Retaining Walls

Toe Heel Heel Toe

(a) Cantilever wall (b) Cantilever wall without toe (c) Cantilever wall without heel

(d) Cantilever wall with (d) Cantilever wall with (f) Cantilever wall with
surcharge Inclined backfill Concentrated load

(g) Gravity wall (h) Counterfort wall (i) Buttress wall

Types of Retaining Walls

1
Retaining Walls
1 INTRODUCTION
Retaining walls are structural members used to provide stability for soil
or other materials and to prevent them from assuming their natural slope. In
this sense, the retaining wall maintains unequal levels of earth on its two faces.
The retained material on the higher level exerts a force on the retaining wall that
may cause its overturning or failure. Retaining walls are used in bridges as
abutments, in buildings as basement walls, and in embankments. They are also
used to retain liquids, as in water tanks and sewage-treatment tanks.

2 TYPES OF RETAINING WALLS

Retaining walls may be classified as follows::
1. Gravity walls usually consist of plain concrete or masonry and depend entirely
on their own weight to provide stability against the thrust of the retained material.
These walls are proportioned so that tensile stresses do not develop in the
concrete or masonry due to the exerted forces on the wall. The practical height of
a gravity wall does not exceed 4 m.

2
 h

Toe Heel Heel Toe

(a) Cantilever wall (b) Cantilever wall without toe (c) Cantilever wall without heel

(d) Cantilever wall with (d) Cantilever wall with (f) Cantilever wall with
surcharge Inclined backfill Concentrated load

(g) Gravity wall (h) Counterfort wall (i) Buttress wall

Figure 1 Types of Retaining Walls

3
2. Semigravity walls are gravity walls that have a wider base to improve the stability
of the wall and to prevent the development of tensile stresses in the base. Light rein-
forcement is sometimes used in the base or stem to reduce the large section of the wall.
3. The cantilever retaining wall is a reinforced concrete wall that is generally
used for heights from 3 to 7 m. It is the most common type of retaining structure
because of economy and simplicity of construction. Various types of cantilever
retaining walls are shown in Figure 1.
4. Counterfort retaining walls higher than 7 m develop a relatively large bending
moment at the base of the stem, which makes the design of such walls uneconomical.
One solution in this case is to introduce transverse walls (or counterforts) that tie the
stem and the base together at intervals. The counterforts act as tension ties
supporting the vertical walls. Economy is achieved because the stem is designed as a
continuous slab spanning horizontally between counterforts, whereas the heel is
designed as a slab supported on three sides (Figure 1(h)).
S. The buttressed retaining wall is similar to the counterfort wall, but in this case the
transverse walls are located on the opposite, visible side of the stem and act in com-
pression (Figure 1(i)). The design of such walls becomes economical for heights
greater than 7 m. They are not popular because of the exposed buttresses. "
6. Bridge abutments are retaining walls that are supported at the top by the bridge deck.
The wall may be assumed fixed at the base and simply supported at the top.
7. Basement walls resist earth pressure from one side of the wall and span vertically
from the basement-floor slab to the first-floor slab. The wall may be assumed fixed
at the base and simply supported or partially restrained at the top.

3 FORCES ON RETAINING WALLS

Retaining walls are generally subjected to gravity loads and to earth
pressure due to the retained material on the wall. Gravity loads due to the weights of

4
the materials are well defined and can be calculated easily and directly. The
magnitude and direction of the earth pressure on a retaining wall depends on the
type and condition of soil retained and on other factors and cannot be determined
as accurately as gravity loads. Several references on soil mechanics [2], [2] explain
the theories and procedure for determining the soil pressure on retaining walls. The
stability of retaining walls and the effect of dynamic reaction on walls are discussed
in [3] and [4].
Granular materials, such as sand, behave differently from cohesive materials,
such as clay, or from any combination of both types of soils. Although the pressure
intensity of soil on a retaining wall is complex, it is common to assume a linear
pressure distribution on the wall. The pressure intensity increases with depth linearly,
and its value is a function of the height of the wall and the weight and type of soil.
The pressure intensity, p, at a depth, h, below the earth's surface may be calculated
as follows:

p Cwh (1)
Where w is the unit weight of soil and C is a coefficient that depends on the
physical properties of soil. The value of the coefficient C varies from 0.3 for loose
granular soil, such as sand, to about 1.0 for cohesive soil, such as wet clay. If the
retaining wall is assumed absolutely rigid, a case of earth pressure at rest develops.
Under soil pressure, the wall may deflect or move a small amount from the earth, and
active soil pressure develops, as shown in Figure 2. If the wall moves toward the soil, a
passive soil pressure develops. Both the active and passive soil pressures are
assumed to vary linearly with the depth of wall (Figure 2). For dry, granular,
noncohesive materials, the assumed linear pressure diagram is fairly satisfactory;
cohesive soils or saturated sands behave in a different, nonlinear manner.
Therefore, it is very common to use granular materials as backfill to provide

5
 Active
h

Ha = Ca w h2/2
Passive
h'
h/3
h'/3

Figure 2 Active and passive earth pressure.

Active and Passive Soil Pressures

An approximately linear pressure diagram and also to provide for the release
or drainage of water from behind the wall.
For a linear pressure, the active and passive pressure intensities are determined as follows:
Pa = Ca w h (2)
Pp = Cp w h (3)
Where Ca, and Cp, are the approximate coefficients of the active and passive
pressures, respectively.
Active and Passive Soil Pressures
The two theories most commonly used in the calculation of earth pressure are
those of Rankine and Coulomb [lj], [6j].
1- In Rankine's approach, the retaining wall is assumed to yield a sufficient amount to
develop a state of plastic equilibrium in the soil mass at the wall surface. The rest of
the soil remains in the state of elastic equilibrium. The theory applies mainly to a
homogeneous, incompressible, cohesion-less soil and neglects the friction

6
 between soil and wall. The active soil pressure at a depth h on a retaining wall with
a horizontal backfill based on Rankine's theory is determined as follows:

1 sin
Pa C a wh wh
1 sin
1 sin
C a
1 sin
= angle of internal friction of the soil (Table 3)
wh 2 1 sin
Total active pressure H a
2 1 sin
The resultant, Ha, acts at h/3 from the base (Figure 2). When the earth is surcharged at
an angle to the horizontal, then

cos cos 2 cos 2

C a cos
cos cos 2 cos 2

wh 2
Pa C a wh and H a Ca
2
The resultant, Ha , acts at h/3 and is inclined at an angle to the horizontal
(Figure 14.3). The values of Ca expressed by equation (14.6) for different values of
and are shown in Table 1.Table 1 Values of Ca,

( Angle of Internal Friction)

28 30 32 34 36 38 40
0 0361 0333 0.307 0.283 0.260 0.238 0.217
10 0.380 0.350 0.321 0.294 0.270 0.246 0.225
20 0.461 0.414 0.374 0338 0.306 0.277 0.250
25 0.573 0.494 0.434 0.385 0.343 0.307 0.275
30 0 0.866 0.574 0.478 0.411 0.358 0.315

7
Reinforced Concrete Retaining Wall

Retaining Wall in A Parking Area

8
Passive soil pressure develops when the retaining wall moves against and
compresses the soil. The passive soil pressure at a depth h on a retaining wall with
horizontal backfill is determined as follows:

1 sin
Pp C p wh wh (7)
1 sin

B B
A

Ha
h

h/3

C C
Cawh

Figure 3 Active soil pressure with surcharge

1 sin 1
Ca
Where
1 sin Ca
Total passive pressure is

9
 wh 2 1 sin
Hp
1 sin
(8)
2
The resultant, Hp, acts at h'/3 from the base (Figure 2). When the earth is
surcharged at an angle S to the horizontal, then

cos cos 2 cos 2

C p cos
cos cos 2 cos 2 (9)

wh 2
Pp C p wh and H p C p
2
Hp acts at h'/3 and is inclined at an angle S to the horizontal (Figure 4). The values of Cp
expressed by equation (9) for different values of S and 0 are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Values of CP

( Angle of Internal Friction)

28 30 32 34 36 38 40
0 2.77 3.00 3.25 3.54 3.85 4.20 4.60
10 2.55 2.78 3.02 3.30 3.60 3.94 4.32
20 1.92 2.13 236 2.61 2.89 3.19 3.53
25 1.43 1.66 1.90 2.14 2.40 2.68 3.00
30 0 0.87 1.31 1.57 1.83 2.10 2.38

The values of and w vary with the type of backfill used. As a guide,
common values of and w are given in Table.3.
2. In Coulomb's theory, the active soil pressure is assumed to be the result of
the tendency of a wedge of soil to slide against the surface of a retaining
wall. Hence

10
The total active soil pressure

wh 2 h
H a Ca pa
2 2
When the wall surface is vertical, = 4, and if = , then Ca in equation (10a)
reduces to equation (6) of Rankine.
Passive soil pressure is

wh '2 h'
Pp C p wh and H p
' C p Pp
2 2

cos 2
Cp
sin sin
2
Where (10b)
cos 2 cos 1
sin cos

The values of and w vary with the type of backfill used. As a guide, common values
of and w are given in Table 3.
3. When the soil is saturated, the pores of the permeable soil are filled with water, which
exerts hydrostatic pressure. In this case the buoyed unit weight of soil must be used.
The buoyed unit weight (or submerged unit weight) is a reduced unit weight of soil
and equals w minus the weight of water displaced by the soil. The effect of
the hydrostatic water pressure must be included in the design of retaining walls
subjected to a high water table and submerged soil. The value of the angle of
internal friction may be used, as shown in Table 3.

Effect of Surcharge
Different types of loads are often imposed on the surface of the backfill
behind a retaining wall. If the load is uniform, an equivalent height of soil,
hs, may be assumed acting on the wall to account for the increased pressure.

11
 For the wall shown in Figure 5, the horizontal pressure due to the surcharge
is constant throughout the depth of the retaining wall.

ws
hs
w

Surcharge ws hs

h+hs

h Ha1
Backfill
Ha2
h/2
h/3

Ps Pa

Figure 5 Surcharge effect under a uniform load

12
 Surcharge ws

45o

Backfill h

h' Hs Ha

h'/2 h/3

Ps Pa
Figure 6 Surcharge Effect under a Partial Uniform Load at a Distance from the Wall

where h, = equivalent height of soil (ft)

w s = pressure of the surcharge (psf)
w= unit weight of soil (pcf)
The total pressure is

h2
H a H a1 H a 2 C a w hhs
2
(12)

In the case of a partial uniform load acting at a distance from the wall, only a
portion of the total surcharge pressure affects the wall (Figure 14.6).
It is a common practice to assume that the effective height of pressure due to
partial surcharge is h, measured from point B to the base of the retaining wall [1].
The line AB forms an angle of 45 with the horizontal.
In the case of a wheel load acting at a distance from the wall, the load is
to be distributed over a specific area, which is usually defined by known
specifications such as AASHTO and AREA [4] specifications.
13
4 SLIDING & FRICTION ON THE RETAINING WALL BASE

The horizontal component of all forces acting on a retaining wall tends to push the
wall in a horizontal direction. The retaining wall base must be wide enough to resist
the sliding of the wall. The coefficient of friction to be used is that of soil on concrete
for coarse granular soils and the shear strength of cohesive soils [1]. The coefficients
of friction, u, that may be adopted for different types of soil are as follows:

Coarse-grained soils without silt, = 0.55

Coarse-grained soils with silt, = 0.45
Silt, = 0.35
Sound rock, = 0.60
The total frictional force F on the base to resist the sliding effect is
F = R + Hp (13)
Where = the coefficient of friction, R = the vertical force acting on the base,
H p = passive resisting force

The factor of safety against sliding is:

F R H p
Factor of Safety = 1 .5 (14)
H ah H ah

Where, Hah is the horizontal component of the active pressure Ha. The factor of
safety against sliding should not be less than 1.5 if the passive resistance HP is
neglected and should not be less than 2.0 if Hp is taken into consideration.

14
5 STABILITY AGAINST OVERTURNING
The horizontal component of the active pressure Ha tends to overturn the
retaining wall about the point 0 on the toe (Figure 7). The overturning moment is
equal to Mo = Hah/3. The weight of the concrete and soil tends to develop a
balancing moment, or rightening moment, to resist the overturning moment. The
balancing moment for the case of the wall shown in Figure 7 is equal to:

M b w1 x1 w2 x 2 w3 x3 wx
The factor of safety against overturning is:

M b wx
Factor of Safety = 2 .0 (15)
M 0 Hh / 3
This factor of safety should not be less than 2.0.

x2
w2
w1
x1
Backfill h
RA H0

w3 h/3

x3
L
x' R= w

H
RA

F
15
e
L/3 L/6 L/6 L/3
 The resultant of all forces acting on the retaining wall, RA, intersects the base
at point C (Figure 7). In general, point C does not coincide with the center of the base,
L, thus causing eccentric loading on the footing. It is desirable to keep point C within
the middle third to get the whole footing under soil pressure. (like the case of a footing
under eccentric loads.)

6 PROPORTIONS OF RETAINING WALLS

The design of a retaining wall begins with a trial section and approximate
dimensions. The assumed section is then checked for stability and structural
adequacy. The following rules may be used to determine the approximate sizes of
the different parts of a cantilever retaining wall.
1. Height of the wall- The overall height of the wall is equal to the difference in
elevation required plus 1 m, which is the estimated frost penetration depth in
northern states.
2. Thickness of the stem: The intensity of the pressure increases with the depth
of the stem and reaches its maximum value at the base level. Consequently the
maximum bending moment and shear in the stem occur at its base, The stem base
thickness may be estimated as 1/12 to 1/10 of the height h. The thickness at the
top of the stem may be assumed to be 200 to 300 mm. Because retaining walls are
designed for active earth pressure, causing a small deflection of the wall, it is
advisable to provide the face of the wall with a batter (taper) of 1/4 in. per foot
of height h to compensate for the forward deflection. For short walls up to 3 m.
high, a constant thickness may be adopted.
3. Length of the base: An initial estimate for the length of the base of 2/5 to 2/3 of the
wall height, h, may be adopted.
4. Thickness of the base: The base thickness below the stem is estimated as the
same thickness of the stem at its base, that is, 1/12 to 1/10 of the wall height. A
minimum thickness of about 300. is recommended. The wall base may be of

16
 uniform thickness or tapered to the ends of the toe and heel, where the bending
moment is zero.
The approximate initial proportions of a cantilever retaining wall are
shown in Figure 8.
200-300 mm

Minimum Batter 1/10

x = h/12 to h/10

x
y=1 to 1.5 m y
below frost line x x
y 600 mm

(2/5 to 2/3 h) 300 mm minimum

300 mm minimum

Figure 8 Trial Proportions of a Cantilever Retaining Wall

7 DRAINAGE
The earth pressure discussed in the previous sections does not include
any hydrostatic pressure. If water accumulates behind the retaining wall, the
water pressure must be included in the design. Surface or underground water may
seep into the backfill and develop the case of submerged soil. To avoid hydrostatic
pressure, drainage should be provided behind the wall. If well-drained cohesion-
less soil is used as a backfill, the wall can be designed for earth pressure only. The
drainage system may consist of one or a combination of the following:
17
1. Weep holes in the retaining wall of 100 mm or more in diameter and spaced about
1.75 m on centers horizontally and vertically (Figure 14.9(a)).
2. Perforated pipe 200 mm in diameter laid along the base of the wall and surrounded
by gravel (Figure 14.9(b)).
3. Blanketing or paving the surface of the backfill with asphalt to prevent seepage
of water from the surface.
4. Any other method to drain surface can be consided.

Weep Gravel
Gravel
Holes

(a) (b) Paved Surface

Inclined
Drain

(c) (d)

Figure 9 Drainage Systems

18
 Design of Retaining Walls
EXAMPLE 1

2700 mm
3300 mm w4
Ha
w5
w1
w2
300 mm 700mm 1100
300 mm
Toe A w3 Heel
O
250 mm 250 mm

1500 mm

= 35o, soil = 19.2 KN/m3 , = 0.5, fc' = 20 MPa , fy = 400

MPa, con = 24 KN/m2, qall =145 KN/m2

1 sin 1 0.574
Ca 0.271
1 sin 1 0 . 574
Ca soil h 2 0.271
Ha 19.2 3.302 28.31k
2 2
Ha acts at distance = h/3 =3.3/3 = 1.10 m from the base.

19
Overturning Moment:
Mo = 28.31 1.1 = 31.15 KN.M
Balancing Moment:

Weight (KN) Arm (m) Moment(KN.m)

W1= 0.3 3.024 = 21.6 0.40 8.64

W2= 0.7/2 3.024 = 25.2 0.63 15.88

W3= 0.3 1.524 = 10.80 0.75 8.10

W4= 0.7/2 3.019.2 = 20.16 1.02 20.56

W5= 0.25 3.019.2 = 14.40 1.375 19.80

w = 92.16 M = 72.98

Factor of Safety = 72.98/31.15 = 2.34

Factor of Safety against Sliding:
F/Ha = (0.592.16)/28.31 = 1.627>1.5
Distance of the Resultant from Toe End O:
M b M 0 72.98 31.15
X 0.45
R 92.16
Eccentricity from the center of Footing:
e = 0.750 0.45 = 0.3 m

20
Soil Pressure

bd 3 1.01.5
3
P M .Y
q I 0.281m 4
A I , 12 12
92.16 92.16(0.3)(0.75)
q 135.49 KN / m 2
1.50(1.0) 0.28
Check of Stresses at A (Soil):
A
(1350 250)
qA (135.49) 110 KN / m 2 110
1350
26
Moment at A:
250 mm
(0.250) 2 1 2
M A 110 (0.25 26) (0.25) 3.90 KN .m
2 2 3
Conc. Stress at A
Mc 3.9 0.15
260 KN / m 3
Flexure Stress = I 1.0(0.3) 3

12 0.15 m
Modulus of Rupture :
0.30 m
A
0.6 f c' 0.6 20 2683KN / m 2
Very Safe Design

1.0 m
0.25 m

21
 1.00 m
250
O A

1000 mm

750 mm 1500 mm 750 mm

1350 mm

110
136

22
 EXAMPLE 2

300 mm
16 KN/m2

w1

5.5 m
h
w2

450 mm
h/2
w3 h/3
450 mm
O
1000 mm 450 mm 1750 mm P1 P2
3200 mm

= 35o, soil = 18.0 KN/m3 , = 0.5 ( for concrete and soil),

= 0.7 ( for soil and soil), fc' = 20 MPa , fy = 400 MPa, con =
24 KN/m2, qall =190 KN/m2

1 sin 1 0.574
Ca 0.271
1 sin 1 0.574
h = 5.50 + 0.450 = 5.95 m
Base Thickness = 0.08 h = 0.085.95 = 0.476 m (taken 450 mm)
Base Length = 0.4h to 0.67h = 0.535.95 = 3.15 m (taken 3.20 m)
Projection of the Base in Front = 0.17h = 0.17 5.95 =1015 mm
Stem Thickness = 0.08h to o.10 h = 0.085.95 = 476 mm (taken 450 mm)

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Overturning:
hs = (due to surcharge) = ws/soil = 16/18=0.89 m
P1 = Ca soil hs = 0.271(180.890)=4.34 KN/m
P2 = Ca soil h = 0.271(185.95)=29.03 KN/m
Ha1 = 4.345.95 = 25.82 KN arm 5.95/2 = 2.975 m
Ha2 = 29.035.95 = 86.35 KN arm 5.95/3 = 1.980 m
Overturning Moment = 25.822.975+86.351.98=248 KN.m
Balancing Moment:

Weight (KN) Arm (m) Moment(KN.m)

W1= 0.3 5.524 = 39.6 1.30 51.48

W2= 0.1505.524 = 9.2 1.10 10.89

W3= 3.2 0.45024 = 34.56 1.60 55.30

W4= 1.75(5.5+0.89)18 = 201.29 2.33 469.0

w = 285.35 M = 586.68

Factor of Safety against Overturning = 586.68/248 = 2.36>2 (O.K)

Factor of Safety against Sliding:
Ha1 + Ha2= 25.82+86.35 = 112.17 KN
Resisting Force R = 0.5285.35 = 142.68 KN
Factor of safety against sliding = 142.68/112.17=1.27<1.50 ( not O.k)

24
Provide A Shear key (Assume key width = 450 mm, Assume key
thickness = 450 mm)

300 mm

150 mm

450 mm
O B E

450 mm
A C D

1375 mm 450 mm 1375 mm

R1 R2
21
158
99

Resisting Force F = R =1R1 + 2R2

R1 = Raction =( 158+99)/21.375 = 176.7KN
R2 = R - R1 = 285.4 176.7 = 108.7 KN Reaction on CD
F=0.7176.7+0.5108.7 = 178.04 KN
Factor of Safety = 178.04 / 112.17 = 1.58>1.50 (O.K.)
Consider Passive Earth Pressure
hp= ( 450+450+150) = 1.05 m
Hp= Cpw(hp)2 = 3.6918 (1.05)2 =36.61 KN
Resisting Force =F+Hp =178.04 +36.61 =214.6 KN
Factor of Safety = 214.6/112.17=1.911316 ( 2.0) O.K.
25
 Allowable Soil Pressure
Location of Resultant R:

x
M HY
BalancingM OverturningM
R R
586.68 248 3 .2
1.19m 1.06m
285.35 3
e = 3.2/2 -1.19 = 0.41
R Acts within the Middle Third 1.0 m width
Area = 1.03.2=3.2m2
Iy-y = 1.0(3.2)3/12 = 2.73 m4
R Re 285.35 285.35 0.41
q1 89.17 68.56 157.74 KN / m 2
A I 3 .2 2.73
q2 = 89.17-68.56=20.61 KN/m2
q1 or q2 < qallowable (190 KN/m2) O.K.

1.19m R 0.41m 1.60m

3.2 m

1.0 m
X X

Y
26
 1'-0"

#4@8"

#5@5.5"
#4@8"
Toe Heel
18'-0"

#4@12" #8@5.5"

3'-6" #8@8"

1'-10" #4@12"
#4@12"
#8@8"
#4@12"

4#5

4'-6" 1'-6" 5'-6"

Reinforcement Details, Example 14.2.

27