Forensic Science International 119 (2001) 225231

A brief history of the formation of DNA databases in

forensic science within Europe
Peter D. Martina,*, Hermann Schmitterb, Peter M. Schneiderc
a
32 Oakeld Gardens, Kent, BR3 3AZ Beckenham, UK
b
Serology Department, Bundeskriminalamt, Thaerstr. 11, 65193 Wiesbaden, Germany
c
Institute of Legal Medicine, Johannes Gutenberg University, Am Pulverturm 3, 55131 Mainz, Germany
Received 10 September 2000; accepted 14 November 2000

Abstract

The introduction of DNA analysis to forensic science brought with it a number of choices for analysis, not all of which were
compatible. As laboratories throughout Europe were eager to use the new technology different systems became routine in
different laboratories and consequently, there was no basis for the exchange of results. A period of co-operation then started in
which a nucleus of forensic scientists agreed on an uniform system. This collaboration spread to incorporate most of the
established forensic science laboratories in Europe and continued through two major changes in the technology. At each step
agreement was reached on which systems to use. From the beginning it was realised that DNA databases would provide the
criminal justice systems with an efcient way of crime solving and consequently some local databases were created. It was not
until the introduction of the amplication technology linked to the analysis of short tandem repeats that a sufciently sensitive
and robust system was available for the formation of efcient and effective DNA databases. Comprehensive legislation
enacted in the UK in 1995 enabled forensic scientists to set up the rst national DNA database which would hold both
personal DNA proles together with results obtained from crime scenes. Other countries quickly followed but in some the
legislation has severely restricted the amount and type of data which can be retained and, therefore, effectiveness of the
databases is limited. The widespread use of commercially produced multiplex kits has produced a situation in which nearly all
European laboratories are using compatible systems and there is, therefore, the potential for the introduction of a pan-
European DNA database. However, the exchange of results between countries is hampered by the various legislations which
currently exist. # 2001 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Restriction fragment length polymorphism; Genetic ngerprint; Single locus probing

1. Origins and enjoyed a healthy level of co-operation and uniformity

Before the use of molecular biology in forensic science
became a reality, a set of blood group markers (red cell
antigens together with enzyme and serum protein poly-
morphisms) were used to identify victims and suspects in
crime cases. At that time, the practitioners in forensic
science laboratories throughout Europe and North America
were all known to each other through conferences, visits etc.
*
Corresponding author. Tel.: 44-20-82-89-3673.
E-mail addresses: pdmartin@mcmail.com (P.D. Martin), her-
mann.schmitter@t-online.de (H. Schmitter), pschneid@mail.uni-
mainz.de (P.M. Schneider).
of methodologies.
DNA analysis in forensic science had been suggested in
the early 1980's using restriction fragment length poly-
morphism (RFLP) determination by hybridisation to specic
probes following DNA digestion with restriction endonu-
cleases [1,2]. Although the systems used demonstrated the
ability to determine greater variability at the chosen loci
than had previously been possible with traditional blood
group analysis, there did not appear to be the potential for
approaching individuality.
There was great enthusiasm amongst the forensic science
community for the momentous discovery of the minisatellite
approach to individualisation [3], which was pioneered by

0379-0738/01/$ see front matter # 2001 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 3 7 9 - 0 7 3 8 ( 0 0 ) 0 0 4 3 6 - 9
226 P.D. Martin et al. / Forensic Science International 119 (2001) 225231
Prof. Alec Jeffreys in the middle 1980's. Jeffreys proposed
the use of two probes, called multilocus probes (MLP) which
identied repeating sequences in an enzymic digest of a total
DNA extract by southern blot analysis, to produce a `genetic
ngerprint'. Using low stringency conditions the radio-
labelled probes hybridised with a series of tandemly
repeated sequences with a size range greater than 20 kb.
The resulting autoradiographs consisted of a ladder-like
series of bands similar to a bar-code. Below the 4 kb level,
the density of bands was such that reliable comparisons
could not be made and, in practice, only those bands between
4 and 20 kb were used for the analyses. The forensic science
community expected that all of the major laboratories would
soon be procient in the use of this new technology for crime
investigation [4] but a number of problems were encoun-
tered. The method required relatively large amounts of high
molecular weight DNA to be extracted from crime scene
samples. Also, as the size of each band could not be reliably
assessed, it became apparent that suspect and control sam-
ples had to be analysed in the same electrophoresis gel as
inter-plate comparisons could be difcult. Recording the
results proved problematic as conversion to a numerical
form was not possible.
The introduction of this technology brought with it a new
set of conditions, those of patent rights and licensing agree-
ments. The application had been exploited by a commercial
company (ICI) who had acquired the rights to the use of the
new technology and forensic science laboratories, who were
mainly state funded, envisaged many difculties with
obtaining the necessary nance. As a consequence, a certain
amount of rancour developed, and scientists tried to nd
ways of circumventing royalty payments. The most common
way was to develop new probes and this was used with
varying degrees of success [5,6].
In the event, many laboratories for a variety of reasons did
not successfully adopt the MLP system. The method was
found to be demanding and the results were not suited to the
formation of computer databases. It was not until the advent
of single locus probing (SLP) that the technology was really
progressed, initially by ICI and then by the mainstream
forensic science organisations. In the SLP system probes
were isolated which identied repeat sequences in individual
minisatellites using high stringency conditions to produce a
maximum of two bands per probe [7]. Although the targeted
minisatellites showed considerable variation in their repeat
numbers, a single locus was not sufcient for individualisa-
tion. Consequently, a number of these loci were sequentially
analysed to obtain a composite result. During the electro-
phoretic separation, a control ladder of known molecular
size fragments could be used in order to obtain an estimate of
the size of the minisatellite bands. As a consequence, the
results could be recorded as a numerical set making com-
parisons much easier. Later developments showed the use of
automated scanners to produce objective results.
By the time that SLP analysis became routine, the licen-
sing agreements were largely accepted, although somewhat
reluctantly, and many laboratories searched around to nd
the cheapest options. Some scientists within Europe pre-
pared their own probes and many others were described in
the scientic literature [8]. The whole situation developed
into one in which there was a considerable choice of
restriction enzymes with a multitude of probes available
for selection.
2. European co-operation
During the 1980s, the EU had stated their intention to
relax the border restrictions between member countries, a
situation that could offer greater opportunity for cross-
border crimes. It also occurred to forensic scientists that
unless each laboratory was using the same restriction en-
zyme and some common probes, there would be no possi-
bility of exchanging results. So, in 1988, scientists from the
major European forensic science laboratories who had
started work on single locus probing (these scientists were
all known to each other from their work with blood group-
ing) together with some representatives from commercial
companies, met to discuss a way for harmonisation of the
technology throughout Europe. It took two more meetings as
well as a series of collaborative exercises [9,10] to settle on
some concrete proposals, whereby, a method involving a
specic enzyme (Hinf1) and two probes (MS43a and
YNH24) were agreed as a core package that would be used
by all participating laboratories. Compromises had to be
made because a number of the laboratories wished to do
paternity testing as well as crime case analysis and some of
the probes were not suitable for both. Nonetheless, this was
a big step forward and, although the members (who
had christened themselves the European DNA proling
(EDNAP) group) met on a regular basis, the alliance
remained informal until it became a Working Group of
the International Society for Forensic Haemogenetics in
1991. EDNAP's main aim was to investigate systems of
DNA proling which could be used for harmonisation and
this would be achieved through inter-laboratory exercises. A
decision was also taken that the results of all inter-laboratory
exercises would be published in the scientic literature. The
membership was deliberately kept to a minimum in order to
facilitate ease of decision making and even though all
western European countries were eventually represented
not all laboratories could be accommodated. The choice
of which laboratories should represent the various countries
caused some friction that has lasted until the present time.
The results from single locus probing could be stored as
simple numerical data and as soon as the new technology
became a routine operation, the Metropolitan Police Foren-
sic Science Laboratory (MPFSL) in London developed a
computer searchable database which would hold the proles
obtained from all crime scenes and personal proles from
those convicted of serious crimes [11]. From the outset, this
proved to be a success particularly in establishing links
 P.D. Martin et al. / Forensic Science International 119 (2001) 225231
between different crime scenes. As time progressed and
most major laboratories settled on the use of the same
probes, the potential for forming linked databases through-
out the UK was such that the Met Police Commissioner, Sir
Peter Imbert, went on television to make the case for the
formation of a national DNA database, and to address public
concerns about possible violations of privacy rights. In a
limited way such a database was introduced with the Home
Ofce Forensic Science Service Laboratories and the
MPFSL exchanging information from the various databases
that had been established in the different laboratories.
However, during the time that single locus probing was
the major DNA technology used in forensic science through-
out Europe, there was by no means total harmonisation. The
way in which forensic science services were delivered to the
criminal justice systems within Europe were extremely
varied. While the majority of work was carried out in
government or police laboratories there were many med-
ico-legal institutes, university departments and private
laboratories who also had a share of the market. A number
of these organisations had elected to use a different restric-
tion enzyme and a separate package of probes, the results
from which would not allow compatibility.
3. PCR technology
In the early 1990s, the technology took a dramatic change
with the universal interest focused on the use of the poly-
merase chain reaction (PCR) technique that enabled the
scientist to amplify template material from minimal amounts
of extracted DNA [12]. The method was fast, reliable and
extremely sensitive and offered the chance to detect small
repeating sequences that would be potentially more useful
than the previously used MLP and SLP systems. Once again
there was a considerable choice and harmonisation was once
again threatened. The FBI Laboratory in USA was devel-
oping AMFLP (amplied fragment length polymorphisms)
systems such as D1S80 and Apo B [13,14] that were smaller
versions of SLP minisatellites and some of these were
adopted by laboratories in Europe and used with varying
degrees of success. The USA continued with the use of
AMFLPs and they became the routine methodology in many
of their laboratories. Commercial companies had also started
to produce kits for the recognition of markers that involved
the use of PCR. Notably amongst these was the detection of
a sequence polymorphism within the HLA DQa locus [15].
In terms of individualisation, this was a relatively uninfor-
mative locus but it allowed the scientists to become acquain-
ted with the technology in operational conditions. It is
interesting to note that the use of this system was in contra-
vention of a set of proposals issued by a commission of the
European Council on the use of DNA in forensic science
[16]. The commission had proposed that markers derived
from coding regions of the genome should not be used.
In 1991, a novel method emerged which employed ele-
ments of PCR technology and SLP methods to detect
227
differences in the internal variation of minisatellites [17].
While studying the evolutionary mechanism of the minis-
atellites, Jeffreys found differences between the repeating
sequences within a single minisatellite. In particular, the
MS32 locus showed considerable variation that could be
detected via a sequencing gel following amplication. The
pattern of bands produced could be converted to a numerical
code and the overall result obtained from the two alleles
approached individualisation. The technology was termed
digital DNA typing or minisatellite variant repeat PCR
(MVR-PCR) and had the potential to provide results which
could be used for databasing. Unfortunately, the method
proved to be complicated and demanding and, in the initial
trials within Europe, few operators were able to achieve
successful results. There was also considerable concern
regarding analyses which involved the interpretation of
patterns derived from mixtures of template material. Con-
sequently the technology did not receive the enthusiasm
which it deserved and scientists concentrated on other
methods which appeared more straightforward.
In 1992, there was unanimous agreement amongst the
members of EDNAP that the way forward lay with the use of
a new compatible form of genetic proling called short
tandem repeats (STRs) [18,19]. These consisted of micro-
satellites of small repeating units, typically three, four or ve
bases, with a maximum length of around 300 bases. Due to
the small size, it had been demonstrated that they were
extremely stable and could be reliably determined from old
and degraded samples. It appeared that there was a general
consensus throughout Europe that STRs would form the
basis of future work. Once again, through a series of inter-
laboratory exercises [20,21], EDNAP achieved an agree-
ment amongst members that the two STR loci, THO1 and
VWA, would be used by all participating laboratories [22].
This might appear to be a fairly meagre agreement but it
must be realised that there were so many different loci in
regular use at the time that it was important to establish a
starting position.
In 1998, when STR analysis had become an established
feature of forensic science in Europe, an Interpol initiative,
associated with the sexual abuse of children, required a
register of sexual offenders that would contain DNA infor-
mation. The following loci were agreed: THO1, VWA, FGA
and D21S11 [23]. All four loci were in general use through-
out Europe and had been successfully tested in inter-labora-
tory exercises. They could be reliably multiplexed and
became known as the European standard set of loci
(ESS). One year later, the set of STR loci for the Interpol
register was expanded to include three more: D3S1358,
D8S1179 and D18S51.
4. Multiplexes
The preferred system for STR genetic typing was via
uorescent dye labelled primers and automated DNA
228 P.D. Martin et al. / Forensic Science International 119 (2001) 225231
sequencers. This allowed for simultaneous amplication and
separation of a number of STR loci in a single analytical
procedure. The Forensic Science Service (FSS) in the UK
had been working on a multiplex of four loci for routine use
as well as databasing, and this was used operationally for a
short time and tested by a number of laboratories in Europe.
With new legislation being enacted to provide for a national
DNA database in the UK (England and Wales) in which
anyone convicted of a recordable crime could be required to
provide a sample for DNA proling, the FSS expanded the
number of loci in the multiplex to allow for greater dis-
crimination between individuals. After a couple of false
starts, the outcome was six autosomal STR loci and another
locus for sex determination that was termed the second
generation multiplex (SGM) [24].
In the meantime, the European Network of Forensic
Science Institutes (ENFSI) had been formed, mainly by
police laboratories and laboratories providing forensic ser-
vices for the police authorities as forum to address issues of
quality and standards across the complete range of disci-
plines within forensic science. The FSS was chosen to chair
the DNA section and invited representatives from all gov-
ernment and police laboratories within Europe to attend
meetings. This group had considerable success in training
and raising the standard of work and the use of the SGM was
popular amongst many of the members.
In order to avoid overlapping responsibilities, ENFSI
continued to deal with quality and issues associated with
standards and EDNAP concentrated on looking at future
developments in a broader range of DNA proling topics.
With EDNAP retaining a small membership and ENFSI
dealing only with state organisations, there was a danger that
the university laboratories, medico-legal institutes and pri-
vate concerns would be left stranded. However, with the
increase in the number of laboratories involved in quality
assurance groups, in which a limited number of laboratories
would participate in QA exercises, and the large member-
ship of ENFSI, it appears that the vast majority of organisa-
tions now have easy access to the necessary information.
The situation might become more difcult due to an increase
in membership applications from laboratories in eastern
Europe. These laboratories, however, will have to be accom-
modated in order to achieve a common standard and a high
level of quality in forensic DNA proling throughout the
entire Europe.
Due to the success of the FSS multiplex commercial
companies expressed an interest in the production of kits that
would be available as off-the-shelf products. This is a very
attractive concept to forensic scientists as it alleviates the
problems of production and maintenance of reagents within
the laboratory and removes the complexities of licensing
agreements. There is, of course, a price to pay, as the kits are
expensive. There are several multiplexes available now on
the market covering between 10 and 15 autosomal STR
systems as well as the sex-specic amelogenin locus.
Although these multiplexes have been initially developed
to address the system requirements of the CODIS database
in US (see below), all European core systems are now
integrated as well.
The use of these kits is rapidly spreading within Europe as
well as the US and it now seems likely that it will become the
accepted standard methodology. Thus, it appears that we
have come full circle from the time when all European
laboratories were using the same blood group markers to a
situation in which almost all laboratories are using the same
set of DNA loci. There is now a considerable overlap with
the systems used in the US which would even allow the
transatlantic exchange of data, thus, representing a complete
change of situation compared to the period of SLP analysis
in the early 1990s.
5. Databases
The rst of the national DNA databases involving STR
data was formed in the UK in 1995 and in the rst 5 years, it
has demonstrated how effective such a venture can be in the
detection of the perpetrators of crimes. By the end of 1999,
the database had entries of personal proles totalling well
over 700,000 and it is, therefore, not surprising that there
were around 700 matches achieved each week. Such an
enterprise requires a massive investment in both staff and
equipment but it has the potential to be cost effective in the
amount of investigative time that can be saved.
By 1998, three other European countries (Austria, Ger-
many and The Netherlands) had successfully introduced
national DNA databases [25]. Due to the limitations
imposed by the various legal systems these databases were
not as comprehensive as that in the UK and, therefore, will
not hold the same level of personal proles. The STR loci
used to form these databases were:
UK THO1, VWA, FGA, D8S1179,
D18S51, D21S11
The Netherlands THO1, VWA, FGA, D8S1179,
D18S51, D21S11
Austria THO1, VWA, FGA, D8S1179,
D18S51, D21S11
Germany THO1, VWA, FGA, SE33, D21S11
Even though the German set of loci did not contain the
complete SGM, there was sufcient overlap for the
exchange of results. In all cases there was a requirement
to obtain another sample for analysis should a match be
determined. The second analysis would be conrmed with
another set of loci. By the end of 1999, the UK was routinely
using the SGM plus kit (PE Biosystems) for the analysis of
all samples to be entered onto the database. It is predicted
that all other European databases will be upgraded to contain
at least the seven Interpol loci, or even all the loci present in
this commercial kit.
Finland and Norway have introduced a national database
in 1999 with the Finnish database being most advanced
 P.D. Martin et al. / Forensic Science International 119 (2001) 225231
regarding the number of records entered. Belgium, Den-
mark, and Switzerland will follow in 2000 with legislation
proposed but not yet enacted. In France, legislation has
already been enacted but the operational details for the
database have to be dened. Sweden has already a database
of unknown crime samples but needs to work out the details
for an offender database. To date preparations to introduce
national databases are underway in Italy and Spain as well as
some east European countries [26]. The extent of the
legislation is not entirely clear and, therefore, the future
effectiveness of the databases cannot be assessed at this
stage. Also, decisions have yet to be made on which loci will
be used but it is condently expected that at least the
European core system will be used. Now that some data-
bases are a reality and others will soon be in place, if
legislation allows, there is the possibility to exchange results
between the various European countries. In these circum-
stances quality issues become important. Maintenance and
security of the stored information becomes of paramount
importance and local legislation must be observed in all
details. Systems must be in place to ensure that the data is
correct and that a personal prole is removed if the person is
acquitted of the crime or if no further action is taken. It is
inevitable that in the early stages of database operations,
there will not be any dramatic successes; these will only
come when there is sufcient data for matches to be made.
In this context, it is interesting to note that in 1989, the
FBI proposed a national DNA database for North America
that would hold proles from SLP analyses. Even at that
time it was appreciated that at some time in the future it
would be necessary to include proles obtained by the PCR
technology. The database was termed the combined DNA
index system (CODIS) and has developed over the years to
include crime scene data and personal proles which ori-
ginate from SLP, AMFLP and STR systems. The database
has the capability to search combinations of results from all
technologies and is recognised as having an efcient and
effective mechanism. While the methodology for producing
results has to be standardised and quality issues must be
observed, the submitting authorities retain control of their
information, the database exists only as a central pool for
comparison purposes. It appears that this concept is attrac-
tive to some criminal justice systems in Europe and there has
been considerable interest in the acquisition of the CODIS
system, especially by Scandinavian and eastern European
countries.
6. Ethical and legal issues
The forensic scientists within Europe have long seen the
advantages of DNA databases and through good discussion
and a good deal of compromise, a level of harmonisation has
been reached which would allow for the exchange of
information. Networked databases would make it much
easier to identify criminals who are responsible for crimes
229
in other countries but the different criminal justice systems
that currently exist are unlikely to make this a reality in the
near future. For a variety of historical and political reasons,
civil rights and human dignity issues are viewed differently
within the separate countries. In the UK, the 1995 Criminal
Justice Act allowed police to take non-intimate samples for
DNA analysis from anyone suspected of committing a
recordable offence (in general terms this means a crime
which could attract a custodial sentence). If the person is
found guilty, the DNA prole can stay on the database
forever and, furthermore, should new technology become
available the sample can be re-tested using the new system.
If the person is acquitted, however, the result must be
removed from the database. In other European countries
more restrictive legislation is envisaged, whereby, personal
proles can only be entered onto a database if the individual
is convicted of a serious offence. In France, the intention is
to only hold proles from convicted sex offenders. The
reasoning behind the UK decision came from statistics
which showed that the vast majority of men found guilty
of sexual assaults had previous convictions for more minor
crimes. Thus, a person who sets out to be a serial rapist could
be denied his ambition because he would be identied from
the database after the rst assault.
In Germany, the samples for analysis are provided anon-
ymously to the laboratories, whereas the resulting DNA
proles are entered, together with a name, onto the police
database. While this has the advantage of preventing misuse
of the DNA sample it provides a very cumbersome system
for the scientist to operate. In other jurisdictions there are
legal decisions that will, unwittingly, make the databases
less effective. In The Netherlands, a sample for DNA
processing can only be taken if it helps to prove the case.
Therefore, if a suspect admits a sexual offence, no sample is
taken and no personal prole is entered onto the database.
Furthermore, in Germany, The Netherlands, Norway and
Belgium it is not possible to retain a blood or saliva sample
from the offenders, the samples have to be destroyed after
the DNA prole has been obtained. Thus, it is not possible to
reanalyse a suspect's sample before a database match is
being reported to the police, or to update the database
records to extend the existing DNA records for additional
loci. The reason for this requirement is based on concerns
about the protection of privacy rights. By destroying the
sample, any DNA analyses exceeding the purpose of for-
ensic identication shall be prevented. In contrast, reference
samples are being stored routinely in Austria, Finland, UK
and Switzerland. While it is true that there has been some
debate concerning the storage of genetic proles which
might, in the future, provide more information than was
previously thought, the whole subject of storing DNA results
has become emotive. Legislation for security of the data
could be enacted to prevent any unauthorised agencies from
obtaining the information. Wide-ranging ngerprint data-
bases have been in use around the world for a long time and
fears about their misuse are generally unfounded.
230 P.D. Martin et al. / Forensic Science International 119 (2001) 225231
All of these issues were debated at a European meeting in
Germany in 1996 [27] where it was generally agreed by
scientists that use of comprehensive DNA databases can be
extremely effective in linking scenes of crime and identify-
ing the perpetrators of a wide spectrum of cases. Forensic
scientists have been successful with the integration of DNA
systems throughout Europe and it is now the turn of the
legislators to provide a harmonised framework of criminal
justice in which to operate.
7. Footnote
While the major emphasis has been placed on develop-
ment of systems for detecting markers in genomic DNA,
there has also been a considerable effort expended on
methods for typing sequences within the mitochondrial
DNA (mtDNA). Although these results are not as discrimi-
nating as those of the STRs, they can nonetheless be
invaluable to investigators in cases where skeletal remains,
hair etc. are the only samples available. There have also been
advances in the use of markers which are male-specic (Y-
chromosome) and these have been used successfully parti-
cularly in cases of sexual assault.
It is difcult to predict where the technology will go in the
future. While there is much research based on miniaturised
systems, there might be an incompatibility with those sys-
tems in current use. There is, therefore, the danger of
invalidating current databases unless an inexpensive way
can be found to re-examine samples which have already
been assayed which, however, would only be possible in
those countries where the storage of a reference sample is
allowed. However, if cheaper, faster and more discriminat-
ing systems do emerge there will be a considerable incentive
to make them operational.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported in part by the European Com-
mission in the context of the STADNAP network
(www.STADNAP.uni-mainz.de; contract SMT 97-7506).
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