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High Speed Digital Directional Comparison Relaying

a a a
K. S. Prakash , O. P. Malik & G. S. Hope
a
Department of Electrical Engineering , The University of Calgary , Calgary, Alberta,
Canada , T2N 1N4
Published online: 22 Jan 2007.

To cite this article: K. S. Prakash , O. P. Malik & G. S. Hope (1988) High Speed Digital Directional Comparison Relaying,
Electric Machines & Power Systems, 15:6, 353-369, DOI: 10.1080/07313568808909346

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 HIGH SPEED DIGITAL DIRECTIONAL
COMPARISON RELAYING

K. S. PRAKASH, 0 . I? MALIK, and G. S. HOPE

Department of Electrical Engineering
The University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N IN4
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ABSTRACT
A high speed directional comparison relay based on the evaluation of the locally
measured deviations of the voltage and current from their prefault values is described
in this paper. Signal processing techniques are used to damp out the exponentially
decaying dc component and high frequency transient components so that the operation
o f the relay depends on the power frequency components of the voltage and current
deviation signals. The direction to a fault is determined by detecting the first
transgression of the fault trajectories across threshold boundaries in the deviation
plane. Studies on a three phase power system model show that the direction to a fault
is determined within a first few milliseconds following the inception of a fiult.

1. INTRODUCTION
Distance relays involve the determination of the impedance to fault and have
operating times of the order of one cycle. Various limitations of impedance relaying
! have been highlighted in Ref.[l]. Phase comparison techniques have been
proposed[2,3], but these schemes make use of a very reliable communication channel
as they involve the exchange of quantitative information across the ends of the
,
protected network. Directional comparison techniques, on the other hand, involve the
exchange of directional or command information, thus posing lesser. demand on the
communication channel. The directional decisions, forward or reverse, are made
independently at each terminal of the transmission line and then compared over the
communication channel to provide a tripping signal for internal faults or blocking for
external faults.
The criterion for directional relays is that when there is a source present at both
terminals of the transmission line, fault and load currents can flow in either direction.
The relays protecting the line are therefore subjected to fault current flowing in both
directions. If non-directional relays are used, they have to be co-ordinated not only
with the relays at the remote end but also with the relays behind them. Since
directional relays operate only when the fault current flows in the specified tripping
direction, they avoid both complex co-ordination and the possibility of compromising
line protection.
' Schemes employing directional wave detectors which operate according to the
relative changes in the travelling wave components of voltage and current impressed
on a power system by the occurence of a fault are described in Refs.[4,5,6,7]. The
I

Electric Machines and Power Systems, 15:353-369,1988

Copyright O 1988 by Hemisphere Publishing Corporation
 354 K. S. PRAKASH ET AL.

basic problem with the schemes based on this principle is that travelling waves of
sufficient magnitude are not generated for a fault at zero voltage. Also, extremely high
sampling rates, of the order of 13 kHz, are required.
Implementation of a digital system for directional comparison relaying is
described in Ref.[B]. In this, a comparison of the previous cycle data and the present
.data is used to identify a disturbance and initiate the fault computation algorithm
which calculates R and L. The basic theory of determining the direction to a fault by
employing the quasi steady state components of the deviation signals was first
introduced in Ref.[9]. In this reference, the deviation signals are obtained by subjecting
the measured voltages and currents to analog steady state suppressors. In more recent
work, the deviation signals are extracted from the measured signals by analog band
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rejection .filters for the system frequency[lO]. The fundamental frequency components
of the deviation signals are then determined using a replica impedance. In Ref.[ll], the
fundamental frequency components are extracted from the fault induced superimposed
signals.
A new approach to the determination of the fundamental frequency component of
the deviation signals is proposed in this paper. The voltage and current deviation
signals at each t e w n a l of the transmission line, determined by subtracting the
digitally stored previous values of the voltage and current from the corresponding
values in the present cycle, are processed through a 60 Hz (fundamental frequency)
bandpass filter to eliminate the exponentially decaying dc component and high
frequency travelling wave components. The relaying decision is based on the change
of the 60 Hz signal component. The direction to a fault is then determined by
detecting the first transgression of the fault trajectory across the threshold boundary in
the deviation plane.

2. FUNDAMENTAL THEORY
The inception of a fault causes the prefault steady state voltage vp and current ip
to deviate to their postfault values v and i respectively such that :

where Av(t) and &(I) are the voltage and current deviation signals generated by the
fault.
Consider a single phase fault inception model illustrated in Fig. 1. The inception
of a fault can be considered as inserting a fictitious voltage source equal in magnitude
and opposite in sign to the prefault voltage at the fault point. In the configuration of
-.
Fig. 1, X,, and X,, are assumed as pure reactances and the magnitude of the prefault
< .

voltage V, at the fault point is assumed to be equal to the rated voltage peak E 1. For
a fault with zero fault resistance occurring at time r = 0, the following relationships
are obtained by an analysis of the fault inception model[9]:
Av (t) = AV sin(or + I$) (2)

where
 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON RELAYING

E , E 2 : Sources
EF : Fictitious source
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X,, ,Xsl : Source impedances

Xf,,Xf2 : Line impedances
Rf : Fault ksistance
V, : Magnitude of prefault voltage
$ : Angle of fault incidence
Fig. 1 Single phase fault inception model.

Summing the squares of equations (2) and (3) :-

Equation (4) is the equation of an ellipse in the deviation plane. Elliptical trajectories
, are obtained by plotting the deviation signals in the deviation plane.
I
Ai (r) contains a constant dc offset Af cos$, the magnitude of which depends on
the fault inception angle $. The center of the elliptical trajectory is displaced along the
I
Ai-axis by an amount proportional to the dc offset.
The direction of the fault with respect to the point of measurement can be
determined from the sense of rotation of the trajectory and the quadrant from which it
initiates after crossing the threshold boundary[lO]. For forward faults, the fault
1, trajectory originates in quadrant I1 or IV and the direction of rotation of the trajectory
is clockwise. For reverse faults, the fault kajectory originates in quadrant I or III and
the direction of rotation of the trajectory is counterclockwise.

3. EFFECT OF NON-FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY COMPONENTS

The deviation signals contain a system frequency component, an exponentially
decaying dc component and high frequency transient components[l2]. This is well
illustrated in Fig. 2 in which the Fourier transforms of typical voltage and current
deviation signals are shown. In this figure, the normalized frequency of 0.5
I corresponds to an actual frequency of 480 Hz.
A correct directional decision is always produced upon evaluation of the
trajectories of the quasi steady state components of the deviation signals[9,10].
 K. S. PRAKASH ET AL.
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normalized frequency
(a) Voltage

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 G. 5

normalized frequency
(b) Current
Fig. 2 Fourier transform of the unfiltered deviation signals.
However, high frequency transient components cause deviations of the trajectories
from the elliptical path and may therefore cause brief excursions of the trajectories into
quadrants which do not correspond to the actual direction to the fault. The
exponentially decaying dc component causes the elliptical trajectories to be displaced
along the Ai-axis. Also, the problem becomes more serious with lower order
harmonics because they affect protective relays more seriously[3]. An illustrative
example showing effect of these non-fundamental frequency components in the
deviation signals on the trajectory for an internal phase to ground fault is shown in
Fig. 3. The deviation signals used are unfiltered.
The dc offset causes the relay to tend to overreach[l3]. High frequency transients
also cause an overreaching effect. Thus, the presence of these components places a
constraint on the setting of the relay. In order to control the reach of the relay, filtering
has to be introduced. In addition, decaying offsets in waveforms create substantial
errors in the estimates and must be dealt with specifically by the computational
algorithms.
 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON RELAYING
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-2001
-30 -5 20 45
Av x 104
Fig. 3 Fault trajectory with unfiltered deviation signals.
In Ref.[lO], a replica impedance is used to eliminate the exponentially decaying
dc offset. This in effect is an extension of the idea of differentiation of the current
deviation signal, the differentiation being restricted to a specific frequency range. This
leads to the amplitude of the travelling wave signals being greatly amplified in
proportion to their frequency thus necessitating the introduction of lowpass filters. Use
of a differential filter to eliminate the transient dc component is proposed in Ref.[l4].
, A 4th order Chebyshev bandpass filter for the fundamental frequency has. been
designed and used in Ref.[3].

4. PROPOSED METHOD
Allowing that the postfault waveforms can be considered as the superposition of
the prefault waveforms and the deviation signals[9], the proposed method is based on
first extracting the deviation signals, Av(t) and Ai(t), by subtracting the digitally stored
previous values from the corresponding values in the present cycle as expressed by
I eqn.(l). The dc, subharmonic and high frequency transient components are eliminated
by the use of a second order bandpass filter.
Using the quasi steady state components of the locally measured voltage and
current deviation signals, the directional decision, forward or reverse, is made
independently at each terminal of the transmission line. The aforemade directional
decisions are then compared over a communication channel to yield a combined
tripping 1 blocking signal.
A very narrow 2nd order recursive bandpass digital filter has been designed to
filter out the dc and high frequency components of the deviation signals.
The difference equation of such a filter in the discrete domain is of the form:
yk = aoxk + alxk-l + u p & - 2- blyk-1 - b 2 ~ t - 2
where
xk = kth unfiltered sample
yk = kth filtered sample
The filter coefficients a . , a l , a2 , b l and b2 are determined from an equivalent
2nd order Butterworth bandpass filter with a center frequency of 60 Hz by the bilinear
 K. S. PRAKASH ET AL.
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normalized frequency
Fig. 4 Amplitude response of the bandpass filter.
transformation method[l5]. A Butterworth filter has been chosen because of
maximally flat response in the passband.
The true measure of an algorithm is its
speed, i.e. time from fault initiation until the generation of a trip command
probability of false hip
probability of failure to trip and
computational difficulty
If the band~ass filter has narrow bandwidth, the s ~ e e dwill be slow. If the
bandwidth is broad, a false trip due to noise is more likdl;. Taking these factors into
account, the order of the filter is chosen as 2 and the passband as 18 Hz. The
amplitude response of the above bandpass filter is shown in Fig. 4 in which the
normalized frequency of 1.0 corresponds to an actual frequency of 480 Hz. The fault
trajectory for the case shown in Fig. 3 but using filtered deviation signals is shown in
Fig. 5. The effect of bandpass filtering is to cause the fault trajectory to traverse an
elliptical path, enter the appropriate quadrant and assume the appropriate sense of
rotation. The scale in Fig. 5 is different from that in Fig. 3 because of the scaling
introduced by the filter coefficients.

-35
-4.5
t
2.5 -0.5 1.5
-
3.5
Av x 104
Fig. 5 Fault trajectory with filtered deviation signals.
 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON RELAYING

300 Km Long TL

.-.-.-

S i x (6)
Three-Phase
Symmetric
Transposed
PI-Circuits
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i n Cascade

Fig. 6 Three phase digital simulation model.

5. SIMULATION MODEL
The power system model used for digital simulations is shown in Fig. 6. The
data under fault conditions is acquired using the University of British Columbia
version of the electromagnetic transients program (EMTP) and simulations were
performed on a VAX 111750 minicomputer. The transmission has been modelled as six
I identical symmetric transposed pi-sections, each equivalent to 50 km, cascaded
together to form 300 km of line length. The source impedances Z,, are modelled as
three-phase symmetric pi-circuits with inductive coupling between mutually coupled
branches. The source impedances Z,, are modelled as lumped series inductances. The
parameters of the transmission line are listed in the Appendix. The load on the line is
controlled by the phase angle difference maintained between the voltages at the
sending and receiving ends.
, The directional relays are located at both terminals of the transmission line (nodes
'b' and 'h' of every phase). The reference directions of the directional relays at the
various relaying points are as shown in Fig. 6. Altogether, twelve voltages and
currents, six at each end, are needed for relaying purposes. Verification of the relaying
principles was achieved by the EMTP in conjunction with a special program written to
simulate the relaying algorithm.

6. RESULTS
The instantaneous values of the filtered deviation signals are plotted in a plane
spanned by the coordinates Av and Z b , where Z denotes the relay setting. In a
directional comparison scheme, as every fault within the transmission line has to be
detected independently at each relay terminal, Z is the surge impedance of the
transmission line.
6.1 Threshold Boundary :
The placement of thresholds in the deviation plane defines the reach of the relay.
The thresholds are based upon the quasi steady state mode response. A basic approach
to the determination of the direction to the fault consists of introducing a threshold
 360 K. S. PRAKASH ET AL.

boundary in the deviation plane and recording the quadrant in which the trajectory first
crosses the boundary. If Av and ZAi have opposite signs and the linear combination
-
(Av ZAi) first reaches the threshold value E or -E, a 'forward' fault is identified.
On the other hand, if Av and ZAi have similar signs and the linear combination
(Av + ZAi) first reaches any of the above mentioned threshold values, a 'reverse' fault
is identified. The threshold value E is designed after detailed fault studies at various
fault locations and inception angles so that all faults within the protected zone are
detected.
The diamond shaped threshold boundary, shown in the subsequent results given in
this paper, was first introduced in Ref.[9], and is chosen so that faults resulting in large
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Av and small Ai shall be detected equally well as faults resulting in small Av and
large Ai. Small strips parallel to the Av and ZAi axes have to be taken out[l2] in
order to prevent
(1) operation for points in the fault trajectories which are very close to the co-
ordinate axes and
(2) operation due to power swings.
The threshold boundary should be so designed that
(1) all faults within the protected zone are detected
(2) there is no operation for normal load current flowing in the phases and
(3) there is no operation for the unfaulted phase(s) in the event of a fault.
6.2 Sample Rate :
A sampling frequency of 960 Hz is chosen based on optimum performance in
previous studies[l6]. At this sampling rate, referred to as a nominal 1 kHz sample
rate, the successive crosses and dots in the fault trajectories given in the subsequent
results represent the lapse of 1 ms.
6.3 Fault Studies :
To demonstrate the operation of the relay, faults of four different types (single-
line-to-ground, line-to-line, double-line-to-ground and three-phase-to-ground) were
applied at every fault point available, both in front of, and behind the relay. Also,
faults were initiated at different instants in the cycle. However, to illustrate the most
pertinent features, only one of each of the above types of faults is included in the
paper. Fault trajectories for the first 8 ms following fault inception for various faults
are shown in Figs. 7 to 11. All fault trajectories start from the origin. The value of the
source impedance Z,, used in obtaining the results of Figs. 7 to 10 are : Lo = 172.8
mH and L = 46.8 mH.
Pault trajectories for an internal single-line-to-ground fault on phase 'Y' with a
fault resistance of 10 ohms at at a negative voltage maximum 250 km from the
sending end (83.33% of the line length) are shown in Fig: 7. As seen from Fig. 7(b),
the fault trajectories for both sending and receiving ends originate in quadrant IV after
crossing the threshold boundary and assume a 'clockwise' sense of rotation. Thus, the
fault is correctly identified as a 'forward' fault at both sending and receiving ends
within 3 ms following the inception of the fault. The fault trajectories for the
unfaulted phases 'R' and 'B' remain well within the threshold boundary.
Fault trajectories for a line-to-line fault external to the receiving end are shown in
Fig. 8. The power will actually be flowing out of the feeder section at the receiving
end and thus the relays at the receiving end c o m t l y identify the fault as 'reverse' and
cause a blocking signal to be transmitted. This is evident by the receiving end fault
 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON RELAYING 36 1

trajectories initiating in quadrants I or 111 and assuming a 'counterclockwise' sense of

rotation as illustrated in Figs. 8(b) & (c). The relays at the sending end would
meanwhile be recording that the fault power was flowing into the section and would
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-30 -10 10 30
Av x 104
(a) Phase 'R'
t

Av x 104
(b) Phase 'Y'

-30 -10 10 30
Av x 104
(c) Phase 'B'
Fig. 7 Fault trajectories for an internal SLG fault on phase 'Y'
x Sending end
o Receiving end
 362 K. S. PRAKASH ET AL.

thus identify the fault as 'forward'. The reception of the blocking signal prevents
completion of the tripping circuit for the above external fault. Similar results are
observed for a fault external to the sending end as shown in Fig. 9.
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-10 10 30
Av x 104
(a) Phase 'R'

-30 -10 10 30
Av x 104
(b) Phase 'Y'

-30 -10 10 30
AV lo4
(c) Phase 'B'
Fig. 8 Fault trajectories for a L-L fault external to the receiving end (Yii-Bii) at a
positive voltage maximum of phase 'B'.
x Sending end
o Receiving end
 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON RELAYING 363

Fault trajectories for an internal three-phase-to-ground fault with a fault resistance

of 15 ohms at a positive voltage maximum of phase 'Y' 200 km from the sending end
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Av x 104
(a) Phase 'R'

sI
-30 -10 10 30
Av x 104
(b) Phase 'Y'

Fig. 9
;a
N -1

-3-30 (c) Av x'B'104 10

-10Phase 30

Fault trajectories for a LLG fault external to the sending end (Raa-Baa-gnd.)
with a fault resistance of 10 ohms at a voltage zero of phase 'R'.
x Sending end
o Receiving end
 364 K. S. PRAKASH ET AL.

are shown in Fig. 10. The fault is correctly identified as an 'internal' fault at both
sending and receiving ends of all phases in the first few milliseconds following fault
inception.

l
i
t#
t

% -20
C(

a
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hl -60
-100
20

-30 -10 10 30
AV lo4
(a) Phase 'R'
70 1

-30 -10 10 30
Av x 104
(b) Phase 'Y'

AV lo4
(c) Phase 'B'
Fig. 10 Fault trajectories for an internal three-phase-to-ground fault.
x Sending end
o Receiving end
 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON RELAYING 365

Effect of Source Impedance :

To observe the effect of varying the source impedance on the operation of the
relay, Z,, was increased to three times the value used in obtaining the results of Figs. 7
to 10. The fault trajectori resulting from an internal three-phase-to-ground fault with
increased source impedance are shown in Fig. 11. The threshold boundary is retained
the same as before. Fast and correct operation is observed for all three phases.
Line Charging :
Trajectories for the first 8 ms following line charging are presented in Fig. 12. It
is observed that the sending end trajectories of all the phases cross the threshold
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boundary in quadrant I I 111 thus causing a blocking signal to be transmitted. The

receiving end trajectories remain well within the threshold boundary as there is no
infeed from the receiving end. Thus, tripping is prevented for line charging.
Single Pole Clearance :
The trajectories associated with the single pole clearance of a single-line-to-
ground fault on phase 'R' are shown in Fig. 13. The sending end trajectory crosses the
threshold boundary in quadrant I within 3 ms whereas the receiving end trajectory
remains well within the threshold boundary. Thus, blocking occurs for the above
condition.

7. SALIENT FEATURES O F PROPOSED SCHEME

I
Fast operation : The average fault detection time is 2-4 ms following fault
inception. The algorithm is thus not affected by ct saturation and CVT transient
effects. The inclusion of resistance in the faulted circuit results in a slight increase in
the fault detection time.
Fault discrimination capability : The direction to a fault, forward or reverse, is
determined correctly for faults at various locations and inception angles.
Selective pole tripping : It is observed that the fault trajectories for the unfaulted
phase(s) remain well inside the operating threshold boundary thus resulting in excellent
phase discrimination.
Line charging : There is no false tripping during line charging.
Computational complexity : The deviation signals are simply the difference
between the prefault and postfault values. As a second order filter is used and the lilter
equations are recursive, the algorithm outlined in this paper is very well suited for
real-time implementation on a microcomputer with a nominal 1 kHz sample rate.

8. CONCLUSIONS
The direction to a fault is determined within the first few milliseconds following
fault inception based on the evaluation of the quasi steady state components of the
locally measured deviations of the voltage and current from their prefault values. The
deviation signals, derived by subtracting .the previous values from the corresponding
values in the present cycle, are filtered to eliminate the non-fundamental frequency
components. The performance during line charging and single pole clearance has also
been considered. This method is suitable for high speed directional comparison
schemes for protection of EHV 1 UHV transmission lines. After including the
communication channel delay time of 2 ms[4] required for the exchange of directional
information across the ends of the protected network, the total operating time i s less
than half a cycle.
 K. S. PRAKASH ET AL.
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-30 -10 10 30
AV lo4
(a) Phase 'R'
70

45

K
aN -5

-30
-30 -10 10 30
Av x 104
(b) Phase 'Y'
35 t

-30 -10 10 30
Av x 104
(c) Phase 'B'

Fig. 1 1 Fault trajectories for an internal three-phase-to-ground fault with increased

source impedance with a fault resistance of 10 ohms at 50 krn from the
sending end at a positive voltage maximum of phase 'R'.
x Sending end
o Receiving end
 DIRECTIONAL COMPARISON RELAYING
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Av x 104
(a) Phase 'R'

Av x 1@
(b) Phase 'Y'

-30 -10 10 30
Av x 104
(c) Phase 'B'

Fig. 12 Trajectories following a line charging operation.

x Sending end
o Receiving end
 K. S. PRAKASH ET AL.
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Fig. 13 Phase 'R' trajectories associated with the single pole clearance of a ground
fault at the center of the line at a voltage maximum.
x Sending end
o Receiving end

9. APPENDIX
The parameters for the three-phase 500 kV transmission line[l7] are listed below

Nominal voltage = 500 kV rms line-to-line

Ro = 0.1896CUkm
R1 = 0.018 Rflun
Lo = 3.456 mHflun
L, = 0.936 mwkm
Co = 0.00828 p F h
C1 = 0.01134pFflun

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[17] E.W. Kimbark, and A.C. Legate, "Fault surge versus switching surge - A study of
transient overvoltages caused by line-to-ground faults", IEEE Transactions on
Power Appararu. and System, Vol. PAS-87 (9), pp 1762-69, 1968.

Manuscript received in final form October 24, 1988

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