Meteorology Notes

FH 2016-12-12

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Contents
1 Instruments and observations 3
2 The Atmosphere 14
3 Planetary pressure and wind system 44
4 Frontal and nonfrontal systems 94
5 Tropical Revolving Storms 108
6 Synoptic charts and forecasts 126
7 Ocean currents 136
8 Climatology of the Oceans 148
9 Ice 160
10 Voyage Planning and Meteorology 176
Bibliography 185
Appendices 186
Bibliography.
Internet sites.
Wind Protractor Instructions.
Wind Wave Swell Nomogram.

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1 Instruments and Observations

1.1 Meteorological observations.

Meteorological elements are observed and recorded on board ships.

These observations are used for forecasting, and planning operations such as cargo ventilation.
Selected ships report observations to Meteorological Offices for use in analysis and forecasting.

1.2 Temperature measurement.

1.2.1 Thermometers

Temperatures are measured by thermometers.

The most commonly used thermometers used at sea are the liquid in glass type.
Alcohol and mercury are the fluids used.
The changing volume of liquid in a bulb attached to a narrow tube is used to measure the temperature.
Meteorological thermometers have their scales engraved on the glass tube to ensure accuracy.

10 0 50
Temperature is measured in degrees Celsius for meteorological purposes.
The Kelvin scale is used for scientific measurements.
The Fahrenheit scale is used in certain countries.
Standard temperatures at standard pressure are:
Pure water freezes at 0 C 273 K 32 F
Pure water boils at 100 C 373 K 212 F

1.2.2 Air temperature measurement.

To measure air temperature accurately the thermometer must be shielded from direct radiation from the
sun or other heat sources.
The thermometer is placed in a Marine Screen, also known as a Stevenson Screen.
This has a solid top and bottom, and louvred sides to permit free flow of air while sheltering the
thermometer from radiant heat, rain and spray.
It is made of wood painted white, or white plastic, to reflect radiant heat.
To measure air temperature free of any influences from the ship it should be hung on the windward side
before taking a measurement.

1.2.3 Humidity measurement.

1.2.3.1 Mason's Hygrometer.

This consists of a Marine Screen with two thermometers inside it.
One thermometer measures the air temperature. This is the Dry Bulb thermometer.
The other thermometer has a wick over the bulb leading to a reservoir of pure water.
The water migrates up the wick and keeps it damp.
Water evaporates from the wick drawing Latent Heat from it and reducing the temperature shown by the
Wet Bulb thermometer.
The Depression of the Wet Bulb is the amount by which the Wet Bulb thermometer reads lower than the
Dry Bulb thermometer.
The rate of evaporation is directly proportional to the temperature and inversely proportional to the
humidity of the air.
When temperature is high and / or humidity is low, evaporation is rapid, drawing large amounts of latent
heat, and the depression of the wet bulb is large.
When temperature is low and / or humidity is high, evaporation is slow, drawing small amounts of latent
heat, and the depression of the wet bulb is small.
When the air is saturated, no evaporation occurs, no latent heat is drawn, and the depression of the wet
bulb is zero.
Temperatures are read to 0.1C for humidity measurement purposes.
Dew Point Temperature and Relative Humidity can be found by using formulae or tables.
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1.2.3.2 Maintenance.
The wick must be renewed weekly, and after rough weather when spray may contaminate the water.
The reservoir must be replenished weekly with pure water, or more frequently in conditions of low
humidity.
Impure water evaporates at different rates, leading to inaccurate measurements.
Maintenance is noted in the Ship's Meteorological Logbook.

1.2.3.3 Precautions when observing temperatures

The screen must be to windward to minimise the effect of the ship.
Read the Dry Bulb then Wet Bulb temperatures, as radiation is affecting them as soon as the door is
opened.
Then check the instruments, correcting any defects found and allow the temperatures to stabilise before
repeating the observations.
The dry bulb must be clean and dry. Allow time for the temperature to settle after cleaning.
The wet bulb must be damp, not dripping, if temperature is above freezing.
The wet bulb must be coated with a thin layer of ice if temperature is below freezing. Water may have
to be carefully applied, and the temperature allowed to settle.
The dew point temperature and relative humidity are found by means of tables constructed specifically
for the instrument.
Mason's Hygrometer
Marine Screen (Stephensons Screen)
Solid roof
Dry Bulb Thermometer
Wet Bulb Thermometer

Depression of the Wet Bulb

Louvred Sides

Air Flow

Wick

Reservoir of Distilled Water

Solid floor
1.2.3.4 Whirling psychrometer
Two thermometers are fitted into a frame.
A reservoir is fitted to the frame to contain pure water.
A wick carries the water to the bulb of one of the thermometers.
A shaft and handle enable the instrument to be whirled round.
The instrument is whirled around to ensure a passage of air over the thermometers.
The wet bulb temperature is depressed by the same mechanism as that described above.
The dew point temperature and relative humidity are found by means of tables constructed specifically
for the instrument.

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The whirling psychrometer is used in confined spaces such as holds, or in low wind conditions in the
shade out of direct sunlight.

Whirling psychrometer Dry Bulb Thermometer

Frame
Wick

Reservoir Wet Bulb Thermometer

of
Distilled
Water
Handle

1.2.4 Sea temperature measurement.

For meteorological purposes the sea surface temperature is required.
Sea temperatures are also recorded in ships' logbooks.

1.2.4.1 The Bucket Method

Ships making observations for the Meteorological Office are supplied with a specially constructed sea
temperature bucket.
This has a double skin and is constructed to ensure flow through the bucket when it is towed through the
water.
This construction also protects the water to be measured from temperature changes.
The procedure used ensures that the sea temperature free of ship influences is measured.
The bucket is attached to a line, which is attached to the ship.
It is lowered into the sea clear of discharges of water from machinery or cargo spaces.
It is towed through the water to allow the bucket to acquire the water temperature.
It is then hauled aboard and taken to a sheltered location.
The thermometer is inserted in the bucket and allowed to acquire the temperature of the water.
The temperature is read to an accuracy of 0.1 C without removing the bulb of the thermometer
from the water.
(Some Sea Temperature Buckets are design to hold the thermometer in a protective brass case
throughout the process)

Sea Temperature Bucket

Vents Outer skin

Handle
Funnel Inner skin
Line
Flow

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1.2.4.2 Hull sensor
Certain ships may be fitted with a sensor attached to the inside of the ship's hull just below the water
line which gives a remote measurement of sea temperature by conduction through the hull plating.
This is only suitable for ships whose draught does not change significantly, or sensors may be fitted for
light and loaded conditions.
The cabling required makes this an expensive method.

1.2.4.3 Engine intake

Other ships use the sea temperature measured at an intake of sea water to the engine room.
This is the least accurate method because:
the point of intake is significantly below the surface
the water entering the intake has been affected by the ship's hull.

1.3 Atmospheric Pressure measurement

Atmospheric pressure is measured by barometer.

1.3.1 Mercury barometer

Historically pressure was measured by mercury barometer as this method was the most accurate
available.
The aneroid barometer is relatively cheap and simple, and is used on most ships.
Subsequently the Precision Aneroid Barometer was developed and is used on Observing Ships.

1.3.2 Aneroid barometers

1.3.2.1 Simple aneroid barometer

Aneroid Barometer
Pointer

Chain

Spring
Levers

Pressure Capsule

A sealed capsule of thin metal expands and contracts in response to changes in external atmospheric
pressure.
This movement is magnified mechanically to rotate a pointer.
A graduated circular scale indicates the corresponding pressure.
An adjustment is provided to set the correct pressure.

Common aneroid barometers do not maintain accuracy particularly well.

The index error should be obtained by comparison with a precision instrument whenever practicable.
Readings are corrected for index error and altitude above sea level for reporting purposes.
The instrument can be adjusted to show pressure at instrument level, or at sea level.
Officers must be aware of the relevant level used.
Changes in pressure can be measured by noting the pressure at regular intervals.

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1.3.2.2 Precision Aneroid Barometer
Pressure capsules

Lever
Pressure Display
1013.3
Gearing
Hair
Spring Thumbwheel

Button
Switch

Battery CRT
Display
The Precision Aneroid Barometer is supplied to Selected Ships.
This instrument is more consistently accurate.
The sensing element consists of three pressure capsules.
A lever is kept in contact with the capsule by a hairspring.
A micrometer screw operates a counter and indicates the position of the lever by a magic eye indicator.
The circuit is activated when a button switch is pressed.
The display is discontinuous when the contact is open and continuous when the contact is made.

1.3.2.2.1 Procedure
Press the button switch.
Turn the knurled knob in accordance with the instructions until the Magic Eye is just continuous then
discontinuous with small adjustments of the knob.
Continuous - increase reading,
Discontinuous - decrease reading.
Release the button switch.
Read the pressure to 0.1 hPa.
0.05 is rounded to the odd tenth.
A Damping Cap, which has a small orifice and restricts air flow, may be fitted in conditions of rapidly
fluctuating pressure.

1.3.2.2.2 Index error

The instrument has a certificate detailing Index Errors found at calibration.
The instrument is identified by its serial number on the certificate.
The reading is corrected for index error from the certificate.

1.3.2.2.3 Altitude correction

Pressure for reporting purposes is standardised as pressure at sea level.
The instrument is sited above sea level and reads a lower pressure.
The temperature of the air affects its density and therefore the pressure difference.
The reading is corrected for altitude above sea level by means of a table.

1.3.2.2.4 Maintenance
The accuracy is checked by Port Meteorological Officers against a standard instrument.
The battery is replaced when exhausted.

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1.3.3 Recording Atmospheric Pressure

1.3.3.1 Barograph
A Barograph records changes in atmospheric pressure.

1.3.3.1.1 Operation
The aneroid mechanism is used to operate a pen drawing a trace on graduated paper on a chart on a
drum turned by clockwork.
The changes in atmospheric pressure can be readily seen and used for forecasting purposes.

The barograph supplied to Selected Ships has a cylinder filled with oil around the pressure capsule to
reduce the effects of vibration and rapid pressure fluctuations.

Barograph
Rotating Drum
with Chart

Adjustment

Levers

Pressure Capsules
Pen Arm

Oil filled
cylinder

1.3.3.1.2 Care and maintenance

The barograph should be sited in a shaded position not subject to vibration or concussion.
It should be aligned athwartships so that the arm does not lift off the paper when the ship rolls.
The chart is changed weekly.
The date is recorded on the chart.
The corrected atmospheric pressure is recorded on the chart when it is changed.
The chart time is aligned with UT.
The chart is time marked at 12:00 UT each day.
The clockwork is wound when the chart is changed.
The pen arm is adjusted to minimise the pressure, consistent with a continuous trace.
The pen is refilled or changed when exhausted.
The indicated pressure is adjusted if significantly in error. This adjustment is noted on the chart.

1.3.3.1.3 Terms
The Characteristic of the Barometric Tendency describes the shape of the trace on the chart in the three
hours preceding the observation.
The Barometric Tendency is the amount of change in atmospheric pressure in the three hours preceding
the observation. It indicates the rate of change of atmospheric pressure.

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1.4 Cloud observations

Two aspects of cloud cover are recorded and reported, the amount and type of cloud present.

1.4.1 Cloud amount.

Ships record the amount of cloud cover using the Beaufort notation.
b No cloud.
bc Partly cloudy, less than half of the sky covered.
c Cloudy, more than half covered.
o Overcast, completely covered.

Selected ships report in more detail.

The amount of cloud in eighths of the sky covered, oktas.
The types of cloud at different levels.

1.5 Wind.

1.5.1 Wind direction

Wind direction is found by observation of the sea waves generated.
The wind direction is perpendicular to the crests of the waves.
Wind direction is the direction from which the wind is blowing.
Wind direction is recorded in points of the compass by merchant ships.
Selected Ships report wind direction in tens of degrees.

1.5.2 Wind speed.

Wind speed is estimated from the state of the sea waves generated.
The Beaufort scale describes the various sea states associated with different wind speeds, assuming that
the observation is made in deep water away from land after the wind has been blowing for long enough
to raise the appropriate sea, approximately 24 hours.
Various factors affect the relationship between wind speed and sea state:
Swell present must be discounted; only sea waves are relevant to wind estimation.
Fetch. A high wind blowing offshore will not generate waves of the expected height close to the
shore.
Duration. Time is required for the wave height to develop to the appropriate level.
Current and/or tidal stream. Water movement contrary to wind direction shortens and steepens
the waves, and conversely.
Precipitation has a smoothing effect on the sea surface.
Shallow water steepens and shortens sea waves.
Wind waves may be higher for a given wind speed if the air is significantly colder than the sea.
Wind speed is classified in terms of Beaufort Force.
Ships record wind direction in points of the compass.
Selected ships report wind speed in knots or metres per second.

Anemometers and wind vanes may be used to measure relative wind speed and direction.
They are subject to inaccuracy due to turbulent flow around the ship's structure.
Relative wind speed and direction are indicated by anemometer and wind vane.
The movement of the vessel must be allowed for by vector analysis to find the true wind speed and
direction.
Plot the vessels movement vector WO using a suitable scale.
Plot the relative wind vector OA.
Measure the true wind vector WA.

1.6 Waves
Wave direction is the direction from which waves are approaching.
Wave height is the height from trough to crest.
Wave period is the time in seconds taken for successive waves to pass a fixed point.

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1.6.1 Wind waves.
Wind waves are the waves being generated by the wind that in blowing at the time of the observation.
The height of the waves is recorded as a sea state.

Description of sea state Wave height m

Calm 0
Rippled 0-0.1
Smooth 0.1-0.5
Slight 0.5-1.25
Moderate 1.25-2.5
Rough 2.5-4
Very rough 4-6
High 6-9
Very high 9-14
Phenomenal >14

1.6.2 Swell waves

Swell waves are waves that have been generated by a wind in another place.

Selected ships report actual wave heights in code, sea and swell period and swell direction.

1.7 Visibility.

When objects are in sight at known distances these can be used to estimate visibility.
The quality of the horizon may be used in the absence of other indicators.
A clear horizon indicates good visibility; an indistinct horizon indicates poor visibility.
The difficulty is exacerbated at night.
Reflection from particles in the air around the ship's lights indicates reduced visibility is likely.
The absence of shore lights when these should be visible indicates reduced visibility.
Relative Humidity may be used to distinguish between fog/mist and haze.
Low Relative Humidity, <95%, indicates haze rather than fog or mist.

1. 8 Meteorological Codes

Meteorological reports are encoded to minimise the volume of traffic.

1.8.1 Selected Ships

Selected Ships are those making meteorological reports at any time of day except the North Pacific,
where reports are made on the synoptic hours of 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UT.

They are provided with the following instruments and publications:

Precision Aneroid Barometer

Barograph, open scale
Marine Screens, 2
Thermometers, 6 air, and 2 sea if it is practical to make observations.
Sea temperature bucket if sea surface temperature observations are to be made.
Turbowin Software & instructions
State of Sea Booklet
Cloud Types for Observers
Ship's Code Card
Marine Observer's Handbook
Mercury Spill Kit

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1.8.2 Coding
Coding is normally no longer performed manually as the Turbowin software is used.
The details of the codes are contained in the Ship's Code and Decode Book.
The observations are recorded in the Ship's Meteorological Logbook before being transmitted.
The Logbook is sent for analysis on completion.
Other phenomena are also recorded.

1.8.2.1 Notes on coding.

The Ships Code and Decode Book gives full details.
Latitude and Longitude are reported in degrees and tenths, rounded down, not to the nearest tenth.
Wind direction is coded in tens of degrees. Calm is 00. North is 36.
Wind speed is estimated by force from the sea state then the speed extracted from the Beaufort scale.
Barometer correction must include index error if any exists.

Ship's course is coded:

Ship stopped 0
022.5 - 067.5 NE 1
067.5 - 112.5 E 2
112.5 - 157.5 SE 3
157.5 - 202.5 S 4
202.5 - 247.5 SW 5
247.5 - 292.5 W 6
292.5 - 337.5 NW 7
337.5 - 022.5 N 8

1.8.2.2 Coding example.

Complete a Ship's Meteorological Logbook entry for the following conditions:
Call sign GTYH
April 26 1800 UT
Wind blowing from 235. High waves. Dense streaks of foam. Wave crests breaking. Flying spray. Report
in knots.
Latitude 48 21' N
Longitude 159 17' E
Cloud types
4/8 cumulonimbus without cirriform upper part, base at 1000 m
2/8 nimbostratus
1/8 cirrocumulus
Visibility 3.7 NM
Dry bulb temperature 11.9 C
Wet bulb temperature 9.1 C
Barometer reads 1003.5 hPa
Index error -0.1 hPa
Barometer 23 m above sea level
Barograph trace falling then falling more quickly, 2.3 hPa lower than 1500 UT
Present weather, continuous heavy rain.
Cloud cover at 1200 UT 3/8.
Showers during past six hours.
Course made good 071
Average speed 13.7 kts
Sea temperature by bucket 6.9
Wind wave period 12 seconds, height 7.5 metres
Swells from 270 and 190
First swell period 14 seconds, height 3.5 m
Second swell period 9 seconds, height 4.5 m

Parenthesised items are not transmitted.

BBXX GTYH (04) 26183 99483 11592 41696 724(9)44 10119 (0091) 20060 (1003.5 -0.1 +2.8) 40062 58023
76581 84329 (18) 22223 02069 21215 32719 41407 50909 80091

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1.8.2.3 Other entries.
Details of observing officers are entered.
Space is provided for reporting message clearance difficulties, Meteorological service shortcomings,
Freak Waves, Sea Surface Currents and unusual phenomena.

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2 The Atmosphere

2.1 Introduction

Meteorology is the science of the atmosphere and the phenomena that occur within it.
Weather describes the phenomena occurring in the atmosphere in the short term.
Climate describes the long term pattern of weather.

2.2 Composition of the atmosphere

2.2.1 The atmosphere

The atmosphere is the envelope of gases that surrounds the earth, travels with it through space, and
rotates with it.
Air is the mixture of gases comprising the atmosphere.
Turbulent mixing maintains a high degree of constancy in the composition of air.
Average values are:
Nitrogen 78.09%
Oxygen 20.95%
Argon 0.93%
Carbon Dioxide 0.03%
Traces of Neon, Helium, Methane, Krypton, Hydrogen, Nitrogen Oxide, Xenon, and Radon.

Other gases, vapours and solids are present in the atmosphere in varying concentrations in different
locations.

2.2.2 Gases and Vapours

Ozone, O3, produced by the effect of solar radiation, is present between altitudes of approximately 12 to
49 km.
It absorbs ultraviolet light.

Carbon Dioxide tends to be concentrated near the surface due to its relatively high density. It enters the
atmosphere by animal exhalation and fuel combustion, balanced by plant absorption. There are local
concentrations in and near industrial regions.

Water is present in widely varying amounts, in its various phases:

Water vapour in concentrations up to approximately 4%;
Water droplets in cloud, mist and fog;
Ice crystals in high cloud.
The high specific heat and latent heat of water make it important in meteorological processes.
Specific heat, the amount of heat required to change temperature.
Latent heat, the amount of heat required to change state.

2.2.3 Solid particles

Solid particles of dust, sand, smoke, salt, volcanic ash, meteoric debris (20 t/d) and bacteria also affect
meteorological processes by their effect on solar radiation and by providing hygroscopic nuclei for
condensation of water vapour.

2.3 Vertical structure of the atmosphere

2.3.1 Introduction

The atmosphere is subdivided into layers with distinct characteristics.

These characteristics are measured by radiosonde, a lightweight instrument package and radio
transmitter carried aloft by balloon released from shore stations and ships.
These transmit air temperature, atmospheric pressure and humidity as they rise through the atmosphere.
Individual soundings vary, but an overall pattern exists.

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2.3.2 Troposphere

The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.

Temperature decreases with altitude at approximately 6.5C per km on average, from 15C at the
surface to -54C.
There are wide local variations, and temperature increases with altitude under certain circumstances.
The troposphere contains approximately 75% of the mass of the atmosphere, and virtually all the water
vapour.
This is the layer in which atmospheric turbulence and weather phenomena occur.

2.3.3 Tropopause

The tropopause is the upper boundary of the troposphere.

It varies in altitude from approximately 8 km at the poles to approximately 18 km at the equator.
Due to the increase of temperature above this level, an inversion, turbulence is limited to the region
below the tropopause.

2.3.4 Stratosphere

In this layer temperature increases with altitude due to radiation absorption by ozone.
Ozone concentration is high in the stratosphere, the highest concentration being at approximately 22 km.

2.3.5 Stratopause

The stratopause is the upper boundary of the stratosphere at approximately 48 km.

The highest temperatures associated with radiation absorption by ozone occur at this level and may be
0C.

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2.3.6 Mesosphere

The mesosphere is characterised by decreasing temperature with increasing altitude, to approximately

-92C.
Noctilucent clouds, thought to be formed by ice crystals forming on meteoric dust, occur in this layer.

2.3.7 Mesopause

The mesopause is the upper boundary of the mesosphere, at approximately 80 km.

2.3.8 Thermosphere

The thermosphere contains extremely rarefied air in which temperature rises with altitude due to the
absorption of ultraviolet radiation by oxygen.
Phenomena such as aurorae due to ionization of the gases occur at altitudes up to 1000 km.

The upper limit of the atmosphere is not easily defined.

2.4 Atmospheric heating

2.4.1 Terms

Energy is the ability to do work.

Heat is a form of energy.
Temperature is the energy level of a substance.
Radiation is the transfer of energy that can take place through space where no matter is present.
Conduction is the transfer of energy directly from particle to particle through a substance.
Convection is the transfer of energy by bulk movement in fluids.
Thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by infrared waves.
Latent heat is the energy involved in a change of state, between solid, liquid and vapour.

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17
2.4.2 Solar Radiation

Solar radiation from the sun provides the energy that causes meteorological phenomena on earth.
Energy

Solar
Radiation

Terrestrial
Reradiation

Wavelength

2.4.3 Solar Spectrum

The frequency of radiation from a body is related to its surface temperature.

The surface temperature of the sun is approximately 6000K.
The peak radiance at this temperature occurs at a wavelength of 483 nanometres (nm). (nano = 10-9)
The wavelength of solar radiation ranges from approximately 200 nm, X-rays, to 2000 nm, infrared.
The band of visible light is from approximately 400 to 740 nm, violet to red.
The Solar Constant is the amount of energy reaching the upper atmosphere.
The Solar Constant is the solar energy incident on unit area, in unit time, on a surface perpendicular to
solar radiation.
At earths mean distance from the sun it is approximately 1.37 kW/m2.
The majority of solar radiation lies in the visible spectrum, with the next largest portion in the infrared.
Components of the atmosphere selectively absorb radiation.
Carbon dioxide, CO2, ozone, O3, and water vapour, H2O, are particularly important.

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2.4.4 Atmospheric effects on solar radiation

Air is virtually transparent to radiation. Substances in the atmosphere have different effects on solar
radiation.

Absorption. Radiation is absorbed by substances in the atmosphere, increasing their temperature.

Ozone absorbs approximately 3% of solar radiation, principally ultra violet light in the stratosphere.
Water as vapour and droplets in clouds absorbs approximately 15% of solar radiation in the troposphere.

Reflection. Radiation striking clouds, earth and water is partially reflected into space.
Approximately 21% of solar radiation is reflected by clouds and 4% by the surface.

Scattering. Radiation striking particles in the atmosphere is scattered in all directions.

Approximately 6% of solar radiation is scattered back into space.

Insolation is the radiation reaching the surface and absorbed by land and water.

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2.4.5 Terrestrial reradiation

Any body at a temperature above absolute zero radiates energy at a wavelength inversely proportional to
its temperature.
Land, water and water vapour radiate energy at long wavelengths.
This energy is reflected and absorbed by the substances in the atmosphere in a complex pattern.
The proportion of energy radiating into space varies widely.

2.4.6 Energy balance

Overall solar radiation is matched by reradiation to space and the earth's temperature remains
approximately constant, although there are cyclic variations on various time scales.

2.5 Energy transfer within the atmosphere.

2.5.1 Conduction

Energy is conducted from land and water surfaces to air in contact with them.

2.5.2 Convection

Air heated by conduction moves vertically due to its reduced density in a convective cycle, carrying
energy upward.

2.5.3 Advection

Air moving horizontally carries energy from area to area.

2.5.3 Evaporation

Water vapour evaporating from bodies of water and from plants carries latent heat energy into the
atmosphere from the surface.

2.5.4 Condensation

Water vapour condensing into liquid water in the atmosphere releases latent heat energy into the air.

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2.6 Surface Temperature Variation

2.6.1 Suns altitude

Latitude affects the average altitude of the sun.

In high latitudes the suns altitude is low, and conversely.

Unit energy is spread over a wider area when the altitude is low than when the altitude is high.
Surface albedo is generally higher at the poles than the equator, reflecting more energy.
Temperatures are low at the Poles and high at the Equator.

2.6.2 Length of daylight

The Earths Axis is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit.

Day length varies throughout the year, except at the Equator.
At the equator day length is twelve hours throughout the year.
At the poles day length varies between 24 hours and zero between the relevant equinoxes.
The amount of solar radiation received is directly proportional to day length.

Temperature varies directly as day length.

2.6.3 Nature of the surface

Land is opaque; radiation does not penetrate significantly.

Land has a low specific heat.
Incoming energy is concentrated into a shallow layer of a substance with low specific heat and
temperature rises rapidly.
When irradiation ceases heat is lost from a shallow layer of low specific heat material and temperature
falls rapidly.

Water is translucent; radiation penetrates to significant depth.

Water has a high specific heat.
Incoming energy is spread over a deeper layer of a substance with high specific heat and temperature
rises slowly.
When irradiation ceases reradiation takes place from the surface, cooling the upper layer and increasing
its density.
Convection occurs replacing the cooled water, heat loss takes place from a relatively deep layer of high
specific heat material, and temperature falls slowly.

Land surfaces experience wider ranges of surface temperature than water surfaces.
This is modified by vegetation, which reduces the range of land surface temperatures by increasing the
specific heat of the surface and increasing the depth of material involved.

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2.6.4 Horizontal variation

Temperature varies from place to place due to the above factors.

Surface temperature is standardised as the temperature measured at a height of 1.5 m above the
surface.
Isotherms are lines drawn through places having the same temperature.

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2.6.5 Periodic variation
Diurnal Variation

Temperature

Reradiation
Surplus
Deficit
Deficit
Insolation
00 06 12 18 24
Insolation is zero until sunrise, rises to a maximum at noon, then declines to zero at sunset.
Reradiation varies as temperature.
Temperature falls due to reradiation until insolation equals reradiation, rises while insolation exceeds
reradiation, then falls again.
Diurnal variation leads to minimum temperatures at dawn and maxima during the afternoon.
Annual Variation

Temperature

Surplus
Reradiation

Deficit

Deficit

Insolation

Solstice Equinox Solstice Equinox Solstice

NH Dec Mar Jun Sep Dec
SH Jun Sep Dec Mar Jun
Insolation is minimum at the winter solstice, increases to maximum at the summer solstice then
decreases again.
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Seasonally temperature is minimum between the winter solstice and vernal equinox, and maximum
between the summer solstice and autumnal equinox.

2.6.6 Vertical variation

In the troposphere temperature decreases by 6.49/1000m with increasing altitude in the Troposhere on
average, but there are wide variations.
There are layers where temperature does not change significantly with increasing altitude, and where
temperature increases with increasing altitude.
An isothermal layer is one in which temperature does not change significantly with increasing altitude.
An inversion is a layer in which temperature increases with increasing altitude.
Actual variations are measured by radiosonde.
The Environment Curve shows actual temperature variations with altitude.

Environmental curves are never identical, but patterns can be identified.

i) A general decrease of temperature with increasing altitude.
ii) Decreasing temperature up to altitude A.
An isothermal layer to altitude B.
Decreasing temperature.
iii) Decreasing temperature up to altitude A.
Increasing temperature to altitude B, a temperature inversion.
Decreasing temperature.
iv) Increasing temperature up to altitude A, a surface temperature inversion.
Decreasing temperature.
Altitude

i) Temperature ii)

A
A

iii) iv)

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2.7 Water vapour

2.7.1 Introduction

Water exists in three states under normal ambient conditions:

Solid, ice;
Liquid, water;
Vapour.
Temperature and pressure determine the state of water.
All three states can exist simultaneously in one place, with changes of state taking place.
Water vapour is odourless and transparent, and cannot be detected directly by human senses.
A high concentration in the atmosphere inhibits sweat evaporation and becomes indirectly detectable.
Instruments are required to detect and measure the amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere.
Water vapour is important to meteorological processes because its high latent heat and specific heat
enable the transfer of large amounts of energy during condensation, evaporation and water vapour
transport with air movement.
A quantity of water vapour is always present in the atmosphere.
The highest concentration over a tropical ocean is approximately 4%.
Temperature governs the maximum quantity of water vapour that can be present in air.
Air is said to be saturated when it holds the maximum possible quantity of water vapour.
A further increase in water vapour, or decrease in temperature will lead to condensation or
supersaturation.

Saturated Concentration of Water Vapour in Air

60

50
Vapour Concentration (Absolute Humidity) g/m3

40

30

20

10

0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Temperature C

The diagram shows the relationship between temperature and the vapour concentration (absolute
humidity, specific humidity) required to saturate air.

2.7.2 Humidity

Vapour concentration or absolute humidity is the weight of water vapour present in unit volume of the
atmosphere.
Saturated Vapour Concentration is the maximum amount of water vapour that can be present in unit
volume of air at a particular temperature. It is directly proportional to temperature.

26
Relative Humidity is the ratio of water vapour present in unit volume of air to the quantity required to
saturate it at the same temperature, expressed as a percentage.
Relative Humidity = Vapour Concentration Saturated Vapour Concentration x 100 %.
Humidity depends on the availability of a source of water, and air temperature.
Air over an equatorial ocean will acquire high humidity, over an arctic land mass a low humidity.

2.7.3 Variation of Relative Humidity

Relative Humidity varies inversely as the Temperature and directly as the Absolute Humidity.
As Temperature increases Relative Humidity decreases, and conversely as Temperature decreases
Relative Humidity increases.
As Absolute Humidity increases Relative Humidity increases, and conversely as Absolute Humidity
decreases Relative Humidity decreases.
Changes of Temperature and Absolute Humidity may occur simultaneously.

Relative Humidity
Changes directly as
Absolute Humidity
(Dew Point)

Relative Humidity
Changes inversely as
Temperature

At a land station absolute humidity will remain approximately constant.

At a coast station this pattern is modified by the sea breeze.

This brings cool and humid air over the land, limiting temperature rise, raising absolute humidity and
limiting the fall in relative humidity.

2.7.4 Dew Point

The Dew Point temperature is the temperature at which a particular sample of air becomes saturated.
It is related to the vapour concentration of the air, not its temperature.
Condensation will tend to occur if the air is cooled below its Dew Point.

Range of temperatures

Vapour Concentration

Dew Point Temperature

27
2.7.4 Evaporation and condensation

Evaporation is the change of state of water from liquid to vapour, transporting water from a body of
liquid water to the adjacent air as water vapour.
The rate of evaporation is directly proportional to Temperature and inversely proportional to Absolute
Humidity.
Energy as latent heat is also transferred.

Condensation is the change of state from water vapour to liquid water.

This occurs when air is cooled below its dew point.
Solid or liquid surfaces or particles known as hygroscopic nuclei are required for condensation to occur.
In their absence air may become supersaturated when cooled below its dew point.

Sublimation is the change of state directly from solid to vapour.

Deposition is the change of state directly from vapour to solid.

Air can become saturated by:

cooling to its dewpoint temperature;
evaporation from liquid water;
mixing of nearly saturated air masses, at different temperatures.

Saturated Concentration of Water Vapour in Air

60

50
Vapour Concentration (Absolute Humidity) g/m3

40

30

20
Mixing
Evaporation
10

Cooling

0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Temperature C

28
2.8 Hydrological processes

2.8.1 Effects of vertical movement of air in the troposphere

Vertical movement of air causes temperature changes that may lead to condensation and the formation
of cloud and precipitation.
Adiabatic changes are those occurring in a body of air isolated from its surroundings.
The following statements describe adiabatic changes, which occur in the short term.
Rising air is subject to decreasing pressure, it expands, and the quantity of heat present occupies a
greater volume, leading to decreasing temperature.
Descending air is subject to increasing pressure, it contracts, and the quantity of heat present occupies a
smaller volume, leading to increasing temperature.
The Lapse Rate is the rate of change of temperature with altitude.
The Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR) is the actual rate of change of temperature with altitude as would
be measured by radiosonde.
The average Environment Lapse Rate is approximately 6.0C km-1.
The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) is the rate at which unsaturated air changes temperature when
forced to ascend or descend.
The DALR is nearly constant at approximately 9.8C km-1.
The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate (SALR) is the rate at which saturated air changes temperature when
forced to ascend or descend.
The SALR is lower than the DALR because condensation is taking place releasing latent heat into the air.
The SALR varies according to the amount of water vapour present between approximately 4C km-1 and
9C km-1.
At high temperatures air is saturated with a high vapour concentration and a large amount of Latent Heat
is released as the water vapour condenses making the SALR considerably different from the DALR.
At low temperatures air is saturated with a low vapour concentration and a small amount of Latent Heat
is released as the water vapour condenses making the SALR little different from the DALR.

2.8.2 Causes of vertical movement of air.

Upward air movement has several causes:

Frontal uplift occurs when a warm air mass meets a cold air mass. The greater density of the cold
air leads to the cold air undercutting the warm air or the warm air ascending over the cold air.
Local heating occurs when air in contact with hot ground increases in temperature leading to a
reduction in density relative to the surrounding air and consequent upward movement.
Orographic uplift occurs when horizontally moving air meets rising ground and is forced upward.
Turbulence occurs when horizontally moving air encounters surface irregularities such as buildings
and trees and friction induces chaotic flow with eddies moving air upward.
Surface convergence occurs when two air masses move toward each other and move upward at the
area of collision.
Anabatic flow, when air is heated by a sloping surface, decreasing its density, and flows upward.

Downward movement can be caused by:

Thunderstorms. Heavy rainfall drags cold air downward from high altitudes in heavy cold squalls.
Katabatic flow. When air is cooled by a sloping surface, increasing its density, and flows downward.
Surface diversion. When air masses move apart and draw air downward from high altitude to
replace them.
Subsidence occurs when air at high altitude cools by reradiation, increases in density then descends
to an altitude appropriate to its density.

29
2.9 Atmospheric stability

2.9.1 Introduction

Air with a different density from the surrounding air will ascend or descend until it reaches a level where
the surrounding air has the same density.
Air density is closely related to its temperature.
Whether a parcel of air ascends or descends when disturbed depends on the interrelationship of the Dry
and Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rates and the Environmental Lapse Rate.
Altitude ELR

SALR
SALR
SALR

DALR DALR
DALR

Temperature

DP Stable DP Conditional Stability DP Unstable

2.9.2 Stable air

Stable air tends to return to its original altitude when forced to ascend or descend.
This occurs when the Environment Lapse Rate is less than both the Dry and Saturated Adiabatic Lapse
Rates.
The temperature of an ascending or descending parcel of air changes more than that of the surrounding
air.
Air moved upward becomes cooler and denser than the surrounding air, then descends to its original level
when the upward force is removed.
Air moved downward becomes warmer and less dense than the surrounding air, then ascends to its
original level when the downward force is removed.

Associated weather
Vertical air movement is inhibited.
Clear skies are likely and any clouds are likely to be stratiform.
Precipitation is unlikely and will be light rain or drizzle if present.
Visibility is likely to be moderate, deteriorating if stable conditions persist.
Atmospheric pollution is likely to accumulate leading to haze contributing to deteriorating visibility.

2.9.3 Unstable air

Unstable air tends to move further away from its original altitude when forced to ascend or descend.
This occurs when the Environmental Lapse Rate is greater than both the Dry and Saturated Adiabatic
Lapse Rates.
The temperature of an ascending or descending parcel of air changes less than that of the surrounding
air.
Air moved upward becomes warmer and less dense than the surrounding air and continues to ascend.
Air moved downward becomes cooler and denser than the surrounding air and continues to descend.

30
Associated weather
Vertical air movement is accentuated.
Cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds are likely.
Precipitation will be in the form of heavy showers and thunderstorms.
Visibility is likely to be good except in precipitation.

2.9.4 Conditional stability

Conditionally stable air is stable when unsaturated and unstable when saturated.
This occurs when the Environment Lapse Rate is less than the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate and greater than
the Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
Dry air moved upward becomes denser than the surrounding air and tends to return to its original
altitude.
Dry air moved downward becomes less dense than the surrounding air and tends to return to its original
altitude.
Saturated air moved upward becomes less dense than the surrounding air, and continues to ascend.
Saturated air moved downward becomes denser than the surrounding air, and continues to descend.

Associated weather
This depends on the degree of uplift.
Uplifted air may be stable if uplift is weak, or unstable if uplift is strong.

2.9.5 Temperature inversion

A temperature inversion exists when the air temperature increases as altitude increases.
These may exist at the surface or at altitude.
The tropopause is a permanent inversion.
An inversion has the effect of suppressing ascent of unstable air when its temperature coincides with
that of the environmental lapse rate at a particular altitude.
The anvil of a cumulonimbus cloud that has ascended to the tropopause illustrates this.

SALR

ELR

CL
DALR
T

31
2.9.6 Causes of temperature inversions

Surface Inversions

Surface inversions occur when air at the surface is cooled.

Over land radiation at night can lower surface temperatures and the air in contact is cooled.
Over water the lower layer of a warm air mass moving over cold water will be cooled.

Frontal Inversions

Cold and Warm Fronts

Cold
Warm
Cold

A Radiosonde graphs A

T T

Frontal inversions exist at the passage of both cold and warm fronts where warm air overlies cold air.
These are transient features lasting only while the front passes.

Subsidence Inversion

A A
ELR ELR

DALR DALR

T T

32
Subsidence is widespread descent of air, usually associated with an anticyclone.
The temperature of descending air increases at the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
When the environmental lapse rate is lower than the dry adiabatic lapse rate a mass of air which has
descended will be at a higher temperature than the air below it and an inversion will exist.

Turbulence Inversion
DALR ELR

Turbulent
Layer

Turbulence causes ascent and descent of air in the turbulent layer.

The environmental lapse rate approaches the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
In circumstances where the original environment lapse rate was lower then an inversion will exist above
the turbulent layer.

2.10 Clouds

2.10.1 Introduction

VC SVC A

SALR

CL
DP
DALR

T T

Ascending air that is not saturated cools at the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
As it does so its relative humidity rises until the air becomes saturated at its dew point temperature with
100% relative humidity.
Water vapour will condense into droplets of liquid water that will be visible in the atmosphere as cloud.
Condensation will be in the form of ice crystals if the dew point is below the freezing temperature.
Condensation takes place onto hygroscopic nuclei, microscopic solid particles in the atmosphere.
The condensation level is the altitude at which condensation takes place, and will be the altitude of the
cloud base.

33
2.10.2 Convection clouds
A A A

SALR SALR SALR

CL CL CL

DALR DALR DALR

ELR ELR ELR

T T T

Convection causes cloud formation by heating air at the surface, reducing its density.
The heated air then ascends and cools at the dry adiabatic lapse rate until it reaches its dew point.
Condensation then occurs, releasing latent heat, at the condensation level, visible as the cloud base.
Ascending further the air cools at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate.
The extent of ascent depends on the relationship between the environment lapse rate and the dry and
saturated lapse rates in the area.
Ascent will be continue as long as the temperature of the ascending air is higher than that of the
surrounding air, as it will be less dense.
Ascent may be limited by an inversion, coincidence with the environment lapse rate, or continue to the
tropopause.
Cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds are formed by convection.
Over land convection clouds form once insolation has raised surface temperatures sufficiently to initiate
the process, increase to maximum extent in the late afternoon when temperatures are highest and then
dissipate.
Over water temperature variations are less marked and a diurnal pattern is less common.
Convection clouds may form at night when the upper atmosphere cools by radiation and becomes cooler
and denser than the lower atmosphere, which then ascends through it. Subsequent heating in daylight
dissipates these clouds.

The altitude of the cloud base may be estimated by measuring the surface air temperature and its dew
point.
The difference between these in C multiplied by 125 will approximate to the condensation altitude in
metres.

2.10.3 Frontal cloud

Cold and Warm Fronts

Cold
Warm
Cold

A frontal zone is the area in the vicinity of a front between two air masses of dissimilar temperature.
At a cold front cold air undercuts warm air due to its higher density, uplift occurs and clouds form.
At a warm front warm air rises above cold air due to its lower density, uplift occurs and clouds form.

34
2.10.4 Orographic cloud

Orographic cloud forms when air moving horizontally meets rising ground and is forced upward to a
sufficient altitude for condensation to occur.
The ascending air cools at the dry adiabatic lapse rate until its temperature reaches its dew point.
Condensation then commences releasing latent heat and cooling continues at the saturated adiabatic
lapse rate.
The vertical extent of the cloud depends on the stability of the ascending air.
Unstable air will continue to rise forming cumulus clouds downwind of the obstruction.
Stable air will descend again, warming at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate as water droplets evaporate
and absorb latent heat, then at the dry adiabatic lapse rate once the cloud has dissolved.
Unstable air will continue to ascend, forming a chain of cumulus clouds downwind of the hill.
Cloud will cover the upper parts of a hill if the condensation level is below the highest point and the air
is stable.
The condensation level will be at a higher altitude in the lee of a hill if precipitation occurs from
orographic cloud, reducing the vapour content of the air.

Orographic cloud

Stable air
Precipitation

VC SVC A

SALR

DALR

T T

A Fohn wind is a warm dry wind on the lee side of a hill occurring in these circumstances. The
temperature of the descending air will increase at the dry adiabatic lapse rate once the water droplets
have evaporated and the relative humidity will decrease.

35
Lenticular clouds will form if the condensation level is higher than the crest of the hill.
Lee clouds will form if a series of waves occur in the air stream in the lee of the hill and lift the air
above the condensation level.

Lenticular cloud
Lee cloud

2.10.5 Turbulence cloud

Turbulence mixes air from different levels.

The lapse rate in the turbulent layer tends toward the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
The temperature may be reduced as cooler air from high levels is mixed with that from lower levels.
Water vapour from lower levels may be mixed upward into the turbulent layer.
The upper part of the turbulent layer may become saturated and form stratiform clouds.
This occurs most commonly in a warm moist airstream.
Over land the cloud may disperse during the day as a result of insolation and reform in the evening.

In an unstable airstream turbulence may act a trigger to the formation of cumulus cloud.

2.10.6 Convergence cloud

Stable Air Unstable Air

When air masses converge uplift occurs and cloud will form if air ascends to the condensation level.
These clouds will be cumuliform.
The vertical extent will depend on the stability of the air, limited if stable, extensive if unstable.
The horizontal extent will depend on the area over which uplift occurs.

36
2.10.7 Dispersal of cloud

Dispersal of cloud occurs due to the following mechanisms:

Subsidence. Descending air warms adiabatically. This causes it to become unsaturated and cloud
droplets can evaporate. Eventually all the water droplets will evaporate and the cloud disappears.
Insolation. Increasing temperature due to insolation will cause the air to become unsaturated and
cloud droplets will evaporate.
Mixing. Unsaturated air in the vicinity of cloud may mix with the air in which the cloud has formed
and cause the mixed air to be unsaturated leading to evaporation of the water droplets forming
the cloud.
Cessation of uplift. When the force that caused air to ascend is removed the flow of saturated air
ceases and cloud droplets will evaporate by mixing with adjacent unsaturated air.

VC
SVC

Dispersal

Evaporation

Cloud

2.10.8 Cloud particles

Hygroscopic nuclei are required for condensation to occur.

In the absence of these water vapour may be supercooled.
Freezing nuclei are required for ice crystal formation.
Spontaneous freezing of supercooled water drops occurs at approximately -40C

Clouds consist of water droplets and/or ice crystals varying in diameter from 0.01 to 1 millimetres.
The relevant temperatures are:
>0C Water droplets.
<0C Supercooled water droplets
<-10C Ice crystals or supercooled water droplets.
<-40C Ice crystals.

37
2.10.9 Cloud classification

Clouds are classified by altitude and structure.

Altitudes:
Low 0 - 2000m
Medium 2000 - 6000m
High 6000 - tropopause

Structure types:
Cirrus Feathery or fibrous
Cumulus Heap
Stratus Layer
Nimbus Rain
Fractus Broken

These names are combined to give ten basic classes:

High clouds
1. Cirrus (Ci), white fibrous detached clouds usually in lines or bands, often hooked.
2. Cirrocumulus (Cc), small elements of cloud in patches or sheets.
3. Cirrostratus (Cs), thin layer of cloud which may produce halo phenomena.

Medium clouds
4. Altocumulus (Ac), globular masses of fairly small clouds in layers or patches. May produce corona
phenomena.
5. Altostratus (As), layer of grey cloud which partially or completely obscures the sun.

Low clouds
6. Cumulus (Cu), detached clouds with flat bases, vertical development and rounded tops.
7. Stratus (St), uniform layer of cloud.
8. Stratocumulus (Sc), layer of cloud with distinct elements within it.
9. Nimbostratus (Ns), layer of cloud from which precipitation is falling.
10. Cumulonimbus (Cb), Cumulus clouds with considerable vertical development, possibly to the
tropopause, and from which precipitation is falling.

38
2.11 Precipitation

Precipitation is particles of liquid water or ice formed within cloud and falling toward the earth.

2.11.1 Growth of precipitation particles

Particles forming clouds are small enough to be supported by ascending air because their terminal
velocity is lower than the speed of updraft.
For precipitation to occur particle size must increase until the terminal velocity of the particles is
greater than the speed of updraft.

Water vapour may condense onto existing water drops.

Water drops may grow by collision with other water droplets and coalescence.
Ice crystals may grow by accretion of water drops onto ice crystals.
Water vapour may deposit onto existing ice crystals
Ice crystals may grow by aggregation with other ice crystals.

The Bergeron theory describes ice crystal formation on freezing nuclei followed by preferential ice
deposition from supercooled water vapour leading to ice crystal growth where ice crystals and
supercooled water droplets coexist.
Once large enough to fall the ice crystals may melt in increasing air temperatures and reach the surface
as rain.

Particle size is directly proportional to:

absolute humidity of the air;
amount of time available for growth;
speed of updraft to support growing particles;
depth of cloud.

Water drops may grow to 5.5 mm diameter. This is limited by surface tension.

2.11.2 Hail

Ice crystals exist in the upper parts of cumulonimbus clouds.

Vigorous vertical air currents move these into regions where supercooled water drops exist.
Where relatively small quantities of water are present the drops freeze into a layer of opaque ice.
Where large quantities of water are present the growing hailstone acquires a layer of clear ice.
A number of layers may accumulate before the hailstone leaves the cloud and falls to earth.
Hail stones have been reported up to 200 mm diameter, weighing approximately 4 kg.

2.11.3 Precipitation forms

Type Description Cloud type

Drizzle Water droplets <0.5 mm diameter Sc St
Rain Water drops =>0.5 mm diameter Cb Ns
Snow Ice crystals aggregated into flakes Cb Ns
Sleet Rain and snow falling together Cb Ns
Hail Ice aggregated into hailstones Cb

2.11.4 Dew and Frost

2.11.4.1 Dew consists of water droplets formed when a surface cools below the Dew Point of the Air.
The cooling surface cools the air in contact with it below its dew Point and water vapour condenses to
liquid water on the surface.

2.11.4.2 Frost consists of ice crystals accumulating on surfaces.

Air Frost describes air temperatures below freezing.

The ground temperature may be above freezing.

39
Ground Frost describes ground temperatures below freezing.
The air temperature may be above freezing.

Hoar frost is ice crystals formed by deposition.

The crystals are typically elongated and white in colour.
The process is similar to dew formation, occurring when the dew point is below the freezing
temperature.

Rime is ice crystals formed by the freezing of supercooled water droplets onto surfaces.
The crystals are typically globular and adhering to adjacent crystals at the point of contact only.
Rime frequently collects on the windward surfaces of objects in fog when temperatures are below
freezing.

Glaze ice is a sheet of ice formed when rain falls on a surface at a temperature below freezing. (Black
Ice)

2.12 Thunderstorms

A thunderstorm is one in which conditions lead to lightening and consequently thunder.

2.12.1 Conditions leading to thunderstorms

Suitable conditions for thunderstorm formation are:

high temperature leading to a high Environment Lapse Rate;
unstable air through considerable depth;
high humidity throughout the unstable layer, accentuating instability;
a triggering event to commence vertical movement of air.
Sprites and Jets

Positive Charge + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

Ice Crystals

0 C Updraught
70 kts

Lightning and
thunder
Rain and Hail
Water Droplets

Negative Charge

Downdraft
Squall front
Hazard to
Heavy rain, hail
Small craft
Lightning and thunder

Positive Charge + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

40
2.12.2 Life cycle of a thunderstorm cell

Developing stage.
The precursor conditions exist.
An event triggers ascending air. (Local heating, orographic uplift, frontal uplift)
Ascending unstable air forms cumulus cloud.
Latent heat released by condensation accentuates the instability accelerating the ascent.
Water drop growth occurs.
Ice crystal formation and the Bergeron process occurs at altitudes where temperatures are below
freezing.

Mature stage
Water drops reach adequate size to fall through the cloud and reach the surface as rain.
Ascent and descent within the cloud may lead to hailstone growth to adequate size for hail to reach the
ground.
Lightening and thunder may occur.

Dissipation stage.
Precipitation carries energy out of the cloud.
Water vapour content is reduced by precipitation.
Descending cold air reduces instability.
Precipitation decreases.
The cell dissipates.

41
2.12.3 Lightning

Several mechanisms lead to charge separation:

Collision between ice crystals;
Freezing of supercooled water drops;
Water drop fracture;
Selective capture of ions by falling particles;
Ice crystal fracture.
The upper part and core of the cloud become positively charged and the lower periphery of the cloud
negatively charged.
Opposite charges are induced in the earth.
Air has a high resistance to electrical current.
Charge gradients reach approximately 1000 V m-1.
The charge gradient builds up until the insulation of the air breaks down and discharges occur within the
cloud, between clouds and between cloud and earth.
A faint leader discharge occurs downward to earth before the main discharge occurs upward from earth.
Recently reported phenomena consist of coloured discharges upward from cloud tops, known as blue
jets, and in the upper atmosphere above active thunderstorms known as red sprites and elves.

2.12.4 Thunder

The rapid heating, to approximately 28,000 C, and subsequent rapid cooling of the air along the path of
a lightening discharge causes sound generation known as thunder.

2.13 Visibility

Particles in the air reduce visibility.

Water droplets are formed by condensation of water vapour in the air of the surface layer.
This may occur due to cooling of the air below its Dew Point by a surface at a lower temperature than
the Dew Point of the air.
Alternatively the air may become saturated by evaporation from the surface leading to condensation.
Fog is a reduction of visibility by water droplets in the atmosphere, to less than 1000m.
Mist is a reduction of visibility by water droplets in the atmosphere, but not to less than 1000m
Haze is a reduction of visibility by solid particles in the air.
Fog/mist may be distinguished from haze by observing the relative humidity.
Low relative humidity, <95%, indicates that the reduced visibility is probably due to haze.
Precipitation reduces visibility to varying degrees.

2.13.1 Advection fog

Advection is horizontal movement of air.
Advection fog occurs when air moves over a surface that is at a lower temperature than its dew point.
The air at the surface is cooled by conduction below its dew point and condensation occurs.
Advection fog usually forms in areas where warm water and therefore humid air is adjacent to cold water
or a cold land surface.
These condition frequently occur in the North Western Atlantic Ocean, the North Western, North Eastern
and South Eastern Pacific Ocean and the Eastern South Atlantic Ocean.

2.13.2 Radiation fog

Radiation reduces the surface temperature.
The air in contact with the surface is cooled by conduction below its dew point and condensation occurs.
Radiation fog usually forms at night over land.
It may move over adjacent water.

2.13.3 Frontal fog

Mixing of air masses at a frontal zone may reduce the temperature of the warm air to its dew point and
cause condensation.
Evaporation of precipitation may saturate air and produce fog.

42
2.13.4 Sea smoke
Cold air flowing over warm water may become saturated close to the surface by evaporation from the
water.

2.13.5 Dispersal of fog

Any mechanism which raises the temperature of the air above its dew point will disperse fog.
Insolation.
Mixing with adjacent unsaturated air.
Advection over a warm surface.

2.13.6 Haze
Haze may be caused by a number of types of solid particles.
Dust from desert regions, such as the Arabian or Sahara Desert.
Smoke from industrial regions or forest fires.
Volcanic ash.

2.13.7 Vog
Smog caused by the gases erupted by a volcano.

43
3 Planetary pressure and wind system

3.1 Atmospheric pressure

3.1.1 Introduction

Atmospheric pressure is due to the column of air above the point considered and the force of gravity
attracting the air toward the earth.
Air is highly compressible and the density varies inversely with altitude.
50% of the mass of the atmosphere lies below 5 km.
The unit of pressure is the Pascal, (Pa).
Meteorologists use the hectoPascal (hPa) as a unit of measurement for historical reasons; it is equal to
the previously used unit, the millibar.
The standard pressure at the surface is 1013.25 hPa.
Actual surface pressure varies from 870 hPa in the eye of a tropical storm to more than 1083.8 hPa at the
centre of an anticyclone.
Pressure varies directly as the density and depth of the fluid causing it.
Density of air varies inversely as its temperature.
Depth may vary due to processes bringing air to an area or moving air away from it.

3.1.2 Definitions

An isobar is a line on a weather chart connecting places having the same atmospheric pressure.
The Pressure Gradient is the rate of change of pressure with distance, measured perpendicular to the
isobars.
The Pressure Tendency is the rate of change of atmospheric pressure with time, standardised as the
change in pressure over three hours.

Isobars

Pressure Gradient

Pressure Tendency

44
3.1.3 Diurnal variation of pressure

Pressure varies through the day in a regular cycle due to tidal effects caused by heating of the upper
atmosphere.
The diagram shows typical variation from the mean pressure for the area and time of year in the tropics.
The effect is greatest in the tropics, decreases with latitude, and is masked in higher latitudes by other
changes.

3.2 Wind

Wind is the horizontal component of air movement.

3.2.1 Pressure Gradient Force

The Pressure Gradient Force (pgf) is the force exerted on air particles due to the pressure gradient at a
place.
A notional cube of air has forces acting on all its faces. Pressure
The forces on top and bottom are not relevant to horizontal Low Pressure Gradient
movement. Force
The forces acting parallel to the isobars are equal.
The forces acting perpendicular to the isobars are greater on
the side nearer to high pressure.
The resultant of these is the Pressure Gradient Force.
Its magnitude is proportional to the Pressure Gradient.
It acts from high pressure toward low pressure perpendicular to
the isobars.

Air tends to flow initially directly from high pressure toward low
pressure.

High Pressure

45
3.2.2 Coriolis Force (Geostrophic Force).

By Newtons first law of motion a moving body travels at a constant velocity unless acted upon by an
external force.
On the earths surface this will be toward a star on the horizon.
On the diagram on the plane of the rational horizon in a middle northern latitude all stars on the horizon
have a component of movement to the right.
An object constrained to the earths surface will travel parallel to the surface with a deflection to the
right.
Any moving body on the surface of a rotating planet experiences a deflection to one side of its direction
of movement except at the equator.
The Coriolis Force is an imaginary force used to explain and calculate the magnitude of this effect.
Coriolis Force varies as the sine of latitude from zero at the equator to maximum at the poles.
It varies directly as the speed of the moving body.
Coriolis Force acts perpendicularly to the direction of movement, to the right of the direction of
movement in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
The term Geostrophic Effect is also used. It is a more accurate description.

3.2.3 Geostrophic wind.

The following is valid for altitudes of approximately 500m and above, where surface friction is not a
factor.
Consider a particle of air at rest in a pressure field of parallel isobars in a middle northern latitude.
The pressure gradient force will cause it to move perpendicular to the isobars.
Its movement will cause a Coriolis force perpendicular to, and to the right of, its direction of movement.
The particle will deflect to the right.
The gradient pressure force will continue to act perpendicularly to the isobars.
The coriolis force will act at right angles to the direction of movement.
Eventually a state of equilibrium will be reached with the air particle moving parallel to the isobars with
the coriolis force equal and opposite to the pressure gradient force.
This motion is called Geostrophic motion.
The resulting wind is the Geostrophic Wind.
Geostrophic Wind
PGF
988 hPa W
PGF
W CF
992 hPa

PGF CF

996 hPa Wind

Pressure Coriolis
Gradient Force
1000 hPa Force

46
Variation with Latitude.
The magnitude of Coriolis Force varies directly as Latitude.
In low Latitude greater speed is require to generate the balancing Coriolis Force than in high Latitude.
The speed of the Geostrophic Wind is therefore greater in low Latitude than in high Latitude for the
same Pressure Gradient.

Pressure Gradient Force

Geostrophic Wind
High Latitude Low Latitude

Coriolis Force

3.2.4 Gradient Wind

Straight isobar

Anticyclonically curved isobars Cyclonically curved isobars

CF PGF CF PGF CF PGF

H L

W W W

Gradient Wind
Gradient Wind Geostrophic Wind Subgeostrophic
Supergeostrophic

The Gradient Wind is the wind flowing in an area with curved isobars.
Air flowing parallel to curved isobars will follow a curved path.
The force causing the deflection to a curved path is the centripetal force.
This must act toward the centre of curvature of the isobars.
The pressure gradient force remains unchanged.
Air flowing around an anticyclone must increase speed in order to generate increased Coriolis Force
toward the centre of the system to achieve a curved path.
Air flowing around a depression must decrease speed in order to decrease Coriolis Force away from the
centre of the system and achieve a curved path.
Gradient wind is super-geostrophic where isobars are curved anticyclonically and sub-geostrophic where
isobars are curved cyclonically.
The amount of modification of the geostrophic wind speed depends on isobar curvature, latitude and
wind speed.

47
3.2.5 Surface wind
Low Pressure
Northern Hemisphere. AoI

Low Pressure
90
Buys Ballot

Pressure Gradient Force

Angle of Indraft

Geostrophic /
Gradient Wind
Surface Wind
Coriolis Force
High Pressure
Southern Hemisphere.
Low Pressure Low Pressure
AoI

Pressure Gradient Force 90

Buys Ballot
Angle of Indraft

Geostrophic /
Gradient Wind
Surface Wind
Coriolis Force
High Pressure

Friction close to the surface reduces wind speed.

Coriolis force is reduced.
Pressure gradient is unchanged.
The surface wind direction changes as a result, crossing the isobars from high toward low pressure.
The surface wind speed is approximately 2/3 of the gradient wind speed over sea and 1/3 of the gradient
wind speed over land.
The Angle of Indraft is the angle at which the surface wind crosses the isobars.
The Angle of Indraft is approximately 2 points over sea and 4 points over land in the middle latitudes.
The Angle of Indraft increases toward the Equator, to approximately 4 points over sea in the Tropics.

The direction of wind is that from which it comes, WSW in the diagram above.

Summary.
Pressure Gradient Force acts from high toward low pressure, perpendicular to the Isobars.
Air moves in response to the Pressure Gradient Force.
Coriolis Force deflects flow to the right in the Northern Hemisphere, left in the Southern Hemisphere,
Geostrophic Wind, parallel to the Isobars.
Gradient wind describes flow along curved Isobars, higher than Geostrophic if anticyclonically curved,
lower if cyclonically curved.
Surface Wind flows in toward low pressure, crossing the Isobars at the Angle of Indraft.

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3.2.6 Buys-Ballot's Law

Buys-Ballot's Law states:

Face the wind.
Lower pressure is to the right in the northern hemisphere (left in the southern hemisphere).
The Angle of Indraft should be taken into account.
The direction of the Pressure Gradient will be 90 plus the Angle of Indraft from the wind direction.
The direction of the centre of low pressure will depend on the isobar pattern.

3.2.7 Wind speed

Geostrophic Wind Scales are printed on synoptic charts to enable rapid estimation of wind speed.
The scale is appropriate for that of the chart.

Method
Measure the distance between isobars on the chart at the point of interest.
Lay that distance off from the left axis of the scale at the appropriate latitude.
Estimate the Geostrophic Wind from the curves of the chart.

Geostrophic wind 60 kn

Wind Graphs.

Geostrophic Wind Graph.

Measure distance between isobars.
Use Latitude scale to translate into distance in Nautical Miles.
Enter graph with distance between isobars at left axis.
Follow grid right to Latitude curve.
Follow grid down to obtain Geostrophic wind speed.

Gradient Wind Graphs.

Use Cyclonic or Anticyclonic graph as appropriate.
Enter graph with Geostrophic wind speed at left axis.
Follow grid right to Radius of Curvature line.
Follow grid down to obtain Gradient Wind Speed.
On Anticyclonic graph, Gradient Wind is twice Geostrophic Wind at all points to the right of the straight
diagonal line.

49
The Gradient Wind Graph is calculated for Latitude 50.
It is useable over the range 40 to 80 Latitude

The theoretical maximum anticyclonic gradient wind is twice the geostrophic wind.

The wind speed around anticyclonically curved isobars may be up to twice the speed that would be
expected from the isobar spacing.

3.2.8 Cyclostrophic wind.

Cyclostrophic wind speed is an approximation to gradient wind speed that ignores coriolis force.
This is valid where coriolis force is small relative to pressure gradient force, as is the case in a tropical
revolving storm in low latitude.

3.2.9 Changes in wind direction.

Wind is said to be Veering when the change of direction is clockwise and Backing when the change of
direction is anticlockwise.

3.2.10 Other methods.

Geostrophic Wind Factors

In the absence of a graph the Geostrophic wind in knots may be found by estimating the pressure
gradient in hectoPascals over 300 nm and multiplying by the following factors.

Latitude 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Factor 11.3 7.6 5.7 4.6 3.9 3.4 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1

Geostrophic wind speed may be calculated.

V = dP 2 A sin L d dD
where
V = velocity in metres per second
dP = change in pressure in Pascals
A = angular rotation of earth in radians per second
L = latitude
d = density of air in Kilograms per cubic metre. ICAO Standard Atmosphere 1.225 Kg/m3
dD = distance in metres over which change of pressure takes place.

Gradient wind may be calculated.

Cyclonic.
Vgr = 1 2 x (r x f + (r2 x f2 + 4 x r x f x Vge))
Vgr = velocity of Gradient Wind. m s1
r = radius of curvature of isobars. M
f = Coriolis Parameter = 2 x 2 x Pi 24 60 60 x sin L
Vge = Velocity of Geostrophic wind.

Anticyclonic
Vgr = 1 2 x (r x f (r2 x f2 4 x r x f x Vge))

Values may be shown graphically or tabulated.

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 B

52
H

D E

G C

F
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3.2.11 Wind determination exercises.

Determine the wind speed from the synoptic chart in the following positions:

3.2.11.1 North Atlantic 2016-01-30

Position Geostrophic wind Gradient wind Surface wind Direction

A 48 N 040 W (70 = 70 47 SSW)

B 69 N 003 W (50 210 C 36 24 NNW)

C 53 N 025 W (15 180 A 20 13 SSW)

D 54 N 030 W (20 180 A 40 27 SxW)

E 53 N 008 W (60 600 C 50 17 SWxW)

F 38 N 022 W (0)

G 51 N 053 W (0)

H 58 N 045 W (0)

3.2.11.2 Australia 2002-07-01

Position Geostrophic wind Gradient wind Surface wind Direction

A 51 S 143 E (90 34 34 23 W)

B 33 S 167 E (60 72 360 C 53 35 WSW)

C 52 S 133 E (120 24 360 A 30 20 NW)

D 25 S 113 E (0)

E 51 S 115 E (0)

F 32 S 143 E (0)

G 33 S 118 E (80 54 54 18 NW)

3.2.12 Wind rose

Wind roses are used to show average wind direction

on many climatic charts.
Either 8 or 16 arrows are used.
The wind direction is toward the centre of the rose.
The thickness of the shaft segments represents the
wind force.
The length of the shaft segments represents the
frequency of winds of that force.
The numbers in the centre are:
Number of observations
Percentage observations variable
Percentage observations calm

54
3.3 Waves

3.3.1 Introduction

Wind waves (sea waves) are generated by the wind blowing at the position considered.
Swell waves are former wind waves that have travelled out of the area of generation, or continue in an
area after the wind causing them has ceased.

3.3.2 Wave nomenclature

Direction
Crest

Length

Height Face Back

Trough

3.3.3 Wave formation

Air moving over the surface of water exerts a drag upon it.
Air movement is turbulent and the drag upon the water surface fluctuates.
Waves form in the water surface that reacts with the airflow.
The characteristics of the waves depend on the wind speed.
Period, seconds, is the time taken between passage of one crest past a point and the passage of the next
crest.
Speed, knots, is the speed of movement of the wave crest through the water.
Speed kts 3.1 x Period s.
Length, metres, is the distance from the crest of one wave to the crest of the next wave.
Height, metres, is the vertical distance between crest and trough of a wave.

3.3.4 Wave characteristics

The shape of small waves is sinusoidal, approximating to a sine curve.

As wave height increases the shape changes to trochoidal, with sharper crests and broader troughs.
Height, Length, Speed and Period increase as waves grow with increasing wind speed, duration and
fetch.
The steepness of a wave is the ratio of height to length.
Steepness is limited by the physical characteristics of water.
Waves break at a steepness of approximately 1:13, dissipating energy, and do not achieve greater
steepness.
Further increase in height is matched by greater length, maintaining the limiting steepness.

55
Wave heights vary in a train of waves.
The ratios of waves exceeding the average height are:
2x 1:23
3x 1:1175
4x 1:300000
Significant wave height is the average of the highest third of waves.
The greatest wave height reported is 34 metres.

Descriptive terms used for sea state in relation to wave height.

Description of sea state Wave height m

Calm 0
Rippled 0-0.1
Smooth 0.1-0.5
Slight 0.5-1.25
Moderate 1.25-2.5
Rough 2.5-4
Very rough 4-6
High 6-9
Very high 9-14
Phenomenal >14

3.3.5 Forecasting waves.

Wind wave height varies directly as:

wind speed, governing the energy available for wave generation;
duration, the length of time over which the sea is influenced by the wind;
fetch, the distance over which the wind affects the sea.

The Beaufort scale gives probable and probable maximum wave heights associated with wind force.

Dorresteins nomogram combines these factors.

3.3.6 Swell

Swell waves are waves that have been generated by a wind that has ceased blowing, or which is blowing
in a different place.
Swell waves are decreasing in magnitude as the viscosity of the water absorbs energy.
High waves contain most energy, and have long periods.
Swell wave height decreases and period increases.
Swell waves characteristically have low height in relation to length and period.
Steepness is characteristically low.

3.3.7 Direction

Wind waves and swell waves are named by the direction from which they come.

56
Wind speed 36 kts.
Duration 24 hours.
Significant Wave Height 6.5 metres.

Wind speed 36 kts.

Fetch 600 nautical miles.
Significant Wave Height 6.9 metres.

The Beaufort scale gives probable and probable maximum wave heights associated with wind force.
Dorresteins Nomogram gives a close approximation to the Beaufort Scale at a Duration of twelve hours.

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64
65
Beaufort Scale of Wind Force
Beaufort Wind Descriptive Sea Criterion Probable Description
scale Speed terms wave (Shipping
number Range height Forecast)
knots metres
0 <1 Calm Sea like mirror 0 Calm
(Glassy)
1 1-3 Light air Ripples with the appearance of scale are 0.1 Calm
formed but without foam crests (Rippled)
2 4-6 Light Small wavelets, still short but more 0.2 Smooth
breeze pronounced; crests have a glassy (Wavelets)
appearance and do not break.
3 7-10 Gentle Large wavelets. Crests begin to break. 0.6 Slight
breeze Foam of glassy appearance. Perhaps
scattered white horses.
4 11-16 Moderate Small waves, becoming longer; fairly 1.0 Slight /
breeze frequent white horses. Moderate
5 17-21 Fresh Moderate waves, taking a more 2.0 Moderate
breeze pronounced long form; many white horses
are formed. Chance of some spray.
6 22-27 Strong Large waves begin to form; the white 3.0 Rough
breeze foam crests are more extensive
everywhere. Probably some spray.
7 28-33 Near gale Sea heaps up and white foam from 4.0 Rough /
breaking waves begins to be blown in Very Rough
streaks along the direction of the wind.
8 34-40 Gale Moderately high waves of greater length; 5.5 Very Rough
edges of crests beginning to break into / High
spindrift. The foam is blown is well-
marked streaks along the direction of the
wind.
9 41-47 Strong gale High waves. Dense streaks of foam along 7.0 High
the direction of the wind. Crests of waves
begin to topple, tumble and roll over.
Spray may affect visibility.
10 48-55 Storm Very high waves with long overhanging 9.0 Very High
crests. The resulting foam in great patches
is blown in dense streaks along the
direction of the wind. On the whole the
surface of the sea takes on a white
appearance. The tumbling of the sea
becomes heavy and shocklike. Visibility
affected.
11 56-63 Violent Exceptionally high waves. Small and 11.5 Very High
storm medium sized ships might for a time be
lost to view behind the waves. The sea is
completely covered with long white
patches of foam lying along the direction
of the wind. Everywhere the edges of the
wave crests are blown into froth. Visibility
affected.
12 64+ Hurricane The air is filled with foam and spray. Sea >14 Phenomenal
completely white with driving spray;
visibility very seriously affected.

66
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3.3.8 Sea and Swell characteristics may be forecast from nomograms.

a) Is entered with wind speed against either fetch or time and the significant wave height extracted.
b) Is entered with wind speed against either fetch or time and the wave period extracted.
These nomograms give a close approximation to the Beaufort Scale at a Duration of twelve hours.

c) The swell height nomogram is entered with sea wave period against either storm distance or swell
time travel, and ratio of swell height to sea height, and swell period, extracted.

Wind speed 40 kts. Duration 12:00.

Wind wave height 6.3 metres.
Period 9.2 seconds.
Initial wind wave period 9.2 seconds.
Storm distance 600 NM.
Swell height 0.47 of wind wave height.
Swell height 6.3 x 0.47 = 3.0 m.
Swell period 12.2 seconds.

Wind speed 40 kts. Fetch 200 NM.

Wind wave height 7.0 metres.
Period 9.8 seconds.
Initial wind wave period 9.8 seconds.
Swell travel time 24 hours.
Swell height 0.57 of sea height.
Swell height 0.57 x 7.0 = 4.0 m.
Swell period 11.9 seconds.

The following nomogram is derived from these.

Entered with Wind Speed; Wind Wave Height and Period, corresponding to the Beaufort Scale, and Swell
Height at different distances, can be derived.
68
3.3.9 Shallow water

Wave motion extends to a depth of approximately half the wave length.

Waves are affected by the sea bed when the depth of water is less than half the wavelength.
Wave speed decreases as the wave enters shallow water.
Wave height increases as speed decreases.
Waves break when the steepness exceeds approximately 1:13.
Waves approaching shallow water at an angle are refracted toward the shallow water.
Waves may converge after passing over a bank, producing a confused sea.
Waves may be refracted round a headland and enter a bay beyond.

Refraction in shallow water

Refraction around headland

Refraction over bank

3.4 Abnormal waves

3.4.1 Interaction between high waves and ocean currents.

An area subject to abnormal waves exists off the southeast coast of South Africa.
Waves generated by south west gales travelling north eastward meet the south west ward flow of the
Mozambique current, which is particularly strong near the continental shelf in depths of approximately
200m.
The effect is a steepening of the waves, deepening the trough and increasing the height.
Several vessels have suffered severe damage and warnings are given in relevant publications.
Similar waves have been experienced in other areas where large waves travel in the opposite direction to
ocean currents.

3.4.2 Seismic Sea Waves, Tsunamis

Tsunamis are waves generated by movements of the seabed during submarine earthquakes.
In deep water these waves are long and may be low.
They may pass unnoticed by vessels, or a transient acceleration and/or deceleration may be observed.
On entering shallow water the wavelength decreases and height increases with potentially catastrophic
results in coastal areas, particularly bays and inlets.
Tsunami warning systems are increasingly being deployed.
These consist of pressure sensors on the sea bed which transmit data acoustically to buoys on the surface
which then relay data ashore through satellite communication systems.

3.4.3 Extreme Single Waves

Historic reports and recent research indicate the presence of extreme single waves with particularly
deep troughs followed by extremely high crests in deep water during storm conditions.
Harmonic effects, the combination of several wave frequencies within the wave train accentuating the
trough depth and wave height, may be responsible.
Research is in progress to establish the causes and attempt to forecast the conditions leading to these
extreme single waves.
Currently an extensive field of strong winds is considered the most likely circumstance for Extreme Single
Wave generation.

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3.5 General circulation of the atmosphere.

3.5.1 Introduction

The circulation of the atmosphere is extremely complex, involving movements on scales varying widely in
distance and time scales.
The general circulation of the atmosphere describes a simplified situation in which small scale
movements are averaged to give a broad picture.

3.5.2 The planetary system of winds and pressure

The planetary system of winds and pressure describes a planet with no landmasses or inclination of its
axis of rotation to the plane of its orbit about the sun.
This provides a basis for considering the circulation of the atmosphere.
The energy source for this circulation is the sun.
Insolation and hence heating is greatest at the equator and least at the poles.
The planet's surface temperatures are greatest at the equator and least at the poles.

Three vertical circulation cells are established.

The Hadley Cell in the tropics

The surface heats the air in contact with it by conduction.
Air at the equator is heated to the greatest extent, its volume increases and density decreases.
As a result air from the surface ascends to the troposphere then moves toward the poles at altitude.
The high altitude air cools by radiation as it moves away from the equator, increases in density and
descends again in approximately 30 latitude.
This descending air divides at the surface into a flow toward the equator and another toward the poles.

The Polar Cell in polar regions

Air in contact with the surface at the poles contracts and its density increases.
This contraction leads to a flow toward the poles at altitude.
The resulting high pressure leads to flow from the poles toward the equator.
This flow meets the poleward flow in approximately 60 latitude.
Warm, low density, air rises over cold, high density air.
(This convergence of cold and warm air leads to the formation of fronts.)

The Ferrell Cell in middle latitudes.

The movement of the Ferrell Cell is driven indirectly by the descending air of the Hadley Cell and the
rising air of the Polar Cell.

Pressure zones.

Pressure is low over the equator due to the high temperature and low density of the air.
Pressure is high over the tropics because the depth of the atmosphere is similar to that at the equator,
but the temperature is lower and the density higher.
Pressure is low over the middle latitudes relative to the high pressure over the poles and the tropics.
Pressure is high over the poles due to the low temperature and high density of the air.

Wind zones.

Air flows from high to low pressure, deflected by Coriolis Force to the right in the northern hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere.

From the polar high to the mid latitude low, Polar Easterlies.
From the tropical high to the mid latitude low, Westerlies.
From the tropical High to the equatorial low, northeast and southeast trade winds.

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The jet streams are high velocity winds at high altitude between the vertical circulation cells:
the polar westerly jet;
the subtropical westerly jet;
the equatorial easterly jet.

Polar Cell
Polar Jet
High Pressure

Ferrell Cell
Low Pressure. Frontal Zone

Subtropical Jet

High Pressure. Subtropical Anticyclone

Hadley Cell

Low Pressure.
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.
Equatorial Jet
High Pressure
Divergence
Polar Easterlies
Convergence Low Pressure
Southwesterlies
Divergence High Pressure
Northeast Trades
Convergence Low Pressure. Doldrums. ITCZ
Southeast Trades
Divergence High Pressure
Northwesterlies
Convergence Low Pressure
Polar Easterlies
Divergence High Pressure

3.5.3 Global heat balance

Insolation is greatest at the equator and least at the poles.

Terrestrial reradiation is more uniform with less variation with latitude.
Heat distribution from the equator toward the poles avoids continuous increase in equatorial
temperature and decrease in polar temperature.
The planetary system of winds is part of this heat distribution system.
Ocean currents are also part of this system.

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3.5.4 Modification of the General Circulation

The planetary system is modified by two major factors:

the inclination of the earth's axis of rotation to the plane of its orbit around the sun.
land distribution;

The inclination of the earth's axis leads to a seasonal movement in latitude of the area of greatest
insolation.
The thermal equator, equatorial trough and the associated pressure belts and winds move northward and
southward to an extent through the cycle of the seasons.

For a given amount of insolation adjacent land and sea surfaces change temperature at different rates.
The land temperature rises faster than the sea temperature when there is an excess of insolation over
radiation and cools more quickly when there is a deficiency.
Large landmasses significantly modify the planetary system, leading to thermal low pressure areas in
summer in latitudes where high pressure might be expected, and conversely in winter.
This effect is most noticeable in the northern hemisphere where large land masses occur.
The general circulation is shown for the months of January and July.
These are the approximate extremes of seasonal change.
Conditions in the tropics do not vary considerably from those shown, with the exception of tropical
revolving storms.
In higher latitudes weather varies more widely from the average.
In the northern hemisphere conditions vary more widely than in the southern hemisphere due to the
greater proportion of land.
The Asian landmass in particular distorts the theoretical pattern with seasonal high and low pressure
areas.

3.5.4.1 The Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)

This lies in the equatorial low pressure belt and is the zone of convergence of the northeast and
southeast trade winds.
The ITCZ moves north and south seasonally, lagging about two months behind the change in the sun's
declination.
Its latitude varies between 17 S and 08 N in January, and between 2 N and 27 N in July.
The range is greatest over land.
The ITCZ is identifiable in all oceans in January, but in July it loses its identity in the Indian Ocean and
China Seas due to the influence of the Asian monsoon pressure system.
The ITCZ is characterised by high temperature, high humidity over the oceans, and ascending air leading
to cloud formation and heavy precipitation.
The worlds heaviest rainfall areas coincide closely with this region.
Wind speeds are normally low except for squalls in the vicinity of thunderstorms.
Visibility is normally good except briefly in heavy rain.
ITCZ activity is highest when it is furthest from the equator.

3.5.4.2 The Doldrums

The doldrums is a zone of light and variable winds with a high incidence of heavy rain and thunderstorms.
It lies in the vicinity of the equator, being most extensive in latitude on the eastern side of oceans.
This zone moves seasonally northward and southward.
In the Atlantic it does not normally move south of the equator.

3.5.4.3 The Trade Winds

The trade winds flow from the oceanic anticyclones of the North Atlantic, North Pacific and southern
oceans and the toward the low pressure zone of the ITCZ.
The monsoon regime governs the wind pattern of the north Indian Ocean.
They are extremely consistent in speed; 13-15 knots in the Atlantic and up to 18 knots in the South Indian
Ocean.

72
Highest speeds occur toward the end of winter in the relevant hemisphere.
Their direction follows that of the isobars around the oceanic anticyclone.
In the northern hemisphere from northerly in latitude 30 through northeasterly to easterly near the
equator.
In the southern hemisphere direction varies from southerly near latitude 30 through southeasterly to
easterly near the equator.

3.5.4.4 The sub-tropical oceanic anticyclones

These anticyclones exist throughout the year over the north Atlantic and Pacific oceans and all the
southern oceans.
They are centred in mid-ocean in approximately 30 latitude.
They are regions of subsidence, giving light winds, little precipitation and good visibility.

3.5.4.5 The Temperate Zones

The temperate zones lie on the poleward side of the oceanic anticyclones and are characterised by
variable weather due to mobile anticyclones and depressions.
These depressions form on the polar front between cold polar air flowing toward the equator and warm,
humid, subtropical air carried northwards by the trade winds.
The mean pressure is low, but actual values vary widely.
Mean wind direction is westerly, again with wide variations.
Wind speed varies from calm to hurricane force.
The polar jet stream is associated with the polar front and plays a major part in the formation of polar
front depressions.

3.5.4.6 Polar Easterlies

These predominantly easterly winds flow from the polar anticyclones toward the mid latitude low
pressure zones.

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3.5.5 Monsoon Areas

3.5.5.1 Introduction

A monsoon area is one that experiences a marked seasonal change of prevailing wind direction.
The true monsoon occurs over south and east Asia and north east Africa, where the wind direction
reverses.
Other areas experiencing a degree of monsoon variation are:
Southeast United States;
Brazil;
West Africa;
North Australia.
In monsoon areas a marked change of precipitation with the wind variation produces wet and dry
seasons.

3.5.5.2 Causes of monsoons

In summer the temperature of large landmasses increases, heating the air over them, reducing its
density, and generating low pressure areas.
The pressure gradient from high pressure over adjacent sea to this low pressure results in winds flowing
from sea to land.
The air has high humidity from contact with warm tropical seas.
Convection and orographic ascent on crossing the land results in considerable precipitation.

In winter the temperature of the landmass falls considerably, cooling the air in contact with it,
increasing the density, and high pressure builds.
Airflow is then from the land to the relatively low pressure over the sea.
This air has low humidity and temperature leading to the dry season in the area.

3.5.5.3 The Southwest Monsoon of the North Indian Ocean. June to September.

Heating of the Asiatic landmass results in an area of low pressure centred over northwest India.
The southeast trade wind of the South Indian Ocean is drawn across the equator, deflected to the right
by coriolis force, joins the cyclonic circulation around this depression, and forms the Southwest
monsoon.
The wind force is highest in the western Arabian Sea, averaging force 6 at the height of the season and
force 7 for more than 10 days per month.
The area of greatest intensity lies approximately 250 NM east of Socotra where a heavy southwesterly
swell is also encountered.
In the north and east Arabian Sea the wind force averages force 4.
In the Bay of Bengal average strength is force 4 to 5.
In the South China Sea wind direction is between south and east and strength force 3 to 4.

Weather in the North Indian Ocean is cloudy and unsettled with particularly heavy precipitation on the
west coast of India and Burma.
Cloud cover and rainfall are less over the north and west Arabian sea, and the east coast of India.
Visibility is generally good except in rain.
Over the north and west Arabian Sea visibility may be reduced by dust haze.
Off the southern coast of Arabia sea fog may be encountered.

Over the South China Sea weather is generally fair with occasional showers.
Windward coasts experienced increased cloud cover and frequent heavy rain.

3.5.5.4 The Northeast Monsoon of the North Indian Ocean. November to March.

Cooling of the Asian landmass in winter results in an anticyclone centred over east central Asia.
Airflow from this anticyclone toward the equatorial trough produces predominantly northeast winds over
the North Indian Ocean and China seas.

78
Over the North Indian Ocean wind speed averages force 3 to 4, while over the South China Sea force 5 is
experienced.
The air has low humidity initially so precipitation is light near the coasts.
The humidity increases with passage over water and cloud cover and precipitation increase over the
South China Sea.
Visibility is generally excellent.
In the north and east of the Arabian Sea dust haze may occur late in the season.
In the northern Bay of Bengal smoke haze and land mist may be carried seaward.

3.5.5.6 The Southeast Monsoon of the Southeast United States. June to September.

A thermal depression forms over the Mid-West and a pressure gradient from the north Atlantic oceanic
anticyclone generates southeasterly winds over the southeastern United States.
The warm humid air stream produces frequent heavy rain, thunderstorms, squalls and tornadoes.
Visibility is generally good but drastically reduced in heavy rain.

3.5.5.5 The Northeast Monsoon of Brazil. September to March.

A summer depression over Brazil deflects the southeast trade winds of the south Atlantic, which become
northeast winds over the east coast of Brazil.
The high humidity of this airstream results in heavy rainfall in coastal regions.

3.5.5.6 The Southwest Monsoon of West Africa. June to October.

In summer heating of the North African landmass produces a depression centred over North Africa.
The southeast trade wind flows across the equator, veers and becomes a southwest wind onto the coast
of West Africa, extending as far as 15N.
This season from June to mid October is one of high cloud cover and considerable rainfall, particularly
from Gambia to Liberia.
Visibility is generally good except in rain.
Violent thunderstorms called 'tornadoes', accompanied by severe squalls moving from the east, occur
toward the beginning and end of this rainy season. (April/May and October/November)

3.5.5.7 The Northwest Monsoon of North Australia. November to March.

A northwestern airflow is produced over the northeastern South Indian Ocean by the southward
movement of the equatorial trough and an extension of the northeast monsoon across the equator, the
wind direction backing in the process.
Winds are light.
Weather is cloudy and unsettled with rain showers and squalls.
Visibility is good except in rain, which can be heavy on the weather coast of Australia.

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3.6 Air Masses

3.6.1 Introduction

An air mass is a body of air with similar humidity, temperature, lapse rate and stability characteristics
over an extensive area of thousands of square miles.

3.6.2 Source Regions

Air must be in contact with a surface for a considerable length of time to acquire particular
characteristics throughout.
The source regions are those which provide these conditions and generally are stable anticyclones.
These are the polar and oceanic anticyclones throughout the year, and terrestrial anticyclones over
continents in winter.
Other areas may provide suitable conditions for an air mass to form, such as continental deserts.

3.6.3 Classification of air masses

Temperature is governed by the latitude of the source region.

Arctic, Polar, Tropical, Equatorial.
Lapse rate and stability are governed by temperature.
Humidity is governed by the nature of the surface.
Continental, maritime.

These are combined to classify air masses.

Air Mass Classification and characteristics at source

Abbreviation Source Temperature Lapse rate Stability Absolute
Type Region Humidity
Arctic Ac cA Arctic or Cold Low High Low
continental Antarctic
land
Arctic Am mA Arctic or Cold Low High Moderate
maritime Antarctic
seas
Polar Pc cP Sub-polar Cool Low / High / Low
continental land moderate Moderate
Polar Pm mP Sub-polar Cool Low/ High / Moderate
maritime seas moderate Moderate
Tropical Tc cT Sub-tropical Warm Moderate/ Moderate Low
continental land high / Low
Tropical Tm mT Sub-tropical Warm Moderate / Moderate High
maritime seas high / low
Equatorial E Equatorial Hot High Low High
latitudes

3.6.4 Air Mass Modification

Air masses are modified by contact with the surface over which they move after leaving their source
regions.
The degree of modification varies with the speed of movement and distance travelled over the modifying
surface.
Slow movement over a long distance will produce more modification than fast movement over a short
distance.
The history of an air mass is important to forecasters.

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3.6.4.1 Temperature

Air colder than the surface over which it is flowing increases in temperature and tends to become less
stable.
Convection can distribute the heat acquired through a significant depth.
It is subclassified k. kPm is polar maritime air flowing over a warm surface.
Air warmer than the surface over which it is flowing will decrease in temperature and tends to become
more stable.
Cooling tends to be limited to the surface layers, leading to an inversion.
It is subclassified w. wTm is tropical maritime air flowing over a cold surface.

3.6.4.2 Humidity

Humidity increases when unsaturated air flows over water, particularly when temperature increases
simultaneously.
Cold continental air flowing over a warm sea can acquire maritime characteristics within a few hundred
miles.
Humidity decreases when precipitation occurs.
A warm humid maritime air mass flowing over cold land will produce precipitation if cooled below its
dew point temperature and its absolute humidity will fall.

3.6.4.3 Dynamic modification

Ascending air decreases in temperature, relative humidity increases.

Absolute humidity decreases if precipitation occurs.
Descending air increases in temperature and relative humidity decreases.

3.6.5 Air Mass Weather over Britain

3.6.5.1 Introduction

The air masses affecting any place will depend on the nature of adjacent source regions, the synoptic
patterns causing air mass movement and the nature of the intervening surfaces causing air mass
modification.
Britain lies on the interfaces between a continent and an ocean, and Polar and Tropical regions.
Synoptic patterns can produce airflow from any direction, leading to a wide variety of weather.
Other places in similar circumstances experience a similar variety of weather; Japan, Vancouver, and
Newfoundland.

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 Ac Ac Winter, Am Summer

Pc
Pm

Tc

Tm
Tc

3.6.5.2 Arctic continental (Ac) and Polar continental (Pc)

Arctic continental air travels for considerable distances over the continent before reaching Britain and
acquires the same characteristics as Polar continental air.
Cold, stable and dry at source, warms, destabilises and may humidify over the North Sea.

Winter.
A very cold (<0C), stable air stream with low humidity in its source region.
Humidity increases during the passage over the North Sea and cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds form
over the east coast with rain and snow showers, particularly in the southeast.
Showers are normally limited to daytime inland.
This airstream brings the most severe winter weather if it persists for a few days, particularly if the
easterly winds are strong.

Summer.
The air reaches Britain warm and dry after crossing the continental landmass.
Passage over the North Sea may decrease the temperature and increase the humidity.
Advection fog and stratus cloud may form over the east coast.

3.6.5.3 Arctic maritime air (Am)

Arctic air flows over a sea track becoming arctic maritime air.
Cold, stable, with low humidity; warms, destabilises and humidifies.
Cold/cool showery weather results.

Winter.
Instability produces showers that are frequent, heavy and usually of snow, over the north, east and west
coasts, and high ground.
Inland the frequency of showers decreases with distance from the coast.
Very low temperatures (-10C) may occur at night in sheltered places.

Summer.
Arctic maritime air gives low temperatures with frequent heavy showers.

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3.6.5.4 Polar maritime air (Pm)

Cold, stable and humid; warms, destabilises and humidifies.

Polar maritime air approaches Britain cool, humid and unstable.
Cumuliform cloud and showery weather is typical.

Winter.
Over open sea and windward coasts, by day and night, convective clouds and showers are widespread.
The showers may be frequent and heavy with lightening, thunder and hail.
Cloud development and the intensity of the showers is greatest near depressions.
In the vicinity of anticyclones a subsidence inversion limits development and cumulus cloud and scattered
showers occur.
Snow showers may occur if the air stream is flowing rapidly enough for the temperature to remain low.
This is more common over high ground, and northern Britain where the distance travelled over the sea is
shorter.
Over land radiation cooling at night produces a surface inversion that prevents convective cloud
formation.
Air frost and radiation fog are common.
By day convection is weak giving limited cloud and scattered showers.

Summer.
Polar maritime air is warmer and less unstable, although more humid.
Over open sea and windward coasts convection cloud and showers are less pronounced.
Over land insolation raises surface temperatures leading to local heating and convection with heavy
showers of rain and thunderstorms with hail.

3.6.5.5 Tropical maritime (Tm)

Warm, unstable and humid; cools, stabilises and may become saturated.
Warm, wet weather with advection fog is typical.

Winter.
Stratus cloud with drizzle and advection fog are commonly experienced at sea.
Fog and drizzle are common over high ground inland.
Low insolation in winter will provide little heat to raise the temperature and hence the cloud base
remains low.
In general conditions are mild and damp.

Summer.
Similar conditions prevail in summer over open sea and windward coasts, although temperatures are
higher.
Higher insolation may raise temperatures sufficiently to disperse the cloud inland leaving clear skies or
small cumulus.
Radiation fog may form briefly inland at night.

3.6.5.6 Tropical continental (Tc)

Warm, unstable and dry; cools, destabilises and remains dry.

May humidify if travelling over the Mediterranean.
Another source region is eastern Europe from whence the air flows over land and retains its
characteristics.
It rarely reaches Britain, but may be dust laden when it does.
Warm and dry weather results.

Winter
Tropical continental air rarely reaches Britain in winter as prolonged southeasterly winds seldom occur.
The degree of modification of air from Africa is such that Tropical continental air resembles mild Polar
continental air by the time it reaches Britain.

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Summer
European tropical continental air reaches Britain with high temperature and low humidity.
It is unstable but because of the low humidity frequently cloudless.
This air mass produces heat wave weather and is often dusty and hazy.

3.6.5.7 Returning Polar maritime air (rPm) (Warm Polar maritime air (wPm))

Cold, stable and humid; warms, destabilises and humidifies, then cools, stabilises and may become
saturated.
Polar maritime air which has flowed for a considerable distance over the sea round a slow moving
depression west of Britain to latitudes south of 50N and approaches from the southwest.
Warm and humid, decreasing temperature in the lower layers increases stability.
Cool conditions with rain and perhaps fog are typical.

Winter.
Stratocumulus cloud at approximately 500m predominates in the lower layer.
Cumulonimbus cloud and showers may develop if the unstable upper layer ascends due to orographic
uplift, particularly in the west.

Summer.
Surface heating inland disperses the stratocumulus cloud and thermal uplift produces cumulonimbus
cloud with squally showers and severe thunderstorms.

3.6.5.8 Synoptic patterns associated with air masses over Britain.

a) Arctic Continental (Ac) and Polar Continental (Pc) from the east
b) Arctic maritime air (Am) from the north
c) Polar maritime air (Pm) from the west
d) Returning polar maritime air (rPm) (Warm polar maritime air (wPm)) from the southwest
e) Tropical maritime (Tm) from the southwest
f) Tropical continental (Tc) from the southeast

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3.7 Local Winds

3.7.1 Introduction.

Local effects such as surface heating and cooling, and topographical effects, influence the general
pattern of wind circulation and produce local winds over relatively small areas and for limited time
spans.

3.7.2 Sea and Land Breezes

These are thermally induced winds in coastal regions due to differential heating and cooling of land
and sea.

3.7.2.1 Sea Breeze

During the day the surface temperature of land rises faster than that of the adjacent sea due to the
lower specific heat, and shallower penetration of solar insolation.
The air in contact with the land is heated by conduction and its density decreases.
Air rises above the land and is replaced by air flowing from the sea as the Sea Breeze.
This air is heated in turn and rises.
Above the surface a seaward movement occurs at an altitude above approximately 1000m.
This air cools once removed from the source of heating, its density increases and it descends,
completing the convection cycle.
The intensity of the effect reaches a maximum in mid afternoon.
Wind speed is typically approximately 13 kts.
The horizontal extent of the effect can be approximately 30 miles on either side of the coast.

Air heated
Density decreases Seaward movement
Air rises
Insolation Cooling air descends

Sea Breeze
Land temperature increases
faster than sea temperature

3.7.2.2 Land Breeze

During the night the land cools by reradiation to space.

The temperature of the land falls below that of the sea because radiation is taking place from a
shallow layer of a substance of low specific heat.
The air in contact with the land is cooled by conduction and its density increases relative to the air
over the sea.
The dense air from the land flows seaward as a Land Breeze.
The intensity of the Land Breeze is less than that of the Sea Breeze, and the area affected less
extensive.
Air cooled
Density increases
Air descends
Reradiation

Land Breeze
Land temperature decreases
faster than sea temperature

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3.7.3 Anabatic and Katabatic Winds.

3.7.3.1 Introduction.

These are winds flowing up (ana-) or down (kata-) slopes over land.
The mechanism of generation is similar to that of sea and land breezes, thermal changes leading to
density changes and the resulting convection flow.

3.7.3.2 Anabatic Winds.

These are found on steep slopes devoid of vegetation in low latitudes during calm, sunny,
conditions.
The land surface heats rapidly.
The air in contact with the land is heated by conduction and its density decreases.
The low density air flows up the slope as an Anabatic Wind.
Clouds and precipitation may occur.
Air cooled
Anabatic
by conduction
wind
Density increased

Insolation
Radiation

Land heated Katabatic

Land cooled
by insolation Air heated wind
by radiation
by conduction
Density reduced

3.7.3.3 Katabatic Winds.

These are found in similar geographic conditions, particularly at night.

The land surface cools rapidly.
The air in contact with the land cools by conduction and its density increases.
The high density air flows down the slope as a Katabatic Wind.
Katabatic winds may occur in other areas where a cooling mechanism exists in combination with a
steep slope, such as the Greenland escarpment where air cooled by the icecap flows down toward
the sea.
Katabatic winds may have significant effects on coastal areas and adjacent seas.

3.7.4 Local Winds.

3.7.4.1 Introduction.

Many local names exist for winds in different areas.

Some of these are anabatic and katabatic in origin, others are caused by pressure systems.

Abroholos A squall frequent from May through August between Cabo de Sao Tome and Cabo Frio on the
coast of Brazil.
Auster Same as OSTRIA
Austru An east or southeast wind in Rumania. They are cold in winter and may be a local name for a
foehn wind.
Bali wind A strong east wind at the eastern end of Java.
Barat A heavy northwest squall in Manado Bay on the north coast of the island of Celebes, prevalent from
December to February.
Barber A strong wind carrying damp snow or sleet and spray that freezes upon contact with objects,
especially the beard and hair.
Bayamo A violent wind blowing from the land on the south coast of Cuba, especially near the Bight of
Bayamo.
Bentu de Soli An east wind on the coast of Sardinia.
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Bora A cold, northerly wind blowing from the Hungarian basin into the Adriatic Sea. See also FALL WIND.
Borasco A thunderstorm or violent squall, especially in the Mediterranean.
Boreas An ancient Greek name for north winds. (also borras) The term may originally have meant "wind
from the mountains" and thus the present term BORA.
Brickfielder: A wind from the desert in Southern Australia. Precedes the passage of a frontal zone of a
low passing by. Has the same dusty character as the Harmattan.
Brisa, Briza 1. A northeast wind which blows on the coast of South America or an east wind which blows
on Puerto Rico during the trade wind season. 2. The northeast monsoon in the Philippines.
Brisote The northeast trade wind when it is blowing stronger than usual on Cuba.
Brubu A name for a squall in the East Indies.
Bull's Eye Squall A squall forming in fair weather, characteristic of the ocean off the coast of South
Africa. It is named for the peculiar appearance of the small isolated cloud marking the top of the
invisible vortex of the storm.
Cape Doctor The strong southeast wind which blows on the South African coast. Also called the DOCTOR.
Caver, Kaver A gentle breeze in the Hebrides.
Chinook A type of foehn wind. Refers to the warm downslope wind in the Rocky Mountains that may
occur after an intense cold spell when the temperature could rise by 20 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit in a
matter of minutes. Also known as the Snow Eater.
Chubasco A violent squall with thunder and lightning, encountered during the rainy season along the west
coast of Central America.
Churada A severe rain squall in the Mariana Islands during the northeast monsoon. They occur from
November to April or May, especially from January through March.
Cierzo See MISTRAL.
Contrastes Winds a short distance apart blowing from opposite quadrants, frequent in the spring and fall
in the western Mediterranean.
Cordonazo The "Lash of St. Francis." Name applied locally to southerly hurricane winds along the west
coast of Mexico. It is associated with tropical cyclones in the southeastern North Pacific Ocean. These
storms may occur from May to November, but ordinarily affect the coastal areas most severely near or
after the Feast of St. Francis, October 4.
Coromell A night land breeze prevailing from November to May at La Paz, near the southern extremity of
the Gulf of California.
Cyclone A severe tropical storm (i.e., winds >64 knots) in the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. See also
Hurricane and Typhoon. The term is also applied to closed circulations in the mid latitudes and also
popularly to small scale circulations such as tornadoes.
Diablo Northern California version of Santa Ana winds. These winds occur below canyons in the East Bay
hills (Diablo range) and in extreme cases can exceed 60 mph. They develop due to high pressure over
Nevada and lower pressure along the central California coast.
Doctor 1. A cooling sea breeze in the Tropics. 2. See HARMATTAN. 3. The strong SE wind which blows on
the south African coast. Usually called CAPE DOCTOR.
Elephanta A strong southerly or southeasterly wind which blows on the Malabar coast of India during the
months of September and October and marks the end of the southwest monsoon.
Etesian A refreshing northerly summer wind of the Mediterranean, especially over the Aegean Sea.
Euros The Greek name for the rainy, stormy southeast wind.
Foehn A warm dry wind on the lee side of a mountain range, whose temperature is increased as the wind
descends down the slope. It is created when air flows downhill from a high elevation, raising the
temperature by adiabatic compression. Examples include the Chinook wind and the Santa Ana wind.
Classified as a katabatic wind.
Fremantle Doctor A cooling seabreeze in Western Australia,often made note of during hot summer-time
cricket matches.
Gregale A strong northeast wind of the central Mediterranean.
Haboob A strong wind and sandstorm (or duststorm) in the northern and central Sudan, especially around
Khartum, where the average number is about 24 per year. The name come from the Arabic word, "habb",
meaning wind.
Harmattan The dry, dusty trade wind blowing off the Sahara Desert across the Gulf of Guinea and the
Cape Verde Islands. Sometimes called the DOCTOR, because of its supposed healthful properties.
Hurricane A severe tropical storm (i.e., winds >64 knots) in the Atlantic, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico and
Eastern Pacific. The word is believed to originate from the Caribbean Indian storm god "Huracan". See
also Typhoon and Cyclone.
Knik Wind A strong southeast wind in the vicinity of Palmer, Alaska, most frequent in the winter.

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Kona Storm A storm over the Hawaiian Islands, characterized by strong southerly or southwesterly winds
and heavy rains.
Leste A hot, dry, easterly wind of the Madeira and Canary Islands.
Levanter A strong easterly wind of the Mediterranean, especially in the Strait of Gibraltar, attended by
cloudy, foggy, and sometimes rainy weather especially in winter.
Levantera A persistent east wind of the Adriatic, usually accompanied by cloudy weather.
Levanto A hot southeasterly wind which blows over the Canary Islands.
Leveche A warm wind in Spain, either a foehn or a hot southerly wind in advance of a low pressure area
moving from the Sahara Desert. Called a SIROCCO in other parts of the Mediterranean area.
Maestro A northwesterly wind with fine weather which blows, especially in summer, in the Adriatic. It is
most frequent on the western shore. This wind is also found on the coasts of Corsica and Sardinia.
Maria A fictional wind popularized in "Paint Your Wagon" (Lerner and Lowe, 1951) and by the Kingston
Trio (1959), whose name may have originated with the 1941 book "Storm" by George R. Stewart.
Matanuska Wind A strong, gusty, northeast wind which occasionally occurs during the winter in the
vicinity of Palmer, Alaska.
Mistral A cold, dry wind blowing from the north over the northwest coast of the Mediterranean Sea,
particularly over the Gulf of Lions. Also called CIERZO. See also FALL WIND.
Nashi, N'aschi A northeast wind which occurs in winter on the Iranian coast of the Persian Gulf, especially
near the entrance to the gulf, and also on the Makran coast. It is probably associated with an outflow
from the central Asiatic anticyclone which extends over the high land of Iran. It is similar in character
but less severe than the BORA.
Norte A strong cold northeasterly wind which blows in Mexico and on the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. It
results from an outbreak of cold air from the north. It is the Mexican extension of a norther.
Nor'easter A northeast wind, particularly a strong wind or gale; an unusually strong storm preceded by
northeast winds off the coast of New England. Also called Northeaster. (Glossary of Weather and Climate)
Nor'wester This is a very warm wind which can blow for days on end in the province of Canterbury New
Zealand. The effect is especially felt in the city of Christchurch. The wind comes in from the Tasman
Sea, drys as it rises over the Southern Alps, heats as it decends, crosses the Canterbury Plains, then
blows through Christchurch.
Norther A cold strong northerly wind in the Southern Plains of the United States, especially in Texas,
which results in a drastic drop in air temperatures. Also called a Blue Norther.
Ostria A warm southerly wind on the Bulgarian coast; considered a precursor of bad weather.
Pali A local name for strong winds which blow through the Pali Pass above Honolulu, HI. (Michael
Polansky, San Francisco)
Pampero A west or southwest wind in Southern Argentina. This wind (often violently) picks up during the
passage of a cold front of an active low passing by.
Papagayo A violet northeasterly fall wind on the Pacific coast of Nicaragua and Guatemala. It consists of
the cold air mass of a norte which has overridden the mountains of Central America. See also
TEHUANTEPECER.
Santa Ana A strong, hot, dry wind blowing out into San Pedro Channel from the southern California desert
through Santa Ana Pass.
Shamal A summer northwesterly wind blowing over Iraq and the Persian Gulf, often strong during the
day, but decreasing at night.
Sharki A southeasterly wind which sometimes blows in the Persian Gulf.
Sirocco A warm wind of the Mediterranean area, either a foehn or a hot southerly wind in advance of a
low pressure area moving from the Sahara or Arabian deserts. Called LEVECHE in Spain.
Squamish A strong and often violent wind occurring in many of the fjords of British Columbia. Squamishes
occur in those fjords oriented in a northeast-southwest or east-west direction where cold polar air can be
funneled westward. They are notable in Jervis, Toba, and Bute inlets and in Dean Channel and Portland
Canal. Squamishes lose their strength when free of the confining fjords and are not noticeable 15 to 20
miles offshore.
Suestado A storm with southeast gales, caused by intense cyclonic activity off the coasts of Argentina and
Uruguay, which affects the southern part of the coast of Brazil in the winter.
Sumatra A squall with violent thunder, lightning, and rain, which blows at night in the Malacca Straits,
especially during the southwest monsoon. It is intensified by strong mountain breezes.
Sundowner Warm downslope winds that periodically occur along a short segment of the Southern
California coast in the vicinity of Santa Barbara. The name refers to their typical onset (on the populated
coastal plain) in the late afternoon or early evening, though they can occur at any time of the day. In
extreme cases, wind speeds can be of gale force or higher, and temperatures over the coastal plain and
even at the coast itself can rise significantly above 37.8 degrees C
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Taku Wind A strong, gusty, east-northeast wind, occurring in the vicinity of Juneau, Alaska, between
October and March. At the mouth of the Taku River, after which it is named, it sometimes attains
hurricane force.
Tehuantepecer A violent squally wind from north or north-northeast in the Gulf of Tehuantepec (south of
southern Mexico) in winter. It originates in the Gulf of Mexico as a norther which crosses the isthmus and
blows through the gap between the Mexican and Guatamalan mountains. It may be felt up to 100 miles
out to sea. See also PAPAGAYO.
Tramontana A northeasterly or northerly winter wind off the west coast of Italy. It is a fresh wind of the
fine weather mistral type.
Typhoon A severe tropical storm (i.e., winds >64 knots) in the Western Pacific. The word is believed to
originate from the Chinese word "ty-fung". See also Hurricane and Cyclone.
Vardar A cold fall wind blowing from the northwest down the Vardar valley in Greece to the Gulf of
Salonica. It occurs when atmospheric pressure over eastern Europe is higher than over the Aegean Sea, as
is often the case in winter. Also called VARDARAC.
Warm Braw A foehn wind in the Schouten Islands north of New Guinea.
White Squall A sudden, strong gust of wind coming up without warning, noted by whitecaps or white,
broken water; usually seen in whirlwind form in clear weather in the tropics.
Williwaw A sudden blast of wind descending from a mountainous coast to the sea, in the Strait of
Magellan or the Aleutian Islands.
Willy-willy A tropical cyclone (with winds 33 knots or greater) in Australia, especially in the southwest.
More recent common usage is for dust-devils.
Zephyros The ancient Greek name for the west wind, which generally light and beneficial. It has evolved
into "zephyr" which denotes a soft gentle breeze.

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4 Frontal and non-frontal systems

4.1 Frontal systems

4.1.1 Introduction

The theory of the development of depressions was largely developed by a group of Norwegian
meteorologist headed by Bjerkenes shortly after the First World War.
It is being refined with information from modern research.

4.1.2 Fronts

A frontal surface is an interface between air masses of different characteristics.

Normally there is little mixing between the air masses.
The frontal zone is the narrow zone in which mixing occurs.
A front is the line at the surface between two dissimilar air masses.

4.1.3 Frontal zones

The principal frontal zones exist where air masses of differing characteristics converge.

These are:
Arctic fronts, between arctic air and polar maritime air masses.
Polar fronts, between polar air and tropical air masses.
(There is a close association between the Polar Front at the surface and the Polar Jet Stream at
altitude.)
The Mediterranean front that exists in winter between polar continental air from Europe and tropical
continental air from North Africa.
The InterTropical Convergence Zone was formerly known as the InterTropical Front, but as the air masses
converging in this area are similar the term front is not appropriate.

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4.1.4 Frontogenesis

Frontogenesis is the process of frontal formation.

Fronts most commonly form between converging air masses of different temperature, and hence density.

4.1.5 Frontal structure

The cold, denser, air mass undercuts the warm air mass forming a frontal zone with a gradient of
approximately 1:100 extending from the surface to the tropopause.
The vertical extent of the frontal zone is approximately 1-2 km, and the horizontal extent at the surface
100-200 km.
Frontal zones are described as sharp when the temperature gradient is well defined and diffuse when the
temperature gradient is ill defined.
The ascent of warm air over cold leads to cloud formation and precipitation.
The type of cloud and intensity of precipitation depends on the gradient of the frontal zone.
A moving front is named as the direction of temperature change at the surface as the front passes:
A warm front is one where cold air is replaced by warm air.
A cold front is one where warm air is replaced by cold air.
A quasistationary front is one that is not moving significantly.
The gradient of the frontal zone is generally steeper at a cold front than a warm front.

4.1.6 Frontolysis

Frontolysis is the process of dissolution of a front.

It occurs when divergence occurs separating the differing air masses.
The frontal zone broadens during frontolysis.

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4.1.7 Polar frontal depressions

Frontal depressions are most likely to form where the temperature difference across the front is highest.
In the North Atlantic in winter favourable conditions exist along the polar front over the western part of
the ocean where cold air from the North American mainland meets warm air from the oceanic
anticyclone.

4.1.7.1 Life cycle of a polar front depression (Northern Hemisphere)

The cold air flows southwestward to the north of the front.

The warm air flows northeastward to the south of the front.
The cold air undercuts the warm air along the front.
A jet stream flows eastward in the upper part of the warm air mass.
Development of a depression commences with a reduction in pressure at a point on the front, possibly
due to a local acceleration of the jet stream removing air from the area.
Convergence of surface air toward the embryonic depression introduces a wave in the front causing warm
and cold fronts to form, with a warm sector between them.
Closed isobars on the synoptic chart indicate falling pressure at the centre of the depression.
The depression moves eastward along the polar front, growing more extensive as the pressure at the
centre falls.
A cyclonic wind pattern develops around the depression.
Air does not cross the fronts, warm air overrides cold air at the warm front and cold air undercuts warm
air at the cold front.
Ascending warm air at both fronts cools adiabatically and clouds form followed by precipitation.
As the depression progresses the cold front overtakes the warm front progressively from the centre.
This lifts the warm sector above the surface in the process of occlusion.
Occlusion progresses outward from the centre until the whole warm sector is above the surface and the
depression fills.

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4.1.7.2 Sequence of meteorological phenomena during the passage of a depression.

This description is of a standardised depression.

Actual conditions may vary widely from this.
An observer on the surface on the equatorial side of the depression observes a typical sequence of
phenomena during the passage of a mature depression across the station.

Sequence of weather during passage of a warm front, Northern hemisphere, (Southern hemisphere)
Element Advance of warm front Passage of warm front Warm sector, rear of warm
front
Pressure Falling Stops falling Steady
Wind Steady Veers, Northern Steady
direction Hemisphere.
(Backs, Southern
Hemisphere)
Wind force Increasing Steadies Steady
Temperature Steady Rises Steady
Dew Point Steady Increases. Steady.
Cloud Increasing. Nimbostratus Stratus or stratocumulus
Cirrostratus, altostratus
Stratus, nimbostratus.
Significant Light rain increasing to Rain stops or Fair, drizzle or advection
weather. moderate. Changes to drizzle fog.
Visibility Deteriorating Poor, mist or fog, Moderate or poor, mist or
fog.

Sequence of weather during passage of a cold front, Northern hemisphere, (Southern hemisphere)
Element Warm sector, in advance of Passage of cold front Rear of cold front
cold front
Pressure Steady Starts rising Rising
Wind Steady Veers, Northern Steady
direction Hemisphere.
(Backs, Southern
Hemisphere)
Wind force Steady, squally near cold Increases Decreasing
front.
Temperature Steady Falls Steady
Dew Point Steady Decreases Steady
Cloud Stratus or stratocumulus Cumulonimbus Altostratus Cirrostratus,
then Nimbostratus possibly Cumulonimbus,
cumulus or cumulonimbus clearing.
Significant Fair, drizzle, advection fog. Heavy rain, possibly Possibly showers
weather Heavy rain near cold front hail, lightening
and thunder.
Visibility Moderate or poor, perhaps Poor Good
fog.

On the poleward side of a depression the changes occur continuously.

Pressure falls to a minimum and then rises again.
Wind direction backs steadily in the northern hemisphere, (veers in the southern hemisphere).
Wind force increases steadily then decreases again.
Temperature does not change significantly.
Cloud cover increases and cloud altitude decreases, then altitude increases again and cloud clears. Cirrus
and cirrostratus, altostratus, nimbostratus, altostratus.
Precipitation increases, then decreases again.
Visibility deteriorates in rain and then improves.
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4.1.7.3 Occlusions

An occlusion forms when the cold front overtakes the warm front, lifting the warm sector above the
surface.
A warm occlusion occurs when the overtaking air is less cold than the retreating air.
A cold occlusion occurs when the overtaking air is colder than the retreating air; this is more common.
The sequence of weather is that of the approach of a warm front, passage of a warm and then a cold
front without the intervening warm sector, then to the rear of a cold front.
On passage of an occlusion wind backs in the northern hemisphere, (veers in the southern hemisphere).
Temperature decreases or increases according to the nature of the occlusion.

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4.1.7.4 Families of depressions

A family of depressions may follow each other along the polar front when conditions are favourable.
Each depression forms on the cold front trailing from its predecessor.
Successive depressions are closer to the equator.
Eventually surface heating decreases the thermal contrast of the polar front, which dissipates.

4.1.7.5 Secondary depressions

A secondary depression lies within the circulation of another, the primary depression.
Secondary depressions may form on the trailing cold front of the primary depression.
When the primary depression is occluding secondary depressions may form at the tip of the warm sector
or on the warm front.
The secondary depression moves in the circulation of the primary.
Initially the primary is larger or more vigorous, but may fill and allow the secondary depression to
become dominant.
The secondary depression may become absorbed by the primary.
The primary and secondary depressions may achieve similar size and circulate in a dumbbell formation.

4.2 Non-frontal systems

4.2.1 Introduction

Several pressure systems have distinct characteristics.

Monsoons and polar front depressions are described above.
Tropical Storms are described in a separate chapter.

4.2.2 Thermal depressions.

A thermal depression is caused by local heating of the air.

The effects are proportional to the temperature gradient between the heated air and adjacent air.
The heated air expands vertically.
Pressure at upper levels in the air column is higher than adjacent air at the same level.
Air flows away from the heated column.
The total amount of air in the heated column is less than the surroundings and pressure therefore lower.
Air flows toward the low pressure area and is deflected by the coriolis force.

The most notable example is the monsoon of Asia.

Similar thermal depressions form over the Iberian Peninsula and on a smaller scale in many other areas.
A thermal depression can form over a body of water when surrounding land is colder, as occurs over the
Mediterranean in winter.

The resulting weather depends on the nature of the air mass within which the thermal depression forms.
Humid, unstable air will lead to showery precipitation perhaps with thunderstorms, conversely if
humidity is low fair weather will prevail.

4.2.3 Polar depression

Polar depressions form when polar maritime air flows over a warm sea surface toward the equator.
A similar mechanism to that described above operates to form a depression with cyclonic wind
circulation.
This is most common in winter when the temperature difference between air and sea is highest.
Polar depression often form in the rear of an occluding depression.
Weather associated with a Polar depression is typical of unstable air, heavy, squally showers which may
merge to give longer outbreaks of rain or snow.
A polar depression moves with the polar maritime airstream in which it has formed, often avoiding land
in winter due to the lack of temperature difference.

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4.2.4 Orographic depression

An orographic depression or lee depression forms when an air stream flows across a mountain range.
Air converges vertically on the weather side of the range increasing pressure, and the divergence on the
lee side reduces pressure.
The pressure difference is slight, but can be sufficient to trigger formation of a depression in an unstable
air mass.
The depression normally remains in position in the lee of the range, but may intensify and move away in
the air stream.
Areas where these occur are in the lee of mountain ranges such as the Rockies, Alps, Atlas Mountains,
those in China, and the Southern Alps of New Zealand.
The Fohn effect in the descending air on the lee side of a mountain range may lead to fair weather,
though with radiation fog in winter.

105
4.2.5 Trough

A trough is an elongated area of low pressure extending from a depression.

An observer passing through a trough will experience a fall then rise of pressure.

4.2.5.1 Frontal trough

A frontal trough is one along a front between different air masses.

The weather associated with a frontal trough is that of the type of front; cold, warm or occluded.

4.2.5.2 Non-frontal trough.

A non-frontal trough is one in a homogeneous air mass.

The trough line is a line through the isobars at their point of smallest curvature.

A deep trough is one with acutely curved isobars.

A trough is an area of converging and ascending air and will be associated with cloudy conditions and
precipitation to varying extents depending on the humidity and stability of the air mass.
Non-frontal troughs frequently occur behind occluded fronts, and circulate around the depression.

4.2.6 Anticyclone

An anticyclone is an area of high pressure surrounded by closed isobars.

They characteristically cover large areas and are slow moving.
The pressure gradient within an anticyclone is generally shallow except around its periphery.
Anticyclones are areas of subsiding air that leads to temperature inversion.

Anticyclones form when the density and/or depth of air above an area increases.
Cold anticyclones form when surface air is cooled, decreasing its volume and air flows into the region at
upper levels to compensate. Examples are the polar anticyclones and anticyclones forming over
continents in winter.
Warm anticyclones form when air converges at upper levels as in the case of the subtropical
anticyclones.

Weather associated with anticyclones is generally calm and settled.

Over land
In winter low temperatures can develop due to radiation.
Radiation fog is common.
Humid air can produce stratus cloud that becomes trapped beneath the inversion.
In summer irradiation clears radiation fog during the day.
Land and sea breezes are likely in coastal regions.
Over the sea
Light winds and clear skies predominate near the centre of an anticyclone.
Near the periphery stratus cloud and advection fog can form on the western side as air flows poleward
and is cooled, and cumulus or stratocumulus cloud on the eastern side as air is warmed flowing toward
the equator.

4.2.7 Ridge of high pressure

A ridge is an elongated system of isobars with high pressure at the centre.

A ridge may be a large, slow moving feature extending from an anticyclone, or a rapidly moving area
between two depressions.
The weather features of the former type are those of an anticyclone, while the ridge between
depressions may produce a relatively brief period of fine weather between the depressions.

4.2.8 Col

A Col is an area between two anticyclones and two depressions.

Weather is calm, and cloud and precipitation depend on the stability of the air.

106
 Anticyclone
Non-Frontal Trough

Ridge

Depression
Col

Depression
Frontal Trough
Ridge

107
Anticyclone
5 Tropical Revolving Storms

5.1 Introduction

A Tropical Revolving Storm is a cyclonic disturbance originating in the tropics.

It involves strong convection, frequently extending from the surface to the tropopause.

Characteristics:
smaller size than temperate depressions;
nearly circular isobars
no fronts
very steep pressure gradient
great intensity;

World Meteorological Organisation nomenclature is based on wind speed:

Description Wind speed Beaufort force
Tropical depression <= 33 kts <= 7
Moderate tropical storm 34 - 47 kts 8 and 9
Severe tropical storm 48 - 63 kts 10 and 11
Hurricane or synonym >64 kts 12

Synonyms:
Cyclone Indian Ocean.
Hurricane North Atlantic, Caribbean, central and east North Pacific, and South Pacific.
Typhoon Western North Pacific and South China Sea.

Extreme values of elements:

Pressure 870 hPa
Rainfall 95 mm h-1
Storm surge 13 m. (Sea level rise due to low atmospheric pressure, wind and shallow water)
Wind speed 185 kts
Wave height 34 metres
Size Approximate radius of gale force winds, minimum 30 NM, maximum 600 NM
Duration 31 days

Tropical storms are potentially capable of overwhelming the largest and most seaworthy vessels and
should be avoided if at all possible.
The area of greatest danger is the eye where swell waves are both extremely high and approach from all
directions.

5.2 Development of Tropical Revolving Storms

5.2.1 Conditions for formation

Considerable energy is required for the formation and development of a tropical revolving storm.
This is derived from energy contained in water vapour and particularly latent heat released by
condensation.
The following conditions are required:
Sea temperature greater than 26C over a large area raising air temperature and humidity.
Atmospheric instability due to high Environment Lapse Rate.
Instability accentuated by high humidity increasing Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
Latitude greater than 5 where the Coriolis Force is sufficient to provide vorticity, cyclonic
circulation.
Low wind shear (change of wind speed with altitude) in the troposhere permitting vertical
development.
Conditions permitting divergence of airflow at altitude, removing air from the area and reducing
atmospheric pressure.
A tropical disturbance to initiate the process. This is likely to be convection associated with an
easterly wave, the InterTropical Convergence Zone.

108
5.2.2 Tropical Revolving Storm areas and seasons

Areas of tropical revolving storm genesis are in approximately 10 latitude in the warmest areas of the
oceans.
These, with months of highest occurrence and average annual frequency, are:
North Atlantic August - October 9
North Indian Ocean May - June, October - November 6
North Pacific West July - October 26
North Pacific East August - September 13
South Atlantic One Tropical Revolving Storm has been recorded, in 2004 March.
South Indian Ocean West January - March 8
South Indian Ocean East January - March 10
South Pacific West January - March 6
South Pacific East None 0
Global total 79

Average monthly frequency of Tropical Revolving Storms.

Area J F M A M J J A S O N D
North Atlantic 0.1 0.4 0.5 1.5 2.6 1.9 0.5
Western North Pacific 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.7 1.0 3.2 4.2 4.6 3.2 1.7 1.2
Eastern North Pacific 0.1 0.8 0.7 1.0 1.9 1.0 0.1
Western North Indian Ocean 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.1 0.2 .3 0.1
Eastern North Indian Ocean 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.6 0.7 0.9 1.0 0.4
South Atlantic <0.1
Western South Indian Ocean 1.3 1.7 1.2 0.6 0.2 0.1
Eastern South Indian Ocean 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1
Western South Pacific 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.2 0.1 0.3
Eastern South Pacific

5.2.3 Tropical Revolving Storm development

Considerable research continues into the details of tropical storm formation.

Broadly the sequence is:
Preconditions exist. These do not inevitably lead to storm formation, but are the minimum criteria
required.
Reduced pressure, commonly associated with a cluster of thunderstorms, leads to airflow toward
the centre.
Coriolis effect produces cyclonic motion.
Convection and convergence produce ascending airflow at the centre.
Adiabatic cooling of ascending air leads to condensation.
Condensation releases latent heat, which accentuates convection.
Divergence at altitude permits further ascent and convergence at the surface.
The system intensifies and acquires the structure of a Tropical Revolving Storm.

5.2.4 Structure of a Tropical Revolving Storm

Elements of the structure:

Outer convective band of cumulus cloud.
Annular zone of descending air reducing cloud cover.
Inner convective band of deep cumulus, and cumulonimbus extending to the tropopause, in spiral
bands moving toward the centre.
Eye Wall of high velocity wind moving parallel to the isobars and ascending rapidly.
Eye, descending air warming adiabatically and dissolving cloud. Horizontal wind speed very low.
Canopy of cirrus clouds at the troposphere in the divergent outflow, some of which descends in the
annular zone.

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5.2.5 Movement

Tropical revolving storms move approximately with the flow of air in the troposphere in their vicinity.
A high proportion of storms move around the oceanic anticyclone into higher latitudes, moving westward
with a degree of poleward movement and then recurving into higher latitude.
Movement may be highly erratic within the broad pattern.
Speed varies from approximately 10 kts near the equator to 25 knots in higher latitudes.

5.2.6 Decay

Tropical Revolving Storms endure as long as conditions lie within the necessary parameters.
Decay occurs when the energy required for sustained activity is no longer available.
This occurs when the storm moves over an area where temperature and / or humidity are reduced.
This may be a sea surface in the tropics or higher latitudes where temperatures are lower or a land
surface in the tropics or higher latitudes.

A Tropical Revolving Storm may cross a landmass, decreasing in intensity, then regenerate over a warm
sea surface again.
Tropical Revolving Storms cross the Central American isthmus, the Philippines archipelago, Taiwan, the
Malaysian peninsula, Madagascar and Australia in this way.
A Tropical Revolving Storm may decrease in intensity and lose its tropical characteristics in middle
latitudes and become a middle latitude depression.

5.2.7 Weather conditions

From the annular zone to the eye wall:

Pressure decreases.
Wind speed increases.
Angle of Indraft decreases.
Sea wave height increases.
Swell wave direction is from wind field near eye.
Swell wave height increases.
Cloud cover is total.
Precipitation increases in intensity.

In the eye:
Pressure steadies.
Wind speed may be low or calm.
Sea waves may be low.
Swell waves are extremely high and moving in all directions.
Cloud cover may be absent.
Precipitation may be absent.

110
From the eye wall to the annular zone
Pressure increases.
Wind speed immediately rises to maximum, then decreases.
Wind direction is opposite to the original.
Angle of Indraft is zero then increases.
Sea wave height is maximum, then decreases.
Swell wave direction is from opposite wind field near eye.
Swell wave height decreases.
Cloud cover is total.
Precipitation is intense then decreases.

Hurricane Irene

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112
113
114
5.3 Avoidance of Tropical Revolving Storms

The following apply to tropical latitudes.

5.3.1 Warning messages

Comprehensive warnings are broadcast by radio and telex of known storms and these sources should be
closely monitored when navigating in areas prone to Tropical Revolving Storms in the appropriate
seasons.
GMDSS radio installations receive navigation warnings, including Tropical Revolving Storm warnings,
automatically.
Other sources are listed in the Admiralty List of Radio Signals, Volume III, and similar publications.

5.3.2 Detection

Not all storms are detected by shore based meteorological services, and shipboard instruments and
observation of meteorological phenomena should be used to detect the presence of a Tropical Revolving
Storm.

5.3.2.1 Swell

In open waters, with no intervening land, a swell generated by the high seas within a Tropical Revolving
Storm may be the earliest warning of a storm.
The swell approaches from the direction of the storm.

5.3.2.2 Atmospheric pressure.

In the tropics the diurnal variation of atmospheric pressure is marked and a normal feature.
Falling pressure in the area affected by a Tropical Revolving Storm initially damps the diurnal variation,
and the disappearance of this feature is an early warning sign of Tropical Revolving Storm development.
A barograph trace indicates this clearly.
In the absence of a barograph atmospheric pressure should be noted at hourly intervals and the
observations plotted so that changes can be easily observed.

The atmospheric pressure in the tropics varies little from the seasonal average.
The seasonal average pressure appears in publications such as Routeing Charts and Sailing Directions.
Observed atmospheric pressure should be corrected for Index Error of the instrument, if relevant,
altitude above Sea Level to obtain Sea Level Pressure, and for Diurnal Variation.
Altitude correction tables are provided to observing ships.
(At 25C the rate of change of pressure with altitude is approximately 0.11 hPa per metre.)
Diurnal Variation Tables are contained in Sailing Directions.
Then, comparing the seasonal average with the corrected pressure:
A decrease of 3 hPa below the seasonal average for the area indicates the probable development of a
Tropical Revolving Storm in the vicinity.
A decrease of 5 hPa below the seasonal average for the area indicates the presence of a Tropical
Revolving Storm, probably within 200 NM.

Atmospheric pressure recorded in logbooks and transmitted to meteorological services should be Sea
Level Pressure corrected for altitude only, not for diurnal variation.

Decreasing atmospheric pressure indicates the approach of a Tropical Revolving Storm.

5.3.2.3 Wind

Wind direction and speed is generally fairly constant in the tropics.

Increasing wind speed and variation from the normal direction for the area and season are indications of
the approach of a Tropical Revolving Storm.

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5.3.2.4 Clouds

Vivid colouring of the sky at sunrise and sunset may be a precursor of a Tropical Revolving Storm.
Cirrus clouds increasing in density may be visible 300 to 600 NM from the storm and are followed by
lower clouds increasing in coverage as it approaches.

5.3.2.5 Visibility

Exceptionally good visibility frequently exists in the vicinity of a Tropical Revolving Storm.

5.3.2.6 Radar

Radar is capable of detecting the precipitation of a Tropical Revolving Storm.

The range is limited and other signs will probably be manifest before the storm is within radar range.
The rainfall pattern indicated on Radar may be useful if close to the eye to avoid the most severe
conditions.

5.3.2.7 Reporting

The Master is required by SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 31 to inform the nearest authority and shipping in
the vicinity if winds of Beaufort force 10 and above are encountered and no storm warning has been
received.
Similar warnings are required if the presence of a Tropical Revolving Storm is suspected or established.

The message should include:

A statement of the presence of a Tropical Revolving Storm or storm force wind
Date and time UT
Position of vessel
Barometric pressure corrected to sea level
Barometric tendency
True wind direction
Wind force Beaufort
Sea state
Swell direction, height and period
Vessels course and speed

Subsequently similar messages should be transmitted at hourly intervals if possible, not greater than
three hourly intervals, while the vessel is in the vicinity of the storm.

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117
5.3.3 Avoidance

Vertex

Advance

Trough Line

Rear
Right

Dangerous
Quadrant
Left Eye
Path
Vortex
Track
Tropical Revolving Storm
Northern Hemisphere

Navigable Semicircle

5.3.3.1 Features of a Tropical Revolving Storm

The Track is the historical route the storm has followed.

The Path is the route the storm is forecast to follow.
The Trough Line is a line through the centre at right angles to the path.
The Vortex is the eye of the storm.
The Vertex is the westerly extremity of the path when the storm recurves.

The Dangerous Quadrant is the Advance Right Quadrant of the storm in the Northern Hemisphere, and
the Advance Left Quadrant in the Southern Hemisphere.

This is because:

The storm is likely to recurve in this direction.

Winds tend to drive the vessel into the Path of the storm.
Sea waves running toward the Path hamper movement away from the Path.
The cross swell from the vicinity of the Trough Line running across the sea waves is likely to be more
severe in this quadrant.
Wave heights are likely to be higher in this area.

The navigable Semicircle is the Left Semicircle in the Northern Hemisphere, and the Right Semicircle in
the Southern Hemisphere.
The storm is unlikely to move into this area.
Winds tend to drive the vessel out of the path of the storm in the advance quadrant.

118
 Navigable Semicircle

Tropical Revolving Storm

Southern Hemisphere
Track
Eye
Path
Right Vortex
Dangerous
Quadrant

Left

Rear
Trough Line

Advance
Vertex

5.3.3.2 Establishing the vessel's position relative to the storm.

The vessel should heave to so that the vessel's movement does not modify changes in the elements that
will then be due to the storms movement.

5.3.3.3 The direction of the vortex

Buys-Ballots law together with the angle of indraft is used to establish the direction of the centre of the
storm.

Face the wind.

Low pressure lies on the right in the Northern Hemisphere and on the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
The direction is 90 + Angle of Indraft from the wind direction.

Approximate Angle of Indraft.

Pressure starts to fall. Wind F6 4 points.
Pressure has fallen 10 hPa. Wind F8 2 points.
Pressure has fallen 20 hPa. Wind f12+ 0 points.

5.3.3.4 The distance of the vortex

In the absence of other information, assume that the vortex is approximately:

200 NM away if the pressure has decreased 5 hPa and the wind is approximately Force 6.
100 NM away if the pressure has decreased 10 hPa and the wind is approximately Force 8.
50 NM away if the pressure has decreased 20 hPa and the wind is approximately Force 12.

5.3.3.5 Relative position

The following description and table may be used to establish the observers position relative to the
storm.
These are true for both northern and southern hemispheres.

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Pressure:
Falling. Advance. Wind Veering
Steady. Trough line or stationary storm.
Rising. Rear.

Wind direction: Pressure Pressure

Wind
Veering. Right semicircle. Falling. Rising.
Direction
Steady. Path or track. Wind Force Wind Force
Steady
Backing. Left semicircle. Increasing. Decreasing

Wind force:
Increasing. Advance.
Wind Backing
Steady. Trough line.
Decreasing. Rear.

Steady conditions may indicate a stationary storm.

Position relative to Tropical Revolving Storm

Sector Wind Wind Pressure
Direction force
Path Steady Increasing Falling
Right Advance Veering Increasing Falling
Right Trough Veering Steady Steady
Line
Right Rear Veering Decreasing Rising
Track Steady Decreasing Rising
Left Advance Backing Increasing Falling
Left Trough Line Backing Steady Steady
Left Rear Backing Decreasing Rising

5.3.3.6 The future movement of the storm

In addition to the above:

Storms are unlikely to move toward the equator.
In latitudes less than approximately 20 storms are unlikely to move eastward.

5.3.3.7 Actions to avoid the worst effects of the storm.

Northern Hemisphere

Dangerous Quadrant
Steer a course with the wind ahead or on the starboard bow and proceed at maximum practicable speed.
Alter course to maintain the relative wind direction as the wind veers.
(From a position close to the Path it may be practicable to cross the path into the Navigable Semicircle
as below.)

In the Path
Steer a course with the wind on the starboard quarter and proceed with maximum practicable speed into
the Navigable Semicircle, then continue as for Navigable Semicircle.

Navigable Semicircle
Steer a course with the wind on the starboard quarter and proceed with maximum practicable speed
away from the path.
Alter course to maintain the relative wind direction as the wind backs.

Rear
Heave to, or steam, with the wind on the starboard bow.

120
Southern Hemisphere

Dangerous Quadrant
Steer a course with the wind ahead or on the port bow and proceed at maximum practicable speed.
Alter course to maintain the relative wind direction as the wind backs.
(From a position close to the Path it may be practicable to cross the path into the Navigable Semicircle
as below.)

In the Path
Steer a course with the wind on the port quarter and proceed with maximum practicable speed into the
Navigable Semicircle then continue as for Navigable Semicircle.

Navigable Semicircle
Steer a course with the wind on the port quarter and proceed with maximum practicable speed away
from the path.
Alter course to maintain the relative wind direction as the wind veers.

Rear
Heave to, or steam, with the wind on the port bow.

5.3.3.8 Alternative Action.

In the Dangerous Quadrant a slow change of wind direction may indicate that the vessel is close to the
Path; or in the Path with the change due to the changing Angle of Indraft.
It may then be practicable to cross the Path into the Navigable Semicircle, steering a course with the
wind on the appropriate quarter.

5.3.3.9 Subsequent action.

All parameters must be monitored to assess the movement of the storm, and the action taken modified
accordingly.

5.3.3.10 Danger Sectors

When reports of the storm's position and forecast movement are available Danger Sectors may be
plotted.
The position of the storm is plotted.
The forecast path is plotted.
A sector is plotted centred on the position, 40 on either side of the forecast path, radius the forecast
movement with an allowance for greater speed than forecast.
The Danger Sector is expanded by the radius of the storm field.
The vessel is manoeuvred to avoid the Danger Sector.
The process is repeated with each forecast received.
The forecast movement for the whole forecast period should be plotted and an assessment made of the
appropriate action to take.

5.3.3.11 Other factors

The actions above may have to be modified due to factors such as the proximity of land or shallow water.

5.3.3.12 Storm Origin and Movement.

Storms have developed in latitudes as low as two degrees from the equator.
Storms may move erratically in directions widely different from those described above, including
travelling in circular paths.

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5.4 Typhoon Account

On 18th December 1944 the US Pacific Fleet, operating in support of the invasion of the Philippines, were
caught near the centre of a Typhoon. Three destroyers capsized and sank with practically all hands. A
cruiser, six light aircraft carriers and three destroyers were seriously damaged, nineteen other vessels
sustained lesser damage. Fires broke out in three aircraft carriers, 146 aircraft were smashed or lost
overboard and approximately 790 officers and men killed.

The CO of USS "Dewey" noticed increasing sea at dusk and ordered FW and FO to be shifted from high to
low tanks and ready-use ammunition moved down to magazines. By dawn, mountainous seas were
running and the ship was pitching so heavily as to expose the keel as far aft as the bridge then the
propellers and half the bottom were visible.

The low visibility conditions increased the risk of collision and ships often would not answer their helms.
The high wind speeds caused spray to peel off paintwork and to penetrate watertight instruments.
Rolling was so heavy that lubricating oil suction was lost and turbines had to be stopped at the beginning
of each roll. Stokers were often shoulder deep in water, hanging on to anything available and swinging
out nearly parallel to the deck. When the funnel guys parted, the funnel went over the side and
improved the stability. After five hours the destroyer came out of the murk and spume into clear sky, the
wind dropped to 50 knots and the ship was got under control again.

The C. in C. (Admiral Nimitz) wrote to the fleet:

Possibly too much reliance was placed on the analysis broadcast from the Fleet Weather Centre ...
weather data was lacking for an area of about 300 miles in diameter (where the storm was centred) and
the immediate signs of it were not heeded early enough. Losses were accentuated by efforts of vessels to
maintain Fleet courses and speeds and formations during the storm.

The Admiral drew attention to the fact that in the days of sail a ships survival ... depended almost solely
on the competence of the master and on his constant alertness to every hint of change in the weather ...
a seaman was culpable who regards personal weather estimates as obsolete and assume that if no radio
storm warning has been received then all is well and no local signs need cause him concern'.

He stressed that each CO should refresh himself on 'Knight' and 'Bowditch', not only as to the 'Law of
Storms' but also as to Ship Handling in Heavy Weather.

The following conditions were experienced in the storm.

Very poor visibility.
Ships in addition to heavy rolling were being heeled continually by the violent wind leaving little margin
of stability for any further rolling The ships that were lost took a long roll to leeward varying from 50 to
80, hung there and then capsized and sinking almost immediately.
Water was shipped through intakes, ventilation and all upper deck openings, short-circuiting electrical
switchboards and machinery and causing fires. Free surface in E.R. and other compartments. Complete
loss of steering control, power, lighting and navigational -instrumentation and all communications. Main
Engine stoppage. Wind speeds and seas which carried away masts, funnels, boats, davits and deck
structures. The cruiser "Pittsburgh" lost 100 feet off her bow. The flight decks of aircraft carriers were
peeled back like a banana skin.
It was impossible for men to secure gear that had gone adrift or to jettison any topweight or even to stay
up where they would have had a chance of getting clear of the sinking ship.

These experiences brought a suggestion from the C. in C. British Pacific Fleet that when destroyers with
only 50% FO were in the vicinity of a Tropical Revolving Storm, the tanks should be flooded with sea
water as had, up till then, only been permitted in exceptional circumstances, eg in Arctic waters.

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5.5 Tropical Revolving Storm Forecasts

The following is the text of a warning that illustrates the format and type of information given.
Different authorities warnings differ in presentation.

WTPN31 PGTW 260300

MSGID/GENADMIN/NAVMARFCSTCEN PEARL HARBOR HI/JTWC//
SUBJ/TROPICAL CYCLONE WARNING//
RMKS/
1. SUPER TYPHOON 26W (NIDA) WARNING NR 017
01 ACTIVE TROPICAL CYCLONE IN NORTHWESTPAC
MAX SUSTAINED WINDS BASED ON ONE-MINUTE AVERAGE
WIND RADII VALID OVER OPEN WATER ONLY
---
WARNING POSITION:
260000Z --- NEAR 14.5N 140.7E
MOVEMENT PAST SIX HOURS - 325 DEGREES AT 11 KTS
POSITION ACCURATE TO WITHIN 060 NM
POSITION BASED ON CENTER LOCATED BY SATELLITE
PRESENT WIND DISTRIBUTION:
MAX SUSTAINED WINDS - 150 KT, GUSTS 180 KT
WIND RADII VALID OVER OPEN WATER ONLY
RADIUS OF 064 KT WINDS - 045 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
045 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
045 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
045 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 050 KT WINDS - 070 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
070 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 034 KT WINDS - 100 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
105 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
095 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
095 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
REPEAT POSIT: 14.5N 140.7E
---
FORECASTS:
12 HRS, VALID AT:
261200Z --- 16.2N 139.5E
MAX SUSTAINED WINDS - 140 KT, GUSTS 170 KT
WIND RADII VALID OVER OPEN WATER ONLY
RADIUS OF 064 KT WINDS - 045 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
045 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
045 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
045 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 050 KT WINDS - 070 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
070 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 034 KT WINDS - 110 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
110 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
105 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
105 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
VECTOR TO 24 HR POSIT: 330 DEG/ 07 KTS
---
24 HRS, VALID AT:
270000Z --- 17.4N 138.8E
MAX SUSTAINED WINDS - 130 KT, GUSTS 160 KT
WIND RADII VALID OVER OPEN WATER ONLY
RADIUS OF 064 KT WINDS - 045 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
045 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
045 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
045 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT

123
RADIUS OF 050 KT WINDS - 070 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
070 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 034 KT WINDS - 115 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
115 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
110 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
110 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
VECTOR TO 36 HR POSIT: 335 DEG/ 04 KTS
---
36 HRS, VALID AT:
271200Z --- 18.2N 138.4E
MAX SUSTAINED WINDS - 120 KT, GUSTS 145 KT
WIND RADII VALID OVER OPEN WATER ONLY
RADIUS OF 064 KT WINDS - 045 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
045 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
045 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
045 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 050 KT WINDS - 070 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
070 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 034 KT WINDS - 125 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
125 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
115 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
120 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
VECTOR TO 48 HR POSIT: 340 DEG/ 03 KTS
---
EXTENDED OUTLOOK:
48 HRS, VALID AT:
280000Z --- 18.8N 138.2E
MAX SUSTAINED WINDS - 110 KT, GUSTS 135 KT
WIND RADII VALID OVER OPEN WATER ONLY
RADIUS OF 064 KT WINDS - 045 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
045 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
040 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
045 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 050 KT WINDS - 070 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
070 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 034 KT WINDS - 130 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
125 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
120 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
125 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
VECTOR TO 72 HR POSIT: 010 DEG/ 03 KTS
---
72 HRS, VALID AT:
290000Z --- 19.9N 138.4E
MAX SUSTAINED WINDS - 090 KT, GUSTS 110 KT
WIND RADII VALID OVER OPEN WATER ONLY
RADIUS OF 064 KT WINDS - 040 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
040 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
040 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
040 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 050 KT WINDS - 070 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
070 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
065 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
070 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
RADIUS OF 034 KT WINDS - 135 NM NORTHEAST QUADRANT
130 NM SOUTHEAST QUADRANT
125 NM SOUTHWEST QUADRANT
130 NM NORTHWEST QUADRANT
VECTOR TO 96 HR POSIT: 035 DEG/ 09 KTS
---

124
 LONG RANGE OUTLOOK:
NOTE...ERRORS FOR TRACK HAVE AVERAGED NEAR 250 NM
ON DAY 4 AND 350 NM ON DAY 5... AND FOR INTENSITY
NEAR 20 KT EACH DAY.
---
96 HRS, VALID AT:
300000Z --- 22.8N 140.5E
MAX SUSTAINED WINDS - 070 KT, GUSTS 085 KT
WIND RADII VALID OVER OPEN WATER ONLY
VECTOR TO 120 HR POSIT: 050 DEG/ 20 KTS
---
120 HRS, VALID AT:
010000Z --- 27.9N 147.2E
MAX SUSTAINED WINDS - 050 KT, GUSTS 065 KT
WIND RADII VALID OVER OPEN WATER ONLY
---
REMARKS:
260300Z POSITION NEAR 14.9N 140.4E.
SUPER TYPHOON 26W (NIDA), LOCATED APPROXIMATELY 280 NM WEST OF
SAIPAN, HAS TRACKED NORTHWESTWARD AT 11 KNOTS OVER THE PAST SIX
HOURS. MAXIMUM SIGNIFICANT WAVE HEIGHT AT 260000Z IS 44 FEET.
NEXT WARNINGS AT 260900Z, 261500Z, 262100Z AND 270300Z.//
NNNN

WDPN31 PGTW 260300

MSGID/GENADMIN/NAVMARFCSTCEN PEARL HARBOR HI/JTWC//
SUBJ/PROGNOSTIC REASONING FOR SUPER TYPHOON 26W (NIDA) WARNING NR
17//
RMKS/
1. FOR METEOROLOGISTS.
2. 12 HOUR SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS.
A. SUPER TYPHOON (STY) 26W (NIDA) HAS MAINTAINED A SYMMETRICAL
STRUCTURE OVER THE PAST 12 HOURS. ANIMATED MULTISPECTRAL IMAGERY
SHOWS MULTIPLE SPIRAL BANDS WRAPPING VERY TIGHTLY INTO THE LOW LEVEL
CIRCULATION CENTER. THE CURRENT POSITION IS BASED ON THE ABOVE
ANIMATION SHOWING A WELL-DEFINED 20-NM EYE. THE CURRENT INTENSITY IS
DERIVED FROM THE DVORAK ESTIMATES OF T7.0 FROM PGTW AND KNES, AND A
T7.5 FROM RJTD. THE SYSTEM IS TRACKING ALONG THE SOUTHWESTERN
PERIPHERY OF A DEEP-LAYERED SUBTROPICAL RIDGE TO THE NORTHEAST.
ANIMATED WATER VAPOR IMAGERY SHOWS GOOD RADIAL OUTFLOW ENHANCED BY A
MESOSCALE ANTICYCLONE OVERHEAD.
3. FORECAST REASONING.
A. THE EXTENDED TRACK FORECAST HAS CHANGED TO REFLECT A
RECURVATURE SCENARIO.
B. STY NIDA IS EXPECTED TO GRADUALLY WEAKEN AS IT APPROACHES AN
AREA OF HIGHER VERTICAL WIND SHEAR AND RELATIVELY COOLER SEA SURFACE
TEMPERATURES. AFTER TAU 48, IT IS EXPECTED TO CREST THE RIDGE AXIS
AND BEGIN RECURVING TO THE NORTHEAST. A 26/12Z UPPER AIR SOUNDING
FROM CHICHIJIMA (NEAR 27N 142E) SHOWS DEEP SOUTHWESTERLY FLOW,
SUPPORTING A RECURVATURE SCENARIO.
C. AFTER TAU 72, STY NIDA WILL BEGIN TO ACCELERATE TOWARDS THE
BAROCLINIC ZONE AND RAPIDLY WEAKEN DUE TO STRONG VERTICAL WIND SHEAR,
BECOMING A MODERATE TROPICAL STORM BY TAU 120. THE AVAILABLE NUMERIC
GUIDANCE IS IN OVERALL AGREEMENT WITH THIS TRACK FORECAST WITH THE
NOTABLE EXCEPTION OF UKMET AND JGSM. BOTH SOLUTIONS INDICATE A
DRASTIC DEVIATION TO THE LEFT OF THE MODEL ENVELOPE TOWARDS THE
PHILIPPINES AFTER TAU 24.//
NNNN

125
6 Synoptic Charts and Forecasts

6.1 Introduction

The process of preparing synoptic charts and forecasts is a worldwide activity involving international
cooperation.

6.1.1 The World Meteorological Organization.

The World Meteorological Organization is a United Nations organization created by the World
Meteorological Convention which came into force in 1950.
It is based in Geneva and consists of 185 member nations, which maintain their own Meteorological and
Hydrological Services.

The purposes of WMO are to facilitate international cooperation in the establishment of networks of
stations for making meteorological, hydrological and other observations; and to promote the rapid
exchange of meteorological information, the standardization of meteorological observations and the
uniform publication of observations and statistics. It also furthers the application of meteorology to
aviation, shipping, water problems, agriculture and other human activities, promotes operational
hydrology and encourages research and training in meteorology.

6.1.2 The Meteorological Office

The Meteorological Office was formed as a department of the Board of Trade in 1854, to provide
meteorological and ocean current information to mariners.
The modern era arrived in 1962 when an electronic computer was installed at the HQ in Bracknell.
In 1964 the first operational cloud pictures from satellites became available.
Current computers IBM supercomputers.
Their particular feature is parallel processing.
The Met. Office aspires to be a centre of excellence for the development of the science of meteorology
and the provision of weather-related services to a wide range of customers.
The Meteorological Office relocated to Exeter in 2004.

6.2 Weather Forecasting

6.2.1 Introduction

A knowledge of present weather is essential before a forecast can be made.

Regular, reliable and accurate measurements are required.
These have to be rapidly sent around the world using a telecommunications system dedicated to weather
information.
The observations are used to analyse the weather patterns at a particular time.
Once the analysis has been carried out, a forecast of the weather pattern can be made.
Usually the analysis and forecast are made with the aid of a computer.
There are four stages to forecasting:
1. make observations
2. communicate data
3. perform an analysis
4. produce a forecast.

6.2.2 Observations

Data sources include vessels, aircraft, oil rigs, buoys, balloons, and manned land stations around the
world.
Automation is often used to assist or replace the human observer and can provide information from
inhospitable and remote areas.
Information from remote-sensing equipment, both on the ground and in space, increasingly supplements
and complements conventional systems.

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6.2.2.1 Surface Observations

Traditionally, meteorologists have relied upon observations taken near the Earth's surface using
instruments (barometers, thermometers, anemometers and rain gauges) and visual observations (cloud
and weather type). These surface observations are made at approved sites over the land and from vessels
at sea.
Standard types of instruments are used and observations are usually made at least every three hours, and
in many cases hourly.
Over land in the UK there are 30 key observing stations manned by professional meteorologists who make
observations every hour.
Additional sites are also manned by Meteorological Office staff, but over 100 are manned by auxiliary
observers such as coastguards.
There are also more than 50 fully automated sites.
In all there are about 200 observing sites in the UK providing surface observations.
Weather observations at sea are made by the crews of over 6700 vessels of 52 nations, including
approximately 460 vessels and rigs of the UK Voluntary Observing Fleet.
Dedicated weather ships have been replaced by bouys.
Moored buoys are positioned to the west of Ireland; other buoys drift in the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific
Oceans.

6.2.2.2 Radar

A network of weather radars provides a picture of rainfall location and intensity.

The UK network now covers the whole of the British Isles.
Some radar information from the continent is also used.

6.2.2.3 Upper-air Observations

Radiosondes, balloon-borne instruments, are important sources of upper-air information about pressure,
temperature and humidity through the atmosphere.
The wind direction and speed can be deduced from the track of the radiosonde.
Radiosondes are released at 00:00 and 12:00 UT worldwide and can reach a height of over 20 km.
Within the global network the Meteorological Office maintains eight sites in the UK and sites in Gibraltar,
St Helena, and the Falkland Islands.
A minisonde system has been set up to supplement the main radiosonde network.
These radiosondes are released when required and provide information up to a height of about 5 km.
At sea there are a few weather ships that provide upper-air information and progress is being made with
automatic systems that release radiosondes from the decks of merchant ships.
Dropsondes are released from aircraft, particularly through Tropical Revolving Storms.
Aircraft reports (PIREPs) of wind and temperature along their routes are also used.

6.2.2.4 Satellites

The first meteorological satellite was placed in orbit in 1960.

Satellites have become essential tools for weather forecasters.
Polar-orbiting satellites orbit the Earth from pole to pole at a height of about 870 km taking
approximately 1 hour 42 minutes to complete the orbit.
In this time the earth has rotated by about 25 degrees and each pass provides information about a
different strip of the atmosphere.
The polar-orbiting satellites provide pictures of clouds, and information about the temperature through
the atmosphere.
Geostationary satellites remain stationary with respect to the earth.
This is achieved by having the satellite in orbit at a height of about 36,000 km above the equator.
At this height one orbit takes exactly 24 hours so it always views the same part of the globe.
Meteosat, the European geostationary satellite, and its US, Japanese and Indian counterparts, give time
sequences of cloud images.
From these, wind speeds and directions can be calculated by examining consecutive frames.
Hurricane and storm tracks can also be monitored.

127
Observations assimilated for a single analysis (2006-07-03 00:00), supplemented by satellite imagery and
radar data by forecaster.
Satellites, 19682
Sonde, upper air, 1581
Aircraft, 14686
Land stations, 5257
Ships, 1854
Buoys, 4963

6.2.2.5 Communications

The Global Telecommunication System (GTS) transfers weather observations and forecasts around the
world using high-speed computer-to-computer links via satellites and landlines.

6.2.3 Analysis

The observations taken from the GTS are stored on computer and are analysed in two different ways.
1. The observations at a specific time are plotted on synoptic charts.
Isobars are drawn which identify weather features such as depressions, anticyclones and fronts.
These charts are then analysed by the forecasters (with the aid of satellite and radar information) to
make short-term local forecasts.
2. The observations are used to define the starting conditions for a computer forecast.

6.2.3.1 The computer model

Weather forecasts are based on the solution of a set of mathematical equations, which describe certain
physical processes in the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is divided into gridpoints and the properties of the atmosphere represented at each
gridpoint.
In the global model used by The Meteorological Office there are 325 gridpoints on each meridian, and 432
points on each parallel of latitude and 38 levels in the vertical.
The gridpoint separation is about 60 km near the UK.
The observations are used to compute the gridpoint values of pressure, temperature, humidity and wind.
This computer analysis represents the atmosphere at the start of the forecast.
A 15-minute forecast is made of the pressure, temperature, humidity and wind.
The process is repeated until a global six days forecast has been built up, taking about 70 minutes.
The global forecast is produced twice a day using the 00:00 and 12:00 observations
Other models using smaller distances between gridpoints are used for smaller areas.

6.2.4 Forecasting

Computers play a key role in improving the accuracy and detail of weather forecasts, and in lengthening
the period for which useful guidance can be given.
The calculations involved are both numerous and complex and some of the most powerful computers in
the world are used.

6.2.4.1 Forecasters

Forecasters modify the computer output for known weaknesses in the models and additional data such as
satellite pictures and radar information in producing the final forecast for publication.

128
6.2.4.2 Value and limitations of Synoptic and Prognostic charts.

Weather may be estimated for the vessels intended route and operations planned accordingly, or the
route modified if necessary.
In particular:
Wind direction and force, and changes.
Wind wave direction and height.
Swell direction and height.
Cloud cover and precipitation.
Visibility.

Accuracy depends on a number of factors (GIGO)

Density of observations, low over ocean areas.
Accuracy of measurements, dependent on accurate instruments and observer care.
Accuracy of methods used for prognosis.
Length of forecast period.
Skill of the forecaster.
Type of weather pattern. Small features in an area of sparse observation may not be detected.

6.3 Meteorological information for shipping

6.3.1 Introduction

Most meteorological information for shipping is received by radio; telex over radio, telephony, facsimile,
telex over satellite, and high speed data transmission over satellite.
The use of computer programs on board for receiving, processing and presenting information is
increasing.
Details of meteorological information available are published in the Admiralty List of Radio Signals,
Volume 3, (ALRS V3) and equivalent publications of other administrations.
Details of information available from the Meteorological Office are contained in the Marine Weather
Services booklet.

6.3.2 The BBC Shipping Forecast

The Shipping forecast is broadcast at specific times (00:48 05:20 12:01 17:54) on Radio 4.
It contains:
Gale Warnings. Warnings of gales for the sea areas around Britain.
General synopsis. Positions of pressure systems and fronts, and forecast movement.
Area forecasts. Forecasts of wind direction, force and changes; sea state; weather; and visibility; for
the sea areas.
Station reports. Observations of wind, weather, visibility, atmospheric pressure and change; from
stations around Britain.
The format is concise and the language used is specific.

6.3.3 The International Analysis Code FM46-IV

The International Analysis Code is used by National Meteorological Stations to transmit detailed synoptic
analyses in code form by telegraphy or telex.
A synoptic chart may be plotted using the ALRS V3 or the Ship's Code and Decode Book.

6.3.4 The Maritime Forecast Code

The Maritime Forecast Code (MAFOR) is used to transmit weather bulletins by administrations where
there are difficulties in the use of English.
The information is approximate and the range of values should be borne in mind.
These may be decoded using information in ALRS V3 or the Ship's Code and Decode Book.

129
6.3.5 Facsimile

Facsimile is a method of transmitting graphical information by analogue transmission over telephone or

radio.
The original document is scanned by a photoelectric cell and the light value transmitted as an analogue
signal that is used by the receiver to record a facsimile of the original.
The type of information transmitted varies widely:
charts: synoptic, prognostic, surface analysis, wave heights, nephanalysis, sea temperatures, ice
distribution, air temperatures, pressure contours, significant weather
satellite pictures
text messages.
Facsimile receivers may be programmed to receive scheduled broadcasts at specific times.
Reception is less susceptible to corruption than telegraphy or telex.
Synoptic charts show information for a specified past time.
Prognostic charts show information for a specified future time.
Surface analysis charts show isobars, pressure systems and station observations at a specific past time.
Nephanalyses show cloud areas and types.
Significant weather charts show cloud, precipitation, storms and the tracks of jet streams.
Wave charts (analysis and prognoses) show isopleths of wave height and direction.
Contour charts show isopleths of the altitudes at which specific atmospheric pressures occur.

6.3.6 Computer and satellite systems.

Systems have been developed which receive data directly from satellites for processing on board.
These may be combined with weather routeing software.

130
131
6.4 Forecasting

6.4.1 Introduction

In the absence of official forecasts short term forecasting can be conducted:

from a sequence of synoptic charts and/or
from observation of meteorological parameters together with knowledge of the general weather
patterns of the area.

6.4.2 Persistence

Recent movement of systems and changes in intensity can be assumed to continue in the immediate
future.
This extrapolation can be improved by considering the climatic background of the area and overall
features of the synoptic chart.

6.4.3 Depressions

6.4.3.1 Movement.

Small active depressions move faster than large filling ones.

Small depressions tend to move in the direction of the general airflow around them.
Depressions move from areas of rising pressure tendency toward areas of falling pressure tendency, from
isallobaric high to isallobaric low.
Depressions tend to follow the airflow around the perimeter of large, established warm anticyclones.
An unoccluded depression moves parallel to the direction of the isobars in the warm sector at a speed
over water approximately equal to the surface wind speed in the warm sector.
The speed of an occluding depression tends to decrease as occlusion progresses.
An occluded depression tends to move in the direction of the general airflow and with a further tendency
to move poleward, but slowly and erratically.
Non-frontal depressions tend to move in the same direction as the strongest winds around them.

6.4.3.2 Development.

A depression with a large open warm sector may be expected to deepen.

The rate of deepening usually increases as the warm sector narrows.
Once occlusion has started the depression is unlikely to deepen further.
Families of depressions tend to form on the polar front, with successive depressions closer to the
equator.

6.4.3.3 Secondary depressions

A secondary depression tends to move cyclonically around the primary depression in the main circulation
at a speed similar to the geostrophic wind speed.
Two depressions of similar size and intensity in close proximity tend to move cyclonically around a
common centre.
Tropical Revolving Storms behave in a similar fashion, the Fujiwhara effect.
A deepening secondary depression tends to approach the centre of the primary and eventually merge
with it.

6.4.4 Fronts

6.4.4.1 Movement

Fronts move at a speed proportional to the component of wind speed perpendicular to the front.
Isobars close together crossing a front indicate a high rate of movement.
A front nearly parallel to the isobars will be slow moving.
A slow moving front tends to move toward an area of falling pressure.
The speed of a warm front is approximately 70% of the geostrophic wind speed perpendicular to it.

132
The speed of a cold front is approximately equal to the geostrophic wind speed perpendicular to it.
The speed of an occluded front is approximately equal to the geostrophic wind speed perpendicular to it.

6.4.5 Anticyclones

6.4.5.1 Development

An anticyclone is intensifying if the pressure is increasing.

An anticyclone is declining if pressure is decreasing.

6.4.5.2 Movement

Anticyclones generally move slower than depressions.

Large anticyclones generally move slower than small ones.
An anticyclone or ridge between two depression of a family moves at the same speed as the depressions.
A cold anticyclone formed behind the last of a family of depressions tends to move toward the equator.
A warm anticyclone moves slowly if at all.
Anticyclones tend to move toward areas of increasing pressure, isallobaric highs.
The centre of an anticyclone tends to move toward an area where temperature is falling fastest.

6.4.5 Winds aloft

6.4.5.1 Introduction

Winds above approximately 500 m altitude (Geostrophic / Gradient winds) are not subject to surface
friction and differ in direction and speed from surface winds.

6.4.5.2 Upper air charts

Upper air charts show contours of the altitude at which atmospheric pressure has a particular value.
The 500 hPa contour chart shows contour lines of the altitudes at which the pressure is 500 hPa.
The winds at this level flow in the direction of the contour lines.
Appropriate scales may be printed for determining the geostrophic wind speed.

6.4.5.3 Application

Small scale surface pressure systems move approximately in the direction of the upper air contours and
winds, at approximately 50% of the geostrophic wind speed.

6.4.6 Single observer forecasting

6.4.6.1 Introduction

Local forecasts can be prepared with a knowledge of local conditions and observations of atmospheric
pressure, wind direction and speed, cloud types, sea and swell waves, air and sea temperatures, and the
changes in these elements.
Direct observation of meteorological elements is a valuable check on forecasts and may detect changes
that have not been forecast.
Skill can be improved by practising forecasting and comparing personal forecasts with official ones, and
with subsequent weather.

6.4.6.2 Atmospheric pressure

Atmospheric pressure compared to the seasonal mean for the area can indicate the probability of foul
weather.
In particular low pressure in the tropics is a warning of Tropical Revolving Storms.
Changes in atmospheric pressure indicate the movement of systems and can be used to forecast the
passage of anticyclones, depressions and the associated fronts, troughs and ridges.

133
6.4.6.3 Wind

Wind direction can be used to determine the direction of the pressure gradient and the probable
direction of the depression causing it, using Buys Ballots Law.
Change of wind direction indicates the direction of movement of the depression.
Wind speed indicates the pressure gradient and the proximity of the depression can be estimated.
Change of wind speed indicates the direction of movement of the depression.

6.4.6.4 Waves

Sea waves are used to estimate wind direction and speed.

Waves travel down wind; height is proportional to wind speed, duration and fetch.
Swell waves indicate the presence of wind at a distance.
This may be forewarning of a depression approaching, particularly a Tropical Revolving Storm, or
historical.
Swell period and height is indicative of the strength of the wind that caused it.

6.4.6.5 Cloud

Cloud types indicate atmospheric stability and the presence of particular weather systems.
Cumuliform clouds indicate unstable air and are associated with cold fronts and moderate to heavy
precipitation.
Stratiform clouds indicate stable air and are associated with warm fronts and light precipitation.
High clouds are associated with the periphery of depressions.
Low dense clouds are associated with the central regions of depressions.
Low light clouds are associated with anticyclones.
Changes of cloud types and cover indicate the movement of weather systems.

6.4.6.6 Temperature and humidity

Temperature of the air and humidity indicate the type of air mass present.
Air temperature lower than 0C combined with high wind carries a risk of ice accretion.
Air temperature lower than 3C and a high probability of precipitation indicates a probability of snow
and poor visibility.
Sea temperature indicates the type of water present, and the type of air mass modification likely.
Sea temperature higher than air temperature will increase air temperature and absolute humidity.
Sea temperature lower than air temperature will lower air temperature and increase relative humidity.
Sea temperature together with air temperature and dew point indicates the probability of fog.
Sea temperature less than dew point indicates a high probability of fog.
Sea temperature significantly higher than air temperature may lead to sea smoke.
Relative humidity can be used to differentiate between fog/mist and haze. Haze if relative humidity less
than 95%.

134
6.4.6.7 Forecasting sea fog

Recording and graphing dew point and sea temperature gives and indication of the probable time of fog
formation.
The values converging indicate a high probability, and the graphs projected give an indication of
timescale.
Fog is likely when the sea temperature is below the dewpoint of the air.
Temperature

Sea Temperature

Fog probable
Dew Point

Time

Fog is likely when dry and wet bulb temperatures are equal.
Recording and graphing these may be a simpler method of predicting the onset of fog.

135
7 Ocean Currents

7.1 Introduction

Accuracy of data on ocean currents is largely dependent on observations by merchant shipping reported
to meteorological offices.
Ocean currents are important both for their effect on vessels directly and their transport of water of
different characteristics which affects air above the surface.
Two main causes of ocean currents can be identified, wind stress and surface gradient.
These effects are further modified by shallow water and landmasses.

7.2 Wind stress

7.2.1 Wind drift current

The majority of ocean surface currents are wind drift currents.

A wind drift current is a flow of surface water in response to wind across the surface.
Air moving across the surface of water exerts a force upon it, initially moving the surface layer in the
same direction.
The moving water is deflected by the Coriolis force to the right in the northern hemisphere (left in the
southern hemisphere) and the resulting surface flow is 20 to 40 from the wind direction.
The speed of water movement is proportional to the speed and duration of the wind, reaching a ratio of
1:40 after approximately 24 hours.

7.2.2 Sub-surface effect

The moving surface layer exerts a force on the layer beneath it, which moves at a lower speed due to
frictional loss.
Coriolis force deflects this layer in the same way that the surface layer is deflected.
Successively deeper layers are similarly affected until the water is moving in a reciprocal direction to the
surface current, at negligible speed, at a depth of approximately 100 m.
This effect produces a pattern known as an Ekman Spiral.

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 Wind
Wind Drift Current
Mass Transport
Gradient Current
Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

In an ocean basin there is an anticyclone centred in the tropics.

The wind circulates around this anticyclone.
Wind drift currents are generated.
The mass transport of water is toward the centre of the basin.
A raised water level is generated at the centre of the basin.
A gradient current flows outward.
This is deflected by coriolis force.
The result is a reinforcement of the wind drift current.

7.2.3 Wind drift currents.

The major current circulations of the oceans are wind drift currents.
The winds circulating around the oceanic anticyclones in all oceans, and the westerly wind circulation
around Antarctica drive wind drift currents which circulate around the oceans, clockwise in the northern
hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere.
These currents are modified by landmasses to produce secondary currents.
The monsoon winds of the North Indian Ocean produce wind drift currents that reverse their circulation
with the reversal of wind direction of the monsoons.

7.2.3.1 North Indian Ocean Monsoon

Northeast Monsoon, November to January.

In open waters the current sets westward.
Near the coasts of the Arabian Sea there is an anticlockwise circulation.
In the north part of the Bay of Bengal there is a clockwise circulation.

Late Northeast Monsoon, February to April.

In open waters the flow remains westward.
Near the equator the westward flow declines and turns eastward.
In the northern Arabian Sea a clockwise gradient current circulation forms.
The southwestward flow along the east coast of Africa declines and reverses direction by the end of the
period.

Southwest Monsoon, May to September.

In open waters the current sets eastward.
Near the coasts of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal circulation is clockwise.
The Somali current is particularly strong, reaching up to 7 kts south of Socotra.

Transitional phase, October.

The strength of the currents decreases as the wind pattern changes.

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7.3 Gradient currents

7.3.1 Causes

Gradients in the water surface may be caused by water movement in response to wind, or differences in
density of adjacent water masses due to salinity or temperature differences.
When a gradient has developed water flows down the slope.
This water flow is affected by the coriolis force and deflected accordingly.
A current flowing perpendicular to the direction of the gradient results.

7.3.2 Gradient currents

7.3.2.1 Equatorial counter currents

Trade winds in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and the North East Monsoon and South East Trades in the
Indian Ocean, propel water westward against the bordering land masses.
A raised water level results on the western side of the ocean basin.
An hydraulic gradient exists from the western side of these oceans toward the east.
A narrow current flows down the hydraulic gradient eastward between the westbound wind drift
currents.
Due to the low latitude no coriolis effect occurs and the currents flow directly down the gradient.
The Atlantic Equatorial Counter Current varies seasonally in extent from a maximum westerly origin of
60 W in September to a minimum 20 W in March, due to the seasonal movements of the
pressure/wind/current systems.
The Indian Ocean Equatorial Counter Current is absent during the South West Monsoon due to the
northward current generated in the western North Indian Ocean preventing the development of the
hydraulic gradient.

7.3.2.2 The Gulf Stream

The easterly trade winds of the equatorial Atlantic produce the North and South Equatorial Currents
flowing westward.
Part of the flow of the South Equatorial Current is diverted into the Northern Hemisphere by the South
American landmass.
A strong flow enters the Caribbean Sea, raising the level and producing a gradient flow into the Gulf of
Mexico.
The level here rises, and a gradient results across the Florida Strait to the Atlantic.
The water flows strongly eastward and northward through the strait as the Florida Current and then
forms the Gulf Stream.

7.3.2.3 Mediterranean

The Mediterranean experiences a high level of insolation with little precipitation and little inflow of
water from rivers.
The resulting imbalance of evaporation over precipitation lowers the level and a gradient forms from the
Atlantic to the Mediterranean.
Surface water flows through the Straits of Gibraltar eastward.
Coriolis force deflects this flow to the right, against the North African coast.
The current flows along the North African Coast and into the eastern basin of the Mediterranean..

A gradient also exists from the Black Sea, which receives significant river flow, to the Mediterranean.
Water flows through the Bosphorus as a result.
A less well defined flow occurs westward along the northern shores.

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 Radiation

Evaporation. Lowered level.

Gradient current
Atlantic High salinity Mediterranean
Density current Dense water

A further effect of the excess of evaporation is an increase in salinity and therefore density of
Mediterranean water.
At the Strait of Gibraltar a density pressure exists from the Mediterranean toward the Atlantic and a
deep westward flow takes place.

7.3.2.4 Bay of Bengal

During the northeast monsoon the water at the head of the Bay of Bengal is progressively cooled and
becomes denser.
A gradient forms between this cool water and warm water to the south.
A gradient current forms during the latter part of the season, in February, flowing northwards and
deflecting eastward to form a clockwise circulation against the prevailing wind.

7.4 Complex currents

7.4.1 Introduction

Wind drift currents can combine with gradient effects to produce complex effects.

7.4.2 Weather shore

An offshore wind transports water away from the coast.

This is replaced by water upwelling from depth.
This water is relatively cold, leading to a high frequency of fog.
Such effects occur off western coasts of most continents.

7.5 Cold, neutral and warm currents

Currents flowing latitudinally, East or West, generally acquire the temperature characteristics of their
latitude.
Currents flowing longitudinally, North or South, transport water to areas of different temperature
characteristics and are colder or warmer than the surrounding water.
This can lead to sharp interfaces between water masses and meteorological effects as air flows across
these interfaces.
For example the Gulf Stream transports warm water northward into the North Atlantic, while the
Labrador Current transports cold water southwards, the two water masses meeting off Newfoundland.

7.5.1 Cold currents

The principal cold currents flow equatorwards:

Labrador Current
East Greenland Current
California Current
Kamchatka Current
Oya Shio
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 Falkland Current
Peru Current
Benguela Current

7.5.2 Neutral currents.

The principal neutral currents flow latitudinally.

North and South Equatorial Currents.
Equatorial Counter currents.
Azores current.
Aleutian current.
Southern Ocean drift.

7.5.3 Warm Currents

The principal warm currents flow poleward:

Gulf Stream
Kuro Shio
Brazil Current
Mozambique Current
Agulhas Current
East Australian Current

7.6 Charting Currents

7.6.1 Introduction

Three methods of representing currents are commonly used,

vector mean charts
predominant current charts
current roses charts
Currents are indicated by arrows in the direction of the current.
Speeds may be given in knots or miles per day.
Relative values may be indicated by the thickness of arrow shafts.
The number of observations on which the chart is based may be given.

7.6.2 Vector mean charts

The vector mean is the mean of all observed current directions and speeds for a place and time interval.
Currents flowing in opposite directions negate each other.
Observations well distributed around the compass may have a small vector mean even if individual
observation speeds are large.
The vector mean represents movement over a considerable time and is valid for estimating the average
drift of objects such as boats, derelicts and icebergs.

7.6.3 Predominant current charts

The predominant current is the most probable current.

The numbers of current observations falling within overlapping 90 sectors at 15 intervals is
determined.
The predominant direction is the mid direction of the sector with the highest number of observations.
The predominant speed is the arithmetic mean speed of all observations in the predominant direction
sector.
The constancy of the predominant current is the ratio of the number of observations in the predominant
direction sector to the total number of observations.
Predominant current charts are the most useful forms for passage planning.

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7.6.4 Current rose charts

Current roses show the frequency and speed of currents in sectors.

Commonly 8 or 16 sectors are used.
The arrow shaft is divided into sections whose thickness represents speed and length represents number
of observations.
Current rose charts are useful for passage planning, and showing more information than either other
type.
In particular the variability of the currents in and area may be judged.

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Ocean Currents
No Name NM / Day Remarks

Atlantic Ocean
1 North Equatorial 10-40 Neutral temperature
2 Bahama 10-50 Neutral temperature
3 Caribbean Counter Current 10 (average) Neutral temperature
4 Gulf Stream 10-70 Warm at northern limit
5 North Atlantic Drift 10-25 Warm
Considerable modifying effect on climate of Western Europe and the UK
6 Norwegian Warm
7 lrminger 9 (average) Neutral temperature
8 E Greenland 6-12 Neutral-source of N. Atlantic icebergs.
W Greenland 6-12
9 Labrador 5-20 Cold. Source of fog and icebergs on the Grand
Banks
10 Canary 10-35 Cold-associated with upwelling
11 Azores 11 (average) Neutral temperature
12 Portuguese 10 (average) Cold to neutral
13 Counter Equatorial 10-30 Neutral temperature
14 S. Equatorial 10-45 Neutral temperature
15 Guinea 10-60 Neutral temperature
16 Brazil 10-35 Warm
17 Falkland 10-40 Cold
18 Brazil Inshore Counter Current 15 (average) Cold
An extension of the Falkland Current-may reach as far north as Rio de Janeiro in May to July
19 Southern Ocean 0-30 Neutral
Carries South Atlantic icebergs-common to South Atlantic, South Pacific and South Indian Ocean
20 Benguela 10-50 Cold. Associated with upwelling

Indian Ocean
Note the change in direction with the change of the monsoon in the Red Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal
and the China Sea. (See inset on chart for N.E. monsoon).
19 Southern Ocean Drift 0-30 Neutral
Carries S. Atlantic icebergs. Common to South Atlantic, South Pacific and South Indian Ocean.
21 West Australian 14 (average) Inshore current sets south from March to
August
22 Equatorial Do not reverse their directions
23 Counter Equatorial 24 (average) with change of monsoon
24 Mozambique 0-30 Neutral temperature
25 East African coast (Somali) Neutral.
Average daily drift: November to January 16 miles
February to March 48 miles
May to September 48 miles
From July to September the daily drift may reach 170 miles South of Socotra.
26 Agulhas 10-40 Warm. A counter current is found close
inshore.

Pacific Ocean
27 N. Equatorial 0-40 Neutral temperature
28 Counter Equatorial
29 South Equatorial 24 (average)
30 Kuro Shio 10-50 Warm. The "Gulf Stream" of the Pacific
31 Oya Shio 15-30 Cold
32 Tsushima Warm
33 Liman Cold
34 Kamchatka 5-10 Cold
35 North Pacific Drift 10-20 Warm
36 Aleutian 3-7 Neutral temperature
37 Alaskan 6 (average) Neutral temperature
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38 Californian 10-30 Upwelling occurs off the coast of California.
Between November and December the Davidson current sets northward close inshore.
39 East Australian Very variable Warm
0-25
40 Peru 0-30 Cold. Upwelling along the coast
41 El Nino (Holy Child) Variable Warm. Flows from January to March but is rather
irregular.

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8 Climatology of the Oceans.

Climatology describes the long term factors of meteorology, the average of weather.

Factors considered are:

Temperature Pressure Winds
Humidity Stability Precipitation
Extreme events

The Atlantic, South Indian, and Pacific Oceans have similar climatic zones.
Equatorial, Tropical, Midlatitudes and Polar (Arctic and Antarctic are ice covered and not
navigable)

Equatorial 0 20

Temperature.
High, due to concentration of insolation.
Pressure.
Low, due to high temperature and low density of air mass. Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
Winds.
Light near Equator where pressure gradient is low.
Trade Winds in higher latitudes flowing from tropical anticyclone.
Humidity.
Absolute Humidity, high, due to high temperature and water surface.
Relative Humidity, high, due to presence of water surface.
Stability.
Unstable, due to high Environment Lapse Rate, due to high surface temperature.
Precipitation.
Generally high, intense in thunderstorms, due to high humidity and instability.
Extreme events.
Tropical Revolving Storms, due to high temperature, humidity, and instability.
No TRSs in South Atlantic (One in March 2004) or Southeast Pacific.

Tropical 20 40

Temperature.
High/Moderate, proportional to concentration of insolation due to angle of incidence of radiation.
Pressure.
High. Oceanic Anticyclone due to deep warm air column of the descending part of the Hadley
Cell.
Winds.
Light in mid ocean, anticyclonic around the anticyclone.
Trade Winds to Equatorial Low.
Westerlies to Mid-latitude low.
Humidity.
Absolute Humidity, high to moderate, proportional to temperatures.
Relative Humidity, high, due to water surface.
Stability.
Moderately unstable, proportional to Environment Lapse Rate which is proportional to surface
temperature.
Anticyclonic inversion may exist near centre of area.
Precipitation.
Light, due to atmospheric subsidence in anticyclone, descending part of Hadley Cell.
Adiabatic warming minimises cloud and precipitation.
Extreme events.
Tropical Revolving Storms on western side.
No TRSs in South Atlantic. (One in March 2004) or Southeast Pacific.
Polar Frontal Depressions may encroach from midlatitudes.

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Midlatitudes 40 60

Temperature.
Cool, proportional to concentration of insolation due to angle of incidence of radiation.
Pressure.
Low, by contrast with higher pressure of Polar and Tropical Zones.
Winds.
Cyclonic due to Polar Frontal Depressions.
Predominantly Westerly from Tropical Anticyclone.
Humidity.
Absolute Humidity moderate to low proportional to temperature.
Relative Humidity high due to presence of water surface.
Stability.
Moderately stable, proportional to Environment Lapse Rate, which is proportional to surface
temperature.
Precipitation.
Moderate, due to humidity levels.
Rain or snow associated with Polar Frontal Depressions.
Extreme events.
Intense Polar Frontal Depressions.
TRSs may encroach in southwest.
NoTRSs in South Atlantic (One in March 2004) or Southeast Pacific.

Polar >60

Temperature.
Low, proportional to concentration of insolation due to angle of incidence of radiation.
Pressure.
High in anticyclone over poles.
Pressure Gradient from Polar Anticyclone toward Polar Front in Mid-latitudes.
Winds.
Easterly, from anticyclone over poles.
Humidity.
Absolute Humidity, low, proportional to temperature.
Relative humidity, high due to presence of water surface.
Stability.
Low, proportional to Environment Lapse Rate, which is proportional to surface temperature.
Precipitation.
Light, due to low humidity levels and atmospheric stability.
Snow or rain associated with Polar Frontal Depressions.
Extreme events.
Intense Polar Depressions and Polar Frontal Depressions.
Strong katabatic winds from ice caps, due to low surface temperatures and slope of land.

North Indian Ocean

Seasonal Monsoon variations.

Temperature.
High in summer, due to flow of Equatorial air.
Moderate in winter, due to warming Polar Continental air mass.
Pressure.
Gradient south to north, in the summer.
From southern tropical anticyclone to thermal low pressure over land to the north.
Gradient from north to south in the winter.
From the cold anticyclone over the land to the low pressure of the Inter Tropical Convergence
Zone.

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Winds.
Southwesterly in summer. Strongest on west side.
Northeasterly in winter. Strongest in the South China Sea.
Humidity.
Absolute and Relative Humidity high in summer due to high temperature and water surface.
Absolute and Relative Humidity low to moderate in winter due to warming Polar Continental air
mass.
Stability.
Unstable in summer, proportional to Environment Lapse Rate, which is proportional to surface
temperature.
Stable in winter, proportional to Environment Lapse Rate, which is proportional to surface
temperature.
Precipitation.
Intense in summer, due to high humidity and unstable air mass.
Low in winter, due to low humidity and predominantly stable air mass.
Extreme events.
Tropical revolving storms in summer. Less likely during Southwest Monsoon due to wind shear.
None in winter.

Mediterranean

Land effects occur due to surrounding continents.

Temperature.
Moderate.
Variable, depending on wind direction and season.
Pressure.
Moderate.
Variable, depending on position of Polar Front.
Winds.
Variable, depending on position of Polar Front.
Many local winds due to islands and adjacent continents.
Humidity.
Absolute Humidity low, due to predominance of Continental air masses from surrounding areas.
Relative Humidity moderate due to presence of water surface.
Stability.
Moderate, proportional to Environment Lapse Rate, which is proportional to surface temperature.
Precipitation.
Seasonal.
Low in summer due to northerly position of Polar Front.
Moderate in winter when Polar Front moves further southward.
Extreme events.
Intense Polar Frontal depressions.
Strong local winds due to surrounding land masses, mountain ranges, islands and headlands.
Some katabatic winds in winter.

150
 Atlantic, Pacific and South Indian Oceans.

Temperature Pressure Wind Absolute Relative Stability Precipitation Extreme

Humidity Humidity weather
Polar Low High Polar Low High Stable Low Katabatic
60 80 Easterlies winds.
Polar Frontal
Depressions
Mid- Low / Low Westerlies Low / High Moderately Moderate Polar Frontal
Latitude moderate moderate stable Depressions.
40 60 Tropical
Revolving
Storms
Tropical Moderate / High Anticyclonic Moderate High Moderately Low Polar Frontal
20 40 high Trade / high unstable Depressions.
Winds Tropical
Revolving
Storms
Equatorial High Low Trade High High Unstable High Tropical
0 20 Winds Revolving
Doldrums Storms

Tropical Revolving Storms are extremely unlikely in the South Atlantic Ocean and Southeast Pacific.

North Indian Ocean

Temperature Pressure Wind Absolute Relative Stability Precipitation Extreme weather

Gradient Humidity Humidity
Summer High South to Southwest High High Unstable High Tropical Revolving
North Monsoon Storms, not during
South West
Monsoon.
Winter Moderate North to Northeast Low Low Stable Low None
South Monsoon

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9 Ice

9.1 Introduction

Ice affects navigation principally in the coastal regions bordering the Arctic where sea ice makes
navigation without icebreaker assistance impossible or closes ports completely, and in the northwest
Atlantic where icebergs present a hazard to shipping on routes between northwest Europe and North
America.
Icebergs and sea ice also affect access to Antarctica, but relatively few trade routes in the southern
hemisphere are affected.

9.2 Icebergs

9.2.1 Introduction

Icebergs are large masses of floating ice derived from floating ice tongues or ice shelves.
An ice shelf is a large area of floating sea ice.
An ice tongue is the extension of a glacier floating on water.
Approximately 90% of the mass of floating ice is submerged.
The relative heights and depths vary widely with the shape of the berg from 1:5 for a blocky berg with
precipitous sides to 1:1 for a heavily eroded berg with horns and wings.

9.2.1.1 Iceberg classification

Size category Height m Length m

Growler <5 <15
Small 5-15 16-60
Medium 16-45 61-122
Large 46-75 123-213
Very Large >75 >213

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Shape classification
Tabular berg. Steep sides with flat top. Height to length ratio greater than 1:5.
Non-tabular berg. All other bergs, including dome-shaped, sloping, blocky and pinnacle.

9.2.2 Glacier bergs

In the North Atlantic the majority of bergs are calved from the glaciers of Greenland.
Snow falling on Greenland forms an ice cap covering 1 800 000 km2 and up to 3 km thick.
This flows in glaciers to the sea on both east and west coasts.
On meeting the sea the glacier tongues float on the water to an extent, then break off, calving icebergs.
Glacier bergs are normally irregularly shaped and up to 500 m in diameter.
The largest ice tongues may calve tabular bergs which are flat topped with perpendicular sides.
These bergs are carried by the prevailing currents of the area, the southward flowing East Greenland
Current, the northward flowing West Greenland Current and the southward flowing Labrador Current.

161
MARINERS SHOULD BE AWARE THERE IS AN UNUSUALLY HIGH NUMBER OF ICEBERGS THIS YEAR AND THEY
SHOULD EXERCISE CAUTION ACCORDINGLY.
ICEBERGS MAY BE PRESENT OUTSIDE THE ADVERTISED BERG LIMIT.

MARINERS ARE ADVISED TO NAVIGATE WITH EXTREME CAUTION IN THE VICINITY OF AND IN ICE INFESTED
WATERS AS ICE CONDITIONS MAY BE MORE EXTENSIVE AND/OR SEVERE THAN REPORTED.

162
Bergs from the east coast (5 - 7000) are carried southwestward along the Greenland coast.These bergs
are melting throughout their journey, some surviving into the Davis Strait between Greenland and
Newfoundland, some moving southward from Greenland and melting in the North Atlantic.

Bergs from the west coast (10 - 15000) are carried northwestward by the West Greenland Current.
They may overwinter in sea ice in Baffin Bay and then are carried southward by the Labrador Current.
The majority of icebergs melt during this journey and do not reach the Grand Banks or the trans Atlantic
shipping lanes

On average 484 bergs cross 48N per year, but the actual number varies widely, 0 to 2202.
Bergs rarely travel South of 40N or East of 040W, but have been known to approach Bermuda and the
Azores.
Icebergs are held by sea ice during the winter and released in the spring thaw.
The iceberg season is from February to July, with a maximum number present in May.

9.2.3 Ice Shelf Bergs

In the southern oceans the majority of bergs calve from ice shelves extending from the Antarctic
continent, mainly in the Ross and Wedell Seas.
A number of glacier bergs also calve from the glaciers moving seaward from the ice cap.
The majority are tabular bergs, having flat tops and steep sides with a height to breadth ratio of
approximately 1:5.
Many may reach 30 miles in length and 50 metres above the sea.
Exceptionally bergs approximately 180 NM long have been reported.
These bergs may last for considerable periods near the Antarctic continent due to low sea temperatures.
They melt once they move into lower latitudes.
The average maximum limit of icebergs lies between 50S and 60S.
The extreme maximum limit encloses the southern extremity of South America, and passes close to South
Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

9.2.4 Ice berg decay

Ice bergs are normally decaying when in navigable water and/or air temperatures above 0C.
Above the surface the ice is melting, reducing in strength and pieces will be calving from the berg, some
of which may be large and cause waves.
Below the surface the ice is melting, changing the underwater shape of the berg so that instability may
result and the berg may capsize.
Wave action will selectively melt ice at the waterline, leading to calving above, and the formation of
rams projecting from the berg below the waterline.
Ice calved from the berg will tend to drift down wind in the surface current faster than the berg, and
spread over an extensive area to leeward.

9.3 Sea Ice

9.3.1 Introduction

Sea ice is formed by the freezing of seawater.

9.3.2 Sea ice formation

The freezing temperature of water is inversely proportional to its salinity.

The freezing temperature of pure water is 0C
The average salinity of seawater is 35 ppt, giving a freezing temperature of 1.8C.
The temperature at which maximum density of water occurs is inversely proportional to its salinity.
Pure water reaches maximum density at 4C.
The temperatures of maximum density and freezing point coincide at 24.7 parts per thousand salinity and
-1.3C.
Cooling of water takes place at the surface.
The cooled surface layer becomes denser than the water beneath it and sinks, being replaced by warmer
water, which is cooled in turn.
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This convection continues until the water body is cooled to the temperature of maximum density, or
until it freezes.
The water body concerned may not be the full depth to the seabed; salinity discontinuities may limit the
depth of convection.
Further cooling below the temperature of maximum density does not lead to convection and the surface
layer cools rapidly to the freezing temperature.
The ice that then forms has a lower density than the water.

Water of salinity less than 24.7 ppt will reach maximum density before freezing.
Convection in lower salinity water will cease before freezing occurs.
Water of salinity greater than 24.7 ppt will freeze before reaching maximum density.
Convection in higher salinity water will normally continue until the freezing temperature is reached.

Shallow water freezes more easily than deep water because heat loss takes place from a smaller body of
water.
Low salinity water freezes more easily than high salinity water because convection continues to lower
temperatures and the freezing temperature is lower in high salinity water.
The Baltic, low salinity and shallow, freezes more readily than the adjacent Atlantic, high salinity and
deep.

Ice grows further by heat loss through the existing ice freezing water in contact with the lower surface.
The growing ice sheet acts as an insulator, reducing the rate of growth.

The sequence of ice formation is:

Frazil ice, ice spicules or plates up to 25 mm long, may give the sea surface a greasy appearance.
Grease ice is coalesced frazil crystals, with a matt appearance.
Slush is ice formed when snow falls on water close to freezing, starting ice formation.
Shuga is the above ice forms broken up by wind and wave action.
New ice is all of the above forms.
Ice rind is ice formed slowly from low salinity water and is virtually salt free.
Nilas is ice, containing pockets of salt water, formed by rapid freezing. It is elastic.
Pancake ice is ice rind and nilas that has been broken up by the action of wind and waves.
Grey ice is ice thickening by further freezing.
Grey-white ice has thickened further up to 300 mm.
Young ice is pancake, grey and grey-white ice.
Ice cakes or floes are young ice broken up by wind and wave action.
First year ice may be up to 2 metres thick.
Second- and multi-year ice may thicken up to 3.5 metres.
Fast ice is attached to land.
Pack ice is relatively free to move under the influence of current or wind.

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 Fresh Water Sea Water 35ppt
Density and Temperature Density and Temperature

1000 1029

1028

Density
Density

1027

999 1026
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Temperature Temperature

Water.
Maximum Density. Freezing Point.

2
Temperature

-1

-2

-3

-4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Salinity

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9.3.3 Sea ice deformation

Sea ice is deformed by current, wave and wind action.

Rafting occurs when ice sheets override one another.
Hummocking occurs
When ice sheets collide and break up at the point of collision the broken ice increases the ice thickness.
A ridge is a line of broken ice above the surface of the ice sheet.
A keel is the downward extension below a ridge.
A hummocks is a rounded feature of broken ice above the surface of the ice sheet.
A bummock is the downward extension below a hummock.
A crack is a narrow opening in sea ice.
A lead is a passageway through sea ice navigable by surface vessels.
A shore lead is an area of ice free water along a coast.
A polynya is an area of open water enclosed in ice.
Brash ice is the remains of larger decaying ice formations.

9.3.4 Topography

Topography describes the nature of the ice surface.

Level ice has not been deformed.
Rafted ice, ice pieces overriding each other.
Ridge, a line of ice forced upward by pressure.
Hummock, a hillock of ice forced upward by pressure.

9.3.5 Sea ice classification

9.3.5.1 Concentration

Concentration refers to the coverage of the sea surface by ice.

Open water 1/10
Very open pack 1-3/10
Open pack 4-6/10
Close pack 7-8/10
Consolidated pack 10/10

Ice strengthened ships with adequate power can work through 6/10 first year ice.
Unstrengthened ships should avoid concentrations greater than 4/10.
Unstrengthened ships can make progress through ice up to 100 mm thick, up to 10/10 concentration.

9.3.5.2 Size

Ice cake <20 m diameter

Small floe 20-100 m
Medium floe 100-500 m
Big floe 500-2000 m
Vast floe 2-10 km
Giant floe >10 km

9.3.5.3 Age

New and young ice, up to 300 mm thick.

First year ice, one winters growth, 300 mm to 2 m thick.
Multiyear ice, old ice up to 3 m thick.

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9.3.6 Areas and seasons

9.3.6.1 Northern hemisphere.

Ice cover increases during the winter as temperatures fall with the maximum extent occurring in March
and April.
Rising temperatures in summer cause melting and cover decreases to a minimum in August and
September.
At the maximum extent the following areas are covered:
The Arctic Ocean and Barents Sea to all the land borders.
Baffin Bay, Hudson Bay and the sea east of Labrador.
The Greenland Sea and the west part of the Denmark Strait, to Cape Farewell.
The Gulf of St Lawrence, the St Lawrence Seaway and the Great Lakes.
The Baltic Gulfs of Bothnia, Finland and Riga.
The north part of the Black Sea.
The Sea of Okhotsk is covered except for the southern part.
The Asian mainland coast to approximately 47N
The northern part of the Bering Sea.
At the minimum extent the ice retreats to 70-80N clearing all land borders of the Arctic Ocean except
northern Canada and Greenland.

9.3.6.2 Southern hemisphere

At maximum extent the limit of 5/10 pack ice extends to 55-60S.

At minimum extent many areas of the coast are accessible to shipping.

9.4 Ice and Navigation

9.4.1 Introduction

Ice is a severe hazard to navigation, having caused significant losses in the past, and stimulating
considerable expenditure on detection and dissemination of information to prevent casualties.

9.4.2 SOLAS 2002

Chapter V, Safety of Navigation

Regulation 31

Danger messages.

a) The Master of every ship which meets with dangerous ice ...or encounters sub-freezing air
temperatures associated with gale force winds causing severe ice accretion on superstructures...is bound
to communicate the information by all means at his disposal...

Regulation 32
Information required in danger messages
1 Ice...
1.1 The kind of ice...
1.2 The position of the ice...
1.3 The time and date UT when danger last observed.
5 Sub-freezing air temperatures...
5.1 Time and date UCT
5.2 Air temperature
5.3 Sea temperature if practicable
5.4 Wind force and direction.

169
Speed near ice
When ice is reported on or near his course the Master of every ship at night is bound to proceed at a
moderate speed or to alter his course so as to go well clear of the danger zone.

9.4.3 Ice detection

9.4.3.1 General

When steaming downwind large ice formations may be approached directly without forewarning.
When steaming upwind small pieces of ice may forewarn of larger formations to windward.
Sea and swell lower than expected for the wind speed may indicate the presence of significant ice to
windward.
Air and sea surface temperatures may be reduced in the vicinity of ice formations.
Animals and/or birds far from land may indicate the presence of large ice sheets.
The odour of penguins is said the be detectable offshore from large colonies.

9.4.3.1 Radar

Ice is a poor radar reflector.

The shape and aspect of ice affects its efficiency as a radar reflector, small convoluted pieces and those
with vertical faces may reflect radar signals well, large smooth pieces with sloping sides may be very
poor reflectors.
Sea and rain clutter may reduce the detection range of ice considerably.
Ice echoes in clutter will tend to be more consistent than the wave clutter.
Ice Radar has been developed specifically for ice detection.

9.4.3.2 Visual

Icebergs may be sighted at up to 20 miles on a clear day.

The detection range is directly proportional to visibility.
Sea state is a factor, foam patches in high seas may obscure smaller pieces of ice.
In moonlight ice will be most readily seen in the direction away from the moon.
In starlight large ice formations may be seen at 1-2 miles range.
Searchlights may be used effectively.
Thermal imaging cameras or night vision binoculars may be used.
Ice blink refers to a white glare seen on the underside of low clouds.
Water sky refers to the dark appearance of the underside of a cloud layer over a surface of open water.
A fog bank may form at the edge of an ice field.

9.4.3.3 Aural

The sound of icebergs calving, waves breaking on ice, or the grinding of ice floes against each other may
be the first warning.
The sound detection system of a vessel with an enclosed bridge may be used.

9.4.4 Ice navigation

9.4.4.1 General precautions.

Draughts should give adequate coverage to rudder and propeller to minimise damage.
Vessels with an Ice Belt, a strengthened section of the hull, must have this at the waterline to provide
protection.
Watchkeeping personnel should be aware of the factors involved in ice navigation.
Speed should be reduced in proportion to the density of ice, although a certain minimum is required to
maintain way through a sheet of ice.
Engines ready for manoeuvring.
Adequate personnel to keep a visual lookout and enable hand steering at short notice.
Searchlights available at night.
Monitor communications for ice information.

170
Give icebergs wide clearance due to the possibility of rams extending from the visible ice below the
water.
Withdraw stabilizers and other projections before entering ice.
Enter ice at right angles, and reduced speed.

9.4.4.2 Navigation.

GPS accuracy should not be affected.

Celestial observations may be adversely affected by abnormal refraction of bodies and horizon.
Radar should be used with caution as ice may significantly change the effective coastline. The land must
be distinguished from the ice when taking ranges and bearings and when using Parallel Indexes.
Visual fixes using identified objects are good.
Light colours may be affected by ice on the lens.
Light sectors may be affected by accumulation of snow or ice on the lens.
Buoys may be moved by ice or removed in the ice season.
Virtual buoys may be generated by the AIS system.
Gyrocompass errors may occur due to large course and speed alterations with low directional force.
Speed logs may be affected by ice or damaged.
Doppler logs and flush mounted electromagnetic logs are least vulnerable.
Echo Sounders may be affected by density differences due to thermal stratification.
Ice field drift may not be detected, particularly when out of sight of land.

9.4.5 Ice Pilots

These are long distance Pilots trained and experienced in ice navigation techniques.
Their use may be compulsory for inexperienced Masters.

9.4.6 Icebreaker services.

Icebreaking services are maintained by the states adjacent to affected seas, particularly the Baltic
countries and Canada.
Details of contact and reporting requirements are contained in ALRS V6 and equivalent publications.
A vessel being assisted must follow the instructions of the icebreaker closely.
Vessels are frequently assisted in convoys.
The ice service has discretion whether or not to provide assistance.

9.4.7 Ice information

9.4.7.1 General

The states bordering waters subject to ice maintain services giving information about ice in their areas
by Navtex, telex, fax, radiotelephony and VHF.
Details are published in ALRS V3 and equivalent publications.
Information is available on the Internet. Search for 'icebergs' and 'sea ice' and follow links.

9.4.7.2 The North American Ice Service.

The North American Ice Service (NAIS), a partnership comprised of the International Ice Patrol (IIP), the
Canadian Ice Service (CIS), and the U.S. National Ice Center (NIC), provides year-round maritime safety
information on iceberg and sea ice conditions in the vicinity of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland and the
east coast of Labrador, Canada.
The daily NAIS Iceberg Limit, valid at 0000Z, along with the daily Sea Ice Limit, valid for 1100 EST the
previous day, is distributed as a NAVAREA IV warning in the format of a text Iceberg Bulletin and as a
graphic Iceberg Chart
Ships are encouraged to immediately report sightings of icebergs or stationary radar targets that may
likely be icebergs to the nearest Canadian Coast Guard MCTS Station or through INMARSAT using Service
Code 42.
Vessels participating in a Voluntary Observing Ship (VOS) program should continue to report weather and
sea surface temperature (SST) to their respective programs.

171
When making iceberg reports, please include SHIP NAME and CALL SIGN, ZULU TIME, SHIP POSITION
(latitude, longitude), COURSE, SPEED, VISIBILITY, ICEBERG/RADAR TARGETS POSITION (Specify either
the geographic coordinates or range/bearing from ships position), ZULU TIME OF SIGHTING, METHOD
OF DETECTION (Visual, Radar, or Both), LENGTH (in meters), SHAPE OF ICEBERG (See Table 3), and
VESSEL CONTACT INFORMATION.

Example message.

NAVAREA IV
NORTH AMERICAN ICE SERVICE (NAIS) ICEBERG BULLETIN
1. 110000Z JUL ICEBERG LIMIT:
48-10N 52-55W, 48-30N 51-30W, 55-30N 51-00W, 60-00N 56-00W.
2. WESTERN ICEBERG LIMIT:
51-25N 57-40W, 50-50N 57-00W.
3. SEA ICE LIMIT:
A. 60-30N 64-50W, 60-30N 65-25W, 59-50N 66-35W, 59-15N 66-45W, 59-20N 67-35W, 58-55N 68-40W.
B. 63-30N 80-50W, 63-25N 80-00W, 64-25N 79-40W, 63-25N 75-10W, 62-25N 71-40W, 61-35N 68-25W,
61-05N 63-45W, 62-00N 64-00W, 64-45N 56-30W, 72-45N 60-00W, 75-00N 66-30W, 74-00N 70-00W,
75-00N 77-00W, 77-30N 73-45W, 75-30N 69-00W, 75-00N 62-00W, 75-15N 58-15W.
4. NOTE THE SIGNIFICANT REDUCTION OF THE ICEBERG LIMIT SINCE 10000Z JUL BULLETIN DUE TO
RECENT RECONNAISSANCE AND PREDICTED DETERIORATION.
5. REPORT POSITION AND TIME OF ANY ICEBERGS OR STATIONARY RADAR TARGETS THAT MAY LIKELY BE
ICEBERGS TO THE NEAREST CANADIAN COAST GUARD MARINE COMMUNICATIONS AND TRAFFIC SERVICE
STATION
OR USING INMARSAT CODE 42.
6. CANCEL THIS MESSAGE 120000Z JUL 12.

9.4.7.3 The Baltic Sea Ice Code

The Baltic Sea Ice Code is used in Denmark, Estonia, Germany, Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, The
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia and Sweden.
The code is used for reporting and describing of ice conditions in fairways, harbour areas, coastal sectors
and sea routes.
Considerable detail about the ice conditions at a port can be extracted from a compact numerical
message.
Details are published in ALRS 3(1).

9.4.8 Ice accretion

9.4.8.1 Introduction

Ice accretion is the formation of ice on vessels superstructure or deck by freezing of precipitation or
spray.

9.4.8.2 Conditions

Fresh Water Accretion. Air temperature <0C and fog and/or precipitation.
Salt Water Accretion. Air temperature < -2C and wind > force 6, causing spray.

9.4.8.2 Fresh water accretion

Ice accretion from fog, rain or snow is unlikely to accumulate sufficient weight of ice to affect stability.
Aerials of radar, radio and navigation aids may be affected.
Radar aerials may be prevented from turning, particularly if stopped, in port.
Communications aerials may fracture due to weight of accumulated ice.
Reception of radio signals may be adversely affected by ice accumulation on aerials.
Navigation aid aerials may be damaged by accumulated ice or personnel clearing ice.
GPS signals may be attenuated below the threshold of detection.

172
Navigation lights may be obscured by accumulated ice, altering range and arcs of visibility of own and
other vessels.

9.4.8.3 Sea water accretion.

The weight of ice accumulating on deck may be significant.

Draught increases, vessel lists and trims; freeboard decreases.
Centre of Gravity rises, reducing GM, Maximum GZ, Range of Stability, Angle of Deck Edge Immersion.
Centre of Gravity moves horizontally, changing list and trim, further decreasing freeboard.
In extreme cases Angle of Loll, Capsize and/or Foundering may result.

The rate of accretion is proportional to:

Decreasing air temperature.
Decreasing sea temperature.
Increasing wind speed.
Relative wind direction, maximum with wind on the bow.
Relative wind speed.

The rate of accretion may be reduced by:

Reducing speed.
Altering course
Sheltering on a weather shore.
Moving to an area with higher air and/or sea temperature.

Ice may be cleared using appropriate methods for the circumstances.

Stability and freeboard may be improved by discharging, transferring or loading ballast.

Stability and freeboard may be improved by lowering Centre of Gravity and counteracting list and trim:
Discharging weights from high and under ice.
Transferring weight downward and away from ice.
Ballasting low and opposite ice.
Minimising free surface.

9.4.8.4 Communications

The Master is required by SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 31 to report conditions leading to ice accretion.
Early communication with rescue services in the event of severe icing likely to lead to abandonment of
the vessel is advisable, as survival times in these conditions are low.

173
174
175
10 Voyage Planning and Meteorology

10.1 Introduction

Generally the shortest route with adequate margins of safety is the first approximation.
The optimum route may involve a longer distance in order to avoid adverse elements such as high waves
or use favourable elements such as currents.

10.2 Objectives

Different factors may be relevant to different voyages.

A balance must be found between conflicting objectives.
Least time. Minimum passage time is normally most important.
Least cost. Primarily fuel cost, but damage and other costs may be relevant.
Least damage. The cost of damage to vessel and cargo can be greater than savings of fuel or time.
Charter Party speed. There may be financial penalties if Charter Party speed is not achieved.
Personnel safety.
Maintenance requirements. A major project may require minimum vessel movement or precipitation.

10.3 Factors involved

Weather
High waves
Ocean currents, adverse and favourable
Ice
Fog
Availability of forecasts
Vessel
Vessel type
Speed
Draft
Freeboard
Stability
Performance curves
Navigation aids
Cargo
Sensitivity to temperature and humidity
Deck cargo
Voyage
Destination and range of routes available
Distance. Long voyages are more likely to offer alternatives
Navigation hazards
Scheduling requirements
Legal requirements and restrictions, Charter Party, Crew Agreement, Loadline Zone limits
Communications. GMDSS Sea Areas may be relevant.

10.4 Procedure

The shortest route with adequate margins of safety is assumed.

The route is examined for adverse elements on the route and favourable elements near the route.
The effects of adverse and favourable elements are quantified as far as practicable.
A diversion must provide net benefit to be justifiable.
The optimum route is chosen, diversions being planned to minimise the effect of adverse elements, and
utilise favourable elements.

176
10.5 Effects of waves on vessels

10.5.1 Introduction

Waves reduce vessel speed to varying extents.

Waves from ahead absorb energy in impact forces, causing pitching, creating secondary waves and in
breaking.
Waves on the beam absorb energy in causing rolling which creates turbulent water around the hull.
Waves from astern absorb energy in causing pitching and yawing and reduce steering efficiency.

10.5.2 Performance data

Performance Curve
Service Speed 15 kts.

15
14
13
12
11
10
000
9
045
Speed

8
090
7
135
6
180
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Wave Height

Performance data quantifies the reduction in speed due to the effects of waves.
The data relates:
Calm water speed
Height of waves
Relative direction of waves
Draught and Trim
Data may be
Empirical, based on analysis of historical data from log books
Computer generated, based on the hull form

Presentation may be in the form of graphs or tables.

Performance data may be incorporated in passage planning software.

10.5.3 Least Time Tracks

Performance data may be used to forecast speed in certain wave fields.

A wave forecast chart is used together with the performance data to find a least time track.
An isochrone (time front) is constructed by determining the forecast distance travelled in different
directions over a period of time.
Typically the direct route toward the destination, and alternatives at 10 intervals on either side; and
the time period between forecasts.

177
From points on this isochrone a further isochrone is constructed.
This process is repeated until an isochrone reaches the destination or forecast information is exhausted.
The least time track reaches the destination first, or achieves the least distance to go toward the
destination at the end of the forecast period.

10.6 Climatological Routeing

10.6.1 Principle

Climatological data, based on past observations, is assumed to be an adequate guide to future

conditions.
This is generally valid in the tropics where conditions in a particular season differ little from year to
year.
The exception to this assumption is Tropical Revolving Storms, although the probability of these is
predictable.

10.6.2 Information

Information is drawn from climatological sources:

Ocean Passages for the World. Recommends routes with variations based on climatological data and
vessel power.
Routeing Charts. Show climatological data for each ocean and month of the year.
Wind roses.
Predominant ocean currents.
Shipping routes and distances.
Sea ice and iceberg limits.
Loadline Zone limits.
Inset chartlets of:
Air pressure and temperature.
Dewpoint and sea temperature.
Percentage fog and low visibility.
Tropical storm tracks and percentage wind greater than force 7.
Sailing Directions. Details of conditions in the area covered by the volume.

10.7 Weather Routing

10.7.1 Principle

Forecast information is used in the optimisation process.

10.7.2 Information

Forecasts are received by fax, telex and/or direct data transmission

Wind direction and speed.
Wave height and direction.
Temperature.
Precipitation
Current direction and speed
Ice extent

178
179
180
181
182
10.7.3 Procedures

There are three levels of sophistication.

10.7.3.1 Routeing may be performed on board using forecasts received by fax and telex.
Elements may have to be deduced from charts, wind from isobar spacing and direction.
Data may have to be drawn from climatological sources, currents.

10.7.3.2 The vessel may have a computer program processing meteorological data received from ashore
and presenting information for the vessels staff to use.
The program may interface with GPS and communications equipment.
The program contains information about the vessel.
This may include maximum tolerable wave heights and/or wind speeds.
Meteorological forecast data for up to 10 days is received by satellite link.
The software generates an optimum route.
The display shows the route and weather elements with forecast positions for the vessel based on the
vessel and meteorological data.
The weather conditions are forecast for the period covered by the data received.
The process is repeated, probably daily.
Alternative routes may be entered and the results considered.
Hindcasts can be generated recording performance.

10.7.3.3 Routeing Officers ashore may advise the vessel on routeing and provide forecasts.
The vessels data is sent to the service provider.
Data is entered into the computer.
A program using available meteorological data carries out the same functions as above.
The Routeing Officers use their experience and expertise together with the output from the computer
program in advising the Master.
A provisional route is advised before the vessel sails.
A forecast is issued immediately before the ETD.
The advised route is reviewed when the vessel sails and any changes advised.
The advised route is reviewed daily and any changes recommended.
Forecasts are issued at appropriate intervals. 48 hourly in normal conditions, 6 hourly if the vessel is in
the vicinity of a Tropical Revolving Storm.
The vessel is required to report position and weather conditions regularly so that the computer program
can be updated and operate efficiently.
Hindcasts and other reports are generated for the Master and Management Company on completion of
the voyage.
These reports may be used in defence against claims if adverse weather has caused delays.

10.8 Monitoring

Throughout the voyage forecasts are obtained and the vessels own meteorological observations used to
monitor conditions.
Unpredicted conditions such as Tropical Revolving Storms can then be detected and the route reviewed
and amended if necessary.

10.9 Advantages and limitations of routeing

10.9.1 Introduction

All routeing potentially improves efficiency and reduces costs by minimising:

passage time;
fuel consumption;
damage to vessel;
damage to cargo;
passenger discomfort;
not necessarily simultaneously.

183
10.9.2 Climatological routeing.

Advantages
Easily performed with limited meteorological knowledge.
Can be performed with books and charts held on board.
Effective in tropical and subtropical latitudes where climatological data is a relatively reliable guide to
conditions.
Least expensive.

Limitations
Least effective in temperate latitudes where conditions are variable in all seasons.
May depend on single observer forecasting for transient weather phenomena, particularly Tropical
Revolving Storms.

10.9.3 Weather routeing

Advantages.
Takes account of real time weather conditions.
Most effective in temperate latitudes where conditions are variable in all seasons.

Limitations
Requires communication facilities to acquire data for forecasting.
Forecasts of limited range, 10 days maximum.

10.9.3.1 Weather Routeing on board

Advantages
Cost is probably lower.
Directly involves vessels staff.

Limitations
Depends on skill of vessels staff.
Time consuming for vessels staff.
Reduced access to wider expertise.

10.9.3.2 Weather Routeing by shore personnel

Advantages
High skill level of personnel
Access to wider expertise of meteorologists
Powerful computer facilities.

Limitations
Routeing officers not on site and depend on position reports from vessels.
Small scale features and local conditions may not be accurately forecast.

10.10 Routeing programs for management

Programs exist to enable shore management to track vessels and determine the weather conditions being
experienced and forecast.
These may link to programs on board or to shore routeing services.

Details of routeing services are contained in ALRS V3 and equivalent publications.

184
Bibliography
Atmosphere, Weather and Climate. Routledge. ISBN 0 415 07761 3
Handling Ships in Ice. Nautical Institute. ISBN 1 870077 84 9
Marine Observers Handbook. HMSO. ISBN 0 11 400367 X
Maritime Meteorology. Thomas Reed Publications. ISBN 0 901281 67 0
Maritime Weather and Climate. Witherby. ISBN 1 85609 166 X
Meteorology for Mariners. HMSO. ISBN 0 11 4003 11 4
Meteorology for Seafarers. Brown , Son and Ferguson Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84927-056-4
Polar Ship Operations. Nautical Institute. ISBN 978 1 906915 18 6
Reeds Maritime Meteorology. Adlard Coles Nautical. ISBN 978-1-4081-1206-9
Sailing Directions. HMSO.
SOLAS Chapter V
The Mariners Handbook. HMSO. NP100.
The Preparation and use of Weather Maps by Mariners. WMO. ISBN 92 63 10595 2

Internet sites
http://nsidc.org/data/seaice_index/images/daily_images/S_daily_concentration_hires.png
http://nsidc.org/data/seaice_index/images/daily_images/S_stddev_timeseries.png
http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/products/alerts-watches-and-warnings
http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/
http://nsidc.org/data/seaice_index/images/daily_images/N_daily_concentration_hires.png
http://nsidc.org/data/seaice_index/images/daily_images/N_stddev_timeseries.png
http://weather.uwyo.edu/upperair/sounding.html
http://www.bom.gov.au/australia/charts/viewer/index.shtml
http://nsidc.org/arcticseaicenews/charctic-interactive-sea-ice-graph/
http://weather.uwyo.edu/upperair/uamap.html
http://www.sat.dundee.ac.uk/abin/geobrowse
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/map/
http://www.ukho.gov.uk/easytide
http://www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/analysis_monitoring/enso_advisory/
https://www.fnmoc.navy.mil/wxmap_cgi/index.html
http://nsidc.org/greenland-today/
http://www.smhi.se/oceanografi/iceservice/is_prod_en.php
http://www.bom.gov.au/australia/charts/indian_ocean.shtml
http://www.jma.go.jp/en/typh/
https://metoc.ndbc.noaa.gov/JTWC/#_48_INSTANCE_0SiamlX2KcM6_=https%3A%2F%2Fmetoc.ndbc.noaa.
gov%2FProductFeeds-portlet%2Fimg%2Fjtwc%2Fhtml%2Fcoop.jsp%3F
http://www.netweather.tv/index.cgi?action=fax;sess=
http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/marine-printable/shipping-forecast.html
http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/forecast/gcp185f25
http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/public/weather/surface-
pressure/#?tab=surfacePressureBW&fcTime=1445904000
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=iipProducts
http://www.nrlmry.navy.mil/TC.html
http://weather.noaa.gov/fax/marsh.shtml#WIND
http://weather.noaa.gov/fax/gulf.shtml
http://weather.noaa.gov/fax/ptreyes.shtml
http://metservice.com/maps-radar/maps/tasman-sea-nz
http://www.bom.gov.au/australia/charts/pacific_ocean.shtml
http://ptwc.weather.gov/
http://www.weathersa.co.za//media/data/observation/synoptic/ma_sy.gif
http://www.weathersa.co.za/media/data/marine/ma_cw.pdf
http://sdo.gsfc.nasa.gov/data/
http://www.bom.gov.au/fwo/IDY65100.pdf
https://www.wunderground.com/hurricane/
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/details.cgi?aid=4404
http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/trends/full.html
http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/map/

185
Weather Fronts, Centres and Isobars found on a Synoptic Chart

Cold-Front Cold-Front
Frontogenesis The Frontolysis The
Cold Front at the development or disappearance or
Surface marked marked weakening
intensification of a of a front
front

Warm-Front Warm-Front
Frontogenesis The Frontolysis The
Warm Front at the development or disappearance or
Surface marked marked weakening
intensification of a of a front
front

Cold Front above the Warm Front above

Occluded Front at surface the surface
the Surface

Trough Line
Convergence Line Ridge Axis
1024

Quasi-stationary Quasi-stationary Isobar Line of

Front at the Surface Front above the equal atmospheric
Surface pressure

Centre of tropical
cyclonic circulation
L H (maximum winds of
Low Pressure centre High Pressure centre 64 knots or more)
x with value in x with value in
978 hectoPascals 1024 hectoPascals. Centre of tropical
cyclonic circulation
(maximum winds of
34 to 63 knots)

186
Beaufort Notation

b Blue sky 0 - 2/8

bc Partly clouded 3 - 5/8
c Cloudy 6 - 7/8
o Overcast 8/8. Sky completely covered with a uniform layer of thick or heavy cloud.
g Gloomy weather
y Dry air
e Wet air, without precipitation
w Dew
d Drizzle
r Rain
R Heavy rain
h Hail
rs Sleet. Rain and snow together
s Snow
x Hoar frost
l Lightning
t Thunder
p Passing shower
q Squally weather
kq Line squall
ks Storm of drifting snow
kz Sandstorm or dust storm
jp Precipitation in sight of the ship
u Unfavourable, threatening sky
v Unusual visibility
m Mist
f Fog
z Haze
g Gale. Beaufort Force 8 or 9 maintained for at least 10 minutes.
G Whole gale. Beaufort Force 10 or more maintained for at least 10 minutes.
i Intermittent
o Suffixed, slight
p Shower

Repeated. Continuous.
Capital letter. Accentuated. Heavy, dense.

Present weather. Letters combined. ltrhs, lightning, thunder, rain, hail and snow.
Past weather. Letters in chronological sequence.

187
Wind Protractor.

Northern Hemisphere. Southern Hemisphere.

Coriolis Force to the right. Coriolis Force to the left.
Pressure Gradient Force. Pressure Gradient Force.

Surface
Wind.
Angle of
Indraft.
Geostrophic
Wind.

Protractor is calibrated in Compass Points.

Angle of Indraft is two points, appropriate for water surface in middle latitudes.
Protractor is subdivided into ten circles.
On Meteorological Office North Atlantic A4 Synoptic Charts the radius is ten degrees at 50 Latitude.

Determining Wind Direction.

Place protractor with centre on position.
Rotate until Pressure Gradient Arrow is perpendicular to Isobars, pointing toward lower pressure.
Mark tail of Surface Wind arrow.
Rotate protractor until Pressure Gradient Force Arrow is parallel to meridians.
Read off direction from which wind is coming.

Determining Radius of Curvature.

Place Protractor over position.
Adjust position to determine which circle matches the curvature of the isobars.
Circles are one degree, sixty Nautical Miles, apart.

Determining source of swell.

(This is a simplification of the true situation.)
Place Protractor with tip of Surface Wind Arrow on Position.
Rotate Protractor to find position at centre of Protractor where Pressure Gradient Force Arrow is
perpendicular to Isobars and pointing toward lower pressure.
At this position Surface Wind is blowing directly toward Position.
Wind waves generated will travel to Position as Swell.

Determining Swell Direction.

Place Protractor with centre on Position.
Rotate protractor until Pressure Gradient Force Arrow is parallel to meridians.
Read off direction from which swell is coming.

188
Examples.

Chart 04 12.

Wind Protractor centred on Position.

Wind Direction, Pressure Gradient Arrow perpendicular to Isobars.

Geostrophic / Gradient Wind parallel to Isobars.
Surface Wind in toward lower pressure by Angle of Indraft of two points.

Wind Direction, Pressure Gradient Arrow parallel to meridian.

Wind from SWxS.

Radius of Curvature.
Wind Protractor position adjusted until circles match curvature of isobars at Position.
Higher pressure toward centre of curvature, Anticylonically curved.
Circle 180 NM fits curvature of isobars.

Chart 02 12

Determining Swell for 03 12.

Position 03 12 on chart 02 12.

Tip of Surface Wind Arrow on Position.

Wind Protractor rotated
At centre, Pressure Gradient Arrow toward lower pressure, perpendicular to Isobars.
Geostrophic Wind Arrow parallel to Isobars.
Centre of Wind Protractor is source of swell.

Wind Protractor centred on Position.

Pressure Gradient Arrow Parallel to meridian.
Swell from WxS.

FH 2016-03-03

189
Wind Direction.

Wind Direction SWxS

190
Radius of Curvature. Anticyclonic 180 NM.

191
03 12 Swell Source.

03 12 Swell Direction WxS.

192
193