BASICS OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS CE 333

UNIT -1
REMOTE SENSING
Definition
Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object,
area or phenomenon through an analysis of the data acquired by a device which is
not in contact with the object, area or phenomenon under investigation.
In the present context, the definition of remote sensing is restricted to mean the
process of acquiring information about any object without physically contacting it
in anyway regardless of whether the observer is immediately adjacent to the
object or millions of miles away.

Components of remote sensing

The three important components of remote sensing system are energy, sensors and
interacting body.
Energy and Its Characteristics
All objects whose temperature is greater than an absolute zero (273k), emit
radiation. All stars and planets emit radiation. Our chief star, the sun is almost a
spherical body with a diameter of 1.39 x 106 km at a mean distance from the earth
equal to 1.5 x 10 km.
The continuous conversion of hydrogen to helium which is the main constituents
of the sun generates the 'energy that is radiated from the outer layers.
If the energy received at the edge of earth's atmosphere were distributed evenly
over the earth, it would give an average incident flux density of 1367 w/m2. This
is known as the solar constant.
SENSORS
Sensors mounted on aircraft or satellite platforms measure the amounts of
energy reflected from or emitted by the earth's surface
These measurement made at a large number of points distributed either along a
one-dimensional profile on the ground below the platform or over a two-
dimensional area on either side of the ground track of the platform.
The sensors scan the ground below the satellite or aircraft platform and as the
 platform moves forward an image of the earth surface made at regular intervals
along the line. A set of consecutive lines forms an image (Mather, 1987). Two-
dimensional image data can be coli by means of two types of imaging sensors,
namely, nadir looking or side looking sensor.

In the case of nadir looking, the ground -area-to either side of the satellite or
aircraft platform is imaged, whereas an area of the earth's surface lying to one side
satellite track is imaged by means of side looking sensor.

Spatial patterns evident remotely sensed images are interpreted in terms of

geographical variation nature of material forming the surface of the earth. Such
materials may be vegetation, exposed soil, water or rocks.
Atmospheric Interactions with Electromagnetic Radiation

All electromagnetic radiation detected, by a remote sensor has to pass through the
atmosphere twice, before and after its interaction with earth's atmosphere.

During the transmission of energy through the atmosphere, light interacts with
gases and particulate matter in a process called atmospheric scattering, The two
major processes in scattering are selective scattering and non-selective scattering.
Rayleigh ,Mie and Raman scattering are of selective type.

Non selective scattering is independent of wavelength. It is produced by particles

whose radii exceed 10mm, such as, water droplets and ice fragments present the
clouds. This type of scattering reduces the contrast of the image.

While passing through the atmosphere, electromagnetic radiation is scattered and

absorbed by gasses and particulates. Besides the major gaseous components like
molecular nitrogen and oxygen, other constituents like water Vapour methane,
hydrogen, helium and nitrogen compounds play an important role in modifying.

The incident radiation and reflected radiation. This causes a reduction in the
image contrast and introduces radiometric errors. Regions of the electromagnetic
spectrum in which the atmosphere is transparent are called atmospheric windows.

Active and passive remote sensing

There are two types of-sensing systems to record the information about target.
They are active sensing system and passive sensing system.
 An active sing system generates and uses its own energy to illumination for the
target and records reflected energy which carries the information content or
entropy. Synthetic aperture (SAR:) is one of the best examples of active sensing
systems.
These sensing systems operate in the microwave region of electromagnetic
spectrum and include radiation with wavelengths larger than 1 mm.
These systems do not rely on the detection of solar or terrestrial emissions as the
solar irradiance in microwave region negligible.
The second type of remote sensing systems are passive systems mainly depending
on the solar radiation operates invisible and infrared region of electromagnetic
spectrum.
The nature and properties of the target materials can be inferred from incident
electromagnetic energy that is reflected, scattered or emitted by these materials on
earth's surface and recorded by the passive sensor (for example, a camera without
flash ).
The remote sensing system that uses electromagnetic energy can be termed
electromagnetic remote sensing.

Platforms
Remote sensing of the surface of the earth has a long history, dating from the use
of cameras carried by balloons and pigeons in the eighteenth and nineteenth
centuries. The term remote sensing is used to refer to the aircraft mounted
systems developed For military purposes during the early part of the 20 century.
Air borne camera systems are still a very important source of remotely sensed
data (Lillesand kiefer, 1994). although photographic imaging systems have many
uses, this chapter is concerned with image data collected by satellite sensing
systems which ultimately generate digital image products.
Space borne sensors are currently used to assist in scientific and socioeconomic
activities like weather prediction, crop monitoring, mineral exploration, waste
land napping, cyclone warning, water resources management, and pollution
detection. All his has happened in a short period of time. The quality of analysis
 of remote sensing late and the varied types of applications to which the science of
remote sensing is being put to use are increasing enormously as new and
improved spacecraft are being placed into the earths orbit.

SATELLITES
An attempt is made to classify the satellites into three types, namely, earth
resources satellites, meteorological satellites, and satellites carrying micro wave
sensors. This classification is not rigid.
For instance, most of the meteorological satellite are also capable of sensing the
resources of the earth.
Earth resource satellite
There are three distinct groups of earth resources satellites. The first group of
satellites record visible and near visible wavelengths. The five satellites of Land
sat series which are the first generation earth resources satellites are a classic
example of this group.
The four IRS satellites and the more improved SPOT series of these satellites may
be considered the second generation earth resources satellites of the same group.
Group two satellites carry sensors that record thermal infrared wavelengths and
include the Heat Capacity Mapping Mission satellites, namely, Explorer series.
Group three satellites are deployed with sensors that record micro wavelengths.
The SEASAT series and the ERS are examples of this group.
Meteorological Satellites
Meteorological satellites designed specifically to assist in weather prediction and
monitoring, generally incorporate sensors that have very coarse spatial resolution
compared to land-oriented systems.
These satellites, however, afford a high frequency global coverage. USA has
launched a multiple series of meteorological satellites with a wide range of orbit
and sensing system designs.
The first of these series is called the NOAA, an acronym for National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration. These satellites are in near-polar, sun
synchronous orbits similar to those of Landsat and IRS .
 In contrast, another series of satellites which are of essentially meteorological
type, called Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) series and
Meteosat operated by European Space Agency, are geostationary, remaining in a
constant relative position over the equator.
Satellites Carrying Microwave Sensors
Microwave imaging is gaining increasing importance with a better understanding
of the relation between image tone and the earth s surface characteristics.
The clear advantage of microwave sensor is its capacity to penetrate cloud cover.
Satellites that carry microwave sensors are SEASAT with Synthetic Aperture
Radar (SAR), European Remote Sensing Satellite (ERS) - Radarsat.

Electro magnetic radiation (EMR)

Electromagnetic wave theory formulated by Maxwell in 1962, succeeded in

characterizing the electric and magnetic fields and their relation to charges and
current, expressing these relationships in a set of partial differential equations is
known Maxwell's equations.

In 1990 Planck found that in order to calculate the correct distribution of energy
emitted by a black body could not assume that the constituent oscillators gain
and lose energy continuously. Forced to assume that a particular oscillator of
frequency is able to exist only in discrete states whose energies are separated by
the interval where 'h' is known as the Planck's constant. Planck's ideas were
applied and ended shortly afterwards.

Maxwells Theory

The four differential equations that form the basis of electromagnetic theory
are generally referred to as "Maxwell s equations," and they are expressed in
mathematical terms. The electric and magnetic fields may exist in regions
where no electric charges' are present.

The propagation of such a disturbance is called an electromagnetic wave.

'According to Maxwell the electromagnetic state at a point in a vacuum can
 be specified by two vectors: E, the electric field in volts per meter and H, the
magnetic field in ampere turns / meter.
X E = o H / t

= X H = o E / t .

Electromagnetic Spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum may be defined as the ordering of the

radiation according to wavelength, frequency, or energy.
The wavelength, denoted by A, is the distance between adjacent intensity
maximum (for example) of the electromagnetic wave, and consequently, it
may be expressed in any unit of length. Most commonly wavelength is
expressed in meters (m) or centimeters (cm); microns or micrometers (11 or
11m = 10-4 cm); nanometers (nm = 10-7 cm); or Angstrom units (A = 10-8
cm).
The frequency denoted by v, is the number of maxima of the
electromagnetic wave that passes a fixed point in a given time. Its
relationship to wavelength is simply, v = C/.
where
'c' is the speed of Iight..
 v _Frequency is commonly expressed in reciprocal also called wave numbers (cm-1)
or cycles per second (cps) which are also called Hertz (Hz).
The wavelengths may assume any value, although for most practical purposes the
spectrum is usually presented between 10-16 and 107 m, or from the cosmic ray to
the audio range. However, wavelengths as long as 1011 m have detected by
sensitive magnetometers.

Consequently the spectrum has been divided into regions that bear names related
sources that produce it, such as, the "ray" regions, or as extensions from the
range such as, the ultraviolet and 'the infrared regions, or according to the which
wavelengths in a range are used such .as, radio and television. \
In brief, the electromagnetic spectrum is
the continuum of energy that ranges meters to Nano-meters in wave length,
travels at the speed of light, and propagates through a vacuum like the outer
space (Sabins 1986). All matter radiates a range of magnetic energy, with the
peak intensity shifting toward progressively shorter wave lengths at an
increasing temperature of the matter.
In general, the wavelengths and frequencies vary from shorter wave length high
frequency cosmic waves to long length low frequency radio waves.
The wave lengths of greatest interest in remote are visible and near-infrared
radiation in the wave band 0.4 - 3 micrometers; radiation in the wave band 13 -
14.micrometers and microwave radiation in the in the wave band of 5-500 mm.

Wavelengths longer than the visible red are sub-divided into the infrared
(IR), microwave and radio frequency wavebands.
 The infrared waveband, extending, from 0.7m to 1 m is not a uniform
region. Short wavelength or near-IR between 0.71lm and 0.9m behaves
like visible light and can be detected by special photographic film.
Infrared radiation with a wavelength up to 3m is reflected by the surface
of the earth. Beyond a wavelength of 3m, IR radiation emitted by the
earth's surface can be sensed in the form of heat.
The region of the spectrum composed of electromagnetic radiation with
wavelengths between 1 mm and 300 cm is called the microwave band and
radiation at these wavelengths can penetrate the clouds.
The microwave band is thus a valuable region for remote sensing. Beyond
the microwave region is the radio band of very long wavelengths used in
certain radar applications.
The electromagnetic waveband with their utility in remote sensing .beyond
the microwave region is the radio band of very long
Wave lengths used in radar applications .the electromagnetic wave bands
with their utility is shown in table.

Black Body Radiation

All objects whose temperature is an absolute zero (273k), emit radiation. All
stars and planets emit radiation. Our chief star, the sun is almost a spherical body
 with a diameter of 1.39 x 106 km at a mean distance from the earth equal to 1.5 x
10 km.
The continuous conversion of hydrogen to helium which is the main constituents
of the sun generates the 'energy that is radiated from the outer layers. If the energy
received at the edge of earth s atmosphere were distributed evenly over the earth,
it would give an average incident flux density of 1367 w/m2. This is known as the
solar constant.

If the sun were a perfect emitter, it would be an example of an ideal black body.
A black body transforms heat energy into radiant energy at the possible
maximum rate consistent with Planck's law which defines the spectral existence
of a black Body as follows (Henderson, 1970):
 TABLE2.1.ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRAL RADIATION

REGION Wavelength

Gamma ray <0.03n Incoming radiation is completely absorbed by the upper

m atmosphere and is not available for remote sensing.
Completely absorbed by atmosphere. . Not employed in remote
X-ray 0.03 to sensing.
3.0nm
Ultraviolet Incoming wavelengths less thanO.3~m are completely O.4~m
0.3 to absorbed by ozone in the upper atmosphere.
O.4~m

0.3 to Transmitted through atmosphere. Detectable with film and

Photographic photo detectors, but atmospheric scattering is severe
UV band O.4~m
Visible 0.4 to Imaged with film and photodetectors includes reflected energy
0.7~m peak of earth at 0.5 J.1m.
Infrared 0.7 to Interaction with. Matter varies with wavelength. Atmospheric
1.00J.lm transmission windows are separated.

Reflected 0.7 to Reflected solar radiation that contains information about

IR band 3.0~m thermal properties of materials. The band from 0.7 to 0.9J.1m is
Detectable with film and is called the photographic IR band.

Thermal lR
3 to Principal atmospheric windows in the 8 to 14~m thermal region.
5J.1m Images at these wavelengths are acquired by optical mechanical
band scanners and special vidicon systems but not by film.
Microwave
0.1 to 30 Cm longer wavelengths can penetrate clouds, fog, and
rain. Images may be acquired in the active or passive mode.

Radar 0.1 to
30cm Active form of microwave remote sensing. Radar images are
acquired at various wavelength bands.
Radio
>30 Cm
Longest wavelength portion of electromagnetic spectrum. Some
classified radars with very long wavelengths operate in this
region.
The total spectral existence of a black body is given by the Stefan boltzman constant

WIEN'S DISPLACEMENT LAW.

The law gives the wavelength of maximum spectral exitance (Am) in tt1e following
form:
Am = C3 I r
C3 = 2.898 x 10 -3 mk, T = temperature of body

STEFAN BOLTZMAN law : in which, . cr = 5.6697 x 10-8 Wm-2 k-4 (Stefan -

Soltzman constant) . in which, . cr = 5.6697 x 10-8 Wm-2 k-4
(Stefan - Soltzman constant) .

The distribution of the spectral existence for a black body at 59000k close1y
approximates the sun's spectral existence curve (Mather, 1987), while the earth
can..
Be considered to act like a black body with a temperature of 2900k (Fig. 2.8.)
The solar radiation, maximum of which occurs at 0.47mm, is within the visible
spectrum.
Wavelength dependent mechanisms of atmospheric absorption alter the solar
Irradiance that actually reaches the surface of the earth. Fig. 2.9 shows the
spectral irradiance.
Irradiance from the sun at the edge of the atmosphere (solid curve) and at the
earth's Surface (dashed line).