All Lectures After The Midterm As One PDF

4/28/2010
Presented by
Dr. Ihab Adam
Mechanical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering
Alexandria University
Ph. D., 1998, Old Dominion University, USA
Introduction and Overview

Basic operation principles
Classifications of Compressors
Accessories and Air Preparation
Positive Displacement Compressors

Reciprocating Compressors
- Construction, Operation and Control
Dynamic Compressors
Centrifugal Compressors
- Construction, Performance, control and Surge
Axial Compressors
Rotary Compressors
Lobe-Type and Sliding Van Compressors
Liquid Ring Compressors
Rotary Screw Compressors
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WHAT ARE COMPRESSORS ?
Compressors are machines used to increase the total

energy level (pressure) of a compressible fluid (either
gas or vapor).
Molecular weight of compressed gas vary from 2

(Hydrogen) ~ 352 (uranium hexafluoride).
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Compressors, Blowers and Fans
Compressors. Move air or gas in higher

Compressors
differential pressure ranges from 35 psi to as high
as 65,000 psi in extreme cases.
Blowers. Move large volumes of air or gas at

pressures up to 50 psi.
Fans. Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to

overcome static forces. Discharge pressures range
from a few inches of water to about / 1psi.
WHAT ARE COMPRESSORS APPLICATIONS ?
Compressors applications vary from home refrigerator to large

complex petrochemical plants
Compressors can be used for:
Gas transmission through pipelines
Volume reduction for storage or transportation (e.g. LPG, LNG)
Process requirements
(e.g. chemical, petrochemical, refinery, pulp and paper, and utilities )
Energy conversion (e.g. Ref. system, heat pumps)
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Types of Compressors
Compressors Modes
Intermittent Continuous
Positive Displacement Compressors Dynamic Compressors
The intermittent mode of compression is cyclic in nature, in

that a specific quantity of gas is ingested by the compressor,
acted upon, and discharged, before the cycle is repeated.
The continuous compression mode is one in which the gas is
moved into the compressor, is acted upon, moved through the
compressor, and discharged without interruption of the flow
at any point in the process.
PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION
TWO PRINCIPAL METHODS ARE USED TO COMPRESS
GASES. THE FIRST METHOD IS TO TRAP A VOLUME OF
GAS AND DISPLACE IT BY THE POSITIVE ACTION OF A
PISTON OR ROTATING MEMBER; WE CALL THESE
MACHINES POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSORS.
THE SECOND METHOD USES THE DYNAMIC

COMPRESSION; IT IS ACCOMPLISHED BY THE
MECHANICAL ACTION OF THE CONTOURED BLADES,
WHICH IMPART VELOCITY AND HENCE PRESSURE TO
THE FLOWING GAS.
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COMPRESSOR TYPES
DYNAMIC POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT
Ejector Centrifugal Axial Rotary Reciprocating
Single Acting
Double Acting
Free Piston
Vane Liquid Ring Screw Lobe

Labyrinth
Diaphragm
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SELECTION OF COMPRESSORS
design-limiting operating conditions.
When any limitation is involved, it becomes necessary to

perform the work in more than one step of the compression
process This is termed multistage
process.
This limitation varies with the type of compressor, but the

most important limitations include:
Discharge pressureall types.

Pressure rise or differential
differentialdynamic
dynamic units and most displacement
types.
Compression ratiodynamic units.
Effect of clearancereciprocating units (this is related to the
compression ratio).
Desirability of saving power.
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Reciprocating Compressors
One of the most widelyy used of all compressors.
p
Action of the discharge valve or valves prevents the

backflow of gas into the compressor from the discharge
line during the next intake cycle.
When the compression takes place on one side of the

piston only, the compressor is said to be single
single-acting.
acting.
The compressor is double-acting when compression takes

place on each side of the piston.
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Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws

Boyle's
y Law
V2 P1

V1 P2
Charles' Law
V2 T2

V1 T1
Amonton's Law
P2 T2

P1 T1
How Compressors work?
molecules travel faster - hit the walls more often and with greater force.
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The molecules now hit the walls with a greater frequency.

However, moving the piston also delivers energy to the
molecules, causing them to move with increasing velocity.
increased number of collisions
The compression of gases to higher pressures results in higher
temperatures, creating problems in compressor design.
ISOTHERMAL COMPRESSION
Isothermal compression
requires the least amount
of work compared to other
forms of compression.
maintaining the
temperature constant in a
gas compressor is
virtually impossible.
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ADIABATIC COMPRESSION
The adiabatic
compression process is
characterized by zero
heat transfer between
the gas and the
surroundings.
g
POLYTROPIC COMPRESSION
there is no
requirement of zero
heat transfer as in
adiabatic compression.
P1V1n P2V2 n C
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How a Compressor Works

one or more basic elements.
A single element, or a group of elements in parallel,
comprises a single-stage compressor.
Too great a compression ratio (absolute discharge pressure

divided by absolute intake pressure) causes excessive
discharge temperature and other design problems.
It therefore may become necessary to combine elements or

groups off elements
l in
i series
i to form
f a multistage
li unit
i.
The gas is frequently cooled between stages to reduce the
temperature and volume entering the following stage.
Single or Double acting

The basic reciprocating compression
element is a single cylinder compressing on
only one side of the piston (single-acting).
A unit compressing on both sides of the

i t (double-acting
piston d bl ti ) consists
i t off two
t basic
b i
single-acting elements operating in parallel
in one casting.
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Inlet and Outlet Valves

The reciprocating compressor uses automatic
spring-loaded valves that open only when the
proper differential pressure exists across the valve.
Inlet valves open when the pressure in the cylinder

is slightly below the intake pressure.
Discharge valves open when the pressure in the

cylinder is slightly above the discharge pressure.
P-v Diagram
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The compression stroke
The delivery stroke
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The expansion stroke
The intake or suction stroke
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Limiting operating conditions.
Discharge temperature
Pressure differential
Effect
Eff t off clearance
l (ti
(ties iin with
ith compression
i ratio)
ti )
Desirability of saving power
The pV diagram for a two-stage compressor
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For minimum power with perfect intercooling between stages, there is

a theoretically best relation between the intake pressures of
succeeding stages. This is obtained by making the ratio of
compression the same in each stage and assumes the intake
temperature to be the same in all stages.
The formula used is based on the overall compression ratio
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CYLINDER CLEARANCE AND VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
Cylinder clearance cannot be eliminated completely.

Normal clearance will vary approximately between 4 and
16% for
f most standard
d d cylinders.
li d
There are special low compression-ratio cylinders where
normal clearance will be much greater.
Normal clearance does not include clearance volume that
may have been added for other purposes, such as capacity
control.
When a piston has completed the compression and delivery stroke

and is ready to reverse its movement, gas at discharge pressure is
trapped in the clearance space.
This gas expands on the return stroke until its pressure is sufficiently
below intake pressure to open the suction valves.
valves
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The volumetric efficiency

The theoretical formula for volumetric efficiency as a percentage is
As a practical matter, there are factors that modify this, and an

accepted formula for rough estimates is
Here,, the term L is introduced to allow for the effect of variables such as
internal leakage, gas friction, pressure drop through valves,
and inlet gas preheating.
The term L is difficult to generalize, but it might be 5% for a moderate-
pressure oil-lubricated air compressor.
A higher value of L will be necessary with a light gas than with a heavy gas
because of increased leakage.
The Effect of Clearance on P-v Diagram
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the effect of clearance at moderate- and

high-compression-ratio conditions
the effect of Ratio of Specific heat, k on

volumetric efficiency
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Reciprocating Compressors 5/13/2010
Gas Laws
Compression Law
P1V1k P2V2 k C
P2
r is the compression ratio
P1
V1 1 ( k 1)
T2 P2 V2 1
r k rr k r k
V2 T1 P1 V1
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Perfect Gas Law P1V1 P2V2

Constant
PV mRT T1 T2
Real Gas Law

P1V1 P2V2
Constant
PV ZmRT Z1T1 Z 2T2
All gases deviate from the perfect or ideal gas laws to some
degree, and in some cases the deviation is rather extreme.
Z is The compressibility factor that account for this deviation.
It is derived experimentally from data on the actual behavior of
a particular gas under pVT changes.
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Compressors Laws
Displacement Theoretical Volume flow rate:
N
For Piston Blank End: Vdisp D 2 St
4 60
For Rod End:

Vdisp D 2 d 2 St
4
N
60

For double acting,
acting
single rod cylinder:

4

Vdisp 2 D 2 d 2 St
S
N
60

For double acting,
double rod cylinder:
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2
Vdisp 2
4
D
2 N
d St 60
Maximum Capacity Volume flow rate Q :
Capacity at suction condition: Qsuction Q1 v Vdisp

Capacity
p y at standard condition:
P1 TSt Z St
QStandard v Vdisp
PSt T1 Z1
Z1 1k
v 100 C r 1 L
2
Z
k 1
P1Q1 k k
Shaft Power: Power r 1
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2
The Effect of Clearance on P-v Diagram
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The effect of clearance at moderate- and

high-compression-ratio conditions
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CYLINDER CLEARANCE AND

COMPRESSION EFFICIENCY
Clearance in a cylinder has predominant control over the volumetric efficiency.
So does the valve area in a cylinder have predominant control over the
compression efficiency.
However to obtain low clearance and a high VE value,
However, value the designer finds it
necessary to limit the size and number of valves.
This, however, may tend to lower the efficiency of compression and raise the
horsepower.
As a general rule, high VE and high CE (low power requirement) do
not go together; one cannot attain both.
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Valves
Of all the many components in a reciprocating compressor, none
works harder nor serves a more important compressor component
function than the suction and discharge valves. In fact, compressor
efficiency is determined by the performance of the valves more than
any other component.
Virtually all process gas and moderate size-to-large air compressors
use spring-loaded gas actuated valves.
Valves are almost always symmetrically placed around the outer

circumference of the cylinder and can normally be removed and
serviced from the outside.
Reversing a suction valve could make it function as a discharge valve,
and vice versa.
A bad valve design might risk deteriorating components falling into
the compression space of a cylinder. Quite obviously, catastrophic
damage and safety incidents could be the end result.
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Valves Requirements
1. Large passage area and good flow dynamics for low throttling
effect(pressure drop)
2. Low mass of the moving parts for low impact energy
3. Quick response to low differential pressure
4. Small outside dimensions to allow for low clearance volume
5. Low noise level
6. High reliability factor and long life
7. Ease of maintaining and servicing

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Piston
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stroke position superimposed on pV-diagram
(Source: Hoerbiger Corporation of America, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida).
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Figure 4. Calculated P-V Diagram

with Normal Oil Sticktion
Figure 5. Calculated P-V Diagram

5/13/2010 with Increased Oil Sticktion
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VALVE TYPES USED IN

RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Prior to the development of automatic valves, compressors used
mechanically operated suction and heavy poppet-type discharge
valves. These valve types were efficient and satisfactory at
relatively low rotative speeds, but limited the speeds at which the
compressors could operate. The lightweight, fully automatic valve
allowed for higher rotative speeds, greater output, and increased
efficiency from the compressor.
There are manyy different valve designs

g available for modern
reciprocating compressors. They all function as check valves,
opening and closing as a function of differential pressures as well
as keeping the fluid in the compressor cylinder during the
compression process. However, these designs can be classified into
relatively few types, defined by the shape of moving elements and
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the nature of damping used to control the motion.
TYPES OF VALVES
based on plane view shape
Rectangular
Concentric Ring
Ported Plate
Disc Poppet
SUITABILITY OF VALVE TYPES FOR
VARIOUS GAS CONDITIONS:
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Rectangular Element Valves

Typical valve designs that use rectangular elements are feather
valves, channel valves and reed valves.
These valves generally make excellent use of available valve

port areas to provide flow area at moderate valve lifts (.100"-
.200").
Channel valve
In operation, gas trapped between the spring and channel provides a
cushioning or dampening effect to minimize pounding and wear,
andd permits
i a somewhath larger
l lift
lif than
h other
h types.
Low-impact velocities
Each channel and spring operates individually as an independent

valve
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Channel valves use a long and narrow metallic channel shaped sealing
element. Springing is provided by a pre-curved long and narrow strip.
This spring deflects against a flat stop that causes the spring rate to
increase as the channel nears maximum lift. The spring fits into a
channel with a close clearance that can provide some gas damping.
Figure 1a. Channel Valve

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Channel valve
Channel valves are
good for medium to
low pressure service,
with a maximum
pressure differential of
34 atm. They are
tolerant of dirty
environments, and
offer a particularly
advantageous flow
pattern in sizes up to
133 mm diameter.
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Feather valve
Feather valves use a long and narrow metallic strip as a sealing element.
These strips open as a simply supported, uniformly loaded beam.
Common applications are low-to-medium-speed machines and medium
p
pressures.
Due to the valve design and the fact that there are no springs, these
valves also provide a good flow pattern through the centre of the valve.
Feather valves are normally used with a maximum pressure differential
of up to 25.0 atm.
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Concentric Ring Valves
These valves use one or more relatively narrow metallic or nonmetallic

rings arranged concentrically about the center line of the valve. Spring is
provided by multiple small coil springs on each ring.
Concentric ring valves have a wide application range and are used in
low- to high-speed applications. Lifts are as high as .160".
The rings have either a rectangular cross section as shown, or a more

aerodynamically streamlined.
Valves that use a rectangular ring are easier to manufacture and maintain.
This, plus dynamic considerations, favors the rectangular configuration
in most applications.
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Concentric Ring Valves
low- to high-speed applications.
The flow efficiency of these valves is not as good as

straight element valves
it is good for the pressure ratios generally used.
either a rectangular cross section or a more

aerodynamically streamlined shape
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Figure 1b. Concentric Ring Valve

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Plate valve
This type of valves employs two
additional spring-loaded discs,
which effectively reduce flutter and
cushion the impact of opening and
closing .
The built-in dampening action of

these valves makes them
particularly suitable for
compressors operating at high
speeds (750 rpm or more),
more) and in
applications with either a high
pressure differential (greater than
17 atm differential) or varying
pressure conditions within the same
compressor.
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Ported Plate Valves

Ported plate valves are similar to the concentric ring
valves, except the rings are joined together into a single
element
The number of plate edges available for impact is reduced.
Mechanical damping by using damping plates to absorb

opening impact is easily introduced.
Spring is generally provided by coil springs that directly

contact the
h plates,
l eliminating
li i i the h buttons
b usedd in
i
concentric ring valves.
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Figure 1c. Ported Plate Valve

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Disc
Poppet
Valves
Flow efficiency is excellent because of the high lift and streamlined

poppet head. This makes an ideal valve for low-pressure ratio, high-
gas density applications where valve losses are very important and
sufficient
5/13/2010 pressure drop can be generated to drive the valve open.
Figure
5/13/20101d. Poppet Valve
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Compressor Design
from vacuum to over 3000 atm.
They have numerous applications in refining, chemical, and
petrochemical plants.
Power ratings vary up to 18,000 kW.
with capacities up to about 35,000 m3/h at compressor inlet
conditions.
from hydrogen, with a molecular weight of 2, to gases such as
chlorine, with a molecular weight of 70.
stage compressioni ratios
i rangingi from
f 1 1 to over 5 on gases with
1.1 ih
low k values or low ratios of specific heat.
Typical compression ratios are about 3 per stage to limit
discharge temperatures to perhaps 150 to 175C (300 to 350F).
six stages, to provide a total compression ratio over 300.
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Rotation and piston speeds
The gases can cause problems because of being corrosive,

containing entrained liquid and/or foreign abrasive particles.
For these reasons, low- to medium speed compressors are used,

which have rotative speeds from 275 to 600 rpm, with piston
speeds varying from 3 to 5 m/s (600 to 1000 ft/min) and
compressor strokes from 150 to 460 mm (6 to 18 in.).
Normally, for higher-kilowatt-rated units, a longer strokes and

slower speeds are used.
used
Also, for lower lubricated applications, lower rotative and lower

piston speeds are recommended to obtain improved piston and
packing ring life.
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The balanced-opposed design

This design maximizes the operating life of larger reciprocating units
by minimizing unbalanced forces and moments.
Two to 10 cylinders are used.

used
Also, single-cylinder units can be built with opposed balance weight.
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FIGURE 2.2 Balanced-opposed reciprocating compressor package.

(Dresser-Rand Company, Painted Post, N.Y.)
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Unbalanced Force
Unbalanced forces are produced by reciprocating and
rotating masses.

Reciprocating forces occur in all compressors from
acceleration and deceleration of the reciprocating weights
(piston and rod, crosshead, and a portion of the connecting
rod).
A compressor designer tries to equalize the reciprocating

weights on each crank-throw to balance the forces.
Rotating forces result from the centrifugal force produced

from the unbalanced weights of the crank-throw and part
of the connecting rod.
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Reciprocating Compressor Main Parts
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Vertically oriented reciprocating compressor.
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Only primary unbalanced forces occurring at the compressor speed and

secondary unbalanced forces occurring at twice the compressor speed are
considered significant in compressor foundation design.
Unbalanced primary and secondary moments also exist in most compressors. With a
two-cylinder unit having equal reciprocating weights on crank-throws set at 180 to
each other, all primary and secondary forces cancel each other.
Only couples or moments are transmitted to the foundation. With good foundation
design, these moments are not harmful.
Only six crank-throw units can be perfectly balanced, with all unbalanced forces
and moments zero.
However, perfect balance is normally required only for offshore platform
installations or for foundations installed without the use of piles on extremely poor
soil conditions.
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CRANKSHAFT DESIGN
Upp to 10 crank-throw units have been supplied
pp for large
g
compressors.
The cranks are arranged with equal angles between each

crank to provide optimum unbalanced forces and the
smoothest overall crank effort torque.
Even number crank

Even-number crank-throw
throw units are arranged with 180
180
opposed pairs of cranks to cancel out inertia forces;
odd number crank-throw units require special crank-angle

layout or dummy crossheads.
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Also, special attention must be given to providing polished radii

between the cranks and crank webs.
Oil passages are drilled to permit oil flow from the journals to the
crankpins.
The intersections of these holes must be radiused and polished to

prevent stress concentration points.
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Connecting Rods
Connecting rods are typically made of forged steel
Forced lubrication oil passages are drilled to permit oil flow from
the crankpin to the crosshead pin bushing.
Crosshead bushings g are made of replaceable
p bronze.
Connecting rod bolts are special forgings, and larger sizes have
rolled threads for maximum strength.
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Crossheads
A crosshead is a sliding component typically manufactured of cast
steel, or cast or ductile iron, to meet API 618.
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Pistons and Piston Ring

Cast iron is the piston material of choice for most applications.
Aluminum is used for large pistons and on higher-speed units to
reduce and balance inertia forces.
For some high pressure applications, over 150-atm absolute
pressure one-piece integral steel piston and rod construction is
used for higher piston strengths.
Most process units today are equipped with Teflon (PTFE) or

other high-performance polymer piston rings.
For some high-pressure applications (over 300 atm absolute)

three-piece bronze segmental rings are used.
Also, for some nonlubricated applications other special plastics

or high-performance polymers have been used.
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The rider rings support the weight of the piston and piston rod.
Rider rings may be split type, located in the center of the piston
(Fig. 2.34), or
band type, stretched onto the piston.
It is critical to have clean gas for long piston, rider, and packing ring
life.
Dirt or piping rust and scale carryover into cylinders will cause very
rapid ring, cylinder bore, and valve wear.
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single cylinder or multiple cylinders on a frame
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Dynamic Compressors:
Centrifugal Compressors
Dynamic Compressors: Centrifugal Compressors
Centrifugal Compressors are second only to reciprocating

compressors in numbers of machines in service.
Where capacity or horsepower rather than numbers is

considered as a measure, the centrifugal, without a doubt, heads
the compressor field.
smaller relative size and weight, compared to the reciprocating

machine.
machine
The centrifugal compressor does not exhibit the inertially

induced shaking forces of the reciprocator and therefore does not
need the same massive foundation.
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500 to 200000 m3/hr

294 to 117,000 cfm.
Pressure ratios of up to 3 are available for single-stage

compressors
Multistage machines, of the process type, operate at a

pressure ratio of less than 2 per impeller.
Up to 160 bar (2352 psi)
2
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3
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4
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HOW CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS WORK?
1- GAS INITIAL CONDITION AT INLET
2- GAS AFTER ACCELERATION

2
3 3- GAS AFTER DECELERATION
1
FROM BENOLLI EQUATION:
P3+ V3/2+ GZ3 = P2+ V2/2+GZ2
Stationary flow path and rotor
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Classification
To the machine builder, a stage is an impeller-diffuser
pair
the p
process designer
g tends to think of a stage
g as a pprocess
block which equates to an uncooled section of one or
more impeller and diffuser sets.
A process compression stage will be referred to as an

uncooled section.
A cross classification can be established by
how the machine casing is constructed, whether it has an

axial or radial joint.
horizontal and vertical split.
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integrally geared configuration.
the gear pinion shaft

extension to mount an
impeller
The casing is also

attached to the gear
box.
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horizontally-split compressor
An example of the horizontally-split compressor is the common multistage.
Maintenance of the horizontally-split compressor is very simple and
straightforward as the rotor may be removed without disturbing the impellers.
Discharge volutes Impeller inlet
labyrinth seals
Impellers
Shaft and
Drive coupling labyrinth seal
Journal bearing
Casing Thrust bearing

(horizontally split
flange) Compressor
discharge nozzle
Compressor
inlet nozzle
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Barrel Compressor
Vertical-split construction
the pressure is too high to maintain a proper joint seal
or for low molecular weight service
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Compressors with Bell Casings Barrel compressors
for high pressures have bell-shaped casings and are closed with
shear rings instead of bolts
Pipeline Compressors
bell-shaped casings with a single vertical end cover.
used for natural gas transportation
facilitate installation on gas pipelines.
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Arrangement
overhung style
The single
single-stage
stage can be arranged in
the overhung style.
no more than two impellers.
more competitively priced than
the between-bearing design.
more sensitive to unbalance
th the
than th between-bearing
b t b i design.
d i
between two bearings beam type
multistage.
u t stage.
The between-bearing, single-
stage is found most
commonly in pipe line
booster service
where the rigidity of the two
outboard bearings is desirable.
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Cross section of bull gear compressor
Labyrinth seals
Drive coupling
Impellers
Main gear
Journal bearing
Inlet guide vanes Pinion shafts
Gear casing
Compressor volutes
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multistage arrangement
The flow path is straight through the compressor, moving
through each impeller in turn.
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In-out arrangements
intercooler
The arrangement is not limited to cooling
Provision for liquid removal.
Multistage two phase compressor
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Double-cooled compressor
temperature limit.
construction materials
the gas becomes more reactive with an increase in temperature,
Polymer formation is generally temperature related
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Double-flow compressor
the flow enters the case at two points, is compressed by a single
impeller at each end and then enters the double-flow wheel.
The flow passes through the impeller and joins at the diffuser.
Two phase compressor with a central double flow impeller
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Back to back arrangement

solving difficult thrust balance problems
The conventional thrust bearing and balance drum size are
inadequate or Become excessively large.
reduce the net rotor thrust.
for applications generating high thrusts, higher than can be readily
controlled by a normal size thrust bearing and balance drum.
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Double-flow compressor with flow split internally
single inlet and outlet nozzle is used.

divided to each side of the double flow impeller
then joins at the impeller exit prior to entering the diffuser.
diffuser
in the same casing size, it doubles the flow.
Any significant flow imbalance will affect the compressor
performance
Side-stream compressor
For Refrigeration cycles and other chemical industry,
Gas enters the first impeller and passes through two impellers.
The properties of the gas stream are modified at the mixing point
the side-stream would act to cool the total stream.
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Compressor system classifications

Single-Section, Three-Stage Single-Case, Two-Section, Six-Stage Two-Case, Two-Section, Six-Stage
Parallel Network
Series Network
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The major components of a centrifugal compressor rotor

Shaft
Impellers ands Impeller spacer
Balancing drum (if required)
Coupling hub and Bearing
Impellers
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Spacer sleeves for a centrifugal compressor rotor
Between each impeller is a spacer sleeve. In addition to the function of

locating the impellers on the shaft, sleeves also protect the rotor shaft in
the event of contact with the labyrinths
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Balance Piston balance drum

rotating element
The area adjacent to the balance piston (opposite the last stage
location), is vented, normally to suction pressure.
The differential pressure across the balance piston acts on

the balance piston area to develop a thrust force opposite
that generated by the impellers.
Balancing drum serves to modify axial thrust developed by
differential g
gas pressures
p in compressors.
p
22
5/26/2010
Shaft Seals: Interstage Seals

Interstage and balance piston seals of the labyrinth type are
universally used in centrifugal compressor service.
Multistage compressors are equipped with impeller eye seal and
interstage shaft seals to isolate the stages.
Labyrinth
y seals consist of a tooth-like form with spaces
p in between.
Leakage is a function of both the tooth or fin clearance and the
spacing.
Shaft End Seals

restrictive or positive.
The labyrinth seal is one form of restrictive seal.
Another common form of restrictive seal is the carbon ring seal

It consists of a series of carbon rings, using either solid or
segmented rings.
The segmented rings are enclosed with a retaining spring, called
a garter spring.
The carbon ring seal is able to operate with a close clearance.
The carbon ring tends to need more frequent replacement than

the labyrinth. But for equal length, the carbon ring seal can be
designed for leakage an order of magnitude less.
23
5/26/2010
The positive seals are positive in the sense that the process
gas is completely controlled, and in most applications can be
designed to avoid the loss of any gas, if the process gas and
the sealing fluid are compatible to permit safe separation.
the gas taken from the process is orders of magnitude lower

than is the case for the restrictive seal.
The positive seals take on the form of a liquid-film seal or a

contact seal also known as the mechanical seal.
The buffer fluid aids in the sealing process in the liquid-film

type and acts as coolant in both types.
The liquid-film type operates with a close clearance and is

used for high-pressure applications.
24
5/26/2010
Performance
of centrifugal compressors
Performance Limitations
Surge Limit
Stonewall Choke
Anti Surge Control
Capacity Control
Performance Curve
25
5/26/2010
Performance Limitations
Rc
Process limit
Adding control
g
margins
Maximum speed
Surge limit
Power limit
Stonewall or
choke limit
Stable zone
of operation
Actual available Minimum speed
operating zone
Qs, vol
Surge Limit
Fl reverses
Flow
in 20 to 50 milliseconds
Surge cycles at a rate

of 0.3 s to 3 s per cycle
26
5/26/2010
Developing the surge cycle on the compressor curve

From A to B.20 - 50 ms.. Drop into surge
From C to D.20 - 120 ms Jump out of surge
A-B-C-D-A.0.3 - 3 seconds Surge cycle Pd
Pd DPT Pv
B A FT
UIC
D Pd = Compressor discharge pressure

C
Pv = Vessel pressure
Rlosses = Resistance losses over pipe
Pressure builds
Resistance goes up
Compressor rides the curve
El t motor
Electro t isi started
t t d
Machine accelerates to nominal speed
Compressor reaches performance curve
Qs, vol
Machine shutdown
no flow, no pressure
Note: Flow goes up faster because pressure is the
integral of flow
FLOW
Major Process Parameters

during Surge
1 2 3
Rapid flow oscillations TIME (sec.)
Reversal flow leads to PRESSURE
reversal thrust
Potential damage
Rapid pressure oscillations
with process instability
1 2 3
Rising temperatures inside TIME (sec.)
compressor which can be TEMPERATURE

seen at the Discharge
Operators may fail to

recognize surge 1 2 3
TIME (sec.)
27
5/26/2010
Surge Signs
Compressor vibrates
Temperature rises
noise
Trips may occur
Conventional instruments and human operators may fail
t recognize
to i surge
Surge consequences
During surge, the severe oscillations of flow and pressure create
heavy thrust bearing and impeller loads, vibration and rising
gas temperatures. If more than a very few surge cycles are
experienced process upsets and severe compressor damage are
experienced,
likely to result.
Unstable flow and pressure

Damage in sequence with increasing severity to seals,
bearings, impellers, shaft,
Increased seal clearances and leakage
Lower energy efficiency
Reduced compressor life
28
5/26/2010
Surge test before installation on the field

2
1
4
3
Anti-Surge Control
The Ground Rule
The better we can measure the distance to surge, the closer we can
operate to it without taking risk
The Challenge
The Surge Limit Line (SLL) is not a fixed line in the most commonly
used coordinates. The SLL changes depending on the compressor
inlet conditions: Ts, Ps, MW, ks
Conclusion
The anti-surge
anti surge controller must provide a distance to surge calculation
that is invariant of any change in inlet conditions
This will lead to :-
Safer control
Reducing the surge Safety control margin
29
5/26/2010
Anti-surge objective
The objective of the anti-surge controllers is to
limit the compression ratio for all individual
stages to prevent the compressor from
operating in the surge region in all operating
modes.
The surge protection calculates the surge
parameter by using a differential pressure
across flow measurement device, suction and
discharge pressure in each stage.
As network resistance decreases, the

Stonewall Choke operating point will move along the
performance curve to the right.
Eventually, a point of maximum flow
and minimum head is encountered,
beyond which further decreases in
network resistance will not increase
the flow rate. This is known as the
choke point, or stonewall.
The physical phenomenon is that the gas velocity has increased to the
local sonic velocity (therefore, Mach 1) at some point in the compressor.
When choke occurs, the flow rate cannot increase unless conditions
change in the choked region. Stonewall is not particularly damaging to
single-stage centrifugal compressors but can cause serious damage to the
rotors and blades of multistage centrifugal and axial compressors.
In such situations, a suitably designed anti-choke controller can be used
to manipulate an anti-choke control valve, thus maintaining sufficient
system resistance to prevent choke.
30
5/26/2010
Capacity Control
of Centrifugal Compressors
1. Speed control.
2. Suction throttling.
3. Variable inlet g
guide vane.
1. Speed control
2. Suction throttling
Pressure Surge
rise P Closing the
line
valve
C o e
Choke
P limit
Q part Flow
load rate Q
31

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4/28/2010

Introduction and Overview

Positive Displacement Compressors

WHAT ARE COMPRESSORS ?

Compressors are machines used to increase the total

Molecular weight of compressed gas vary from 2

Compressors, Blowers and Fans

Compressors. Move air or gas in higher

Blowers. Move large volumes of air or gas at

Fans. Move air or gas at a sufficient pressure to

WHAT ARE COMPRESSORS APPLICATIONS ?

Compressors applications vary from home refrigerator to large

Volume reduction for storage or transportation (e.g. LPG, LNG)

Energy conversion (e.g. Ref. system, heat pumps)

The intermittent mode of compression is cyclic in nature, in

THE SECOND METHOD USES THE DYNAMIC

DYNAMIC POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT

Ejector Centrifugal Axial Rotary Reciprocating

Vane Liquid Ring Screw Lobe

design-limiting operating conditions.

When any limitation is involved, it becomes necessary to

This limitation varies with the type of compressor, but the

Discharge pressureall types.

Action of the discharge valve or valves prevents the

When the compression takes place on one side of the

The compressor is double-acting when compression takes

Ideal or Perfect Gas Laws

How Compressors work?

The molecules now hit the walls with a greater frequency.

How a Compressor Works

Too great a compression ratio (absolute discharge pressure

It therefore may become necessary to combine elements or

Single or Double acting

A unit compressing on both sides of the

Inlet and Outlet Valves

Inlet valves open when the pressure in the cylinder

Discharge valves open when the pressure in the

The compression stroke

The delivery stroke

The expansion stroke

The intake or suction stroke

Limiting operating conditions.

Desirability of saving power

The pV diagram for a two-stage compressor

For minimum power with perfect intercooling between stages, there is

CYLINDER CLEARANCE AND VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY

Cylinder clearance cannot be eliminated completely.

When a piston has completed the compression and delivery stroke

The volumetric efficiency

As a practical matter, there are factors that modify this, and an

The Effect of Clearance on P-v Diagram

the effect of clearance at moderate- and

the effect of Ratio of Specific heat, k on

Perfect Gas Law P1V1 P2V2

Real Gas Law

Maximum Capacity Volume flow rate Q :

Capacity at suction condition: Qsuction Q1 v Vdisp

The Effect of Clearance on P-v Diagram

The effect of clearance at moderate- and

CYLINDER CLEARANCE AND

Valves are almost always symmetrically placed around the outer

2. Low mass of the moving parts for low impact energy

3. Quick response to low differential pressure