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Richard T.

Galera
Ancient and Medieval Philosophy

1. Plato: The Perfect guardian is the Philosopher


Philosopher King
POLITICAL- The philosopher is the one who is suitable/perfect to be a ruler in the
society.
SOCIAL- In the society we need a leader. The state is already structured;
Why?
He is the one who is capable of remembering the VIRTUES needed in order to promote
his goal; to rule, guide, and to lead back his people to the ideal world that is perfect and
good.
He is also the one who lives in this virtue and possess truth and wisdom.
THEORY OF TWO WORLDS that there is a world of forms and world of copies.
THEORY OF PARTICIPATION- we participate in this Good.
Go back to the THEORY OF REMEMBERING
The world is changing because we live in the temporal world that is why there is this
feeling of pain from HOME(Nostalgia). This home is our journey back to the world of
forms.
The pain leads us to remember. (Anamnesis) what makes it bad is the amnesia the act of
forgetting.
Our soul is capable of knowing the Good.
KNOWLEDGE=VIRTUE
It is through education that man is able to cultivate his ability to think of the things that
he needs to do, and to cultivate his reason in order to acquire knowledge and to come
up with the VIRTUES needed.
VIRTUES (wisdom, courage, temperance, and Justice)
Virtue is the excellence of the Soul.
2. Aristotle: Virtue, then, is a mean, in so far as it aims at what is intermediate.
Man has End. (Telos)
The end will always points to the GOOD.
What is GOOD?
This good is considered as Happiness. (supreme good)
How to attain this happiness?
It is through cultivating our rationality (the ability to reason) or the ability to
contemplate in order to acquire VIRTUES that is being practiced.
Virtue is something to do and act. Thus, there is a need to become Virtuous.
Mans quest in moral life.
There is always a journey towards happiness.
To have an understanding about the VIRTUES. Yes, it is true that man is in nature good
but it is not assured that he is moral.
Mean
Actions will lead man whether to good or bad.
In order to be virtuous. There is a need to avoid extremes (VICES). It is important to hit
the middle.
The mean means to have then in the right time, to the right way, to the right people, to
the right end.
Hitting the mean is not only in a single time but it is a repetitive act. The intention to
pursue a moral life is through the practice of virtues.
TEMPERANCE(Pleasure and Pain) , COURAGE(Cowardice and braveness),
PRUDENCE(Law and Situation), JUSTICE(I and Others).

3. Epicureanism: Happiness is pleasure.


Epicurus
a. Happines for them is pleasure
b. Pleasure that is not excessive but the necessary one.
c. They called it the repose( the absence of pain and the calmness of the mind)
d. Sufferings and pains is bad.

4. Stoicism: We should not wish that we could get what we desire rather we should desire what
we get.
a. They also seek for happiness but not in pleasure.
b. To be happy is to gain wisdom.
c. To gain wisdom in a sense of being contented. They dont want desires because all
things do have their purpose and let the things happened as they will happen.
d. It is better to desire what we get rather than we desire what we could get.

5. Plotinus: We emanate from the ONE and we must unite with the one
An important figure of neoplatonism was Plotinus. He believed that the world is a span
between two poles and at the one end is the divine light which he calls the One
At the other end is absolute darkness which receives none of the light from the One.
This darkness is the absence of light.
All that exists is the One, and the others are emanations. The One is reflected into lower
planes, and these reflections represent kinds of imitations of the Ones perfection in
descending degrees of fragmentation
A person can know the One only by uniting with and the goal can only be achieved in
death. One can prepare for the ultimate union through an ascetic program of virtuous
living.
6. Augustine: You abide in my memory, and I find you there when I recall you to mind and take
delight in you
He is seeking for truth. The truth that he had been looking for a time. He seeks truth in
everything until he realized that the truth dwells in his mind.
a. The thing that he needs to do is to remember and recall.
b. God dwells in his mind and he needs to remember and recall in his memories.
c. Amnesia is bad.
7. Anselm: You are that greater than which nothing can be conceived.
a. Ontological Argument
b. Everything that you think that is greater is God.
c. God is the summumomniun.
d. The thing that you think that is greater, greater than that is God.
e. God must not only dwell in the mind but also in reality.
f. Faith is needed but not faith alone there must also be the presence of reason in order
for faith to be understood.
8. Aquinas: I argue that the existence of God can be demonstrated in several ways.
Cosmological Argument
Five ways
a. UNMOVED MOVER
b. UNCAUSED CAUSE
c. NECESSARY
d. DEGREE OF THINGS
e. ORDER/DESIGNER
First is about motion; there is a prime mover who is not moved and who moves everything.
Second is causality; there is a maker which is not created, the cause of everything that
exists. Third is necessity; there is a creator that is not created and that creates everything.
These three are cosmological and it directs to the problem of infinite regress
The fourth is about the gradation of beings; there are degrees of being in this world; there is
perfect and imperfect, good and bad. Thus, there is a source, which is perfect, of all beings
which are imperfect. The fifth is about design; there is a sense of the absolute and
intellectual designer who designed everything with purpose, or function.
History of Modern Philosophy

1. Historical philosophy does not presume to have a whole view of the truth. As history progresses
man changes and he sees things in a different way.
Truth is historical it means that there are changes. It sees things in a different way.
It talks about the difference between the systematic and historical philosophy.
Each has its different views and perspective.
History is evolving and changing.
It is open to historical development.

2. Modern philosophy marks the new focus of philosophy different from that of the ancient and
medieval periods. This new way of thinking is a product of the historical factors that led to
change and affected the thinking of man.
The focus of the ancient and medieval philosophy is more on the outward or external
aspect. The cosmological aspects and the basic stuff.
It is just like that the world is the center or the source of all things.
The new way of thinking is focused in man. There is this question on how to be certain
about truths.
Man here is the center. COSMO-THEO-ANTHRO
Different factors that leads to change.
There is a new way of thinking due to the factors of change. It affects the thinking of man
especially the development of Science.

3. The beginning of modern philosophy was marked by a period of doubt brought about by
modern empirical sciences beginning from Copernicus to Newton. Everything that people used
to believe was into question.
There are three Rs which shatters the truthfulness in the modern period: renaissance,
reformation and revolution
Revolution covers the topic of this thesis.
Revolution means the advent of the modern empirical science.
Copernicus started the ball rolling as he claims that the world is round in opposite to the
traditional truth that the world is flat.
Newton became the peak of the modern empirical science where due to his brilliance,
science gain the respect of the people.
Indeed, the Church, Philosophy, and Theology were blurred by science
4. Modern empirical science is characterized by a model starting form a few data which points that
reality can be measured, result can be predicted and nature can be transformed in order to get
a hand of it. This makes science different from the traditional knowledge which gives man a
possession of wisdom that leads him to the purpose and of life. This becomes the challenge of
the modern philosophy.

Science makes life easy that is why it is important.


The problem now lies on the idea on each line of expertise. Science transforms nature into
usable form in order to aid the needs of man not proving God.
Science claims to know everything and everything is verifiable by facts and evidence.
Reality can be measured, result can be predicted.
The second thing is that science looks at reality as things. It is just like model. A model in this
aspect is the one that is being tested whether it works or not. The thing that is good is when
it works.
Thus, this is the challenge of the modern philosophy to find a place in this modern empirical
world and to have a balance.
Science and philosophy must go together; science helps man is his material needs while
philosophy helps man to live a moral life.

5. Wisdom is the result of knowledge before science. This is the deepest aspiration of life. Science
gives man power to transform nature. What is the implication of science? How to reconcile
science and philosophy. Is there still a point of asking question possible outside science?

Science provides the necessity of human being but it is not science alone.
Philosophy is also important because it provides and helps man to a proper way of living and
how to live a moral life.
A good life is not just learning how to be moral but also to have material possessions. It is
the balance between the two.
Science cannot provide and answer everything. Each has its own line of expertise. Science
transforms nature into usable form in order to aid the needs of man not proving God.

6. Descartes famous reflection starts with doubt. May be everything is questionable; everything is
a model. He realized one thing, the consciousness to I am which not a model/theory hence,
everything is not relative because of this obvious fact. The presence of self to self leads to the
sense of the absolute.
Descartes, often called "the father of modern philosophy", was educated in mathematics
and logic.
He said, "No single thing is to be found in it which is not subject of dispute, and in
consequence which is not dubious".
His major concern was intellectual uncertainty.
The only thing that he thought was certain was cognition, everything else would be dubious.
"I think therefore I'm", then became his foundation to search for the truth because he
believed human has the capability of cognition.
With this concept, he was able to remove his doubts later to prove the existence of self,
substance and God. The question was then how does one have cognition, what is causing
people to think?

7. David Hume says that what do we really know when we know is impression because knowledge
is pure matter of facts.

Hume explained this by his theory of knowledge by using impressions and ideas.
An impression is caused by sensation of tangible things and the effect is then cognition and
results would be ideas.
Hume further explained that ideas can also be arrived from other ideas by association.
Descartes advocated the search for the truth must come from human's own rational
powers.
He believed that all human had the capability of rational powers.
This is similar to the traditional classical philosophy which believed that knowledge and
truth can be determined by human's inner mind.

8. Humes ethics is about action. In action you need only knowledge for it cannot move man to act.
What moves man to act is passion like fellow feeling and a matter of taste.

Hume devoted the second book of the Treatise to an account of the human passions and a
discussion of their role in the operation of the human will. It is our feelings or sentiments,
Hume claimed, that exert practical influence over human volition and action. Observation
does reveal a constant conjunction between having a motive (not a reason) for acting and
performing the action in question. Hence, with the same reliability that characterizes our
belief in any causal relation, on Hume's view, we further believe that our feelings have the
power to result in actions.
As a straightforward matter of fact (discoverable by experience), virtue is always
accompanied by a feeling of pleasure, and vice by a feeling of pain. Thus, we praise an
instance of virtuous action precisely because it arouses in us a pleasant feeling, and we
avoid committing a vicious action because we anticipate that doing so would produce pain.
Our feelings provide a natural guide for moral conduct.
Social Philosophy

1. Social philosophy is distinct from social sciences though both are from experiences and have the
desire to know. The distinction lies in the integrative approach of philosophy which endeavors
to demonstrate philosophical insight substantiated with facts.

Sociology and social science and social Philosophy both desired to know human beings as
social being
Social Philosophy integrative approach, uses experiences
Social science not integrative way,
Science - segmented way,
Science manipulative
Philosophy subjection

2. Human existence is social through and through although in real life the social and interpersonal
is overlapping each other and crisscrossing. The neighbor is a personal way of relating each
other while the socius is a human relationship with organized group according to the social
function in direct relationship.

Human existence genuine friendship between two persons. Social function- social; friend
interpersonal.
Overlapping existence through and through social. We relate as social function and
sometimes friend.
Neighbor direct neighbor with personal closeness.
Socius not really in the sense of neighbor;
not so close from each other; with indirect relationship.

3. Human existence is social. Everything that is subjected to human responsibility is social. A


human person learns and performs with others. We acquire theme from society and we bring
them back to society. Being together and being for other merge with human existence as social.
We need other being together as the historical character of existence as social.

Human existence is social through and through.


Man cannot live alone. He needs something and someone to fully live his life.
Through the presence of other beings around him, man becomes truly human.
We can say that part of mans nature is the recognition of his inter-dependence with other
beings.
It is because our life is social in everything. We relate, communicate, survive, perform,
learn, grow and develop not by our own but with others.
4. The family is the building block of the society which we experience a crisis in our contemporary
society that needs a rediscovery of its meaning in order for our society to rise to maturity.

Mans inter-dependence to others is seen throughhisfamily.


Family is the most fundamental unit of society and is made up of the father, mother,
children, and relatives.
From mans birth, the family is already of the responsible. Our life is through our parents.
It is important to be aware in this reality because the family has a great impact to the
formation of a particular man.
Our family forms us as who we are. It makes a man more human because it is in the family
that he will feel affection, security, self-importance, interdependence, and other values. It is
in the family life that reveals the preciousness of each persons existence.

5. Social unity is not just a mass of people with no understanding and experience of the other, with
no individuality and place to the person as transference of feeling that would take place in
which the individual does not exist at all as an experience.

Society is an inevitable part in mans life.


Society is not just a conglomeration of individuals in a situation but a system or systems of
human beings acting and interacting with each other.
Man is caught in this system where he/she interacts and learns with other people. Man
plays, works, prays, shares, learns, lives within the society.
Mans goals, relationships, values, roles, challenges, motivations, and transactions have
always an involvement to the society.
Because of that, society forms mans character. It affects mans entire self, and even
dictates his kind of personality.
Society contributes much to the human existence for it is where man finds full humanness
and full realization.

6. The social unity is a life of community (family, tribe, people) where there is understanding but
not preceding the experience of togetherness. There is immediate experience of the other and
the content is identical with variations of collective experience. Solidarity is representable, self-
responsibility is built upon the corresponsibility for the wiling, acting, affecting of the whole
community.

Collective experiences to other fellow


We understand each other even though we have different group
Where there is understanding to each other, there is community life
Personal experience is an immediate experience to other.
What is concerned should be represented in our way of life
Responsibility product of community life, societal life; reflect to a bigger society.
7. The moral foundation of is mans embodiment and the reasons to possess private property is for
the realization of mans personhood and the pursuit of an ideal community.
8. Public ethics requires vigilance and the practice of values like truth, love, freedom, and respect
for law in order to promote the best of social life.
9. Justice is both a virtue and a value. It is trough the practice of social practice that the common
good is promoted in the pursuit of an ideal community.
10. Society presents a conscious act of self, consciousness of acts of others with artificial unity for
the sake of common interest. The disposition of members is distrust either promising or
contract which does not provide solidarity based in ones responsibility of oneself and
responsibility to other based on the responsibility of the self.
11. There is no society without a life community but there can be a life-community without a
society.
12. Personal individual is both an individual person and a collective person. It has responsibility for
and a responsibility to. There is mutual co-responsibility between individual and collective
persons which makes both individual person and the collective person ultimately responsible to
the person of the person. It is unrepresentable solidarity.
13. The principle of solidarity within a society requires as external component and a fundamental
article of the cosmos of moral persons. The community should intentionally rise to bring society
to the totality of the person where genuine solidarity reigns.

Contemporary Philosophy

1. Briefly describe the life of Nietzsche. What do Nietzsches claim about the aesthetic
phenomenon and the history of an error imply about metaphysics? What is meant
byressentiment and Nietzsches critique of morality? So, finally, how have we killed God?

2. Briefly describe the life of Marx. What is Marxs economic critique in relation to surplus value
and capital accumulation, insofar as this leads to alienated labor? This critique makes more
sense in the context of what Marx considers ideology. Explain.

3. Briefly describe the life of Freud. What is the impact of Freuds uncovering of the
psychopathology of everyday life on our freedom? What is the implication of this uncovering in
the fundamental tension between the individual and civilization?

4. What is Wittgenstein;s picture theory? How did this evolve to his concept of language games?
What does this imply about the task of philosophizing in the 20th Century?
5. What is Husserls phenomenology? What is the significance of EPOCHE in the distinction
between noetic and noematic? How does phenomenology bridges the gap between science and
old metaphysics?

6. When Tarnas writes about three kinds of estrangements, he refers to the consequences of a
series of ideas in the history of modern philosophy that depicts a radical shift in perspective.
Explain. He indentifies these consequences with a double bind situation. What is your
reflection on this situation: do you agree with this post-modern depiction of the human beings
relationship with the world? Explain.

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