind becomes a 30 kt headwind after encountering the shear
between 200 and 300 ft. Assuming a target climbing speed of 120 kt, the effect of a sudden
transition through the shear line into a 20 kt increase of headwind, increases the lAS by the same
amount until the momentum of the groundspeed is lost.

This is a case of temporary energy gain, with lift added so the aircraft climbs more rapidly. This
example shows the windshear as being positively beneficial and it is true to say that a rapid
increase in headwind (or loss of tailwind), because they are energy gains, temporarily enhances
performance.

It may help with understanding windshear to see it in terms of energy changes, when it is readily
apparent that the windshear which causes temporary loss of energy (sudden drop of headwind or
increase in tailwind, and downdraughts) is the main danger at low altitude.

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Chapter 19 Windshear and Turbulence

The effect of a downdraught is not always easy to visualise, as we normally think of the aeroplane
in relation to airflow along the flight path even when climbing or descending. It is now necessary
to envisage flying suddenly from a horizontal flow into air with a vertical component.

In turbulent conditions, air in motion may strike the aeroplane from an angle and the situation may
be constantly changing. However, in thunderstorms, substantial shafts of air which can be moving
either up or down may be encountered with no warning; such shafts may be virtually side by side
and the shear very marked and violent.

Entering a vertical updraught or downdraught from a horizontal airflow, the aeroplane's

momentum at first keeps it on its original path relative to the new direction of flow. In addition to a
loss of airspeed, also realise that the shift of relative airflow affects the angle of attack of the wing,
which may result in either increased or decreased lift. A slight increase of angle may not cause
much concern. However, if the aircraft is already on the approach with a high angle of attack, an
increase might put the wing near the stall and any decrease will bring about a loss of lift.
Normally, below 1000 ft, the risk of a downdraught is more likely than an updraught.

Figure 19.3 Effect of a downdraught

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Windshear and Turbulence Chapter 19

Having described the combination of increasing headwind followed by downdraught followed by

increasing tailwind consider, that this is the sequence which might be encountered in a microburst
on the approach or following a take-off. This may be a rare occurrence in the United Kingdom or
Europe, but it needs to be appreciated by those flying to the USA. Even on this side of the
Atlantic, an encounter with a downburst, a headwind followed by downdraught, or a downdraught
followed by tailwind is possible and may cause problems.

Figure 19.4 Effect of a microburst

A Energy gain
Increasing headwind
Airspeed rising
Rate of descent reduced
Tendency to go high on glide path
B Energy loss
Reducing headwind and downdraught
Airspeed falling
Rate of descent increased
Tendency to go low on glide path
C Energy loss
Increasing tailwind
Airspeed still falling
Rate of descent checked by missed approach
Success depends upon power, height and speed reserves available

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Chapter 19 Windshear and Turbulence

An aircraft, approaching on a 3 ILS glidepath, might see ahead an area of heavy rain. Ideally this
might alert the pilot to possible danger, and a missed approach could be executed in good time,
though even this might take the aircraft into the microburst. Then, however, the aircraft will have
gained precious extra height.

Given that the approach continues towards the microburst, the leading edge can produce a
rapidly increasing headwind; the airspeed increases and the aircraft goes high on the glidepath.
The likely reaction is to reduce power to increase the rate of descent and adjust attitude to reduce
airspeed. Then comes the downdraught when the rate of descent increases rapidly and the
aircraft passes through and below the glidepath, still possibly with the nose high and the power
low.

Power is re-applied, but it takes time to spool up the engines, meanwhile the aircraft passes from
downdraughts to increasing tail wind with the airspeed dropping. The rate of descent is not
checked and the nose is high while power increases.

No figures are attached to this description, merely the likely sequence of events. A very strong
microburst has a more pronounced effect on the rise and fall of airspeed and extremes of rate of
descent. The power reserves available and the rate at which they can be applied and built up to
give maximum thrust, determine the aircrafts ability to counteract the energy loss of downdraught
and increasing tailwind.

Strong wind buffeting, the lashing of rain, and possibly blinding flashes of lightning may
accompany this dynamic sequence of events. If this is a black picture, it matches the descriptions
of those that have flown through a microburst and would probably be echoed by some who have
tried but failed to fly through one. The aim must be to avoid severe windshear at all costs.

It might be thought that an encounter with windshear from a microburst after take-off is likely to be
less hazardous than when approaching to land. The aircraft is at high power and is not
constrained by the need to hold a precise glide path. The temporary energy gain from meeting
the increasing headwind, with a burst of higher air-speed and rate of climb may seem positively
beneficial.

The transition to downdraught soon kills any rise in airspeed; it may even drop. The rate of climb
may lessen or even show a rate of descent enhanced by the shift to increasing tailwind, when the
airspeed (with the aircraft close to the ground) may drop further. Any benefits of high power may
be balanced by higher aircraft weight. There may be a small power reserve in hand and this may,
or may not, be sufficient to enable the aircraft to fly through the microburst or downburst, together
with other measures described later.

TECHNIQUES TO COUNTER THE EFFECTS OF WINDSHEAR

Windshear can vary enormously in its impact and effect. There is as yet no international
agreement on definitions for grading windshear, but clearly some shears are more severe and
consequently more dangerous than others. In discussing guidance on countering the effects of
windshear, one must inevitably deal with the worse case situation. If the golden rule of
avoidance fails for whatever reason, it is impossible to predict at the first stages of a windshear
encounter how severe it will be and it is not bad advice to suggest that recovery action should
anticipate the worst.

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Windshear and Turbulence Chapter 19

No pilot who studies the meteorological situation carefully in advance and updates his knowledge
with the latest reports during flight should be taken totally by surprise by windshear. If
thunderstorms are forecast in the vicinity of the planned destination and then are reported as
being active and are seen on the weather radar or visually, then a mental windshear alert should
register. At this stage, depending on the evidence, a diversion might be considered, as windshear
avoidance is the safest course.

If it is decided to continue to the destination, then the crew should consider a few basic measures
to anticipate a possible windshear encounter. One of these is to increase the airspeed on the
approach. The amount of airspeed increase to be recommended is less easy to assess, as what
might be suitable for a light twin-piston engined aeroplane might be quite inappropriate for a
swept-wing jet.

Rule of thumb guidance includes adding half the headwind component of the reported surface
wind to VAT, or, half the mean wind speed plus half the gust factor, in each case up to a maximum
of 20 kt. This may be satisfactory for a strong but turbulent wind, but may not meet the
thunderstorm case, where it is not uncommon for light and variable winds to precede the
onslaught of a gust front or downburst.

The unpredictability of windshear is such that, if it does not materialise, the aircraft can arrive at
threshold with excessive speed to be shed and that could be embarrassing on a short runway.
Because the amount of airspeed margin is related to the aircraft's acceleration potential, the
relatively slow propeller driven aircraft is probably at an advantage over a faster jet aircraft.
Remember that the rate of shear is important and the aircraft which penetrates the shear zone
slower experiences a lower rate of shear the rapid response of propeller driven airflow over a
wing also helps.

The windshear encounter which produces a sudden increase in airspeed (temporary energy gain)
on the approach destabilises it to a greater or lesser extent, which calls for some control
adjustment. The normal reaction to the rise above the glidepath is to reduce power to regain the
glidepath and as the deviation was sudden, the power reduction will probably be more than just a
slight one. The pilot must then be alert to the need to re-appIy power in good time to avoid
dropping below the glidepath. If the wind component then stabilises, leaving the aircraft merely
with a stronger headwind, a further power adjustment will be needed to a higher setting than the
initial one which had given a stable airspeed and rate of descent.

When an aircraft on the glidepath in the later stages of an approach runs into an energy loss
windshear, it can be much more hazardous.

A building or line of trees obstructing the windflow might cause the shear, and the resulting drop
in the wind speed might bring about a very sudden drop in airspeed with a consequent increase
in the rate of descent. To avoid a heavy and premature landing, a rapid and positive increase in
power is needed. Another likely effect is for the nose to drop initially, requiring a check with an
increase in pitch attitude - but not so much that this causes a further loss of airspeed; as always
power and attitude adjustments must be coordinated. These actions may enable the aircraft to
regain the glidepath and continue the approach.

Anticipate the power reduction to avoid flying through the glidepath and expect to set slightly less
power than that originally used, to continue the approach. If the approach has been badly de-
stabilised, full missed approach action may be the wiser and safer option, with a second
approach made with an airspeed margin to counter the anticipated windshear effect.

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Chapter 19 Windshear and Turbulence

Vital Actions to counter loss of airspeed caused by windshear near the ground:

Briskly increase power (full go round power if necessary)

Raise the nose to check descent
Co-ordinate power and pitch
Be prepared to carry out a missed approach rather than risk landing from a de-
stabilised approach

To counter the effect of a downburst or microburst on an approach or take-off calls for more
stringent measures. It must be stressed that any well-founded report of either phenomenon must
be treated seriously and the approach or take-off delayed until the danger has passed. If there is
an inadvertent encounter, the aircraft may be affected by wind from any flank by the descending
and outflowing column of air, but again the worst case will be considered - entry on one side,
through the centre and exit through the other side. It will be a turbulent and unpleasant
experience which can tax the abilities of the most skillful pilots.

The presence of thunderstorms should be known and obvious, so the increase in speed caused
by the rising headwind should be seen as the forerunner of a downburst or microburst; any hope
of a stabilised approach is abandoned and a missed approach is the only safe course of action -
the technique is to make it as safe as possible.

The initial rise in airspeed and rise above the approach path should be seen as a bonus and
capitalised. Without hesitation, increase to go-around power, being prepared to go to maximum
power if necessary, select a pitch angle consistent with a missed approach, typically about 15
and hold it against turbulence and buffeting.

The next phase may well see the initial advantages of increased airspeed and rate of climb
rapidly eroded. The downdraught now strikes, airspeed may be lost and the aircraft may start to
descend despite the high power and pitch angle. It will be impossible to gauge the true angle of
attack, so there is a possibility that the stick shaker (if fitted) may be triggered; only then should
the attempt to hold the pitch angle normally be relaxed.

The point at which downdraught begins to change to increasing tailwind may well be the most
critical period. The rate of descent may lessen, but the airspeed may still continue to fall; the
height loss may have cut seriously into ground obstacle clearance margins. Given that maximum
thrust is already applied, as an extreme measure if the risk of striking the ground or an obstacle
still exists, it may be necessary to increase the pitch angle further and deliberately raise the nose
until stick shaker is felt. Then an easing forward of the control column to try and hold this higher
pitch angle should be made, until the situation eases with the aircraft beginning to escape from
the effects of the microburst.

When there is an indefinite risk of shear, it may be possible to use a longer runway, or one that
points away from an area of potential threat. It may also be an option to rotate at a slightly higher
speed, provided this does not cause undue tyre stress or any handling problems.

The high power setting and high pitch angle after rotate have already put the aircraft into a good
configuration should a microburst then be encountered. The aircraft is, however, very low where
there is little safety margin and the ride can be rough. If there is still extra power available, it
should be used without hesitation. Ignore noise abatement procedures and maintain the high
pitch angles, watching out for stick shaker indications as a signal to ease the controls forward.

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Windshear and Turbulence Chapter 19

In both approach and take-off cases, vital actions are:

Use the maximum power available as soon as possible.

Adopt a pitch angle of around 15 and try and hold that attitude. Do not chase
airspeed.
Be guided by stick shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch attitude,
easing the back pressure as required to attain and hold a slightly lower attitude.

Windshear warning can be provided in several ways:

Meteorological warning
ATS warning
Pilot warning
On board pre-encounter warning
On board encounter warning and/or guidance

ICAO DEFINITIONS
Table 19.1 is the windshear reporting system used to give pilots a common understanding of the
problem of windshear.

Intensity of Vertical Horizontal Up or down Effect on flight

windshear wind- wind- draught altitude
shear/100 ft shear/2000 ft
Light 0 4 kt 0 4 kt 0 4 kt Small
Moderate 4 8 kt 4 8 kt 4 8 kt Significant
Strong 8 12 kt 8 12 kt 8 12 kt Hazardous
Severe > 12 kt > 12 kt > 12 kt Highly dangerous
Table 19.1 Windshear severity

NATURE OF TURBULENCE
The small-scale vortices that constitute turbulence, form:

When the air-flow is disturbed by an obstruction, (e.g. the ground surface).

When two air-flows of different direction and/or speed adjoin each other.
When the speed of the air changes rapidly within the same air-flow.

Turbulence transfers momentum from one volume of air to another by exchanging small amounts
of air. The wind speed, for example, can be accelerated or retarded.

To describe this we use the words gust and lull.

Gust is an increase of the wind speed of short duration.

Lull is a short-lived decrease of the wind speed.

TURBULENCE, METEOROLOGICAL FACTORS

Windshear caused by ascending and subsiding thermals, convection, results in the aircraft
bouncing along through the thermals, which creates thermal turbulence.

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Chapter 19 Windshear and Turbulence

THERMAL TURBULENCE
Thermal turbulence is generated by heated thermals ascending through the air, causing a return
flow at the sides. During a flight, this causes severe bumps, and during the landing phase the up-
and downdrafts may disturb the approach.

Thermal turbulence is marked over warm surfaces, such as tarmac, concrete, mountains, sand,
or dark ground surfaces.

As a matter of fact, it is often a question of a combination of up- and down-winds with a clear local
character. Thermal turbulence occurs:

Above land in the daytime and generally in association with convective clouds.
In the autumn/winter above seas by day and night.

Except during the landing phase thermal turbulence does not constitute any major problem in
Northern Europe. In extreme cases, however, the aircraft can be bumped into exceptional flight
attitudes, and it may be rather uncomfortable to fly in areas with severe thermal turbulence

MECHANICAL/ FRICTIONAL TURBULENCE

Windshear and turbulence occur because of friction against the ground surface at high wind
speeds.

The mechanical effect depends on the structure of the surface and the wind speed, see the table
below. The consequence is very uncomfortable flight up to 2000 3000 ft above the terrain with
the aircraft being subjected to accelerations of several g.

Table 19.2 list the turbulence to expect for wind speeds over a given surface.

Surface Wind< 15 kt 15-30 kt >30 kt

Sea Light Moderate Mod/severe
Plain Only light Moderate Severe
Broken terrain Light -moderate Severe Extreme
Table 19.2 Turbulence vs. wind speed over a given surface

Mechanical turbulence occurs throughout the year, when the prevailing wind is high. The more
unstable the air, the more severe the turbulence - this applies to both thermal and mechanical
turbulence.

MOUNTAIN WAVES
FLIGHT OVER AND IN THE VICINITY OF HIGH GROUND
Air flow is more disturbed and turbulent over high ground than over level country and the forced
ascent of air over high ground often leads to the formation of cloud on or near the surface. This
sometimes extends through a substantial part of the troposphere if the air is moist enough.

Forced ascent also increases instability so that thunderstorms embedded in widespread layer
cloud may occur over high ground, even when no convective clouds form over low ground. When
the air is generally unstable, cloud development is greater, icing in the clouds is more severe and
turbulence in the friction layer and in cloud is intensified over high ground.
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Windshear and Turbulence Chapter 19

The air flowing over high ground may be so dry that, even when it is forced to rise, little or no
cloud is formed. The absence of cloud over high ground does not imply the absence of vertical air
currents and turbulence.

Strong down currents are caused by the air descending the lee slope and it is, therefore,
especially hazardous to fly towards high ground when experiencing a headwind.

On some occasions, the disturbance of a transverse airflow by high ground creates an organised
flow pattern of waves and large scale eddies in which strong up-draughts and downdraughts and
turbulence frequently occur. These organised flow patterns are usually called mountain waves
but may also be referred to as lee waves or standing waves. These can be associated with
relatively low hills and ridges as well as with high mountains.

CONDITIONS
Conditions favourable for the formation of mountain waves are:

A wind blowing within about 30 of a direction at right angles to a substantial ridge.

The wind must increase with height with little change in direction (strong waves are
often associated with jet streams).
A wind speed of more than 15 kt at the crest of the ridge is also usually necessary.
A marked stable layer (approaching isothermal, or an inversion), with less stable air
above and below, between crest level and a few thousand feet above.

Mountain wave systems may extend for many miles downwind of the initiating high ground.
Satellite photographs have shown wave clouds extending more than 250 nm from the Pennines
in the UK; 50 to 100 nm is a more usual extent of wave systems in most areas. Wave systems,
on occasion, extend well into the stratosphere.

The average wavelength of mountain waves in the troposphere is about 15 miles, but much
longer waves occur. Derive a good estimate of the wave length using the following formula:

Wavelength = mean troposphere wind 7

Disturbances in the stratosphere are often irregular features located very near or just over the
initiating mountains. When waves to the lee of the high ground are evident, their length is usually
greater than in the troposphere. A typical wavelength is 15 nm, but wavelengths of 60 nm have
been measured.

The amplitude of waves is much more difficult to determine. In general, the higher the mountain
and the stronger the airflow, the greater the resulting disturbance. The most severe conditions
occur when the natural frequency of the waves is tuned to the ground profile.

In the troposphere, the double amplitude (peak-to-trough) of waves is commonly 1500 ft with
vertical velocities about 1000 ft/min. However, double amplitudes of about 20 000 ft and vertical
velocities over 5000 fpm have been measured.

VISUAL DETECTION OF MOUNTAIN WAVES

The clouds which owe their appearance to the nature of wave flow are a valuable indicator of the
existence of wave formation. Provided there is sufficient moisture available, the ascent of air
leads to condensation and formation of characteristic clouds. These clouds form in the crest of
standing waves and therefore remain more or less stationary.
Meteorology (Rev Q407) 19-13
Chapter 19 Windshear and Turbulence

The mountain waves occur at any level above the crest of the high ground up to and sometimes
in to the tropopause.

Figure 19.5 Turbulence and mountain waves

Lenticular Clouds provide the most unmistakable evidence of the existence of mountain waves.
They form within stable layers in the crusts of standing waves. Air streams through them, the
clouds forming at the up-wind edges and dissipating downwind. They have a characteristically
smooth, lens-shaped outline and may appear at several levels, sometimes resulting in an
appearance reminiscent of a stack of inverted saucers.

Lenticular clouds usually appear up to a few thousand feet above the mountain crests, but are
also seen at any level up to the tropopause and even above. Mother-of-pearl clouds, seen on rare
occasions over mountains, are a form of wave-cloud at an altitude of 80 000 ft. Air flow through
these clouds is usually smooth unless the edges of the cloud take on a ragged appearance,
which is an indication of turbulence.

Rotor Clouds, or roll clouds, appear as ragged cumulus or stratocumulus parallel to and
downwind of the ridge. On closer inspection, these clouds rotate about a horizontal axis. Rotor
clouds are produced by local breakdown of the flow into violent turbulence. They occur under the
crests of strong waves beneath the stable layers associated with the waves. The strongest rotor
normally forms in the first wave downwind of the ridge and is usually near or somewhat above the
level of the ridge crest. There are usually no more than one or two rotor clouds in the lee of the
ridge.

Cap Clouds form on the ridge crest. Strong surface winds which are commonly found sweeping
down the lee slope may extend the cap cloud down the slope.

Although cloud often provides the most useful visible evidence of disturbances to the airflow,
other cloud systems, particularly frontal cloud, sometimes obscures the characteristic cloud types.
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Windshear and Turbulence Chapter 19

TURBULENCE
TURBULENCE AT LOW AND MEDIUM LEVELS
A strong wind over irregular terrain produces low-level turbulence which increases in depth and
intensity with increasing wind speed and terrain irregularity.

In a well developed wave system, the rotor zone and the area below are strongly turbulent and
reversed flow is often observed at the surface. Strong winds confined to the lower troposphere,
with reversed or no flow in the middle and higher troposphere, produce the most turbulent
conditions at low levels. These are sometimes accompanied by rotor streaming, comprised of
violent rotors which are generated intermittently near lee slopes and move downwind. These low-
level travelling rotors are distinct from the stationary rotors which form at higher levels in
association with strong mountain waves.

TURBULENCE IN THE ROTOR ZONE

Rotors lie beneath the crests of lee waves and are often marked by roll-cloud. The most powerful
rotor lies beneath the first wave crest down-stream of the mountains. Rotors give rise to the most
severe turbulence found in the air flow over high ground. On occasions it may be as violent as
that in the worst thunderstorms.

TURBULENCE IN WAVES
Although flight in waves is often remarkably smooth, severe turbulence can occur. The transition
from smooth to bumpy flight can be abrupt. Very occasionally, violent turbulence may result,
sometimes attributed to the wave breaking.

TURBULENCE AT HIGH LEVELS (NEAR AND ABOVE THE TROPOPAUSE)

TURBULENCE NEAR THE JET STREAM
Turbulence in jet streams is frequently greatly increased in extent and intensity over high ground.
Strong vertical windshears are often concentrated in a few stable layers just above and below the
core of the jet stream. Distortion of these layers when the jet stream flows over high ground,
particularly when mountain waves form, can produce local enhancements of the shears so that
the flow in those regions breaks down into turbulence. Usually the cold side of the jet stream is
more prone to turbulence, but mountain waves may be more pronounced on the warm side.

TURBULENCE IN THE STRATOSPHERE

Flight experience shows that in the stratosphere, moderate or severe turbulence is encountered
over high ground about four times more frequently than over plains and about seven times more
frequently than over the oceans.

DOWNDRAUGHTS
Whether or not a well developed wave system exists, if the air is stable a strong surface air flow
over high ground produces a substantial and sustained downdraught and/or turbulence on the lee
side. Such downdraughts may, on occasion, be strong enough to defeat the rate of climb
capability of some aircraft. In a wave system, a series of downdraughts and updraughts exists,
the most powerful being those nearest the high ground.

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Chapter 19 Windshear and Turbulence

ICING
Adiabatic cooling caused by the forced ascent of air over high ground generally results in a
lowering of the freezing level and an increase of liquid water concentration in clouds. Thus, when
extensive cloud is present, airframe icing is likely to be more severe than at the same altitude
over lower ground. This hazard is at a maximum a few thousand feet above the freezing level, but
in general is unlikely to be serious at altitudes above 20 000 ft except in cumulonimbus clouds.

FLYING ASPECTS
The effects of the airflow over high ground on aircraft in flight depends on the magnitude of the
disturbance to the airflow; in other words, the altitude and the aircrafts speed and direction in
relation to the wave system. A broad distinction may be made between low-level hazards (below
about 20 000 ft) and high-level hazards (above 20 000 ft).

LOW ALTITUDE FLIGHT

The main hazards arise in low altitude flight from severe turbulence in the rotor zone, from
downdraughts and from icing. The presence of roll clouds in the rotor zone may warn pilots of the
region of most severe turbulence, but characteristic cloud formations are not always present or, if
they are present, may lose definition in other clouds. Similarly, the updraughts and downdraughts
are, in general, not visible. If an aircraft remains for any length of time in a downdraught, which
may be remarkably smooth (e.g. by flying parallel to the mountains in the descending portion of
the wave), serious loss of height may occur.

During upwind flight, the aircrafts height variations are normally out of phase with the waves; the
aircraft is, therefore, liable to be at its lowest height when over the highest ground. The aircraft
may also be driven down into a roll-cloud over which ample height clearance previously appeared
to be available.

Downwind flight may be safer. Height variations are usually in phase with waves, but it must be
appreciated that the relative speed of an accidental entry into the rotor zone is greater than in up-
wind flight because the rotor zone is stationary with regard to the ground. Thus, the structural
loads imposed on the airframe when gusts are encountered are likely to be greater, and there will
probably be less warning of possible handling difficulties.

HIGH ALTITUDE FLIGHT

The primary danger at high altitude is that of a sudden encounter with localised disturbances
(i.e. turbulence or sudden large wind and temperature changes) at high penetration speeds. This
is particularly relevant at cruising levels above FL 300 where the buffet-free margin between the
Mach number for 1g buffet and the stall is restricted. In this respect, flight downwind is likely to be
more critical than flight up-wind, especially when the wind is strong.

As in the case of low altitude flight, the waves are stationary relative to the ground. The higher the
relative speed on accidentally encountering a standing wave while flying downwind, the greater
the likelihood of greater loads on the airframe. There is often no advance warning of wave activity
from preliminary variations in flight instrument readings, or from turbulence. Although
downdraughts are present, they are probably not hazardous and icing and rotor zone turbulence
are unlikely.

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Windshear and Turbulence Chapter 19

INVERSIONS
Inversions on the leeward side of a mountain range can prevent the down-slope wind from
reaching the ground. A very powerful shear is generated from about 300 ft up to 1500 ft above
the ground. When the downdraught moves over the inversion, a low level jet may form.

Fresh winds over a mountain but light winds at the airport on the leeward side of the mountain
indicate strong low-level windshear.

MARKED TEMPERATURE INVERSION

The marked temperature inversion occurs during cloudless nights due to terrestrial radiation. The
situation is enhanced if the aerodrome is situated in a valley. A pocket of cold air is trapped under
higher warm air. A low level jet can form just below the top of a strong radiation inversion on clear
nights.

At certain airfields, a warning of marked temperature inversion is issued when a temperature

difference of 10C or more exists between the surface and any point up to 1000 ft above the
surface.

Figure 19.6 Low level jet over a valley inversion

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Chapter 19 Windshear and Turbulence

19-18 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
As already covered to a great extent, the difference in pressure between different places on the
Earth will cause wind. The wind transports air masses of different temperatures around in the
troposphere where they get heated or cooled causing most of the weather.

Figure 20.1 Pressure systems as they may be seen on a synoptic chart

LOW, CYCLONE OR DEPRESSION, AND TROUGH

For a low pressure system, the isobars are generally closely spaced which results in windy
weather. The centre of the low pressure system experiences calm winds. Convergence occurs
and air is forced upward and cools adiabatically. If the air is humid, condensation occurs and
clouds form.

Figure 20.2 Movement of air in a depression

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Chapter 20 Non-Frontal Pressure Systems

In a low-pressure area, convective movement is strengthened, and CB are likely to form if the air
is unstable. If the air is stable but humid extensive stratiform cloud layers form. Visibility at low
levels is generally better than in an anticyclone, due to a greater flow of air of air removing
pollutants and water droplets.

SECONDARY DEPRESSION
A secondary depression may form in the circulation of a large depression. The secondary
depression can be frontal or non-frontal depending on how it forms. The secondary depression
will move around the primary depression in a direction which depends on the hemisphere.

In the northern hemisphere, a secondary depression moves anti-clockwise around

the primary depression.
In the southern hemisphere, a secondary depression moves clockwise around the
primary depression.

A secondary depression will often form:

On the tip of an occlusion.

On unstable waves on a trailing cold front.
Inside the primary depression circulatory system.

The life cycle and weather patterns associated with secondary depressions are similar to those of
a primary depression. As the secondary depression deepens, the depression may become the
dominant feature. In this case, the old primary depression becomes the secondary depression
and starts circulating around the new primary depression. This process is known as dumb
belling.

The weather in a secondary depression is often more severe than in a primary depression.

The worst weather associated with a non-frontal secondary depression usually occurs on the side
of the secondary depression which is furthest from the primary depression.

ICELANDIC LOW
The Icelandic low is a dynamic system. Figure 20.3 shows its position in January and figure 20.4
shows its position in July. Also, it can be seen that the Icelandic low is very weak and almost non-
existent in July.

The adiabatic cooling (due to the expansion of the air) leads to extensive clouds in the low
pressure area. In temperate latitudes there is a transport of unstable cold air in the northern and
western areas of the low, while there is an airflow of more stable warm air in the southern and
eastern areas. Showers are more frequent in the north-western parts of the low. Apart from the
showers, visibility is good.

If the lifted air is humid, extensive layers of altostratus and altocumulus from which light rain can
fall in some areas.

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Figure 20.3 Position of the Icelandic low in January

Figure 20.4 - Position of the Icelandic low in July

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Chapter 20 Non-Frontal Pressure Systems

THE ORIGIN OF LOW PRESSURES AND WEATHER

In aviation, dynamic and thermal classifications are rarely used. Normally depressions are
classes as Non-Frontal or Frontal.

Examples of non-frontal depressions are:

Orographic lows Mediterranean low

Thermal lows Polar low
Summer lows over land or Baltic Sea low
Monsoon low Cold air pool
Equatorial low or trough Tropical revolving storm
Instability lows Easterly waves
Winter lows over sea Whirlwind or Tornado

The last three items are discussed in Chapter 27.

OROGRAPHIC OR LEE SIDE LOWS OR TROUGHS

If a current of air flows perpendicular to a mountain range, the barrier will force the air to
compress on the windward side and over the mountain. The air on the leeward side of the
mountain seems to stretch. There will be a tendency for anticyclonic curvature over the
mountain with closely spaced pressure surfaces, and on the lee-side there will be a clearly visible
cyclonic curvature.

Falling air pressure on the leeward side forms a depression. This is known as a lee-depression or
a lee-trough. The lee-trough is usually stationary if the airflow remains the same and no
deepening low forms.

Figure 20.5 Orographic low

The lee-low causes the pressure surfaces to slope down towards the mountain and become
closely packed over the mountain.
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On the leeward side, foehn winds prevail, and the weather typically is fine. Humid air may be
sucked into a lee trough giving clouds and sometimes precipitation.

When a cold front encloses warmer air on the leeward side of the mountain, rapid development of
the system occurs. The low deepens and intense cumulonimbus clouds form.

Figure 20.6 Orographic low moving downwind

A cold front may intensify when passing a mountain range.

Cold air will sweep around the sides of the mountain. On the leeward side, the warm air acts as a
warm sector and a wave forms on the front.

This wave normally develops rapidly, leading to an occlusion-like process, and storms move
away from the mountain.

The most severe orographic lows that form over northwest Italy affecting the Mediterranean form
when the western Alps stop cold fronts.

The lower portion of the cold front is slowed by the mountains.

The slope of the frontal surface increases.
Eventually the cold air spills over into the warm air on the lee side of the Alps.
The warm air is undercut by the cold air causing severe instability.

Similar phenomena appear over Skagerrak when the Norwegian mountains impede cold fronts. In
this particular case, air sweeps around the southern edge of the mountains, giving strong winds.
Humidity and temperature increase in the air that travels around the mountain at low levels.
Travelling over a relatively warmer water surface and causing increased instability, rapid cyclonic
development on the lee side occurs, often giving clusters of showers.

THERMAL DEPRESSIONS
Thermal depressions form over warm surfaces. The heated air rises through convection and
turbulence. A high pressure aloft is formed causing an outflow of air at height. The air pressure at
the surface begins to decrease and a circulation similar to the sea breeze occurs.

Figure 20.7 Forming of a thermal low

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Chapter 20 Non-Frontal Pressure Systems

An inflow of air occurs at the surface low and an ascending motion is generated, strengthening
the convective clouds in the area, if any.

The most predominant thermal depressions are:

The monsoon low pressures in Asia.

The Equatorial low pressure belt.
The summer lows in south-western USA.
The lows of north-eastern Africa.

Less intense thermal lows are common on the weather charts in the summer, especially over
France and Spain. These smaller lows are shallow and do not affect weather to any greater
extent.

In the winter, thermal depressions can form over warm water surfaces such as the Baltic Sea,
the Skagerrak, the Black Sea, and the Mediterranean. These are referred to as instability lows.

If the air is dry, thermal lows bring good flying weather with some cloud and moderate to good
visibility.

If the air is humid, however, convective CB are likely to form, and heat thunderstorms or squalls
will also appear. This is a common feature in France and on the Iberian Peninsula. Thermal lows
generated in these areas may drift towards north-western Europe and Scandinavia.

INSTABILITY LOWS
If large scale organised convection occurs in an area where there is already a lee low, a
development may take place that looks similar to a thermal low. This is an instability low.

The same process that created the thermal low also influences the instability low. A significant
amount of the energy is derived from the released latent heat of the condensation process.
According to the hydrostatic equation, heating causes the distance between two pressure
surfaces to increase. As a result a high pressure is generated aloft resulting in an outflow of air
and falling pressure at the ground. If divergence already exists at height, the effect will be
strengthened and a rapid pressure fall can occur at the surface level. This generates a spiral flow
in toward the centre.

Instability lows can be very intense, particularly in the tropics. In mid-latitudes the humidity
content is low, thus the lows are less intense.

MEDITERRANEAN LOW
The Mediterranean low is a typical winter low that forms over the Mediterranean when cold polar
air reaches the warm Mediterranean water.

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POLAR LOWS
Instability lows often form when cold polar or arctic air moves south over a gradually warmer sea
or major water area. They are common from November to March in the northern hemisphere sea
areas. The air transforms due to an intense heating and vapour increase in the lower levels
resulting in intense convection caused by the southerly travel of the airmass.

Between the two highs there is a tendency to a cyclonic airflow and the formation of lee-lows off
the south-eastern coast of Norway. When the cold air reaches the warmer water, small intense
instability lows develop.

A similar type of instability low may form in the Bay of Genoa in the winter. This is generated
when the cold Mistral wind sweeps down over the warm Mediterranean.

BALTIC SEA CYCLONES

If energy is released in an area where a low pressure already exists, the low deepens or
intensifies. This is common in the autumn on the Baltic Sea, when lows from the continent in the
south and east move out over relatively warm water. It can also occur when a low has passed
Scandinavia from the west.

Figure 20.8 Baltic Sea cyclones

More precipitation and lower cloud bases than predicted in a forecast affect the Baltic Sea isles
and coasts. Heavy northerly squalls may develop.

CELLS OF COLD AIR ALOFT (COLD POOLS)

The general theories about the long waves encircling our globe, separating the cold polar from
the warm tropical air, are discussed in Climatology. The waves are usually zonal moving from
west to east along a latitude line. Cold air outbreaks can cut off from the main stream air and
generate a pool of cold air at height in a position south of the normal Polar front. This cold pool
can remain for several days constituting a potential area of instability at height.

In the summer, thermal lows form over the continents and may develop into instability lows. This
happens when cold air is carried in over the low (by the upper airflow) or when a cold pool
already exists at height. In these conditions, the atmosphere becomes unstable, and a major area
of thunderstorms may develop.
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Chapter 20 Non-Frontal Pressure Systems

ANTICYCLONE OR HIGH, AND RIDGE OR WEDGE

A high pressure system is an area enclosed by isobars that decrease in value with distance from
the centre.

NATURE OF A HIGH
Isobars are normally well spaced resulting in light winds. Where a high is adjacent to a low the
pressure gradient can become steep, leading to moderate or strong winds.

In a high pressure cell, mass convergence at height and divergence at low levels creates
subsidence within the core of the anticyclone with an outflow at low level. The subsidence is
checked above the ground, due to the thermal mixing in the surface layer and a subsidence
inversion is formed. The height of the subsidence inversion depends on the intensity of the
anticyclone, the degree of thermal mixing, and the distance from the core.

Inversions form from 2000 to 5000 ft in cold anticyclones and up to FL 100 in warm anticyclones.

Above the friction layer, in the Northern Hemisphere, the wind blows in a right-hand circuit parallel
to the isobars. In the friction layer, friction slows the wind and it blows at an angle out from the
centre. The outflow at the bottom of the high leads to a sinking motion of air, which is compressed
and adiabatically heated. The subsidence inversion forms, the temperature rises significantly and
the humidity decreases. In the Southern Hemisphere, the rotation is reversed.

The air above the inversion is dry, while the air below may or may not be dry depending on the
circumstances that prevail. Air pollution collects below the inversion, and this leads to a drop in
visibility at the lowest levels. If the inversion persists, clouds can form in the inversion.

At high latitudes, the increased loss of terrestrial radiation due to the drying at height creates
nocturnal inversions at the surface. Large areas with SC and ST may form in maritime air
masses.

In the winter these clouds can persist for several days.

Where the humidity is high and the lower levels are cold, fog forms below the subsidence
inversion.

In the summer, or at lower latitudes, SC often dissipates during the day and returns at night. If the
air below the subsidence inversion is unstable or conditionally unstable, CU may form below the
inversion during the day.

In continental air masses, the humidity content is low, but visibility is still limited below the
inversion. If the air passes over a major water feature, moisture is rapidly absorbed and cloud
forms.

Maritime airmasses dry out with an extensive passage over a major land surface.

The weather above the subsidence inversion is normally fine; cloudless with good visibility.

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HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEMS

There are two main high pressure systems, depending on whether they consist of warm or cold
air.

SUBTROPICAL HIGHS (WARM ANTICYCLONES)

Subtropical highs are formed by air from the equatorial regions travelling away from the equator
at altitudes around the Equatorial tropopause. They are deflected by Coriolis which generates a
subtropical jet stream and an accumulation of air around the 30 latitude. At low levels the air
pressure increases and there is an outflow of air from the system. In the subtropical high,
subsidence from aloft occurs. The subsidence inversion in these cells is sometimes called a
Trade Inversion.

These anticyclones are often stationary or move in a seasonal manner and are therefore referred
to as permanent highs.

Europes nearest subtropical anticyclone is the Azores High, which is the source region of
maritime tropical air.

The air below the subsidence inversion is humid and unstable; above it is dry and stable. CU
dominates the weather below the inversion.

The height to the inversion varies within the high pressure cell. The highest values are found in
the western areas nearest the Equator (5000 7000 ft) and the lowest in the north-eastern areas
(1500 2000 ft). Tropical showers are more likely to develop in the western part of an ocean than
in the eastern.

As the low level air travels away from the equator, the humidity increases. The sea temperature
decreases and the air is cooled from below. In winter, this frequently leads to vast areas of low
clouds, drizzle, and fog over NW Europe.

In summer, the anticyclone occasionally intensifies over the North Atlantic. This causes lows and
the associated rain areas to move in a wide arc north of Scandinavia, forming a blockage
(a blocking high) with dry and sunny weather over western Europe.

CONTINENTAL HIGHS (COLD ANTICYCLONES)

Continental highs consist of polar air where the cold anticyclone forms over the cold continents in
the winter. They seldom reach higher than the 700 hPa level (FL 100), but the horizontal
extension may be considerable. Being thermal highs, they are not as stable as dynamic highs
and travelling depressions can break them down.

The Siberian and the Canadian highs consist of, and are the source regions of, continental polar
air. In midwinter they also constitute the source region of arctic air from within the Arctic and
Antarctic permanent cold anticyclones.

If the pressure system spreads over a coastal area, there will be convection and snow showers
over the open water surface with fog and mist below the inversion inland.

If the air is dry and there is no advection from open water, the weather can be cold, bright, and
cloudless. In clear and extremely cold areas, ice fog or diamond dust may form.

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Chapter 20 Non-Frontal Pressure Systems

HIGH PRESSURES AND HIGH PRESSURE RIDGES (OR WEDGES) IN

SERIES OF TRAVELLING DEPRESSIONS
The third type of high pressure forms between the lows of a family of depressions.

The ridges, or temporary highs, will form when cold air sweeps in behind a frontal low. This type
of high is thermal, and as a consequence it is not visible on an upper air chart.

High pressure ridges follow low pressure systems in their movements and constitute a break in
the storms associated with the frontal systems of the lows.

The ridge can be subdivided into three weather zones:

Ahead of the axis of the ridge (just behind the cold front)
Along the axis of the ridge
Behind the ridge (in front of the next warm front)

There is a high risk of showers, often troughs with low pressure and line squall
showers/thunderstorms well ahead of the ridge axis. CB turns to CU and SC closer to the ridge
axis. In winter, terrestrial radiation from the Earth is high, and nocturnal radiation fog is likely to
form if the wind is light. ST or SC form if the wind is stronger at the border of the ridge/cold high.
When the ridge passes, the air is humidified in the prevailing south-westerly wind, which again
leads to increased cloud with CU and SC at lower levels while the frontal cloud deck thickens at
height.

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METEOROLOGICAL SERVICES
Since aviation is very much influenced by the weather, the meteorological services are of high
importance to pilots. The quality of the services must be assured and is therefore regulated by the
World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and ICAO. This ensures that there is a worldwide
standard to what is reported and which formats are being used and a set of codes have been
established to standardise the messages to suit aviation. In addition to the written reports and
forecasts a selection of charts are also available.

PRE-FLIGHT BRIEFING
It is the responsibility of the pilot to ensure that all relevant weather data sources that may contain
information that is relevant for the flight are consulted. For pilots in an airline or larger corporate
flying organisations where there is an operations department, they will typically provide the
necessary briefings. All other pilots must utilise the sources available to them, namely handling
agents, meteorological offices, airport reporting offices or the internet. Many countries now
provide an online aviation weather facility from which weather reports, forecasts and charts may
be retrieved.

Examples of briefings that may be retrieved are:

METARs and SPECIs (aerodrome weather observations)

TAFs (aerodrome forecasts)
SIGMETs and AIRMETs (report or forecast concerning a significant weather phenomena)
SIGWX charts (charts showing significant weather phenomena for a given area)
Upper wind and temperature charts (charts showing wind speed and direction for a given
flight level)
GAMET and GAFOR (forecast conditions for low level flying)

These reports, forecasts and charts are described in the following chapters.

HIGH ALTITUDE OBSERVATIONS

In order to provide observations at high altitude, routine aircraft observations are being conducted
in some areas. This is to support satellite pictures, ground observations and computer models to
enhance the quality of the forecasts that are being developed.

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Chapter 21 Meteorological Observations and Meteorological Services

Another way of providing high altitude weather data is to release a radiosonde, which is a helium
filled balloon with sensors attached to it. This is released from some ground stations at regular
intervals and will provide a continuous readin of the data being monitored as it ascends. The data
that may be retrieved are:

Pressure
Altitude
Temperature
Humidity (relative)
Geographical position (latitude/longitude)
Wind direction and speed (by monitoring the drift of the radiosonde)

SURFACE OBSERVATIONS
In order to provide the pilots with a good picture of what the weather is like at an aerodrome. The
observations are done at regular intervals, usually within 10 min of the time stated on the report.

WIND DIRECTION AND SPEED

Wind direction is given in true except when provided by the tower at an aerodrome and
windspeed is given in knots. The direction is the mean direction over 10 min and the same goes
for the windspeed, except when provided by the tower at an aerodrome when mean is over 2 min.
If the maximum gusts are 10 kt or greater then the mean, the gusts will be given.

The wind direction is usually measured by a wind vane and the speed by an anemometer. Both
the vane and the anemometer are placed at 10 m above the ground in an open area to minimise
the influence by the surface and nearby terrain or buildings.

VISIBILITY
Visibility (horizontal) is given in metres with the maximum reported (for aviation) being 10 km.
Runway visual range (RVR) will be given when the horizontal visibility is 1500 m or less.

Visibility is normally measured by the observer recognising features in the distant to which the
distance is know. At night, known light sources will be used instead. Alternatively,
transmissometers may be used for automatic readings. Visibility is reported using the following
increments:

50 m below 800 m visibility

100 m between 800 m and 5 km visibility
1 km above 5 km visibility

RVR is reported with the followig increments:

25 m between 0 and 400 m

50 m between 400 and 800 m
100 m above 800 m

WEATHER
The weather phenomena present at the time of observation.

As experienced by the observer at the time of observation.

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CLOUDS
The height of the clouds above aerodrome level. Normally maximum three layers are given with
an exception of a fourth layer if CBs are present. Only the base is given in routine reports, not the
tops. The extent of the cloud cover is reported in oktas (1/8s).

If the sky is obscured and a cloudbase cannot be determined, the vertical visibility will be given
instead.

The cloud height can be measured by using:

Ceilometer A device which is sending light pulses verttically and rely on reflection
from any droplets that may be in its path. May have errors during
precipitation where falling droplets can create false echoes.
Alidade A device which uses light to light up the underside of the clouds and then
measuring the angle of the light above the horizontal.
Balloons Using a balloon which will ascned at a know speed and registering the
time from release until it disappears from sight into the cloud
Person A human observer can with training and experience judge the height or
the clouds by comparing them to surrounding terrain or other features.
Also, a pilot will be able to measure the cloudbase when the aircraft
entered or came out of the base of the cloud.

TEMPERATURE AND DEWPOINT

Temperature and dewpoint are both measured in C and reported as such. Values are rounded
off to the nearest whole degree.

A standard thermometer, either mercury or some for of remote indication sensor is being used
with it being place in a Stephenson screen.

AIR PRESSURE
The air pressure is normally reported in hPa, but some countries use mmHg or inHg on their
reports. QNH is normally given on routine reports. Values are always rounded down to the
nearest hPa (or mmHg or in Hg).

A mercury barometer may be used or electronic measurement. Electronic devices can give
readings as both QFE or QNH.

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Chapter 21 Meteorological Observations and Meteorological Services

ACCURACY OF METEOROLOGICAL MEASUREMENT OR OBSERVATION

Table 21.1 refer to accuracy of observations made by instruments (except cloud amount).

Element Accuracy of Measurement or Observation

Surface Wind Direction: 5
Speed: 1 kt up to 20 kt, 5% above 20 kt
Variations from the mean 1 kt
surface wind
Visibility 50 m up to 500 m
10% between 500 m and 2000 m
20% above 2000 m up to 10 km
RVR 25 m up to 150 m
50 m between 150 m and 500 m
10% above 500 m up to 2000 m
Cloud amount 1 okta in daylight, worse in darkness and during
atmospheric obscuration
Cloud height 33 ft up to 3300 ft
100 ft above 3300 ft up to 10 000 ft
Air temperature and dew point 0.2 C
temperature
Pressure value (QFE, QNH) 0.3 hPa
Table 21.1 Accuracy of meteorological observations by instruments

MARKED TEMPERATURE INVERSION

At some aerodromes a warning of marked temperature inversion is issued whenever a
temperature difference of 10 C or more exists between the surface and any point up to 1000 ft
above the aerodrome. This warning is promulgated via radio communication to departing and
arriving aircraft.

WINDSHEAR ALERTING
Forecasters at airports review the weather conditions on an hourly basis and monitor any aircraft
reports of windshear experienced on the approach or climb-out. Whenever a potential low level
windshear condition exists a windshear alert is issued. This will be based on one or more of
following criteria:

Mean surface wind speed at least 20 kt

The magnitude of the vector difference between the mean surface wind and the gradient
wind (an estimate of the 2000 ft wind) of at least 40 kt
Thunderstorm(s) or heavy shower(s) within approximately 5 nm of the aerodrome

Note: Alerts are also issued based on recent pilot reports of windshear on the approach or
climb-out.

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The Alert message is given in the arrival and departure ATIS in one of three formats:

Windshear Forecast (WSF)

When the meteorological conditions indicate that low level windshear on the approach
or climb-out (below 2000 ft) might be encountered.
Windshear Forecast and Reported (WSFR)
As above, supported by a report from at least one aircraft of windshear on the approach
or climb-out within the last hour.
Windshear Reported (WSR)
When an aircraft reports windshear on the approach or climb-out within the last hour, but
insufficient meteorological evidence exists for the issue of a forecast of windshear.

WINDSHEAR REPORTING CRITERIA

Pilots using navigation systems providing direct wind velocity readout should report the wind and
altitude/height above and below the shear layer, and its location. Other pilots should report the
loss or gain of airspeed and/or the presence of up or down draughts or a significant change in
crosswind effect, the altitude/height and location, their phase of flight, and aircraft type. Pilots not
able to report windshear in these specific terms are to do so in terms of its effects on the aircraft,
the altitude/height and location and aircraft type (e.g. abrupt windshear at 500 ft on finals,
maximum thrust required, B747).

Pilots encountering windshear are requested to make a report even if windshear was previously
forecast or reported.

AIRCRAFT REPORTS
CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT)
CAT remains an important operational factor at all levels of flying but particularly at high altitude.
Pilots encountering CAT are requested to report time, location, level, intensity, and aircraft type to
the ATS unit they are in contact with. This is done as a special air report and may warrant the
issuance of a SIGMET. The criteria required are:

INCIDENCE
Occasional Less than 1/3 of the time
Intermittent 1/3 to 2/3 of the time
Continuous More than 2/3 of the time

INTENSITY
Light Slight rapid, rhythmic bumping without appreciable changes in attitude or altitude
(light chops) or IAS fluctuating between 5 kts and 15 kts with slight, erratic
changes in attitude or altitude (light turbulence).

Moderate Rapid changes or jolts giving an appreciable change in attitude or altitude

(moderate chops) or IAS fluctuating between 15 kts and 25 kts with changes in
attitude or altitude but the aircraft is under positive control at all times.

Severe IAS fluctuating more than 25 kts with large and abrupt changes in attitude or
altitude and the aircraft may momentarily be out of control.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 21-5

Chapter 21 Meteorological Observations and Meteorological Services

AIRFRAME ICING
Airframe icing is treated very much like turbulence and any aircraft encountering icing that was
unforseen should report this to the ATS unit. Again, this will be done as a special air report and
may warrant the issuance of a SIGMET. The reporting criteria are:

Trace Ice becomes preceptible. The rate of accumulation is slightly greater than the
rate of sublimation. It is not hazardous and anti-/de-icing quipment need not be
used unless the conditions last for a long period of time.

Light The rate of accumulation might create a problem if flight in this environment
exceeds 1 hour. Occasional use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment
removes/prevents accumulation. It does not present a problem if anti-icing
equipment is used.

Moderate The rate of accumulation is such that even short encounters become potentially
hazardous and the use of de-icing/anti-icing equipment, or diversion, is
necessary.

Severe The rate of accumulation is such that de-icing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce
or control the hazard. Immediate diversion is necessary.

AVIATION WEATHER BROADCASTS

Unless on the ground or on board an aircraft equipped with ACARS, a pilot cannot retrieve any
weather reports in written form during flight. The only way the get a weather report, forecast or
other information is via radiotelephony.

One option is to ask the ATS unit to which the pilot has established communication. Many
aerodromes have an ATIS (Automatic terminal information service) frequency, which is
sometimes subdivided into a departure and arrival frequency. The ATIS may also be transmitted
on a VOR frequency assigned to a VOR in the vicinity of the aerodrome.

In addition to the ATIS, most FIRs (flight information regions) have a VOLMET frequency. The
VOLMET will broadcast the latest routine reports from a selection of aerodromes within or in the
vicinity of the FIR. The VOLMET can be transmitted on a VHF frequency or a HF frequency if
covering a large geographical area such as the North Atlantic.

21-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

AVIATION WEATHER MESSAGES
In order to standardise the format which meteorological information is presented in certain
reports, forecasts and warning have been defined for aviation by the World Meteorological Office
(WMO) and ICAO. These will in broad terms be the same wherever in the world the report has
been made. Therefore, it is important to know how to decode and use this information to ensure
the safety of a flight.

The messages in use in aviation are METARs and SPECIs (including TREND), TAFs, SIGMETs,
AIRMETs, GAMETs, special air report, volcanic ash advisory information and aerodrome
warnings.

METAR, SPECI AND TREND

The METAR and SPECI are messages based on observations at the aerodrome. They will
normally be provided during the opening hours of the aerodrome. The TREND is a forecast, often
referred to as a landing forecast, which may be attached to either a METAR or a SPECI. Not all
aerodromes issue TRENDs as it, amongst other things, depends on the observer which needs to
be trained to make forecasts.

The difference between a METAR and a SPECI is that the METAR is a report based on regular
routine observations which are performed either every hour or every 30 minutes depending on
the aerodrome traffic levels and so on whereas the SPECI is only issued in defined
circumstances. A SPECI is to be issued if the conditions described in the METAR vary
significantly from what was reported and it is between the regular observation times for the
METARs. The thresholds for issuing a SPECI are less severe for deteriorations than for
improvements as deteriorations are more likely to affect flight safety in an adverse manner.

CODES
METAR AND SPECI
Table 22.1 shows the standard layout of a METAR (AFTN code SA) or SPECI (AFTN code SP).
Not all information will be shown on all reports as information is omitted if not applicable. The
items which are required are:

Items 1, 3 and 4: Identification groups

Item 5: Wind group
Item 8: Visibility group
Item 11: Weather group
Item 12: Cloud group
Item 14: Temperature group
Item 15: QNH

If an item is not observed or observation equipment is faulty the applicable data will be replaced
by one / per character.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 22-1

Chapter 22 Aviation Weather Messages

METAR Code name for the type of report.

1 or METAR Aerodrome routine meteorological report.
SPECI SPECI Aerodrome special meteorlogical report.
COR
Only used if a correction to the previous report (COR) or if no report exist
2 or
(NIL).
NIL
3 CCCC ICAO Location Idicator.
4 YYGGggZ Day of the month and time in hours and minutes of observation in UTC.
5 AUTO Indication of fully automated observation.
Wind direction rounded off to the nearer 10 and mean speed over the 10
min preceding the observation. Direction may be substituted by VRB if it
KMH or varies by more than 60 and the windspeed is less than 3 kt. If the
6 dddffGfmfm KT or windspeed is more than 3 kt VRB (ddd) may be used if the variation is
MPS 180 or more. dddff as 00000 denotes calm conditions, Gfmfm is only given
if the wind gust speed during the 10 min preceding the observation
exceedes the mean wind speed by 10 kt or more.
Variation in wind direction is given in a clockwise order when the variation
7 dndndnVdxdxdx
is between 60 or more and less than 180.
VVVV
Prevailing horizontal visibility in metres. 9999 indicates 10 km or more.
or
NDV is added when visibility sensors are being used and no directional
8 VVVVNDV
variations can be given.
or
The use of CAVOK is explained in eitem 13.
CAVOK
Horizontal visibility in a given sector (8-point compass) if different from
9 VNVNVNVNDV
prevailing visibility and less than 1500 m or 50% of the prevailing visibility.
Runway designator indicated by DR, VR indicates the RVR as mean over
RDRDR/VRVRVRVRi 10 min in metres (P1500 = more than 1500 m and M0050 = less than 50
10 or m), i is tendency, either upward (U), downward (D) or no change (N). If
RDRDR/VRVRVRVRVVRVRVRVRi significant variations occur a minimum and a maximum value is given
separated by V.
11 ww Weather coded in accordance with table 22.3.
Cloud amount (NSNSNS) is reported as FEW (1-2 oktas), SCT (3-4 oktas),
BKN (5-7 oktas) and OVC (8 oktas) and cloud height (hShShS) is given in
NSNSNShShShS(cc)
hundreds of feet. (cc) will only be included if cumulonibus (CB) or towering
or cumulus (TCU) is present.
VVhShShS If the sky is obscured vertical visibility (VV) will be given in hundreds of
or feet.
12 SKC SKC will be used if no clouds are present, no restriction on vertical visibility
or and CAVOK cannot be used.
NSC NSC will be used if SKC cannot be used and there are no clouds below
or 5000 ft or minimum sector altitude, whichever is greater, no cumulonimbus
and no restriction on vertical visibility.
NCD
NCD will be used when no clouds are detected by an automatic
observation system.
Replace items 7 to 11 if the visibility is 10 km or more, no cloud below
13 CAVOK 5000 ft or minimum sector altitude, whichever is greater, no cumulonimbus
and no significant weather phenomena.
Temperature and dewpoint rounded to the neares whole C. Temperatures
14 TT/TdTd
below 0C are prefixed by M.
15 QPHPHPHPH QNH rounded down to the nearest whole hecto Pascal (hPa).
Recent weather phenomena of operational significance that has been
16 REww
observed since the last report but not present during this observation.
WS RWYDRDR Windshear has been observed along the take-off or landing path to a
17 or runway (signified by DRDR) between runway level and 1600 ft. If all
WS ALL RWY runways are affected by the windshear, WS ALL RWY is used.
18 (WTSTS/SS) Sea temperature (TSTS) and sea state. Reported if applicable.
19 RRRRERCReReRBRBR Runway state group coded in accordance with table 22.4.
Table 22.1 METAR standard layout
22-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Aviation Weather Messages Chapter 22

TREND
Table 22.2 shows the standard layout for a TREND. If issued, the TREND will be attached to the
METAR after item 18 in table 22.1.

The TREND forecast period is the 2 hours following the time of observation as given in item 3 in
table 22.1.

NOSIG will be used when no significant changes are expected to the

observed elements.
TTTTT BECMG (TTTTT) is used to indicate changes expected to reach or pass
specified threshold criteria at either a regular or irregular rate.
1 or
TEMPO (TTTTT) is used to indicate temporary fluctuations expected to
NOSIG
reach or pass specified threshold criteria and last for a period of less than
one hour in each instance and in the aggregate cover less than half of the
forecast period during which the fluctuations are expected to occur.
Time group in hours (GG) and minutes (gg) that is used to indicate (TT)
2 TTGGgg the beginning of (FM), the end of (TL) or the time (AT) at which the specific
forecast condition(s) is (are) expected to occur.
KMH or
3 dddffGfmfm KT or As for item 5 in table 22.1.
MPS
VVVV
4 or As for item 7 in table 22.1.
CAVOK
ww
Weather coded in accordance with table 22.3.
5 or
NSW indicates the end of a significant weather phenomena.
NSW
NSNSNShShShS(cc)
or
VVhShShS
6 or As for item 11 in table 22.1.
SKC
or
NSC
Denotes the beginning of a section containing information by national
7 RMK decision which shall not be disseminated internationally. If no TREND is
issued RMK follows after item 19 in table 22.1.
Table 22.2 TREND standard layout

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 22-3

Chapter 22 Aviation Weather Messages

WEATHER CODES (WW)

- Light.
Only used with TS,
Moderate (no denominator).
Intensity or precipitation, PO or FC.
+ Heavy.
proximity
In the Vicinity. Defined as within 8 km of the aerodrome perimeter but not at the aerodrome.
VC
Intensity or type of precipitation will not be specified.
Shallow. The visibility 2 m above the ground is 1000 m or more
MI
and the apparent visibility in the fog layer is less than 1000 m. May be used combined
BC Patches. There are patches of fog within the aerodrome perimeter. with fog (FG).
PR Partial. Part of the aerodrome is covered in fog.
DR Drifting (low drifting) less than 2 m above the ground. May be used combined
Descriptor with snow (SN), dust
BL Blowing 2 m or more above the ground. (DU) or sand (SA).
SH Showers.
Thunderstorm. Thunder is heard or lightning is detected within the 10 min preceding the time
TS
of observation.
FZ Freezing. There are supercooled water droplets present either as fog or precipitation.
DZ Drizzle.
RA Rain.
SN Snow.
SG Snow grains.
Precipitation
IC Ice crystals.
PL Ice pellets.
GR Hail.
GS Small hail.
BR Mist.
FG Fog.
FU Smoke.
Obscuration VA Volcanic ash.
DU Dust.
SA Sand.
HZ Haze.
PO Dust/sand whirls (dust devils).
SQ Squalls.
Other FC Funnel cloud(s) (tornado or waterspout).
SS Sandstorm.
DS Duststorm.
Table 22.3 Codes for the weather group (ww)

The codes for the weather (ww) group in table 22.3 may either be used single or combined
depending on the nature of the weather phenomena. If there is mixed precipitation the most
prominent type will be listed first followed by the other types in sequence. Below are examples of
how the weather codes may be used:

VCTS Thunderstorm is observed in the vicinity of the aerodrome

+SHRASNGS Heavy showers of predominantly rain mixed with snow and small hail
BCFG DZRA Patches of fog and light drizzle and rain
FZRA Moderate freezing rain

22-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Aviation Weather Messages Chapter 22

RUNWAY STATE GROUP

05 = Runway 05 or 05L Add 50 for right runway: 55 = Runway 05R
26 = Runway 26 or 26L Add 50 for right runway: 76 = Runway 26R
RRRR Runway designator
88 = All runways
99 = Repetition of previous message as no new information has been received
0 = Clear and dry
1 = Damp
2 = Wet or wet patches
3 = Rime or frost covered (depth normally less than 1 mm)
4 = Dry snow
ER Runway deposits 5 = Wet snow
6 = Slush
7 = Ice
8 = Compacted or rolled snow
9 = Frozen ruts or ridges
/ = Type of deposit not reported (e.g. due to runway clearance in progress)
1 = Less than 10% of runway contaminated (covered)
2 = 11% to 25% of runway contaminated (covered)
Extent of runway
CR 5 = 26% to 50% of runway contaminated (covered)
contamination
9 = 51% to 100% of runway contaminated (covered)
/ = Not reported (e.g. du to runway clearance in progress)
00 = Less than 1 mm 15 = 15 mm
01 = 1 mm etc.
02 = 2 mm 20 = 20 mm
etc. etc. up to
10 = 10 mm 90 = 90 mm
etc. 91 = Code not used

eR eR Depth of the deposit 92 = 10 cm 96 = 30 cm

93 = 15 cm 97 = 35 cm
94 = 20 cm 98 = 40 cm or more
95 = 25 cm

99 = Runway or runways non-operational due to snow, slush. Ice, large drifts or

runway clearance, but depth not reported
// = Depth of deposit operationally not significant or not measurable
If friction coefficient is available it will be given as:
20 = 0.20
35 = 0.35
48 = 0.48
etc.

Friction If coefficient is not available, breaking action will be given as:

B RB R
coefficient/braking action 91 = Poor
92 = Medium/poor
93 = Medium
94 = Medium/good
95 = Good
99 = Unreliable
// = Breaking action not reported, runway not operational, aerodrome closed etc.
Table 22.4 Codes for the runway state group

If there has been precipitation or other phenomena affecting the runways and clearing has been
completed and the contamination conditions have ceased to exist CLRD will be used in the
runway state group. Below are examples of runway state groups:

16491237 Runway 16 51% to 100% covered by dry snow, depth 12 mm and friction
coefficient 0.37
88//99// All runways non-operational due to snow clearance in progress
86CLRD95 Runway 36R contamination has ceased to exist, braking action good

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 22-5

Chapter 22 Aviation Weather Messages

TAF
The TAF (AFTN codes FC or FT) is an aerodrome forecast issued at regular intervals. The
duration of the forecast is between 9 and 24 hours. TAFs valid for less than 12 hours are issued
every 3 hours and those valid for more than 12 hour are issued every 6 hours. The standard in
Europe is 9 hours for the short TAF (FC) and 24 hours for the long TAF (FT).

CODES
Code name for the type of report.
1 TAF METAR Aerodrome routine meteorological report.
SPECI Aerodrome special meteorlogical report.
COR
Only used if a correction to the previous report (COR), amended forecast
2 or
(AMD).
AMD
3 CCCC ICAO Location Idicator.
4 YYGGggZ Day of the month and time of origin of the forecast.
5 NIL No forecast has been issued
Day of the month and time in hours (G1G1) for the start of the forecast
6 Y1Y1G1G1G2G2
period and the end time in hours (G2G2) of the forecast period.
7 CNL Forecast has been cancelled.
The mean direction and speed of the forecast wind. VRB (ddd) will
KMH or normally only be used when the mean wind speed is less than 3 kt or when
8 dddffGfmfm KT or it is impossible to indicate a single direction. dddff as 00000 denotes calm
MPS conditions, Gfmfm is only given if the wind gust speed exceedes the mean
wind speed by 10 kt or more.
VVVV
Prevailing horizontal visibility in metres. 9999 indicates 10 km or more.
9 or
The use of CAVOK is explained in item 13.
CAVOK
ww Weather coded in accordance with table 22.3.
10 or NSW (nil significant weather) is used to indicate the end of a significant
NSW weather phenomena.
Cloud amount (NSNSNS) is forecast as FEW (1-2 oktas), SCT (3-4 oktas),
NSNSNShShShS(cc) BKN (5-7 oktas) and OVC (8 oktas) and cloud height (hShShS) is given in
or hundreds of feet. (cc) will only be included if cumulonibus (CB) is forecast.
VVhShShS If the sky is expected to be obscured vertical visibility (VV) will be given in
11 or hundreds of feet.
SKC SKC will be used if clear sky is forecast and CAVOK cannot be used.
or NSC will be used when no clouds below 5000 ft or minimum sector
NSC altitude, whichever is greater and no cumulonimbus is forecast and
CAVOK or SKC are not appropriate.
Replacing items 9 to 11 when a visibility of 10 km or more, no cloud below
12 CAVOK 5000 ft or minimum sector altitude, whichever is greater, no cumulonimbus
and no significant weather phenomena are expected.
Indicates a probability of occurrence of of alternative value(s) of forecast
13 PROBC2C2 GGGeGe element(s). C2C2 of 30 or 40 indicates 30% or 40% probablility. GGG2G2
defines the time of onset and end of the values in hours.
BECMG (TTTTT) is used to indicate changes expected to reach or pass
specified threshold criteria at either a regular or irregular rate commencing
TTTTT GGGeGe at GG in hours and have completed by GeGe.
14 or TEMPO (TTTTT) is used to indicate temporary fluctuations expected to
reach or pass specified threshold criteria and last for a period of less than
TTGGgg one hour in each instance and in the aggregate cover less than half of the
forecast period during which the fluctuations are expected to occur as
defined by GG to GeGe.
Forecast maximum (TX) and minimum (TN) temperature at the time in
15 TXTFTF/GFGFZ TNTFTF/GFGFZ
hours defined by GFGF. Temperatures below 0C are prefixed by M.
Table 22.5 TAF standard layout

22-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Aviation Weather Messages Chapter 22

Table 22.5 shows the standard layout of a TAF. The require items are:

Items 1, 3, 4 and 6 Identification groups and period of validity

Item 8 Wind group
Item 9 Visibility group
Item 10 Weather group
Item 11 Cloud group

Item 14 is used to denote changes, either permanent or fluctuations to any element(s) specified in
the forecast, by using BECMG or TEMPO respectively. Only the elements which are described
preceding the change indicator are expected to change. That means any elements which are not
replaced by new information are carried forward from the last previous period where they were
defined. There may be several change groups throughout the period of validity for the TAF.

It is important to bear in mind that TEMPO is used to denote fluctuations in the elements
described and that after the time defining the end of the period of the TEMPO, the elements
return to as described prior to the start time of the TEMPO.

If all elements of the TAF are expected to change at a given time, the code FM followed by the
time in hours and minutes (TTGGgg) will be used. All elements prior to the FM will be replaced by
the new elements preceding it, i.e. it indicates the start of a new forecast period.

In the JAR exams a certain way of questioning is used when dealing with TAFs to differ between
whether they are looking for the longer periods of the TAF or just a specific time (e.g. an ETA).
The words that are being used are:

Forecast Consider PROB and TEMPO and choose the relevant conditions based
on the time given in the question
Expected Disregard elements described within a PROB or TEMPO period
Most likely Disregard elements described within a PROB or TEMPO period

AIRMET, SIGMET AND SPECIAL AIR REPORT

AIRMET and SIGMET have similar layout and abbreviations but different areas of coverage. The
difference between the two is shown in their respective definition.

AIRMET
AIRMET is defined as information issued by a meteorological watch office concerning the
occurrence or expected occurrence of specified en-route weather phenomena which may affect
the safety of low-level aircraft operations and which was not included in the forecast issued for
low-level flights in the flight information region concerned or sub-are thereof.

SIGMET
SIGMET is defined as information issued by a meteorological watch office concerning the
occurrence or expected occurrence of specified en-route weather phenomena which may affect
the safety of aircraft operations. SIGMET SST is issued for transonic or supersonic flights.

SPECIAL AIR REPORT

The special air report is issued based on actual observations of a given meteorological
phenomena and no forecast is given.

Table 22.6 shows the layout and abbreviations used for the above mentioned reports. Distances
and movement speeds may be given as NM/KT (as in the table) or KM/KMH. If not explained in
table 22.6, some of the abbreviations may be found in table 22.8.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 22-7

Chapter 22 Aviation Weather Messages

AIRMET SIGMET SIGMET SST Special air report

1 ATS unit
2 Identification
ICAO Location Indicator for the ATS unit serving the FIR or CTA to
N/A
which the SIGMET/AIRMET refers.
Message identification and sequence number corresponding to the
number of messages issued for the FIR/CTA since 0001 UTC on
the day concerned. ARS

AIRMET [nn]n SIGMET [nn]n SIGMET SST [nn]n

VALID YYGGgg/YYGGgg (Date and time in hours and minutes Withdrawn 60 min
3 Validity peiod
UTC). after issue.
CCCC (ICAO Location Indicator of the MWO (Meteorological
4 MWO N/A
Watch Office) originating the message).
FIR/CTR or aircraft
5 nnnnnn FIR nnnnnn FIR[/UIR] or CTR Aircraft callsign
identification
Phenomenon
causing the
6 Phenomenon coded in accordance with table 22.7.
issuance of the
report
OBS [AT GGggZ]
Phenomenon being
7 FCST OBS AT GGggZ
observed or forecast
OBS [AT GGggZ] AND FCST
[N OF, NE OF, E OF, SE OF, S OF, SW OF, W OF, NW OF]
Location (latitude Nnnnn Ennnnn Nnnnn Ennnnn
and longitude or Nnnnn Wnnnnn Nnnnn Wnnnnn
8
geographical Snnnn Ennnnn Snnnn Ennnnn
position) Snnnn Wnnnnn Snnnn Wnnnnn
Geographical position
FLnnn or FLnnn/nnn or TOP FLnnn or [TOP] ABV FLnnn or [TOP]
BLW FLnnn
For tropical cyclone:
CB TOP [ABV] FLnnn WI nnnNM OF CENTRE
Level or vertical CB TOP [BLW] FLnnn WI nnnNM OF CENTRE
9 FLnnn
extent
For volcanic ash:
FLnnn/nnn [APRX nnnNM BY nnnNM]
Nnnnn or Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn TO
Nnnnn or Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
MOV N [nnKT] or MOV NE [nnKT] or MOV E [nnKT] or MOV SE
Movement or [nnKT] or MOV S [nnKT] or MOV SW [nnKT] or MOV W [nnKT] or
10 expected movement MOV NW [nnKT] N/A
or stationary
STNR
11 Changes in intensity INTSF or WKN or NC N/A
FCST GGggZ TC CENTRE Nnnnn or
Forecast position Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
(only volcanic ash
12 N/A FCST GGggZ VA CLD Nnnnn or Snnnn, N/A
clouds and tropical
Ennnnn or Wnnnnn TO
cyclones)
Nnnnn or Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
OTLK YYGGgg TC CENTRE Nnnnn or
Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
YYGGgg TC CENTRE Nnnnn or Snnnn,
Outlook (only Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
volcanic ash cloud
13 N/A OTLK YYGGgg VA CLD APRX N/A
and tropical
cyclones) [FLnnn/nnn] Nnnnn or Snnnn, Ennnnn or
Wnnnnn
YYGGgg VA CLD APRX [FLnnn/nnn]
Nnnnn or Snnnn, Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
Cancellation of CNL AIRMET [nn]n CNL AIRMET [nn]n CNL AIRMET [nn]n
14 N/A
SIGMET/AIRMET YYGGgg/YYGGgg YYGGgg/YYGGgg YYGGgg/YYGGgg
Table 22.6 AIRMET/SIGMET/Special air report standard layout

22-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Aviation Weather Messages Chapter 22

PHENOMENON CODES FOR AIRMET/SIGMET/SPECIAL AIR REPORT

AIRMET SIGMET SIGMET SST Special air report
SFC WSPD ffKT OBSC TS MOD TURB TS
(Surface windspeed) (Obscured TS) (Moderate turbulence) (Thunderstorm)
SFC VIS VVVVM (ww) EMBD TS SEV TURB TSGR
(Surface visibility) (Embedded TS) (Severe turbulence) (Thunderstorm and hail)
ISOL TS FRQ TS ISOL CB SEV TURB
(Isolated/individual TS) (Frequent/little or no (Isolated/individual CBs) (Severe turbulence)
OCNL TS separation TS) OCNL CB SEV ICE
(Occasional/well separated SQL TS (Occasional/well separated (Severe icing)
TS) (Squall line/along a line with CBs) SEV MTW
MT OBSC little or no separation TS) FRQ CB (Severe mountain waves)
(Mountain obscured) TC nnnnnnnn (Frequent/little or no HVY SS
BKN CLD hShShS/hThThTFT (Tropical cyclone [name]) separation CBs) (Heavy sandstorm)
(Broken clouds base/tops) SEV TURB GR
VA CLD FLnnn/nnn
OVC CLD hShShS/hThThTFT (Severe turbulence) (Hail)
(Volcanic ash cloud
(Overcast clouds base/tops) SEV ICE VA ERUPTION MT nnnnnn base/tops)
(Severe icing) LOC LOC Nnnnn or Snnnn,
ISOL CB VA MT nnnnnn
Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
(Isolated/individual CBs) SEV ICE FZRA (Volcanic ash from mount
(Volcanic ash eruption from
OCNL CB (Severe icing, freezing rain) mount [name] located [name])
(Occasional/well separated SEV MTW [lat/long]) MOD TURB
CBs) (Severe mountain waves) VA CLD (Moderate turbulence)
FRQ CB HVY DS (Volcanic ash cloud) GR
(Frequent/little or no (Heavy duststorm) (Hail)
separation CBs) HVY SS CB
ISOL TCU (Heavy sandstorm) (Cumulonimbus)
(Isolated/individual TCUs) VA ERUPTION MT nnnnnn
OCNL TCU LOC Nnnnn or Snnnn,
(Occasional/well separated Ennnnn or Wnnnnn
TCUs) (Volcanic ash eruption from
FRQ TCU mount [name] located
[lat/long])
(Frequent/little or no
separation TCUs VA CLD
MOD TURB (Volcanic ash cloud)
(Moderate turbulence)
MOD ICE
(Moderate icing)
MOD MTW
(Moderate mountain waves)
Table 22.7 Codes for the phenomenon group in AIRMET/SIGMET/Special air report

GAMET
GAMET is an area forecast for low-level flights which employs abbreviated plain language which
is similar in style to the previous reports and forecasts that have been shown. The GAMET
normally covers the layer between the ground and FL100 or FL150 (or higher if necessary) in
mountainous areas. A GAMET has two sections, Section I which supports any information as
given by an AIRMET and Section II will include supplementary information in accordance with
regional agreements, e.g. pressure centres and fronts, wind and temperature for various levels
and the freezing level (0C isotherm).

The abbreviations being used are incorporate the ones already introduced for METARs, TAFs
and SIGMET/AIRMET/special air report in addition to the ones shown in table 22.8. When given,
cloud types are identified in accordance with the standard as shown in table 9.3 in chapter 9.

There are regional differences in the layout of the GAMET, however, the coding will still be similar
and therefore the information given should become apparent when decoding it.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 22-9

Chapter 22 Aviation Weather Messages

ABT About IAO In and out of clouds PROB Probability

ABV Above ICE Icing PS Plus
Instrument meteorological
ACT Active, activated IMC PSYS Pressure system(s)
conditions
ALT Altitude IMPR Improve, improving RAPID Rapid(ly)
AMD Amend, amended INC In clouds SAND Sandstorm
ASSW Associated with INS Inches SEC Seconds
BASE Cloud base INTER Intermittent SECN Section
Severe (icing, turbulence
BLO Below clouds INTST Intensity SEV
etc.)
BLW Below INTSF Intensify(ing) SFC Surface
BTL Between layers JTST Jet stream SHWR Shower
BTN Between L Low pressure SLW Slow
C Degrees Celsius LAN Land SMK Smoke
Supplementary
CAT Clear air turbulence LGT Light SMO
meteorological office
CLD Clouds LOC Locally STNR Stationary
CNS Continuous LSQ Line squall T Temperature
COT Coast LYR Layer(ed) TAIL Tailwind
CUF Cumuliform M Metres TDO Tornado
DEG Degrees MAR At sea (maritime) TEMPO Temporary, temporarily
Dependent meteorological
DMO MAX Maximum TEND Tend or tending to
office
DP Dewpoint MB Millibars TOP Cloud top
Meteorological,
DTRT Deteriorate, deteriorating MET TURB Turbulence
meteorology
DUST Dust storm MIN Minutes UNL Unlimited
EXC Except MMO Main meteorological office VER Vertical
EXP Expect(ed), expecting MNM Minimum VIS Visibility
Light (icing, turbulence Moderate (icing, Visual meteorological
FBL MOD VMC
etc.) turbulence etc.) conditions
FCST Forecast MON Mountain(s) VRBL Variable
FL Flight level MOV Move, moving VSP Vertical speed
FPM Feet per minute MS Minus WDSPR Widespread
FRONT Front MSL Meal sea level WI Within
FRQ Frequent MTW Mountain waves WKN Weaken(ing)
FT Feet MWO Meteorological watch office WSPD Windspeed
FZLVL Freezing level NC No change WTSPT Waterspout
GND Ground NIL None, not existent WX Weather
GRADU Gradual(ly) NM Nautical miles XXX Above FL100/FL150
H High pressure OBS Observe(d), observation
HAIL Hail OBSC Obscure(d), obscuring
HURCN Hurricane OCNL Occasional(ly)
HVY Heavy OTP On top
Table 22.8 Aeronautical meteorological abbreviations

GAFOR
GAFOR or general aviation forecast is a forecast for a selection of VFR routes within an area or
country. The routes have four states, open, difficult, marginal or closed coded in accordance with
table 22.9. The GAFOR is normally shown on a chart.

O Open Ceiling above 2000 ft and visibility more than 8 km

D Difficult Ceiling above 1500 ft and visibility more than 5 km
M Marginal Ceiling above 1000 ft and visibility more than 2 km
X Closed Ceiling below 1000 ft and visibility less than 2 km
Table 22.9 GAFOR criteria

VOLCANIC ASH ADVISORY

Volcanic ash advisories are issued by a Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre (VAAC) if a volcano is
expected to erupt, or have erupted or a cloud of volcanic ash has been observed and reported.
The advisory will be in abbreviated plain language similar to the previous reports that have been
described.

22-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Aviation Weather Messages Chapter 22

AERODROME WARNING
Aerodrome warnings are issued when meteorological conditions that may adversely affect aircraft
on the ground, including parked aircraft, and the aerodrome facilities and services.

The conditions which qualify are to be agreed upon by the aerodrome, the operators and any
other interested parties. ICAO has issued a recommendation as to which weather phenomena
should be included.

Tropical cyclone
Thunderstorm
Hail
Snow
Freezing precipitation
Hoar frost or rime
Sandstorm
Duststorm
Rising sand or dust
Strong surface winds and gusts
Squall
Frost

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 22-11

Chapter 22 Aviation Weather Messages

EXAMPLE REPORTS
METAR AND SPECI
METAR SA ENTC 181020Z 18023G34KT CAVOK M04/M13 Q1019 NOSIG RMK WIND 2600FT
17050G73KT=

METAR for Troms airport on the 18th of the month at 1020 UTC. Wind is from 180 at 23 kt
gusting 34 kt. Visibility 10 km or more, no significant weather, no clouds below the greater of
5000 ft or MSA and no CBs. Temperature -4C and dewpoint -13C. QNH is 1019 hPa. No
significant changes are expected for the next two hours. Additional information is wind at 2600 ft
from 170 at 50 kt gusting 73 kt.

METAR SA ENGM 210850Z 00000KT 5000 1000SE R19R/P1500U R01R/0450V0800D PRFG

NSC M07/M09 Q1031 TEMPO 0700 FZFG VV001=

METAR for Oslo Gardermoen airport on the 21st of the month at 0850 UTC. Wind is calm.
Prevailing visibility is 5 km with visibility in sector southeast being 1000 m. RVR on runway 19R is
more than 1500 m with an upward trend, RVR on runway 01R is varying between 450 m and 800
m with a downward trend. Part of the aerodrome is covered in fog. No clouds below the greater of
5000 ft or MSA and no CB. Temperature -7C and dewpoint -9C. QNH is 1031 hPa. Temporarily
fluctuations within the next two hours lasting for maximum one hour accumulating to maximum
one hour may occur giving a prevailing visibility of 700 m in freezing fog with a vertical visibility of
100 ft.

SPECI SP EDDS 121304Z 08003KT 9999 TSRA BKN040CB 23/14 Q1024 BECMG FM1330
NSW=

SPECI for Stuttgart airport on the 12th of the month at 1304 UTC. Wind is from 080 at 3 kt.
Prevailing visibility is 10 km or more. Thunderstorm and rain. 5 to 7 okta of cumulonimbus clouds
at 4000 ft. Temperature +23C and dewpoint +14C. QNH is 1024 hPa. From 1330 UTC there will
be a change to nil significant weather.

TAF
TAF FC UUWW 231330Z 231524 12003MPS 4000 BR SCT007 TEMPO 1724 0900 FG DZ
OVC004=

Short TAF for Moscow Vnukovo airport issued on the 23rd of the month at 1330 UTC and valid on
the 23rd of the month from 1500 UTC to 2400 UTC. Forecast wind is from 120 at 3 mps.
Forecast visibility is 4 km in mist. 2 to 4 okta clouds at 700 ft.

Temporary fluctuations lasting maximum one hour accumulating to maximum half the time period
specified between 1700 UTC and 2400 UTC. Forecast visibility 900 m in fog and moderate
drizzle. 8 okta clouds at 400 ft. The wind will remain the same as previously stated (12003MPS)
throughout the period of the TEMPO.

22-12 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Aviation Weather Messages Chapter 22

TAF FT EKCH 081040Z 081818 20015KT 8000 BKN012 BECMG 1820 20015G30KT 4000 RA
BKN008 BECMG 2022 24020G30KT 9999 NSW SCT025 TEMPO 2210 5000 SHRA BKN012CB
FM1000 29025G38KT 9999 SCT025 TEMPO 1018 4000 SHRAGS BKN010CB BECMG 1214
31030G48KT BECMG 1517 31025G38KT

Long TAF for Copenhagen Kastrup airport issued on the 8th of the month at 1040 UTC and valid
on the 08th of the month from 1800 UTC to 1800 UTC the following day (9th of the month).
Forecast wind is from 200 at 15 kt. Forecast visibility is 8 km. 5 to 7 okta clouds at 1200 ft.

Change commencing at 1800 UTC and completing by 2000 UTC. Forecast wind is from 200 at
15 kt gusting 30 kt. Forecast visibility is 4 km in moderate rain. 5 to 7 okta clouds at 800 ft.

Change commencing at 2000 UTC and completing at 2200 UTC. Forecast wind is from 240 at
20 kt gusting 30 kt. Forecast visibility is 10 km or more with nil significant weather. 3 to 4 okta
clouds at 2500 ft.

Temporary fluctuations lasting maximum one hour accumulating to maximum half the time period
specified between 2200 UTC and 1000 UTC. Forecast visibility 5 km with moderate showers of
rain. 5 to 7 okta cumulonimbus clouds at 1200 ft. The wind will remain the same as previously
stated (24020G30KT) throughout the period of the TEMPO.

From 1000 UTC. Forecast wind is from 290 at 25 kt gusting 38 kt. Forecast visibility is 10 km or
more. 3 to 4 okta clouds at 2500 ft.

Temporary fluctuations lasting maximum one hour accumulating to maximum half the time period
specified between 2200 UTC and 1000 UTC. Forecast visibility is 4 km in moderate showers of
rain mixed with small hail. 5 to 7 okta of cumulonimbus clouds at 1000 ft. The wind will remain the
same as previously stated (29025G38KT) throughout the period of the TEMPO.

Change commencing at 1200 UTC and completing at 1400 UTC. Forecast wind is from 310 at
30 kt gusting 48 kt. The visibility, weather and clouds will remain the same as stated after
previous permanent change which affected them (9999 SCT025).

Change commencing at 1500 UTC and completing at 1700 UTC. Forecast wind is from 310 at
25 kt gusting 38 kt. The visibility, weather and clouds will remain the same as stated after
previous permanent change which affected them (9999 SCT025).

SIGMET
EGTT SIGMET 05 VALID 081510/081830 EGRR-
EGTT LONDON FIR ISOL SEV TURB FCST BLW FL060 WITHIN 10NM OF A LINE N5100
W00500 TO N53000 E00300 MOV S 40KT NC=

London Air Traffic Control Centre SIGMET number 5 valid on the 8th of the month at 1510 UTC
until the 8th of the month at 1830 UTC issued by Bracknell World Area Forecast Centre (WAFC).

Within London FIR isolated severe turbulence is forecast below flight level 60 within 10 nm of a
line extending between N5100 W00500 and N5300 E00300 moving South at 40 kt with no
change in intensity.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 22-13

Chapter 22 Aviation Weather Messages

EDWW SIGMET 02 VALID 180900/181200 EDZH-

EDWW BREMEN FIR EMBD TS FCST NW, C AND SE PART TOP FL350 MOV NNE NC=

Bremen Area Control Centre SIGMET number 2 valid on the 18th of the month at 0900 UTC until
the 18th of the month at 1200 UTC issued by Hamburg Meteorological Regional Centre.

Within Bremen FIR embedded thunderstorms are forecast for the northwestern, central and
southeastern part with top of clouds at flight level 350 moving north-northeast with no change in
intensity.

ENSV SIGMET 04 VALID 180640/181025 ENVV -

NORWAY FIR LOC MOD/SEV CAT OBS AND FCST BTN FL180 AND FL300. S OF N6200
AND W OF E00730. WKN W PART LATE=

Stavanger Air Traffic Control Centre SIGMET number 4 valid on the 18th of the month at 0640
UTC until the 18th of the month at 1025 UTC issued by Bergen Meteorological Forecast Centre.

Within Norway FIR local moderate to severe clear air turbulence is observed and forecast
between flight level 180 and flight level 300 South of N6200 and West of E00730 weakening in
the western part later.

LIRR SIGMET 03 VALID 121000/121600 LIMM-

ROMA FIR FBL VA LAST OBS (120530Z BY LICZ) EXT 5 NM E OF ETNA FL070/110 MOV E
40 KT=

Roma Area Control Centre SIGMET number 3 valid on the 12th of the month at 1000 UTC until
the 12th of the month at 1600 UTC issued by Milano Area Control Centre.

Roma FIR feeble volcanic ash last observed on the the 12th of the month at 0530 UTC by
Sigonella extending 5 nm East of Etna between FL70 and FL110 moving East.

AIRMET
LSAS AIRMET 5 VALID 091400/091700 LSZH-
LSAS SWITZERLAND FIR MOD ICE OBS 2500 FT AMSL/FL120 ALPS AND N OF ALPS
STNR NC AND MOD TURB OBS STNR NC=

Switzerland FIR/UIR AIRMET number 5 valid on the 9th of the month at 1400 UTC until the 9th of
the month at 1700 UTC issued by Zrich.

Within Switzerland FIR moderate icing has been observed between 2500 ft above MSL and
FL120 in the Alps and North of the Alps which is stationary with no change in intensity. Also,
moderate turbulence is observed which is stationary with no change in intensity.

SPECIAL AIR REPORT

LOWW 120921
ARS
ENRT ACFT MEDIUM MOD TURB OBS AT 0918Z NE PART FL290. =

Special air report issued by Wien Schwechat on the 12th of the month at 0921 UTC. An en-route
aircraft of medium size observed moderate turbulence at 0918 UTC in the north-eastern part at
FL290.

22-14 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Aviation Weather Messages Chapter 22

GAMET
EDMM GAMET VALID 090900/091500 EDZM-
MUENCHEN FIR S OF N50 BLW FL150
SECN I
SFC VIS : ISOL 1000 SHSNGS
1500 SN S OF N48
SIGWX : 12/15 ISOL TS
MT OBSC : ABV 3000 FT AMSL ALPS
ABV 2500 FT AMSL NE PART
SIG CLD : ISOL TCU/CB 3000 FT AMSL/FL180

TURB : MOD BLW FL060

SIGMET APPLICABLE: AT TIME OF ISSUE NIL

SECN II
PSYS : 12 L 982 HPA S SWEDEN STNR WKN
: 12 COLD FRONT LINE GOTLAND-LODZ-BRNO-GENEVA MOV SE
: 12 UPPER TROUGH LINE GOTLAND-BERLIN-VERONA MOV E

WIND/T : 3000 FT AMSL 300/30KT MS01

FL050 310/35KT MS06
FL100 310/40KT MS16
CLD : SCT/BKN CU/SC 3000 FT AMSL/FL140
FZLVL : 2000 FT AMSL
MNM QNH : 09/11 1006 HPA
11/13 1007 HPA
13/15 1007 HPA
CHECK GAFOR (VIS AND CLD BASE), AIRMET AND SIGMET-INFORMATION
=

Mnchen Area Control Centre/Flight Information Centre GAMET valid on the 9th of the month at
0900 UTC until the 9th of the month at 1500 UTC issued by Mnchen Meteorological Regional
Centre.

Surface visibility isolated 1 km in showers or snow and small hail and 1.5 km in snow South of
N48. Significant weather between 1200 UTC and 1500 UTC of isolated thunderstorms. Mountains
are obscured above 3000 ft in the Alps and above 2500 ft in the north-eastern part. Significant
clouds are towering cumulus or cumulonimbus with base 3000 ft above MSL with tops FL180.
Turbulence is moderate below FL60. No SIGMETs are applicable at the time of issue of the
GAMET.

Pressure systems at 1200 UTC. A low at 982 hPa situated South of Sweden being stationary and
weakening. A cold front is situated along a line Gotland Lodz Brno Geneva moving
southeast. An upper trough is situated along a line Gotland Berlin Verona moving East.

Wind at 3000 ft is from 300 at 30 kt and temperature is -1C. Wind at FL50 is from 310 at 35 kt
and temperature -6C. Wind at FL100 is from 310 at 40 kt and temperature -16C.

Clouds are 3 to 7 okta of cumulus and stratocumulus with base at 3000 ft and tops at FL140. The
freezing level is at 2000 ft above MSL. Minimum QNH is 1006 hPa between 0900 UTC and 1100
UTC, 1007 hPa between 1100 UTC and 1300 UTC and between 1300 UTC and 1500 UTC.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 22-15

Chapter 22 Aviation Weather Messages

GAFOR

Figure 22.1 GAFOR chart

Figure 22.1 shows the GAFOR chart for Austria valid on the 12th of November 2007 between
0700 and 1300 UTC. The various routes are labelled with a box split into three sections each
counting for 2 hours (first box is valid from 0700 UTC to 0900 UTC, second box from 0900 UTC
to 1100 UTC and third box 1100 UTC to 1300 UTC.

AERODROME WARNING
LOWW AD WRNG 3 VALID 120830/121230
SFC WSPD W-NW 20-25KT MAX 30-35 OBS AND FCST INTSF=

Wien Schwechat aerodrome warning number 3 valid on the 12th of the month at 0830 UTC until
the 12th of the month at 1230 UTC.

The surface windspeed is observed and forecast as West north-westerly with mean windspeed
20 kt to 25 kt gusting 30 kt to 35 kt intensifying in strength.

22-16 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
The synoptic chart is one of the tools used by the meteorology forecaster. As mentioned in
chapter 6, it shows the weather situation at a given time, namely the main synoptic hours of 0000
UTC, 0600 UTC, 1200 UTC and 1800 UTC. All information on the chart is based on observations
at the various stations, including aerodromes.

The amount of information on the chart may vary from the most basic ones showing only
pressure systems and fronts to those showing information for every observation station in the
form of a station circle in addition to the pressure systems and fronts.

The LOs for meteorlogy states that the required knowledge for the synoptic charts includes:

Chart symbology
The synoptic situation
The likely future development of the situation shown on the chart
The implications of the weather situation to the pilot

Until this date there has not been questions regardning decoding of the station circle in the JAA
exams but a desciption is included at the end of the chapter nevertheless.

SYNOPTIC CHART WITHOUT STATION CIRCLES

Figure 23.1 shows a synoptic chart without station circles (similar to the chart already shown in
chapter 6. On this chart the pressure systems and fronts are shown making it possible to derive
what the weather situation may be like in various places.

Considering the weather in Ireland and the northern part of the British Isles there is a cold front
from South of Ireland through the middle of Britain. Also, there is low pressure between Iceland
and Scotland and high pressure in the Atlantic West of Ireland. As the geostrophic wind in the
northern hemisphere blows parallel to the isobars with low pressure to the left, the geostrophic
wind direction behind the cold front is north-westerly. The geostrophic wind speed can be found
by transposing the distance between the isobars to the geostrophic wind scale in the top left hand
corner for the appropriate latitude. The geostrophic wind speed over Northern Ireland is around
30 kt. This brings a polar maritime airmass which will become less stable as it moves South and
cause showers, particularly on windward facing coasts.

For the southern parts of the British Isles there is a frontal system with a warm front closely
followed by the cold front (the occlusion point is on the East coast). Depending on how active
these fronts are the general weather in this area may be cloudy with intermittent rain.

In the English Channel there is a warm front aloft, indicated by the warm front symbol where the
semicircles are white and not filled black. A cold front aloft would be indicated the same way,
except it would be triangles instead of semicircles.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 23-1

Chapter 23 The Synoptic Chart

Figure 23.1 Synoptic chart without station circles

23-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
The Synoptic Chart Chapter 23

SYNOPTIC CHART WITH STATION CIRCLES

Figure 23.2 Synoptic chart with station circles

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 23-3

Chapter 23 The Synoptic Chart

Figure 23.3 Station circles

Figure 23.3 shows a cut-out of the main chart in figure 23.2 to make reading the station circles a
bit easier. These station circles does not show wind direction and speed. On the following pages
the decoding of a station circle is described.

Considering the station circle in the lower right hand corner, some of the data that may be
retrieved (starting at the top symbol above the centre circle going clockwise) is:

Dense cirrus but not from the anvil of a CB

Thin altocumulus at one level
QFF is 1024.1 hPa
The QFF is 0.6 hPa lower than 3 hours ago
The pressure has been rising and then falling and the QFF is lower than 3 hours ago
Maximum wind gust 4 kt
No past weather is given
Base of lowest cloud is 8000 ft or above with a coverage of 2 oktas
Dewpoint is -3.1C
Visibility is 10 km
No present weather is given
The air temperature is -2.4C
The lowest temperature during the night was -4.6C (only given on the 0600 UTC chart
and substituted by maximum temperature during the day on the 1800 UTC chart)
The total cloud cover at the station is 7 oktas

23-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

The Synoptic Chart Chapter 23

THE STATION CIRCLE DECODE

The observation reports submitted by Meteorological Observation Stations are transcribed, in
standard form, on to synoptic charts as the Station Circle which forms the basis for a
Meteorological Forecaster's forecasts. It is necessary for aviators to have a good general
knowledge of the symbols on the station circle. The format for the arrangement of the station
circle has been internationally agreed.
High Cloud Type

Medium Cloud Type

Amount/Base Height

Air Temperature MSL Pressure

TOTAL
Visibility Present Weather Barometric Tendency and
CLOUD Characteristic
Dewpoint Temperature
COVER Past Weather

Low Cloud Type

The wind symbol in a variable position
Amount/base height

PRESSURE (1 O'CLOCK)
QFF shown by three figures giving tens, units and tenths of a hectopascal (e.g. 721 = 72.1 hPa).
The expected QFF range is from 950 to 1050 hPa. The reader of the circle is required to prefix
the 3 figures by either a 9 or 10. In the above example, the full QFF is 972.1 hPa. Any figure
between 500 and 999 must be prefixed with a 9. Figures 000 to 500 with a 10 (e.g. 033 =
03.3 hPa which would be a QFF of 1003.3 hPa).

PRESSURE TENDENCY (3 O'CLOCK)

The pressure change in the past 3 hours is shown by two figures and a symbol. The symbols
show the type of change.

Overall Rise Overall Fall

A rise followed by a small A fall followed by a rise

fall

A rise and then steady A fall and then steady

A steady rise A steady fall

A small fall followed by a A small rise followed by a fall

rise

The two figures show the amount of the pressure change in units and tenths of a hPa
(e.g. 36/ indicates in the past three hours there was a steady rise of 3.6 hPa).

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 23-5

Chapter 23 The Synoptic Chart

PAST WEATHER (5 O'CLOCK)

All weather is shown by symbols only. Weather in this context refers to precipitation, mist, haze,
fog, thunderstorms, and snowstorms. Certain symbols are common to both "Past Weather" and
"Present Weather" (9 o'clock position).

Fog or ice fog Showers

, Drizzle Thunderstorms

Rain Hail . The symbol is sometimes shown

black instead of open.
Snow
*
The arrangements of the common symbols and their combinations have different meanings for
Past and Present Weather.

Past weather refers to the past 6 hours for the Major Synoptic hours of 0000, 0600, 1200, and
1800 UTC. It refers to the past 3 hours for the Minor Synoptic hours of 0300, 0900, 1500, and
2100 UTC. If hourly charts are produced then the past weather for the last hour.

ADDITIONAL PAST WEATHER SYMBOLS

A single symbol means that particular weather occurred for part of the time. Two identical
symbols means that it is continuous. Two different symbols means that each occurred, the first
being predominant.

Other combinations similarly apply.

Note: Intensity of past precipitation is not shown.

23-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

The Synoptic Chart Chapter 23

LOW CLOUD OR VERTICAL VISIBILITY (6 O'CLOCK)

The cloud type is shown by a symbol. The amount of sky cover in eighths and the cloud base in
hundreds of feet are shown in figures, positioned below the symbol. The figures for cloud amount
and base are separated by a slash. Cloud height is given with reference to airfield level
(e.g. 3/12 indicates 3 oktas of stratus base 1200 ft above airfield level).

VERTICAL VISIBILITY
These figures are for use in indicating the sky is obscured. The 9 shows that the sky is obscured.
The 2 figures after the slash show the vertical visibility in hundreds of feet:

9/00 vertical visibility less than 100 ft

9/01 vertical visibility 100 ft

DEWPOINT (7 O'CLOCK)
This is shown by 2 figures for units and tens of degrees Celsius. Thermometers are read to the
nearest 0.1 of a degree and then rounded up or down to the nearest whole figure with 0.5 always
allocated to the nearest whole odd number. Values are positive unless prefixed by a minus sign.

VISIBILITY (9 O'CLOCK OUTER POSITION)

The two figures are for use in showing visibility in metres or kilometres using the following range
system:
00 to 50 metres (x 100)
56 to 80 subtract 50 giving an answer in kilometres
81 to 89 subtract 80, multiply the result by 5 then add 30. This
gives an answer in kilometres
e.g. 85 85 80 = 5
x5 = 25
+ 30 = 55 km

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 23-7

Chapter 23 The Synoptic Chart

PRESENT WEATHER (9 O'CLOCK INNER POSITION)

Weather at the time of observation is shown by symbols only. Weather which has occurred during
the past hour, but not at the time of observation is also shown at this position.

23-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

The Synoptic Chart Chapter 23

The above descriptions also apply for drizzle and snow symbols.

WEATHER IN THE PAST HOUR BUT NOT AT THE TIME OF OBSERVATION

The situation is provided by a square bracket around a precipitation symbol.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 23-9

Chapter 23 The Synoptic Chart

SURFACE AIR TEMPERATURE OR DRY BULB TEMPERATURE

(11 O'CLOCK)
This is shown by 2 figures for units and tens of degrees Celsius. Thermometers are read to the
nearest 0.1 of a degree and then rounded up or down to the nearest whole figure with 0.5 always
allocated to the nearest whole odd number. Values are positive unless prefixed by a minus sign.

MEDIUM LEVEL CLOUD (12 O'CLOCK LOWER POSITION)

The cloud type appears by symbol.

The cloud amount in eighths is sometimes given below the cloud symbol followed by a slash and
then two figures indicating the height of the cloud base. These two figures have a range of
56 80. The cloud base is then given in thousands of feet by subtracting 50.

In this example we have 4/8 of thin As with a base of 12 000 ft above airfield level.

23-10 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

The Synoptic Chart Chapter 23

HIGH LEVEL CLOUD (12 O'CLOCK UPPER POSITION)

The cloud type appears by symbol.

The cloud amount and cloud base are shown if there is no medium level cloud reported. Higher
cloud bases than the figure 80 (-50 = 30 000 ft) are catered for as follows.

Range of codes 81 89, subtract 80 and multiply the result by 5 and then add 30. This gives the
cloud base in thousands of feet.

In this example there is a 7/8 Cirrus, not increasing with a base of 40 000 ft above
airfield level.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 23-11

Chapter 23 The Synoptic Chart

TOTAL CLOUD COVER (SHOWN IN THE CENTRE OF THE CIRCLE)

This is indicated in eighths of the total sky covered by cloud.

Sky clear 5 oktas

1 okta 6 oktas

2 oktas 7 oktas

3 oktas 8 oktas

4 oktas Indicates obscured

sky usually by fog,
smoke or sand/dust

SURFACE WIND
Shown by a straight line from the periphery of the circle. This line indicates the direction from
which the wind is blowing (090T in the examples below). The speed is shown by the feathers at
the end of the line.

Calm 20 kt, further additions up to 45 kt

1 to 2 kt 50 kt

5 kt 60 kt

10 kt 65 kt, further additions as

necessary

15 kt

Note: The feathers on the wind arrows conform with Buys Ballot's Law. The feathers indicate the
low pressure side. Left in the northern hemisphere, right in the southern hemisphere.

23-12 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
There are several types of weather charts available for flight planning purposes. The synoptic
chart as described in chapter 23 may be a good supplemet to actual weather reports as they
show the actual picture of what is happening in a given area. The GAFOR as described in
chapter 22 can also give a good indication on the weather situation for selcted VFR routes.

Other charts that are available are significant weather (SIGWX) charts and wind and temperature
(WT) charts. Both types will cover a certain geographical area (e.g. Europe, Far East, South
Atlantic and so on) and are valid on a given time, 0000 UTC, 0600 UTC, 1200 UTC and 1800
UTC. Also, both charts show the forecast situation at the time given.

THE SIGNIFICANT WEATHER CHART

Figure 24.1 SIGWX symbols

Figure 24.1 shows the common symbols used on SIGWX charts. The symbols used on the charts
varies slightly between the charts.

The SIGWX charts will be issued for a block between two levels, as given on the chart. Some
charts may start on the surface and others may start at an altitude above the surface, usually
FL100 or FL260. The top level of the charts are usually FL450 or FL630.
Meteorology (Rev Q407) 24-1
Chapter 24 Upper Air Charts

Figure 24.2 SIGWX chart for Europe

24-2 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Upper Air Charts Chapter 24

Figure 24.2 shows the SIGWX chart for Europe. The information shown on the chart will be
explained on the following pages all referring to the SIGWX chart for Europe in figure 24.2.

INFORMATION BOX

Figure 24.3 Information box on SIGWX chart figure 24.2

The information box (cut-out shown in figure 24.3) contain the following information, starting at
the top:

Code for the chart (PGDE15) and issued by EGRR on the 12th of the month at 0600 UTC
The chart is a fixed time prognostic chart for ICAO area Euro showing significant weather
The chart coverage is from FL100 up to FL450
The chart is valid at 0600 UTC on the 13th of November 2007
CB implies thunderstorm, large hail and moderate or severe turbulence and icing
Heights are in flight levels
Information on volcanic ash is given by SIGMETs, advisories, ASHTAM and NOTAM
Clear air turbulence (CAT) areas

This information box is found on all SIGWX charts somewhere along the endge, but not
necessarily in the top, right hand corner. It will contain the same amount of information though.

The chart shows the standard rough sketching of the coastlines and meridians and parallels of
latitude are shown by the grid of small dots. Every 10 of latitude and every 10 of longitude is
shown. The black dots on the charts with a letter by them signify the position of larger cities.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 24-3

Chapter 24 Upper Air Charts

HEIGHT OF THE TROPOPAUSE

Figure 24.4 Height of the tropopause

The boxes with the three digits in as shown in figure 24.4 indicate the height of the tropopause in
hundreds of feet for that position. In two of the positions the tropopause is at FL450 whereas in
the third position the tropopause is at FL350. The L and the downwards pointing shape on the
box signify that this is the lowest tropopause for this area. A similar type box but with it pointing
upwards will signify the hioghest tropopause for a given area.

To find the tropopause between any of the positions given, interpolate between the given heights.
At the coastline where the line of latitude and longitude meet, the approximate height of the
tropopause could be around FL400.

WEATHER AREAS AND ACTIVE VOLCANOS

Figure 24.5 Weather area and active volano

Weather areas are shown as areas enclosed within a cloud shaped pattern. An information box
will either be within the area or having an arrow pointing into as shown in figure 24.5. For the area
above southern Italy and Greece moderate turbulence may be experienced below FL140 and
down to below the lower limit of the chart (FL100 on this chart) as denoted by the XXX. Moderate
icing may also be encountered from FL140 to below the lower limit of the chart.

On the right hand side of figure 24.5 there is an area within another area stating ISOL EMBD CB
(isolated embedded CB) with tops at FL350 and base below the lower limit of the chart. Within
this area the flying conditions will be moderate or severe turbulence and icing according to the
information box in figure 24.3.

When there is an active volcano in the area it will be shown by using the symbol for volcano and
an information box stating the name of the volcano and its position in latitude and longitude. The
volcano on this chart is Etna which is found on Sicily.

24-4 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Upper Air Charts Chapter 24

JET STREAMS AND CAT AREAS

Figure 24.6 Jet stream and CAT area

Figure 24.6 shows parts of the jet stream flowing from above Iceland to South of the British Isles.
Jet streams are shown using the thick, black lines with an arrowhead indicating the direction of
the flow. The windspeed is given using the same coding as for synoptic charts with a short line
being 5 kt, a long line 10 kt and a triangle 50 kt. The windspeed in the jet stream shown starts at
140 kt above Iceland and has a windspeed of 100 kt above northern France. The level of the core
is at FL320 as shown below where the windspeed indicators are.

If two lines close together cross the core at right angles it denotes a rapid change in windspeed of
20 kt or more or a rapid change in the level of the core of 3000 ft or more.

The ends of the black line showing the core indicates when the windspeed drops below 80 kt.

The CAT areas are defined by the dashed lines which is shown around this jet stream. The
magnitude and vertical extent of the turbulence is given in the CAT area part of the information
box (figure 24.3). Here there are two CAT areas, number 1 and number 2 indicated by a
rectangular box with a number inside either placed within the CAT area or outside with an arrow
pointing into it as here. The divide between CAT area 1 and 2 are very difficult to spot on this
chart but it goes where the middle windspeed indicatros are (120 kt) just North of Scotland.

CAT area 1 has moderate turbulence between FL250 and FL370 and CAT area 2 has moderate
and occasional severe turbulence between FL210 and FL380.

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Chapter 24 Upper Air Charts

Figure 24.7 SIGWX chart including surface weather

Figure 24.7 shows a SIGWX chart which includes surface weather like fronts and their
movement, freezing level, weather and weather areas. Abbreviations are standard.
24-6 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Upper Air Charts Chapter 24

THE UPPER WIND AND TEMPERATURE CHART

The WT chart shows the forecast wind direction and speed and temperature at a given level. The
charts have the same time of validity as the SIGWX charts (0000 UTC, 0600 UTC, 1200 UTC and
1800 UTC). The levels that are covered are:

FL050
FL100
FL180
FL240
FL300
FL340
FL390
FL450

The area of coverage will also be similar to the SIGWX charts. Which levels are covered may
vary between the coverage areas. There may also be subtle differences in the design of the
charts but they will show the same information.

A couple things to be aware of when it comes to answering questions referring to the WT charts
in the JAA exams:

When asked about the temperature at a given position (as shown on the chart in the
annex to the exam) make sure to verify the level the chart is valid for and the level the
question ask about. Frequently these are not the same and not realising this will cause
an incorrect alternative to be chosen. If nothing else is given, apply 2C per 1000 ft to find
the appropriate temperature being asked about.
For directions use the meridians to give direction to true North and not up on the page.
This is a common mistake.
If asked for ISA deviation with reference to a temperature given on the chart beware that
for altitudes above FL360/36 000 ft the ISA temperature is constant at -56.5C.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 24-7

Chapter 24 Upper Air Charts

Figure 24.8 WT chart for Europe

24-8 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

Upper Air Charts Chapter 24

Figure 24.8 shows an example of the WT chart covering Europe at FL300. The information shown
will be explained on the following pages, all referring to the chart in figure 24.8.

INFORMATION BOX

Figure 24.9 Information box on WT chart figure 24.8

The information box (cut-out shown in figure 24.9) contain the following information, starting at
the top:

Code for the chart (PWBD30)

Source of the information shown (WAFC/met.no)
The chart is an upper wind and temperature chart for FL300
The chart is valid at 0600 UTC on the 13th of November 2007
Temperatures given are negative unless prefixed by PS
The chart is based on data retrieved at 1200 UTC on the 12th of November 2007

This information is found on all WT charts, somewhere along the edge in the same fashion as on
the SIGWX charts.

The chart shows the standard rough sketching of the coastlines and meridians and parallels of
latitude are shown by the grid of solid lines. Every 5 of latitude and every 5 of longitude is
shown. Some charts may have black dots with a letter by them to signify the position of larger
cities as on the SIGWX chart.

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Chapter 24 Upper Air Charts

WIND AND TEMPERATURE INFORMATION

Figure 24.10 Wind and temperature information

The temperature is indicated by the number which is placed next to the wind arrow. As stated in
the information box, all temperatures are negative unless prefixed by PS, which means the
temperatures shown on figure 24.10 are varying around -50C.

The wind direction is indicated by an arrow with lines or triangles at one end indicating
windspeed. The indicators for speed also indicate the tail end of the arrow, i.e. the wind is blowing
from the windspeed indicators towards the other end of the arrow.

The coding for windspeed is:

Short line 5 kt
Long line 10 kt
Triangle 50 kt

When finding the wind direction there is a couple of things that are frequently forgotten:

Wind direction is given as the direction from which the wind is blowing, i.e. opposite to the
direction the arrow is pointing
In order to find the correct direction the meridians must be used as reference for North
and not the top of the page

Considering the wind arrow in the lower left hand corner of figure 24.10, the wind direction is
approximately 320, windspeed 75 kt and the temperature -47C.

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Upper Air Charts Chapter 24

AVERAGE WIND AND TEMPERATURE

Figure 24.11 Example route for average wind and temperature

Figure 24.11 shows an example route from position D to position F.

Average temperature is found by using a standard calculation to find average, where all individual
temperatures are added and divided by the number of individuals. If the route is passing between
two points where the temperature is given, interpolate between the two values.

For the route D to F the temperature readings that may be used are:

-48C
-50C
-52C
-53C
-52C
-50C

The average temperature is: (-48C + -50C + -52C + -53C + -52C + -50C) 6 = -50.8C

The same principle may be used for average wind direction and speed. Care must be taken when
the wind is varying around North like on this example or the direction will be 180 wrong. The best
way is to eyeball the average direction and then calculate the average for the windspeed.

Eyeballing the wind direction is done by looking at the directions and making an estimated
average. By D the wind direction is about 360 backing towards 330 towards F before veering
and ending up around 050 at F. This will give an estimated average wind direction of 010.

For wind direction use the same technique as with temperature if between two wind arrows. The
windspeeds in this example will be:

65 kt
100 kt
65 kt
53 kt
45 kt
35 kt

The average windspeed is: (65 kt + 100 kt + 65 kt + 53 kt + 45 kt + 35 kt) 6 = 60.5 kt

The average wind from D to F is 010 at 61 kt and the average temperature is -51C.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 24-11

Chapter 24 Upper Air Charts

Figure 24.12 Example SIGWX for South Atlantic (note the alignment latitude/longitude)
24-12 Meteorology (Rev Q407)
Upper Air Charts Chapter 24

Figure 24.13 Example SIGWX for Far East (note the tropical cyclone Sidr East of India)
Meteorology (Rev Q407) 24-13
Chapter 24 Upper Air Charts

Figure 24.14 Example WT chart for Far East (note the alignment of latitude/longitude)

24-14 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
Climatology is the long term study of the behaviour of the weather carried out by looking at the
average weather of the various areas of the Earth. Much of the information is open to discussion.
Remember, these are the ideals not the actual.

Climatology needs a basic knowledge of the location of countries, major cities, the Tropic of
Cancer (Northern Hemisphere), and the Tropic of Capricorn (Southern Hemisphere).

IDEAL GLOBAL CIRCULATION

Initially, assume that the Earth has a uniform surface, that it is not rotating, and it is not tilted.

H Ha

Surface Flow
d le
yC
ell

Equator

Figure 25.1 Global circulation of air

The circulation of the air resembles a large scale sea breeze.

The Equator receives more insolation than the poles. This insolation causes the Equator to have
a higher temperature than at the poles.

The air at the surface is warmed, expands, and rises. This rising air creates a high pressure at
altitude over the Equator. This flow starts an outflow of air from the high pressure at height. A low
pressure system is formed at the surface which draws air in.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 25-1

Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

At the poles the low temperature causes a high pressure system at the surface and subsidence
occurs. The subsidence allows a low pressure system to form at height drawing air from the
Equator.

ROTATION OF THE EARTH

North Pole

30

Equator

30

Figure 25.2 Effect on the global flow of air by the rotation of the Earth

Because of the rotation of the Earth, the geostrophic force must be taken into account.

In the upper levels as the air travels towards the poles from the Equator it comes under the
influence of the geostrophic force.

Northern hemisphere The air is deflected to the right

Southern hemisphere The air is deflected to the left

This movement takes place at approximately 30 from the Equator.

The deflection means that the flow is eastwards in both hemispheres. The air is cooled as it
moves parallel to the Equator and eventually subsides to the surface. The falling of the air causes
a high pressure to form at the surface. Known as the sub-tropical high these are recognisable on
the average pressure charts.

At height, strong westerly winds form the sub-tropical jet stream.

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Climatology-The World Climate Chapter 25

IDEALISED PRESSURE ZONES

The Coriolis effect forms the first of three cells in the idealised circulation. This first cell is known
as the Hadley Cell.

Polar High Polar

Cell
Polar Front
H Ferrel
Cell Polar Easterlies
Horse 60 N 60
Su b p o lar L o w
Latitudes
L
Hadley Westerlies
30 N Cell 30
Doldrums H H
Subtropical High

0 L L L NE Trade Winds
0
Equatorial I n te CZ )
r tr o p ic
Lows H H al Convergence Zone (IT
30 S
SE Trade Winds
L 30
60 S Subtropical High
60
Westerlies
H Subpolar Low
Polar Easterlies
Figure 25.3 Idealised global circulation

The sub-tropical high pressure system has an outflow of air to both the Equator and towards the
poles.

The flow of air from the poles and the flow from the sub-tropical high meet in the temperate
latitudes. Convergence occurs and air rises. A surface low pressure forms with a high pressure
area at height.

The three distinctive cells are:

The Hadley Cell

The Ferrel Cell
The Polar Cell

THE TILT OF THE EARTH

The Earth is tilted by 23.5. The sun travels to the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern hemisphere
summer and the Tropic of Capricorn in the winter. As the sun moves across the surface of the
Earth, so does the equatorial low pressure belt.

This general picture ignores certain features such as the irregular surface of the land and the
different characteristics of the land and sea surfaces.

These features do have a major influence on the climate and the weather.

When the pressure patterns are discussed later in the chapter it is apparent that the general
circulation discussed so far does in reality exist.

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Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

PRESSURE ZONES
EQUATORIAL LOW (TROUGH)
The equatorial low is an area of convergence at the surface created by the outflow of air in the
upper atmosphere. The surface winds travel in towards the low pressure area. In the northern
hemisphere these winds are deflected to the right, and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
These are the trade winds:

In the northern hemisphere they are northeasterly

In the southern hemisphere they are southeasterly

In sea areas, occassionally there is an area known as the Doldrums, where the trade winds are
light and variable. Over land the winds can get up to 25 kt.

SUB-TROPICAL HIGHS
Created by the upper level air from the Equator being deflected by the geostrophic force.
Eventually the flow is near parallel to the parallels of latitude at 30N/S. The sub-tropical highs
are seen in both hemispheres in summer and winter.

The source area for the trade winds.

TEMPERATE LOW
The area where the sub-tropical and polar airmasses meet in each hemisphere. An area of
convergence, the temperate low is defined by travelling depressions forming on the polar front.
These travelling depressions appear on the pressure chart with sufficient frequency for them to
appear permanent.

The circulation described is bounded by low temperatures at the poles and high temperatures at
the Equator. To maintain a temperature balance the air must move between the poles and the
Equator. At irregular periods North-South surges do occur which distort the climatological pattern.
The best example of this is El Nino.

POLAR HIGH
The polar high is apparent in both hemispheres. The Antarctic polar high is similar to the ideal
circulation and is a near constant feature. The Arctic polar high is not so permanent. The area is
surrounded by land and suffers from regular travelling depressions which remove the high
pressure system.

PREVAILING SURFACE WINDS

WESTERLY WINDS
The outflow of air on the polar side of each sub-tropical high is deflected by the geostrophic
forces. These forces create mainly westerly winds in both hemispheres. These winds are often
strong, especially in the Southern Hemisphere between 40S and 60S where they are known as
the Roaring Forties.

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Climatology-The World Climate Chapter 25

EASTERLY WINDS
The outflow of air from the polar high pressure regions results in the formation of easterly winds
at the surface in high latitudes. In reality the polar highs are less well defined than the idealised
circulation. The polar easterlies are therefore variable.

CLIMATIC ZONES
Because the zones are essentially the product of solar heating, the pressure zones change
latitude with the seasonal movement of the sun. These pressure zones in turn produce climatic
zones. The pressure zones are complex and depend upon the nature of the surface of the Earth
and the movement of the sun.

Because rising air cools, in the temperate and equatorial low pressure areas large amounts of
cloud and precipitation are found. At the poles and sub-tropical high belts subsiding air disperses
any cloud and dry areas occur.

EQUATORIAL CLIMATE (0 TO 10 LATITUDE)

This area is also known as humid tropical and occurs up to 10 either side of the Equator. Over
the sea areas, light winds, high temperature, and high humidity are apparent all year. Convective
activity prevails giving heavy showers and TS. The slack pressure gradient causes strong sea
breezes on coasts. The zone has two rainy seasons which occur at the equinoxes in March and
September when the sun crosses the Equator.

Neither rainy season is a distinct feature, the days are wetter than normal.

TROPICAL TRANSITION CLIMATE (10 TO 20 LATITUDE)

Also known as the Savannah. Zones occur in both hemispheres. The area has a marked wet and
dry season associated with the passage of the sun. In the area nearest the Equator there is a
possibility of two wet seasons. The edge of the area nearest the pole only has one wet season.
The amount of rain decreases as the latitude increases. In winter the area is one of dry trade
winds. In summer there are belts of equatorial trade winds. Temperatures are fairly high
throughout the year. Annual and diurnal temperature ranges increase with latitude.

ARID SUB-TROPICAL (20 TO 35 LATITUDE)

Also known as the Steppe. The edge of the equatorial low pressure area is not well defined. This
area is always under the influence of the sub-tropical high pressure belt. The subsiding air is
cloudless and hot. In the summer there are large diurnal and annual temperature ranges. This
area contains most of the Earths deserts:

In the Northern Hemisphere Sahara, Arabia, Arizona

In the Southern Hemisphere Kalahari, Australia

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Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

Trade winds flow and are consistent in direction. In the desert interior there is little or no rain.
Bordering the desert is the Steppe. An area of treeless plains with short rainy seasons. In the
Northern hemisphere this area is the region north of the deserts in winter, south of the deserts in
summer. Steppe regions include:

Algeria
The Veldt of South Africa
Central and southern Russia

The upper winds are westerly sub-tropical jet streams.

MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE (35 TO 40 LATITUDE)

A warm temperate transition zone, which exhibits the following:

In Winter

Disturbed temperate climate

Travelling frontal depressions
Prevailing westerly winds
Cloud and precipitation
Cool and unsettled

In Summer

Dry sub-tropical climate

Anticyclonic in nature
Hot fine sunny weather
Land and sea breezes on the coasts
Westerly upper winds

The areas of the world include California, the Mediterranean, Central Chile, and the cape area of
South Africa.

DISTURBED TEMPERATE (40 TO 65 LATITUDE)

The weather is controlled by travelling frontal depressions. Less frequently high pressure systems
may affect the area. The winds are normally westerly. There is no dry season. In winter the polar
front lows are more frequent. Winters are cold and in Western Europe wet. Gale force winds are
experienced at any time.

The areas of the world include Western Europe and New Zealand

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Climatology-The World Climate Chapter 25

POLAR CLIMATE (65 TO 90 LATITUDE)

Around the edge of the polar zone is the Tundra. The mean temperature of this area rises above
0C for only a few months of the year. Subsoil temperatures remain below 0C permanently,
giving the term perma frost. No trees are found in this area. The vegetation consists of grass,
lichens, and moss.

The area is subject to 24 hours darkness for 3 months in winter and 24 hours daylight for 3
months in summer. The area is generally anticyclonic which is occasionally replaced by travelling
depressions. The travelling depressions are more common in the Northern Hemisphere.

MODIFICATIONS TO THE IDEALISED CIRCULATION

The seasonal movement of the sun distorts the pressure zones. To allow for this movement
climatology takes two extremes, the months of January and July.

The Earth is assumed to have a uniform surface. In the standard pressure and temperature
variations for January and July the complications of large land and sea masses become
apparent.

GLOBAL TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

All climate and weather, energy, and movement are caused by solar energy. The weather is
related to the temperature distribution over the Earth. In the ideal case the temperature
decreases from the Equator to the poles evenly. In the Southern Hemisphere this is nearly the
case and in the temperature distribution charts for January and July the isotherms nearly follow
the lines of latitude. In the Northen Hemisphere the distribution is distorted by the large land
masses.

MEAN SEA LEVEL TEMPERATURES JANUARY

This is the Southern hemisphere summer.

Figure 25.4 Average temperature distribution in January

The highest temperatures occur between S10 to S20 over the land areas. At these latitudes the
sea temperatures are lower than land temperatures at the same latitude. For example, at 20S
the temperature over the land is 25C to 30C, while over the sea it is 20C to 25C.
Meteorology (Rev Q407) 25-7
Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

The coldest temperatures are found over the Northern Hemisphere land masses. Note the
extremes are found in Canada and Siberia. The isotherms are distorted by the land masses in
both hemispheres. In the Northern Hemisphere the relatively warm temperatures of the North
Atlantic and Pacific contrasts to the colder land temperatures.

MEAN SEA LEVEL TEMPERATURE JULY

The Northern Hemisphere summer.

Figure 25.5 Average temperature distribution in July

The highest temperatures are over the land between N20 and N40. Sea temperatures are slightly
lower than the land temperatures. Note that the extremes occur over the land masses of South
America, Africa, and South East Asia.

Over the Southern hemisphere oceans there are no land masses to distort the isotherms and
they parallel the lines of latitude.

On both charts the highest isotherm value is emboldened. This marks the position of the heat
equator, or the equatorial low pressure area. This belt is known as the Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ). This is discussed in the next chapter.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN TEMPERATURE

In tropical regions the mean temperature only varies by about 5C throughout the year. This is
more apparent over large ocean areas. The largest temperature variations are found over the
large land masses such as Northern USA and Siberia.

In the Southern Hemisphere the lack of large land masses mean little temperature variation
throughout the year.

The polar fronts are more apparent in the summer than the winter. In the North Atlantic the polar
front lies:

In Summer Newfoundland to the North of Scotland

In Winter Florida to South West England

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Climatology-The World Climate Chapter 25

UPPER AIR TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION

The upper air temperature is controlled by the surface temperature. Because the height of the
tropopause is higher over the Equator than the poles the 2C lapse rate applies over a greater
atmospheric depth. The diagram below gives an illustration of the temperature deviation in the
upper atmosphere. The temperature at the tropical tropopause is likely between -75 to -80C. At
the poles -55C.

Figure 25.6 Vertical cross section of the circulation in the northern hemisphere

WORLD PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

Temperature variations found across the world can link to the January and July Pressure charts.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 25-9

Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

MEAN SEA LEVEL PRESSURE JANUARY

The high and low pressure areas are very apparent on the chart.

Figure 25.7 Global pressure distribution in January

Figure 25.6 shows low and high pressures that relate to the idealised circulation. In January the
sun is overhead the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemnisphere. The warm air over
Australia, Africa, and South America creates surface low pressure areas. These low pressure
areas break up the sub-tropical high pressure belts between 20S to 40S. In the Northern
Hemisphere the sub-tropical high is apparent over the oceans at 30N. The land masses
distorting the picture because of the well established cold anticyclones. The Siberian high is the
dominant feature of the Eurasian land mass.

There are two mean low pressure areas:

North Atlantic The Icelandic low

North Pacific The Aleutian low

Neither of these pressure areas is permanent. Travelling depressions are so common that they
show up as a permanent low pressure area on the chart.

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Climatology-The World Climate Chapter 25

MEAN SEA LEVEL PRESSURE JULY

The sun is now overhead the Tropic of Cancer.

Figure 25.8 Global pressure distribution in July

In the southern hemisphere the sub-tropical high is well established. The pressure system moved
to approximately 30S. This picture is near the ideal pattern discussed earlier.

The sub-tropical high pressure areas in the northen hemisphere moved north to 35N. These
areas are now more dominant than in January. The Siberian High is replaced by a low pressure
area which extends over the land masses of India and the Gulf States. The Monsoon Low, or
Baluchistan Low, dominates the area.

The low pressure areas in the North Atlantic and the North Pacific are now weaker and retreat
northwards as the high pressure systems move north.

Meteorology (Rev Q407) 25-11

Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

UPPER WINDS
The temperature decreases in the troposphere from the tropics to the poles. The thermal wind
component in both hemispheres is therefore westerly. The mean circulation is also westerly.

The wind circulates around the upper air depressions at each pole.

Southern Hemisphere
Outside the tropics the winds follow the ideal circulation. The prevailing westerlies at
temperate latitudes increase with height.

Northern Hemisphere
The same applies, with westerly winds increasing with height.

The higher wind speeds associated with jet streams are transient in the temperate latitudes. The
sub-tropical jet streams are a normal feature of the meteorological chart.

MEAN UPPER WIND JANUARY

Figure 25.9 Mean global upper winds in January

The normal flow is westerly. South of the Equator is an easterly flow. This flow is never greater
than 40 kt, normally 15 to 25 kt.

The mean position of the sub-tropical jet stream is:

Northern Hemisphere
North Africa to Japan passing over the Persian Gulf. The highest wind speeds in the
world are found along the Chinese/Japanese Coast.

Southern Hemisphere
Approximately 40S
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Climatology-The World Climate Chapter 25

The polar front jet streams do not appear on mean wind charts normally as they are a transient
feature. Strong wind speeds occur along the east coast of North America.

The strong winds over the coastal areas of the USA and China are caused by the strong
temperature gradient found between the cold polar air over the land and the warm tropical
maritime air over the sea.

MEAN UPPER WIND JULY

The sub-tropical jet stream moves north in the Northern Hemisphere to 40N to 45N.
Temperature gradients are now weaker in this hemisphere and the mean speeds reduce.

In the Southern Hemisphere the sub-tropical jet moves north to 30S. The highest speeds being
towards Australia and the South Pacific

Away from the Equator the winds are generally westerly. Easterly winds do affect the Equatorial
region with the possibility of an easterly jet stream over India up to 70 kt at 50 000 ft. The polar
front jet stream in the Northern Hemisphere is less evident although strong winds are
experienced over the eastern seaboard of the USA.

In the Southern Hemisphere the polar front jet is approximately 50S.

Figure 25.10 Mean global upper winds in July

Note the position of the easterly winds:

In January Between 10N and 20S

In July Between 20N and 10S

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Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

INTER TROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE (ITCZ)

The Equatorial low moves across the Earths surface with the movement of the sun. The
Equatorial low is fed with trade winds from the two sub-tropical high pressure belts and because
of these convergent winds is termed the ITCZ.

ITCZ JANUARY
Maximum heating of the land mass is in the southern hemisphere.

Figure 25.11 Position of the ITCZ in January

The effect of heating the land mass moves the ITCZ well south of the Equator over the land
areas. Over the sea areas the ITCZ is just north or follows the line of the Equator.

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Climatology-The World Climate Chapter 25

ITCZ JULY
The ITCZ is moved north of the Equator by the heating of the land masses.

Figure 25.12 Position of the ITCZ in July

The general position of the ITCZ is well north of the Equator. The most northerly position is over
China at 45N. There is little travel over the sea areas, and over the Atlantic and the Pacific the
ITCZ lies between 10N and 15N.

STABILITY AND MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE ITCZ

The trade winds that flow into the ITCZ are from a relatively dry and stable area, originating from
the sub-tropical high pressure belt. The passage of the air over warmer seas towards the ITCZ
produces instability due to heating from below; this coupled with a rapid increase in moisture
content due to evaporation in to the air at lower levels means convective cloud formation.

ITCZ WEATHER
There are wide variations in the weather along the ITCZ. Over the land the ITCZ is often very
narrow and resemble a temperate latitude cold front. Over the sea the ITCZ varies between 30 to
300 nm wide. The cloud varies between fair weather CU to CB.

INTER TROPICAL FRONT (ITF/FIT)

Most of the Equatorial region is water. The converging airstreams in these areas are very similar
in both moisture content and temperature. This gives rise to lines of CU and CB. The approach is
the same whether from the north or the south.

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Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

On approach into the ITCZ the weather is:

Fair weather cumulus

Due to heating CU with great depth form. There is usually an inversion from between
3000 ft to 8000 ft.
CB form with the cloud tops possibly over 50 000 ft.
If there are stable layers at mid-levels then CU build up ceases and extensive
Stratiform layers can form.

The main aspect of the ITCZ is the potential for the warm moist air to produce heavy cloud and
heavy precipitation.

Figure 25.13 Cairculation in connection with the ITCZ

If the air stream has a continental track then the change in moisture content and temperature is
often quite marked. Normally, when the ITCZ travels over the land the term ITF/FIT is used.

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Climatology-The World Climate Chapter 25

LOW LEVEL WINDS

LOW LEVEL WINDS JANUARY
Outside 40S.40N the winds are generally westerly. The greatest deviation is over the Northern
Hemisphere.

Figure 25.14 Global low level winds in January

The Southern Hemisphere flow is similar to the ideal flow. At approximately 40S the Roaring
Forties blow. Because the ITCZ is south of the Equator in places, the north east trade winds
cross the Equator. As they cross the Equator they are influenced by the geostrophic force in the
Southern Hemisphere and become the north west monsoon winds of the southern hemisphere.

Monsoon Winds
Monsoon is derived from the Arabic for season. The monsoon winds blow quite steadily
for long periods near the ITCZ. The monsoon winds are often the trade winds. The trade
winds are considered to exist up to 10 000 ft.

Outflow of air from the Siberian High moves over China and Japan. The winds become North
easterly and follow the chinese coast to the coast of Malaysia.

High pressure over the north west indian plain results in air flowing down the ganges valley. This
air meets with the North easterly monsoon from the Siberian High.

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Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

LOW LEVEL WINDS JULY

The ITCZ moves over the Asian continent, as far as 45N over China. The south east trade winds
become the south west monsoon winds as they cross the Equator.

Outside 40S/40N the winds are predominantly westerly.

Figure 25.15 Global low level winds in July

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Climatology-The World Climate Chapter 25

CLIMATIC SUMMARY
Climate Weather Summary
Polar climate Over the arctic anti-cyclonic regions, including NE Canada and
the most northern Russia.
Warmest month always below 10C.
Sporadic influences from travelling cyclones.
Cold temperate Warm summer months, usually above 10 C, winter months
climate usually below 3 C.
or Subdivided into two regions:
Moist mid-latitude Sub-arctic Canada, N. Sweden, Finland towards Siberia
climates with cold Humid Continental Sweden, Eastern Europe, SE. Russia,
winters N Japan and NE USA.
Warm temperate The coldest month is below 18C but never lower than 3C,
climate distinct summer and winter seasons are present.
or Subdivided into three groups:
Moist mid-latitude Mediterranean climate In the Mediterranean area but
climates with mild also in California, SW Australia, and SW South Africa.
winters. East coast or humid subtropical climate China, S
Japan, SE USA, Argentina, SE South Africa, E Australia.
West coast or marine Western Europe, NW-coast USA,
SE Chile, New Zealand.
Arid (dry) climates Minimal precipitation most of the year.
Divisions include:
Arid desert North Africa, The Middle East towards
Himalayas, the interior of Australia, from N Mexico into
SW USA, the west coast of South America, and Africa
outside the equator area.
Steppe Great plains in USA, Interior of Asia north of the
Himalayas, around the deserts in South America, Africa
and Australia.

Tropical moist Temperatures above 18 C year round, significant rainfall usually

climates more than 1500 mm.
Subdivisions include:
Tropical rain forest The Amazon lowland, the Far East
islands from Sumatra to New Guinea and the Congo river
basin in Africa.
Tropical monsoon The coasts of Southeast Asia, India
and NE South America.
Savannah climate Central America, south central and
eastern Africa, in parts of India, Southeast Asia and in N
Australia.

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Chapter 25 Climatology-The World Climate

25-20 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

INTRODUCTION
This chapter looks at the prevailing winds of the world and the effect of ocean currents on the
climate.

EUROPE AND THE MEDITERRANEAN

MISTRAL

Figure 26.1 The Mistral

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

A cold wind in the winter and early spring. The wind blows down the Rhone Valley in the South of
France in to the Gulf of Lions. The wind is a combination of three factors:

Katabatic effect
Ravine effect
The holding of a suitable pressure system over the Gulf of Genoa

The wind is Northerly, cold and of gale force. At certain times the winds can reach 70 to 80 kt.

As the wind blows over the sea it becomes unstable and CB may form.

BORA
A strong katabatic wind of up to 100 kt, that blows down the Balkan Plateau and Dalmation coast
in winter.

Bora

Figure 26.2 The Bora

Over the Balkan Plateau the wind is dry and cloudless but is still strong and turbulent.

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The wind is north-easterly and of gale force. Like the Mistral, as this cold wind blows over the
warm sea instability occurs producing CB.
The wind is enhanced by some ravine effect and the possibility of depressions which are
apparent at this time of year in the Adriatic.

ETESIAN WIND
A summer wind which blows from the north over Greece and the Aegean. A similar wind blows
over Turkey and is known as the Meltemi.

High
Etesian
or Low
Meltemi

Figure 26.3 The Etesian wind and the Meltemi

The wind is northerly and cool. The blowing of this wind can bring relief from the normal heat
wave conditions which are apparent in this region at this time of year. The wind regularly blows
between 10 to 30 kt, gusting to 40 kt at times.

The wind is caused by the meeting of the air from the Azores High and the Baluchistan Low.

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

GREGALE
A strong north easterly wind which blows over the Ionian Sea and the Mediterranean in the
second half of the year. The wind can reach gale force and last for 2 to 3 days. The prevailing
conditions are low cloud, rain, and poor visibility.

Gregale

Figure 26.4 The Gregale

The wind is not especially cold.

LEVANTER
A humid easterly wind which blows over Gibraltar when there is anticyclonic weather over Spain.

Figure 26.5 Cap cloud at the Rock of Gibraltar

The air is generally moist after its sea track. It is not a strong wind but its passage is
characterised by the cap cloud that covers the Rock of Gibraltar.

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Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents Chapter 26

High

Levanter

Figure 26.6 The Levanter

The wind can blow at any time of year but is more prevalent during June to October

VENDEVALE
A south westerly wind that affects the Straits of Gibraltar at the beginning and end of winter. The
wind brings heavy rain.

Vendevale

Figure 26.7 The Vendevale

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

SIROCCO
A southerly wind that blows in the winter months. The wind is hot and dusty as it blows in
advance of travelling depressions moving from west to east in the Mediterranean.

Sirocco

Ghibli
Khamsin
Low
Low
Low

Figure 26.8 The Sirocco, Ghibli and Khamsin

As the wind progresses over the sea it becomes hot and humid. The moistening of the air cools
and stabilises the wind. Eventually low stratus, drizzle, or advection fog are formed.

A similar wind blows over the Libyan desert and is called the Ghibli.

KHAMSIN
The Khamsin is similar to the Sirocco.

Originating over the desert the wind is supposed to blow for 50 days (the Arabic for 50 is Kham).
A southerly wind of late winter and Spring in Egypt occurring ahead of travelling depressions.

The wind is more persistent than the Sirocco because traveling depressions tend to slow down as
they reach the Eastern Mediterranean basin. It is hot and dry.

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Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents Chapter 26

AFRICA
HABOOB
Hab is Arabic for blow. This wind occurs in the Sudan in the afternoons and evenings between
May and September when the ITCZ is to the North.

Haboob

Figure 26.9 The Haboob

Moist air flows in from the Indian Ocean at both low and upper levels and convection produces
large CB. Ahead of the CB the squally winds raise dust storms to great heights.

As it approaches the Haboob is associated with an increase in wind speed and reduction in
visibility.

The dust storm is followed by torrential rain and conditions begin to improve.

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

HARMATTAN
The Harmattan is a north or north easterly wind over West Africa and the Gulf of Guinea. The
wind is dependent on the position of the ITCZ.

Figure 26.10 The Harmattan in July and January respectively

In the Northern Hemisphere summer the ITCZ is well north of the Equator and the Gulf of Guinea
and West Africa are subject to the trade south westerly flow of the trade winds that cross the
Equator. The weather is typically equatorial.

In the Northen Hemisphere winter the ITCZ retreats over the Equator and West Africa is subject
to a hot, dry, dusty wind from the Sahara. It is known as the Doctor by Europeans because of its
dry characteristics rather than the humid tropical climate of the summer period.

Temperatures can reach 40C with dew points as low as 7C.

Dust carried by the wind can cause serious deteriorations in visibility up to 5000 ft.

SIMOON
The Simoon originates in the desert in the heat of the afternoon in Africa and the Middle East.
Simoon literally means poison, which sums up the characteristics of this wind.

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Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents Chapter 26

Thermal Low

Figure 26.11 The Simoon

The thermal lows formed carry large amounts of sand and dust. A summer and autumn
phenomena which can last up to about 20 minutes.

ASIA
NORWESTER
Violent convective squalls which occur in Bengal/Assam. They are named after the direction from
which they come. Normally a summer phenomena.

The storms can occur as frequently as every 3 days.

Norwester

Figure 26.12 The Norwester

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

SHAMAL
A north to north westerly wind that blows over Iraq during the summer months. The wind is
persistent during the day carrying a large amount of sand and dust in its wake. Visibility in this
wind is very poor.

Baluchistan
Low

Figure 26-13 The Shamal

At night the visibility may improve but in strong Shamal conditions the visibility may remain
throughout the 24 hour period.

SUMATRAS
The Sumatras are strong squalls with violent CB. The winds blow at night during the south west
monsoon in the Malacca Straits between Sumatra and Malaysia. The high ground in Sumatra
and Malaysia allows a katabatic flow to start at night. As the cold air flows over the warm sea
convection brings large CB.

Figure 26.14 The Sumatras

The Sumatras are characterised by the formation of arches over the Malacca Straits when the
anvils of adjacent CB meet.
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Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents Chapter 26

THE INDIAN MONSOON

THE WINTER MONSOON
Starting from December to February, the monsoon is fully established over India between
January and February. High pressure is centred to the north west of the continent with an outflow
of air. The Siberian high is the dominant feature with north-westerly winds flowing over China.

Figure 26.15 The winter monsoon

The air is warm and dry so the weather is fine with little cloud and moderate to good visibility.
These conditions hold good to the lee of the landmasses over the sea. There is considerable
modification in other parts.

The winds flowing down the Ganges valley are turned to become the north east monsoon of the
Bay of Bengal. Due to the long sea passage over a warm sea a large amount of moisture is
picked up resulting in the south east coast of India and Sri Lanka experiencing considerable rain
with CU and CB giving TS. Over the low lying areas fog may form but this clears once the sun
rises.

Occasionally depressions originating in the Mediterranean penetrate across India and Pakistan.
The number and paths of these depressions vary considerably from year to year. They do seem
to depend on the intensity of the Siberian high.

In some parts of northwest India the winter rain is associated only with the passage of these
disturbances.

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

THE HOT SEASON

The hot season is the inter-monsoon period between March and June. It includes mainly light and
variable winds with scattered TS. The TS is associated with depressions from the west. These
storms tend to become more frequent as the season advances. The feature of this season is the
thermal lows which form in the north west of India leading to:

Very high temperatures

Quite frequent sand and dust storms
Severe wind squalls associated with the above as with TS

Between March and May in the vicinity of Calcutta there are violent storms known as the
Norwester.

THE SUMMER MONSOON

The summer monsoon is from June to September. The monsoon winds reach India after a long
sea passage where ocean temperatures are 27C. The south-easterly trade winds cross the
Equator and become south-westerly with a long maritime track.

Figure 26.16 The summer monsoon

The air is moist and unstable.

The instability and the nature of the land mass, especially near the coast leads to considerable
orographic and convectional rain. The heaviest rain is in East Bengal and Bangladesh during this
monsoon.

Places to the lee of the mountain masses have a lighter rainfall. The southwest monsoon is
periodic where there are a few days of strong winds and bad weather interspersed with short
periods of fine weather. A feature of the onset of the southwest monsoon of India is the sudden
way in which it is established and the regularity of its onset.

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Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents Chapter 26

THE RETREATING MONSOON SEASON

The retreating monsoon season is from September to December. By the second half of
September the southwest monsoon is retreating south. The winds are generally light and variable
with TS at times. These are less severe than those of the southwest monsoon. In the north fine
weather is soon established.

The fine weather spreads gradually south until by December it covers the whole of the Indian
sub-continent.

SEASON OF MAXIMUM CYCLONE ACTIVITY

The Bay of Bengal is the most affected area where most storms move north towards the Ganges
valley. Associated with these storms is a wide band of cloud and rain which affects the coastal
areas of Madras. Tropical cyclones do occur in the Arabian Sea but are less frequent. They can
occur in the March to June period.

THE FAR EAST MONSOON

CHINA, JAPAN, SOUTH EAST ASIA, INDONESIA, AND MALAYSIA

Figure 26.17 The Far East monsoon

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

THE WINTER MONSOON

The winter monsoon is also known as the north easterly monsoon. This winter monsoon is
normally fully established by mid-October and lasts until late March/early April. The air flowing out
from central Asia is very cold and dry. As this air flows towards the equator and over the South
China Sea it is warmed and hence picks up moisture. It is during this season that we get the
Crachin.

Drizzle, low ST, mist, and fog between January and April
Forms in the South China Sea and in the coastal area between Cape Cambodia and
Shanghai
The Crachin is caused by the interaction between the tropical maritime and polar
maritime air circulating round the eastern side of the Asiatic anti cyclone

Further inland the cool and dry northeast monsoon is experienced in southern China, Burma and
Thailand. To the north the mountains of Japan create orographic instability producing rain and
snow.

As the air moves south of 20N the surface warming increases the degree of instability and the
humidity of the air. Over Malaysia and to the northeast this causes development of CU and CB
with the resultant heavy showers and TS.

FROM APRIL TO MID JUNE

The north east monsoon degenerates as the Siberian high collapses. The winds become
variable, however, in May there is a tendency for south or south westerly winds. Frontal
depressions frequently affect the north of the area.

In the south, because of the moist tropical air the weather is warm and humid with CU type
clouds. Associated with the cloud are showers and TS.

THE SUMMER MONSOON

The southwest monsoon is fully established in the Far East in June and lasts until August. Over
China and Japan this monsoon is fully established in July and August. The weather is hot and
humid with heavy rain and TS near and over the land. Over the sea where there is shelter from
the land the conditions are better. Periods of broken Cu with quiet weather alternating with
showery periods. Morning mist and fog may affect Japan. Singapore is affected by thundery
weather. Many early morning storms are due to a build up in the Straits of Malacca, or the
Sumatras.

SUMATRAS
Violent, thundery squalls where the CB have taken on a characteristic arched shape. They form
at night due to the katabatic wind flowing down the mountains of Sumatra and the hills of
Malaysia with the winds meeting over the sea. Convergent lifting occurs. By dawn these storms
reach their maximum development but clear as the sun warms the land and the katabatic flow
ceases.

During this season, the seas and coasts north of 15N are potentially affected by typhoons with
the main activity period being between July and September.

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Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents Chapter 26

FROM SEPTEMBER TO MID OCTOBER

The southwest monsoon is receding and the north east monsoon develops as the Siberian high
develops. This period shows an increasing number of fair periods. These periods are interrupted
particularly in the north by the passage of active cold fronts which are usually narrow belts of
thundery rain and squalls from a northerly direction.

Towards the end of October there is usually a fairly abrupt change to the northeast winds. This is
the definite onset of the northeasterly monsoon.

NORTH AMERICA
BLIZZARD
A blizzard is comprised of strong to gale force winds that are accompanied by falling or drifting
snow that is whipped up by the strong surface wind. It is prevalent in Northern USA and Canada.
Siberia has a similar wind called the Buran.

CHINOOK
A warm dry wind that is also known as the Snow Eater. This foehn wind produces a rapid rise in
temperature on the lee side of the rocky mountains. The wind blows in Alberta and Colorado.

SOUTH AMERICA
PAMPERO
The Pampero is a strong cold wind that develops behind cold fronts blowing at latitudes around
40S. At this latitude the weather is influenced by the passage of depressions and anti-cyclones
moving to the east.

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

Warm
Humid
Air

Cold
Dry Air

Figure 26.18 The Pampero

Warm humid air is drawn from the north ahead of a depression. The passage of the depression
then sees violent line squalls in association with the cold polar air flow from the south or west.

This wind is most frequent in summer but can flow any time of the year.

ZONDA
The South American equivalent of the Chinook. The wind blows off the lee slopes of the Andes.

AUSTRALIA
BRICKFIELDER
A summer wind which is hot dry and dusty and affects the areas of New South Wales and
Victoria.

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Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents Chapter 26

SOUTHERLY BUSTER
The Southerly Buster is similar to the Pampero occurring at latitudes around 40S.

The wind blows most frequently in summer between travelling summer anticyclones when cold
unstable polar air moves behind a cold front which trails well to the south. The contrast between
the cold air and hot summer air is marked. Active line squalls form with strong winds. Low cloud
and poor visibility.

OCEAN CURRENTS
In the diagram below, the sub tropical high pressure systems give rise to warm water currents on
the west side of oceans and to cold water currents on the east side of oceans.

Figure 26.19 Global ocean currents

In an area of persistent offshore winds an upswell of cold water can be developed from the ocean
beds. This increases the effect of the cold water current and decreases the effect of the warm
water current.

Figure 26.20 The effect of land on ocean currents

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

COLD WATER COAST

Due to the low rate of evaporation from the nearby cold ocean the air has a low vapour content.
Little cloud or precipiation forms. The cold water coasts bound the desert regions of the world.

During the night, cooling can produce advection fog or low stratus which disperses once the sun
is up.

WARM WATER COAST

Over both land and sea the air is humid due to the rapid evaporation from the warm ocean.

Over the land by day and the sea at any time the temperature is relatively high which results in
CU forming thunderstorms.

At night the diurnal variation of the surface temperature can cause CU clouds to disperse or form
SC. These clouds redevelop once insolation starts again.

Over the sea by night the CU persist because of the relatively constant temperature. It is these
areas that are suitable for tropical revolving storms to form.

SUMMARY OF THE LOCAL WINDS OF THE WORLD

Wind Location Season Brief Description
Bora Dalmatian Coast of Winter North Easterly
Croatia Cold
Strong gale force wind
Brickfielder Australia Summer Northerly
Hot and Dusty
Blows from the interior
Chinook North America Anytime Foehn wind blowing
over the Rockies
Etesian Aegean Sea, Greece Summer Northerly
Fine and clear
Foehn Alps Anytime Warm, dry stable wind
to the lee of mountains
Ghibli Libya Late summer Southerly
Hot and damp when
over the sea
Blows ahead of a
depression
Gregale Malta and environs Winter North Easterly
Gales and squalls
Persistent
Haboob Egypt and Sudan Anytime Sandstorm ahead of
advancing
thunderstorms
Harmattan West Africa November to March East North Easterly
Hot, dry and dusty
from the desert

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Wind Location Season Brief Description

Khamsin Egypt Late summer From the Sahara
Hot and dry
Levanter Straits of Gibraltar March to Summer Easterly
Hot and damp
Light winds
Meltemi Turkey Summer North Westerly to
North Easterly
Fine and clear
Mistral Rhone Valley, Anytime, but more Northerly
France predominant in late Cold, gale force wind
autumn to winter Often clear conditions
Pampero Argentina Winter South Westerly
Gales with line squalls

Shamal Persian Gulf Summer North Westerly

Hot and dusty
Cloudless, calm nights
Simoon Palestine and Syria Summer and autumn Southerly to South
Easterly
Hot, dry and dusty
Sumatra Malacca Straits South West Monsoon Squally
between Sumatra onset Thundery and wet
and Malaysia
Southerly Buster Australia Anytime, more Squall line
marked in January Cool wind
and February
Vendevale Gibraltar and Eastern Spring and autumn South Westerly
Spain Strong squally wind
Thunderstorms
Zonda Argentina Anytime Foehn wind

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Chapter 26 Climatology-Prevailing Winds and Ocean Currents

26-20 Meteorology (Rev Q407)

TROPICAL REVOLVING STORM (TRS)
The TRS is a very confined region of low pressure where the Isobars are tightly packed together.
TRSs mainly occur on the western side of an ocean during the summer and autumn period for
that hemisphere.

Figure 27.1 Areas affected by tropical revolving storms

Note that there are no TRSs in the Southern Atlantic. This is probably because the ITCZ never
travels into the South Atlantic and one of the requisites of these storms is that they require
intense heating and low pressure. The water temperature is, therefore, too low. In the Atlantic
TRSs are called hurricanes, in the Indian Ocean they are called cyclones, and in the Western
Pacific they are known as typhoons.

The mechanism of the TRS is not fully understood, but they seem to breed in the vicinity of the
ITCZ. The ITCZ provides the convergence that provides high instability and high humidity.

The storms tend to follow an elliptical path, firstly moving westward. If the westward path is
maintained then the storm runs aground and peters out. If the storm moves in an elliptical path
then it turns toward the east and as it moves into higher latitudes loses its vigour.

It is rare for a TRS to form within 5 of the Equator where Coriolis is near to zero.

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CHARACTERISTICS
The TRS forms in defined locations between the ITCZ and the sub tropical high pressure belt.

The formation is in the trade wind belt where the weather is normally fine with fair weather CU.
Occasionally in this area a weak trough forms which moves slowly westward in the trade wind
drift. These are known as Easterly Waves.

Figure 27.2 Easterly waves

The convection in the wave is normally checked by the Trade Wind inversion. If the heat and
humidity at low level are sufficiently high and the wind profile favourable, convection breaks
through the inversion. The sea temperature has to be above 26C. During its motion eastward the
trough is amplified; its convection is intensified; Coriolis force starts a cyclonic airflow, and a
comma cloud can form.

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Climatology-Tropical Revolving Storms and Tornadoes Chapter 27

Figure 27.3 Development of easterly waves

After this development the TRS can form.

The convergence in the trough encourages the development of bands of large CB and CU with
their associated precipitation.

Figure 27.4 Development of a TRS from an easterly wave

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Chapter 27 Climatology-Tropical Revolving Storms and Tornadoes

As the trough grows, the convergence and convection become organised and the pressure at the
surface begins to fall rapidly.

Figure 27.5 Vertical cross section of an easterly wave

A deep depression is formed which is characterised by a central pressure between 900 to 960
hPa (870 hPa is the lowest recorded value). High winds develop between 50 to 100 kt with CB
and torrential rain.

Much of the energy obtained from the latent heat of condensation is released in the atmosphere
as the high humidity is lifted.

The structure of the cloud is still under investigation. However, it is known that the isobars are
roughly circular with the depression having a diameter of 350 nm. A mid latitude depression
has a diameter of approximately 1000 nm and so the smaller diameter reflects a steep pressure
gradient. The winds are strong below 10 000 ft and tend to spiral inwards giving the highest
speeds 10 to 20 nm from the centre of the storm.

Above 25 000 ft the winds spiral outwards carrying with them an extensive cloud table. Other
outward spirals of lesser extent are found at medium and low levels. These can also form cloud
tables.

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The storm has great vertical extent with the CB in excess of 40 000 ft. The centre of the storm is
always marked by the eye which is a roughly circular area with a radius between 10 to 20 nm.
The area is one of subsidence which gives light winds and broken clouds.

Figure 27.6 Vertical cross section of a tropical revolving storm

A wall of CU and CB surrounds the eye; these are formed in patterns which mark the spiralling
nature of the wind.

Stratiform tables appear out of the sides of the storm forming cloud tables. At low level they
consist of SC, at medium level they consist of AC or AS, and at high level they consist of CI or
CS.

Heavy showers accompanied by TS and severe squalls accompany the main wall of cloud.

The most severe weather is just outside the ring of the strongest surface winds which exist just
outside the eye. Satellite imagery can clearly depict the eye and the extent of the cloud.

The storm moves at approximately 15 kt. The speed changes frequently, slowing down as the
path or movement curves. The TRS can then accelerate as it passes 30 latitude where speed of
movement is up to 50 kt.

At lower or higher latitudes cold air is pulled into the system. The TRS develops into a very active
tropical depression. Over Western Europe these depressions can bring Hurricane force winds
with the associated weather of a depression.

If the moisture content of the storm is cut off then the storm dies out. This normally happens when
the storm travels over land.

The warning of the approach of the TRS is now done by satellite. These predictions are not totally
accurate, as the storm tends to move in an erratic manner.

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Chapter 27 Climatology-Tropical Revolving Storms and Tornadoes

VISUAL INDICATIONS OF THE ADVANCE OF THE TRS

Surface Pressure
The diurnal variation in pressure in the tropics is suppressed. The pressure has a
tendency to fall.

Ocean Swell
At coastal sites an abnormally heavy swell can be seen. This is a result of the strong
winds that spread out from the centre of the disturbance.

Cloud
Extensive tables of CI can be detected up to 600 nm from the storm.

TORNADO
The term is applied to disturbances that are also known as whirlwinds. They are common in the
USA and Australia. Even though the Australian continent can have up to 150 disturbances a year
they are rarely reported, as they are much less severe than the storms in the USA.

Figure 27.7 Development of a tornado

The storm consists of a violent circular whirlpool of air shaped like a funnel between
100 to 1000 m in diameter. It is when the funnel reaches the surface that the storm becomes
destructive.

The extremely low central pressure makes the Tornado the most destructive storm known.

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Climatology-Tropical Revolving Storms and Tornadoes Chapter 27

The storm has limited dimensions and is difficult to assess accurately. However, the following is
typical.

Wind speeds can range between 100 to 300 kt.

The Tornado has a twisting appearance due to the strong winds.
The pressure can change by 100 hPa in as little as 50 m.
The advance is between 15 to 20 kt.
Like a TS the Tornado lasts approximately 2 hours.

The Tornado forms in association with a marked trough of low pressure along which there is
marked instability. These troughs are:

Linked to a frontal depression

A single cold frontal trough
A non-frontal trough

These troughs are generated when cold dry air from the western plateau overrides the tropical
maritime air. Instability is generated and this allows the trough to form overland.

If the Tornado forms over the sea it is known as a waterspout. This storm is much less violent and
lasts in the region of 20 minutes.

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Chapter 27 Climatology-Tropical Revolving Storms and Tornadoes

TROPICAL REVOLVING STORM AREAS

Area Formation
West Indies 5 to 10 hurricanes per year
The storms originate in or east of the Caribbean. Movement is
then westerly or northwesterly. Some affect the USA. Most
curve across the islands in the Caribbean or Florida passing
into the North Atlantic.
June to October
West and Central Pacific Tropical Cyclones which form in the area of New and Old
Caledonia
January to March
Western North Pacific Typhoons which affect the Philippines, Hong Kong, and Taiwan
and the China Sea July to October
Bay of Bengal Cyclones occurring in advance of the SW Monsoon in June and
during the retreat of the monsoon in October and November.
Arabian Sea Cyclones form over the sea to the east of Oman to Bombay.
Associated with the ITCZ and the SW monsoon.
Times are the same as those for the Bay of Bengal.
South Indian Ocean Tropical Cyclones in the Madagascar area
December to April
North West Australian Tropical Cyclones, or Willy Willys.
Coast Be careful with this second name, as the Willy Willys are really
an inland dust storm.
These storms occur NW of Darwin but originate in the Timor
Sea.
These storms can flow down the Coral Sea to Brisbane.
Occur between January to March
West African Tornado Occur in the Gulf of Guinea and are severe TS.
These are not technically TRS but an extensive line squall
which affects the area twice a year.
March to May
October to November

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EUROPE
The area lies in the same climatic zone as the North Atlantic and is considered a disturbed
temperate.

In Europe, the flow of weather is determined by the travelling depressions from the Atlantic. In
winter a dominant Siberian high can make the flow change. Norway is the exception where the
coastal mountains, which run north/south, cause a block to east-west flow.

The changes in temperature and weather conditions from summer to winter are less extreme than
the larger continents of Asia and North America.

NORTH WEST EUROPE

The climate is affected by the prevailing south westerly winds which transport warm air from the
North Atlantic drift to the land. The absence of any major topographical barriers allows the
maritime influence to extend deep into Europe. As depressions move into the land mass they
tend to dry out so the rainfall in the east of Europe is only about half that in the west.

The position of the polar front over the North Atlantic has a strong influence over European
weather. Depressions travelling east along it progress well into the continent; especially because
there are few mountains to oppose their progress. The only major topographical barrier is the
Alps which impedes the progress of cold fronts. These fronts slow down and cause widespread
cloud and rain. The final movement of easterly moving depressions is often dictated by the
position of the Siberian High in winter.

The Siberian High can become a dominant feature on the European weather map during the
winter months causing depressions to track around it.

In summer, the low pressure over Siberia and Asia is less dominant and the weaker and less
frequent depressions continue without deflection and follow the line of the polar front.

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TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
JANUARY
The isotherms run north/south indicating the temperature contrast between the mild waters of the
North Atlantic drift and the colder continent. The temperature gradient is much shallower than that
found on the east coast of the USA where the contrast is not as significant except that in
Scandinavia where the Norwegian mountains separate the mild ocean from the severe winter
temperatures of Siberia.

Figure 28.1 Temperature distribution over Europe in January

JULY
The isotherms conform to the lines of latitude and there is little contrast between the land and
water temperatures.

Figure 28.2 Temperature distribution over Europe in July

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
JANUARY
The general pressure distribution is as follows:

Figure 28.3 Pressure distribution over Europe in January

Icelandic Low to the north approximately 1000 hPa.

Azores high (Sub-tropical high) to the south approximately 1020 hPa at 30N.
The Siberian high to the east normally around 1035 hPa.
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The ridge of the Azores high extends eastward over the cold lands of southern Europe and the
Icelandic low deepens. The Siberian high is intensified by the snow covered terrain of
Scandinavia and Eurasia and is the other major influence

JULY

Figure 28.4 Pressure distribution over Europe in July

The Icelandic low intensifies in pressure to 1010 hPa and the Azores high which moves north to
35N is 1025 hPa.

The Siberian high is now replaced by the Baluchistan or monsoon low of India.

The Azores high has deepened and moved north and the Icelandic low has weakened and
moved north.

UPPER WINDS
JANUARY
The upper winds are westerly, normally 40 to 60 kt with frequent jet streams reaching 150 kt
associated with fronts. The jet stream direction is variable because of their positioning in relation
to the travelling depressions.

JULY
The upper winds weaken but are still westerly at 20 to 40 kt. Jet stream speeds are decreased
due to the weaker temperature gradients found in the summer period. Speeds of 100 to 150 kt
are seen.

SURFACE WINDS
JANUARY
The prevailing winds are from the south west. Winds from the east can persist for several days or
even longer when the Siberian high becomes well established over Scandinavia.

JULY
The prevailing winds are still from the west but are weaker.

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HEIGHT OF TROPOPAUSE AND 0C ISOTHERM

JANUARY

Tropopause 35 000 ft
0C Isotherm 2000 ft

JULY

Tropopause 40 000 ft
0C Isotherm 12 000 ft

CLOUD
In winter, like the North Atlantic region, the average cloud cover is 6/8. Cloud types are those
associated with frontal depressions and their respective warm and cold air masses.

In summer the cloud cover reduces slightly to an average of 5/8. Frontal depressions travel the
area less frequently and this small reduction in cloud cover is due to the high incidence of thermal
lows over the continent.

ICING
WINTER
The 0C is low, often at the surface especially in central and eastern Europe. Conditions are
therefore favourable for icing in the extensive cloud of the travelling depressions. High ground in
the region can cause the icing to become severe in warm fronts or the convective clouds which
form in the unstable polar air.

SUMMER
The 0C isotherm rises and the incidence of icing is reduced. With the travelling depressions that
travel across Europe icing can still be a problem at times during the summer months.

PRECIPITATION
The annual rainfall in the west is about double that in the east because of the drying out of the air
as it travels east. Normal rainfall in the west is 1000 mm against 500 mm in the east.

The western coastal parts of the region have the heaviest rainfall in winter. Elsewhere, the
wettest period is late summer and the driest period late winter or early spring.

Precipitation is liable to be snow in winter particularly in the east and south east where the ground
is occasionally snow covered for long periods.

VISIBILITY
WINTER
Greatest problem in Europe is poor visibility due to the high frequency of fog and very low cloud.
Both occur very readily in the maritime air masses and little cooling being required to produce
condensation.

In anticyclonic conditions fog may become widespread and dense, aggravated further by
industrial smoke in the Eastern European states.

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SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
JANUARY
Frontal weather associated with the depressions travelling in from the west. When the pressure is
high then the visibility is often severely reduced by radiation fog.

Frost and severe wintry weather are frequently associated with an easterly flow from the
dominating Siberian high.

Advection fog is occasionally expected during periods of thaw and in coastal areas in spring and
early summer when the sea temperatures are at their lowest.

JULY
Some frontal depressions can still be expected though they are fewer in number. Less vigorous
than in the winter period the depressions still bring typical frontal weather but on a reduced scale.

SPECIAL FEATURES OF EUROPE

WINTER
If a trailing cold front is held up by the Alps in the south of France it can produce a belt of rain and
cloud on the northern slopes. However, more important is the possibility of waves forming on the
front which develop into vigorous secondary depressions which can move rapidly north east with
their associated weather.

Lee side orographic depressions can be formed in Northern Italy.

Occasionally, lows form in the Danube basin, in the south east of the region, due to the incursion
of warm air from the Mediterranean. These low pressure areas give rise to extensive low cloud
which can extend as far as eastern England. Associated precipitation, which may fall as snow, is
frequently heavy.

A low pressure over Scandinavia can bring Arctic air to the west of the region which again brings
snow.

SUMMER
Occasionally, large-scale thermal depressions form over the continent and these lows give rain
and thunder with extensive masses of cloud. The thermal low is most evident over the continental
areas of France and Spain.

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MEDITERRANEAN
An area with a transitional climatic zone:

To the north is the disturbed temperate climate of Europe.

To the south are the arid sub-tropical regions of North Africa.

The weather in the Mediterranean is noted for its marked seasonal variations. The Mediterranean
is a sea surrounded by land. Remember that water warms up and cools down much slower than
land surfaces.

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
JANUARY
The sea is relatively warm but is surrounded by cold land.

JULY
The sea is relatively cool surrounded by warm land.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
JANUARY
The sub-tropical high moves south and the disturbed temperate weather of northwest Europe
penetrates to the Mediterranean.

Figure 28.5 Pressure distribution over the Mediterranean in January

The water is warm compared to the land which leads to low pressure over the sea.

Incursions of cold air over the warm sea, in the western basin of the Mediterranean, help to
create, or enhance, the depressions that reach that area from the Atlantic.

Depressions can enter the Mediterranean via:

The Carcassonne Gap which is between the Pyrenees and the Masif Centrale.
The Straits of Gibraltar.
From the orographic or lee depressions that form over the Gulf of Lyons, Gulf of
Genoa, and the northern Adriatic as a cold front advances from the north or with a
broad northerly airstream over Europe.

Saharan depressions in the lee of the Atlas Mountains travel from the western end of the
Mediterranean to the eastern basin where they:

Slow down
Are sometimes regenerated by polar continental air from Russia and the Balkans
Sometimes continue to the Arabian Gulf
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In the winter, a depression passes through the Mediterranean in approximately 10 days. The
warm fronts associated with these depressions are not very active but the cold fronts can be quite
vigorous.

Depressions following a path close to the northern shores of the Mediterranean cause Italy and
the Balkans to have similar weather to that experienced over the UK. Where depressions follow
the southern coast, there is less cloud and precipitation as the air in the warm sector is from the
Sahara and thus very dry.

Ahead of the warm front the surface wind is southerly or south easterly and is often strong
enough to lift sand and dust off the desert. The obvious result is sand and dust storms causing
hot dusty winds over the Mediterranean (e.g. Sirocco, Ghibli and Khamsin).

JULY
The sub-tropical high-pressure belt moves north and now the sea is colder than the surrounding
land.

Figure 28.6 Pressure distribution over the Mediterranean in July

The Azores high extends over the area giving fine or fair weather. Occasionally, the north west
experiences a depression.

UPPER WINDS
JANUARY
The marked contrast in temperature between cold air from Siberia and warm air from North Africa
leads to a steep temperature gradient over the North African coast at the eastern end of the
Mediterranean.

This sub-tropical jet stream reaches speeds of 100 kt over Cairo and is about 80 kt over Cyprus.
At the western end of the Mediterranean the winds are westerly with a mean speed of 40 kt.

JULY
The upper winds are westerly at approximately 30 kt, due to the sub-tropical jet stream moving
north and reducing in speed.

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SURFACE WINDS
JANUARY
At the eastern end of the Mediterranean, the surface wind is generally westerly to north westerly
but it can be variable. The wind speeds are moderate but can be increased to gale force when
depressions are reinvigorated by cold air from the Siberian high.

In the western basin the winds are moderate westerly to north westerly, but can be gale force
when associated with depressions. Both Mistral and the Bora winds occur.

JULY
The surface winds are predominantly from the north, such as the Etesian. Local sea breezes are
also evident during the day.

SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
JANUARY
The most noticeable features are the winter depressions with their attendant unstable squally
weather. Vigorous cold fronts on the depressions have attendant CU and CB with strong winds
and heavy rainfall. The visibility can deteriorate significantly especially when a Sirocco or
Khamsin is blowing from the south in advance of the depression.

JULY
The pressure is generally high which means warm cloudless conditions. Occasional TS can
generate near high ground.

NORTH ATLANTIC AND NORTH AMERICA

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OVER THE NORTH ATLANTIC
The temperature is regulated by both warm and cold water currents.

Figure 28.7 Sea currents around North America

GULF STREAM
The warm water Gulf Stream from the Caribbean flows up the eastern seaboard of the USA. It
then turns east around the sub tropical high pressure zone and then divides into two distinct
currents. One element, the North Atlantic drift, fetches up against north west Europe and
Scandinavia. It is this current that keeps the coast of Norway, north of the Arctic Circle, ice free
throughout the year.

The second element flows eastward and eventually turns south around the east side of the sub-
tropical high pressure zone (The Azores High).
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CANARIES CURRENT
The cold water current emanates from the more northerly latitudes towards the northwest coast of
Africa. Hence the typical cold water coast of Morocco with a tendency for fog formation over the
Canary Islands and North West coast of Africa.

THE LABRADOR CURRENT

The Labrador Current is the cold water current emanating from high latitudes and flowing south
between Labrador and Greenland. When air, warmed by passing over the warm waters of the
Gulf Stream moves north over this current, advection fog forms. This is a well known feature of
the area known as the Grand Banks off the east coast of Newfoundland. The fog forms frequently
between May and August and can persist for several days at a time.

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION OVER NORTH AMERICA

Land masses heat up and cool down comparatively rapidly. This is certainly noticeable with the
large North American landmass.

JANUARY
The land cools down rapidly, and when looking at a chart of isotherms at surface level you can
see they are tightly packed over the Eastern seaboard. This distribution occurs because of the
considerable temperature difference between the cold land mass and the warm waters of the Gulf
Stream. The steep temperature gradient is typical of the western sides of oceans in winter. The
temperature gradients form because in low latitudes the ocean currents circulate around the sub-
tropical high pressure areas and the flow of warm water from equatorial regions is on the west
side of oceans.

This steep temperature gradient over the eastern seaboard produces a strong thermal wind
component from the south west. Steep temperature gradients and the accompanying strong
thermal wind component form in winter whenever a cold land mass is adjacent to a warm ocean
current.

JULY
The North American landmass is warm. The steeper temperature gradient is now to be found on
the west coast. The clockwise circulation of ocean currents around the North Pacific sub-tropical
high creates a cold water current flowing south from the Aleutian Islands. This results in a cold
water current off the coast of California and the formation of advection fog when the warm moist
air from the Pacific drifts over the cold Californian current. This is very prevalent in the region of
San Francisco.

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PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER THE NORTH ATLANTIC

JANUARY
The general pressure distribution is shown below:

Figure 28.8 Pressure distribution over the North Atlantic in January

Icelandic Low to the north 1000 hPa.

Azores high (Sub-tropical high) to the south 1020 hPa at 30N.
High pressure to the west over the USA.
The Siberian high well to the east, 1035 hPa.

A large number of depressions pass over Iceland in winter creating the mean Icelandic low which
dominates the temperate latitudes. Families of travelling depressions move eastward. The large
landmass of North America allows cold polar air to move well south before meeting warm tropical
air from the Azores high around Florida and Bermuda.

Depressions form and run along a line roughly from Florida to south west England. These
travelling depressions are interspersed with ridges of high pressure.

Polar air depressions (Polar Lows) can form in the polar air as it moves into an area of the North
Atlantic to the North West of the UK. The general movement of these depressions is west to east.

JULY

Figure 28.9 Pressure distribution over the North Atlantic in July

The Azores high intensifies and moves to 35N 1030 hPa.

The Icelandic low is reduced in size with a pressure rise to 1010 hPa.
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The Icelandic Low is less of a dominant feature. The two continental high-pressure zones from
winter are replaced by low-pressure with the monsoon low of India being the predominant feature.

The Polar Front over the North Atlantic, along which we get the travelling depressions changes
position to run from Newfoundland to north of Scotland. Ridges of high pressure and anticyclones
last longer as the contrast in temperature between polar air and tropical air masses is reduced.
Fronts have less marked features and higher sea temperatures reduce the incidence of polar air
depressions.

GENERAL
Depressions that form on the polar front are more frequent in winter with 12 to 14 depressions
travelling per month. In summer, there are fewer depressions and they are much less vigorous:

To the north of the area 6 to 8 per month.

To the south of the area 1 to 2 per month.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION OVER NORTH AMERICA

JANUARY
Because of the cold land mass, the area becomes a centre for high pressure.

JULY
The heated land mass now becomes a centre of low pressure Upper Winds.

UPPER WINDS
JANUARY
The predominant feature is the south west sub-tropical jet stream formed by the large
temperature difference between the cold land and the warm sea.

Strong upper westerly winds prevail in the mid-latitudes normally in conjunction with travelling
depressions on the polar front. The wind direction varies from south west to north west and is
often of jet stream proportions, the speed increasing with height to an average 50 to 60 kt. Jet
stream speeds are between 100 to 200 kt.

JULY
Upper winds are still westerly but the speed decreases to between 40 and 50 kt. Jet streams
become less frequent, however the speeds are still between 100 to 200 kt.

LOW LEVEL WINDS

Over the ocean, the winds are westerly of a moderate speed, stronger in winter than summer.

The winds circulate anti-clockwise around the depressions so that to the north of a depression
exists an easterly flow, whilst to the south of a depression exists a westerly flow.

The north east trade winds blow in the southern part of the area.

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OVER NORTH AMERICA

In winter the winds blow from the north. In summer, the winds blow from the south, except in
Canada where they blow from west to north.

TROPOPAUSE AND 0C ISOTHERM

JANUARY

Tropopause 56 000 ft in the south

30 000 ft in the north
0C Isotherm 10 000 ft in the south
Close to the surface in the north

ICING
The 0C isotherm is low and on the surface on the eastern seaboard of the USA swinging
north to lie to the north of the UK. Conditions are favourable for icing in frontal clouds and
the CU and CB found in the polar air.

PRECIPITATION
Widespread and continuous ahead of warm fronts, showery at, and behind the cold
fronts.

The stable conditions found in the warm sector usually give drizzle. Snow can reach the surface
in the north and north west of the area when the surface temperatures become less than 4C.

JULY

Tropopause 55 000 ft in the south

35 000 ft in the north
0C Isotherm 15 000 ft in the south
10 000 ft in the north

ICING
The 0C isotherm is higher so the incidence of icing is less. It still may present a major
problem.

CLOUD
In winter, an average of 6/8 cover with the cloud types varying dependent on the air mass and
frontal system.

Frontal
Frontal clouds are extensive both horizontally and vertically. They can sometimes extend
from the surface to the tropopause.

Polar Air
The convective cloud behind cold fronts is usually scattered, but often extensive in active
polar air depressions.

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Tropical Air
In the warm sector of frontal depressions, widespread SC exists with tops not above
4000 ft. In anticyclones there is low SC over both sea and land.

In summer, the basic cover remains 6/8 due to the extensive SC in the tropical air.

SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
NORTH AMERICA
Winter
In winter, depressions moving from west to east produce most of the weather. Gale force winds
can produce blizzard conditions with minimal visibility. Precipitation, often in the form of snow,
accompanies the depressions. As spring arrives then the Chinook is a feature to the lee side of
the Rocky Mountains.

Summer
TS can build up over the mountains and also form when moist air from the Gulf of Mexico is over
ridden by cold dry air from the high mountain plateaus. The instability that results encourages the
formation of tornadoes in the mid-west especially in spring and early summer.

NORTH ATLANTIC
Over the ocean, the season for tropical revolving storms in the low latitudes is June to October.
About 3 to 5 hurricanes occur per year. These storms form in the low latitudes near the ITCZ
initially moving west then turning north and finally curving to the north east. If the TRSs reach the
higher latitudes they take on the characteristics of a severe temperate latitude depression. These
often reach northwest Europe bringing the wet windy conditions normally associated with a
travelling low in winter.

Advection fog occurs between May and August on the east coast of Canada and in the south
west approaches to the English Channel during spring and early summer

AFRICA
With most of the continent lying within the tropics there is no defined winter or summer period.
The most important aspect of the weather is the ITCZ and its seasonal movement. Because of
this movement there are clearly defined wet and dry seasons over the continent.

The northern area borders the Mediterranean and experiences the weather and temperature
changes of that zone.

The extreme south is outside the Tropic of Capricorn so can also be said to experience
Mediterranean style weather.

In January the land mass to the south of the equator receives the greatest amount of heat and
therefore has the higher temperatures. In July the thermal equator lies to the north.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
The most distinctive feature is the ITF/FIT, which is directly influenced by the sun, which, in turn,
creates a low pressure convergence zone by heating up the land mass.

Over the adjacent oceans the ITCZ is less marked as the water does not respond as readily to
the heating of the sun.
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JANUARY

Figure 28.10 Winds over Africa in January

ITF 5N in West Africa

20S in South Africa

Travelling depressions affect the Mediterranean.

JULY

Figure 28.11 Winds over Africa in July

ITF 20N

Travelling depressions affect the Cape of Good Hope.

UPPER WINDS
JANUARY
To the north of the area, the winds are westerly with speeds up to 50 kt. These decrease to 10 to
20 kt in the lower latitudes. In the equatorial regions these winds become easterly at 10 to 20 kt.

Once in the southern hemisphere the winds increase from the west.

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JULY
The upper winds are westerly in the higher latitudes both north and south of the equator. In the
lower latitudes the wind is easterly with speeds up to 60+ kt over the Guinea coast at the 200 hPa
level.

HEIGHT OF THE TROPOPAUSE AND 0C ISOTHERM

JANUARY

Tropopause Equator 56 000 ft

Higher Latitudes 50 000 ft
0C Isotherm Equator 18 000 ft
Higher Latitudes 12 000 ft

JULY

Tropopause Equator 55 000 ft

Higher Latitudes 50 000 ft
0C Isotherm Equator 18 000 ft
Higher Latitudes 12 000 ft

SURFACE WINDS
JANUARY
Over the adjacent oceans, the trade winds blow from the north east and south east. In the Gulf of
Guinea the trade winds are deflected by Coriolis and so blow from the south west.

West Africa
The Harmattan blows from the north east as a hot dusty dry wind from the Sahara. The
resultant visibility is poor because of dust haze.

North African Coast

The winds are generally from the west.

East Africa
This region is affected by the trade winds.

South Africa
The winds are from the south west having circulated around the southern hemisphere
sub-tropical high pressure area in the south Atlantic.

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JULY
North Africa
Northerly winds from the Mediterranean.

West Africa
The ITF has moved north and the West African monsoon from the south west brings
warm humid air in from the Gulf of Guinea.

Sudan
The warm humid air is drawn in from the Indian Ocean. This is the season for frequent
Haboobs.

South of the Equator

The south east trades blow in towards the equator.

South Africa (Cape Province)

The winds are often from the west with travelling depressions providing stormy
conditions.

SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
Over the continent in both January and July, the weather is occasionally severe in the vicinity of
the ITF which lies across some part of Africa throughout the year. Typical ITF weather is TS with
CB cloud extending to the tropical tropopause with the attendant rain and squally winds.

Long and short rains occur annually where there is a double passage of the ITF, usually at
locations close to the equator. One example is Nairobi/Seychelles where the long rains occur
when the sun moves north and the short rains occur when the sun moves south.

JANUARY
The Harmattan blows over West Africa where visibility is reduced to 4000 m and at times can be
as low as 1000 m. The dust carried by this wind can extend to considerable altitudes. Tropical
cyclones occur in the Mozambique Channel from January to March.

JULY
Haboobs form in the East African desert regions. In West Africa the south west monsoon moves
in behind the ITF. On the front there are often severe TS and heavy rain. The Guti affects
Zimbabwe and sometimes the Transvaal. The Guti is formed when moderate to strong south
easterly winds bring moist air from the Mozambique Channel. Conditions associated with this
wind are very low St and Sc. The wind occurs in spells of 1 to 5 days especially in the dry season
from April onward.

West African tornadoes, a line of TS moving westward, are a feature of spring and autumn.

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ASIA
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
JANUARY
The vast Asian land mass is cold north of the Himalayas. This means that a steep temperature
gradient forms at this mountain barrier and the eastern seaboard of the continent.

The warm Kuro Siwo current running up the Chinese coast to Japan creates a strong
temperature gradient similar to that on the eastern seaboard of the USA

JULY
In the summer the sun migrating north of the equator heats the land mass. The isotherms now
conform to the lines of latitude except on the eastern seaboard where the land has warmed up
more than the ocean and the isotherms parallel the coast.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
JANUARY
The Siberian high is the dominant pressure system affecting the continent. The cold is intense
where temperatures of 40C can be reached.

Figure 28.11 Pressure distribution over Asia in January

The pressure reaches values which can be in the order of 1070 hPa. Air flows out from this high
pressure which gives rise to the winter monsoon. Winds in northern China are westerly, but
further south the winds become northerly. Finally, they become north easterly to become the
north east monsoon of south east Asia and Indonesia.

India is cut off from the Siberian high by the Himalayas and it develops its own high pressure
system centred in north west India and Pakistan. The resultant wind from this high pressure
system flows out along the Ganges valley and eventually joins the north east monsoon over the
Bay of Bengal.

Over China, Japan, and East Asia the air is cold, warming up as it flows toward the equator.

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JULY
The high land temperatures create the monsoon low. Low pressure is over the continent, while
high pressure is over the oceans. The resultant airflow is from sea to land.

Figure 28.12 Pressure distribution over Asia in July

The air may come from the southern hemisphere as the south east trade winds may be turned to
from the south west monsoon winds by Coriolis. The south west monsoon has its direction
changed as it reaches the land masses. For example, it is diverted to flow from the south east up
the Ganges valley toward the low centred in north west India.

UPPER WINDS
JANUARY
The sub-tropical jet stream blows parallel to the steep temperature gradient created by the
Himalayan barrier and the Kuro Siwo current in the east. It blows from the west over northern
India to the south of the Himalayas. From the south west over Japan, the jetstream reaches
speeds of over 100 kt. At low latitudes, an easterly jetstream at 10 to 15 kt prevails.

JULY
Westerly winds prevail at higher latitudes. Between 20N and the equator the winds are easterly
above 20 000 ft increasing in speed with height until at 30 000 ft they are 40 to 50 kt. At the 200
hPa level they become the equatorial jet stream at 80 kt.

HEIGHT OF THE TROPOPAUSE AND 0C ISOTHERM

JANUARY
Over the Persian Gulf and India:

Tropopause 56 000 ft
0C Isotherm 12 000 ft

Further north over China and Japan:

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Tropopause 49 000 ft
0C Isotherm 8000 ft
JULY
Over the Persian Gulf and India:

Tropopause 55 000 ft
0C Isotherm 18 000 ft

Further north over China and Japan:

Tropopause 52 000 ft
0C Isotherm 10 000 ft

SURFACE WINDS
JANUARY
The north east monsoon dominates much of the area. Over central Asia the winds circulate
around the Siberian high. This circulation produces northerly winds over eastern Siberia, Japan,
and Korea. Towards the north and west of Asia the flow is south westerly.

JULY
The situation is reversed where much of the area is under the influence of the south west
monsoon. The flow is modified over China and Japan where the monsoon is from the south and
south east. The northern and eastern areas of the continent experience a northerly flow.

AUSTRALIA AND THE PACIFIC

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
JANUARY
With the absence of any significant land mass in the South Pacific, apart from Australia, the
isotherms conform to the lines of latitude. Over Australia the land heats up to a greater extent
than the surrounding sea. Over parts of Australia temperatures can exceed 30C.

JULY
The isotherms conform to the lines of latitude. There is some distortion over Australia where the
southern half of the continent is slightly cooler than the ocean.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
JANUARY
A zone of low pressure forms in the centre of Australia due to the high temperatures. This
contrasts to the sub-tropical zones of high pressure which occur in both hemispheres.

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1005
L

Figure 28.13 Pressure distribution over Australia in January

The ITCZ extends from the north of Australia north east to the equator and then across the north
Pacific to Columbia. Low pressure zones occur in both hemispheres in the temperate latitudes. In
the northern hemisphere this is known as the Aleutian low, the equivalent to the Icelandic low.

JULY
The ITCZ moves as far north as Hong Kong in the west Pacific basin.

1010

1020 H 1020

Figure 28.14 Pressure distribution over Australia in July

Over the ocean, the ITCZ follows a similar line to its January alignment across to South America.
The sub-tropical high and temperate low pressure zones are still apparent in their respective
hemispheres.

In addition, there is now a high pressure zone over Australia similar to the sub-tropical high
pressure zone over the oceans.

UPPER WINDS
JANUARY
Temperate latitude westerlies with jet streams in the vicinity of travelling depressions occur in the
north Pacific. Over Australia and the South Pacific westerlies at speeds of 60 to 70 kt blow. In the
equatorial regions the upper wind is easterly at 20 to 30 kt.

JULY
Temperate latitude westerlies still blow in the north Pacific and South Pacific. These winds reach
jet stream proportions in association with mid-latitude travelling depressions. Upper easterlies still
prevail in the equatorial regions.

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HEIGHT OF THE TROPOPAUSE AND 0C ISOTHERM

JANUARY

Tropopause 47 000 ft
0C Isotherm 14 000 ft

JULY

Tropopause 45 000 ft
0C Isotherm 10 000 ft

SURFACE WINDS
In both hemispheres, the surface winds diverge from the sub-tropical zones of high pressure to
form the trade winds.

Circulation causes the mid-latitude westerlies to merge with the Brave West Wind in the
southern hemisphere to form the Roaring Forties. These winds blow consistently in the southern
hemisphere because there is no land mass to interrupt their flow.

JANUARY
In the Pacific the monsoon blows from a northerly direction on the eastern seaboard of Asia and
the island archipelagos. The south east trade winds and the southern coast affect Australia,
especially Queensland, by south westerly winds.

JULY
The west Pacific basin and Japan are under the influence of the south west monsoon. South
Australia has mainly westerly winds associated with the travelling depressions of the mid-
latitudes.

SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
JANUARY
The northerly monsoon of the west Pacific is generally dry. However, after its long sea track it
acquires moisture before arriving over the island archipelagos of east and south east Asia and
Australia where it combines with the north east trades. Typical trade wind weather is CU with
accompanying showers.

The ITCZ has CU and CB with TS in varying intensity. Tropical revolving storms, cyclones, are
found off Queensland and Fiji. Off the Northern Territories these storms are termed the Willy
Willys and occur from January to March.

Note: The real Willy Willys are dust storms in central Australia.

South Australia occasionally experiences the Brickfielder, a hot dusty wind which originates in
the central Australian desert. These winds bring poor visibility in haze and occur during the
summer months of the southern hemisphere.

Near Sydney a strong southerly wind, Southerly Buster, brings dense CU cloud and heavy rain.
This usually signifies the passage of a vigorous cold front and is accompanied by a noticeable
drop in temperature.

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In the north Pacific the families of travelling depressions are a feature of the temperate latitudes.

JULY
The west Pacific basin is influenced by the moist southerly monsoon. For Japan, the wettest
period is in June and July where the skies are overcast and produce continuous rain.

Typhoons occur from July to October from the south Philippines to Japan. On the opposite side of
the ocean the moist winds over the cold Californian current create advection fog mainly in the
vicinity of San Francisco. In the South Pacific, at the temperate latitudes, travelling depressions
march along the South Australian coast.

SOUTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN

TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION
JANUARY
The east west alignment of the isotherms is considerably distorted by the South American land
mass due to the sun being in the southern hemisphere during the summer months.

In the more southerly latitudes of the continent there is a considerable temperature gradient on
the west coast. It is here that the Humboldt Current travels north along the coast.

JULY
There is little variation in the temperature distribution from that in January. The temperature
gradient in the higher latitudes is shallower due to the cooling of the land in the southern
hemisphere winter and the sea being approximately the same temperature.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
Because there is little variation in temperature through the year the pressure variation is minimal.
The equator effectively passes through the centre of the area.

JANUARY
The ITCZ advances south into the Amazonian rain forests of Brazil.

Figure 28.15 Winds over South America in January

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JULY
The ITCZ is aligned east west across Columbia and Venezuela.

Figure 28.16 Winds over South America in July

UPPER WINDS
These winds are mainly equatorial easterlies flanked on either side by westerlies.

JANUARY
The zone of easterlies is south of the equator.

JULY
The easterlies lie mainly above the equator.

HEIGHT OF THE TROPOPAUSE AND 0C ISOTHERM

JANUARY
Caribbean
Tropopause 54 000 ft
0C Isotherm 14 000 ft

Central Brazil
Tropopause 52 000 ft
0C Isotherm 16 000 ft

JULY
Caribbean
Tropopause 52 000 ft
0C Isotherm 16 000 ft

Central Brazil
Tropopause 51 000 ft
0C Isotherm 14 000 ft

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SURFACE WINDS
JANUARY
The north east trade winds circulating around the Bermuda high affect the Caribbean and the
northern part of South America. These winds blow behind the ITCZ deep into the Amazonian rain
forest. The south east trade winds touch the coast of north Brazil.

The west side of the continent has a cold water current and offshore winds are a prominent
feature of the sub-tropical latitudes. In the temperate latitudes westerly winds predominate.

JULY
The north east trade winds affect the Caribbean and only the very northern part of South
America. The south east trade winds move further north along the east coast. At mid-latitudes,
further south, the temperate westerlies are still a persistent feature.

SIGNIFICANT WEATHER
The ITCZ lies across the South American continent throughout the year. The typical weather
consists of CU and CB with the attendant TS.

In the Caribbean the typical trade winds prevail but hurricanes can occur between June and
October.

To the south of the continent temperate latitude travelling depressions occur with the typical
weather associated. A typical wind that blows with the fronts associated with the depressions is
the Pampero.

The Zonda of northwest Argentina is a Foehn wind which blows down the eastern slopes of the
Andes.

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