Journal of Engineering for Industry,

Trans. ASME, Vol. 84, August, 1962

Paper No.
6 1 - W A - llS

W . J. O 'DO NNELL
A s s o c ia t e E n g in e e r , W e s t in g h o u s e
AtomicPower laboratory, Pittsburgh,Pa.
B e t t is D esig n o f P erfo rated P lates 1

Assoc.M em.ASME
T h is paper d e sc rib e s a m e th o d fo r c a lc u la tin g stre sse s and d e fle c tio n s in p e rJ o ra te d
p la te s w ith a tria n g u la r p e n e tra tio n p a tte rn . T h e m e th o d is b a se d p a rtly o n th e o ry a n d
B. F. LANG ER p a rtly o n e x p e rim e n t. A v e ra g e lig a m e n t stre sse s a re o b ta in e d fro m p u re ly th e o re tic a l
ConsultingEngineer,WestinghouseBettis c o n sid e ra tio n s b u t e .tfe c tiv e e la stic c o n sta n ts and peak stre sse s a re d e riv e d fro m stra in
AtomicPower laboratory, Pittsburgh,Pa.
m e a su re m e n ts a n d p h o to e la st-ic te sts. A c c e p ta b le lim its fo r p re ssu re stre sse s a n d th e r-
FellowASME
m a l stre sse s in h e a t-e x c h a n g e r tu b e sh e e ts a re a lso p ro p o se d .

In tr o d u c tio n ficiency of 20 per cent, as specified in Par. R-2.5 of reference [11].

TIm
calculation of stresses in perforated plates is a
subject which has received considerable attention as a result of
the widespread use of flat tube sheets in heat-exchange equip-
ment. Major contributions have been made by Horvay [1, 2],2
Malkin [3], Gardner [4, 5, 6], Duncan [7], Miller [8], Galletly
and Snow [9], and Salerno and Mahoney [10]. Most of the pub-
lished work has been limited to perforations arranged in an
equilateral triangular pattern, and the present paper is no excep-
tion. The Pressure Vessel Research Committee of the Welding
Research Council is currently sponsoring work on square pat-
terns of holes but no results are available as yet.
Most heat-exchanger tube sheets are designed to meet the
standards set by the Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Associa-
tion [11]. In these TEMA standards the thickness required to
resist shear depends on the ligament efficiency of the perfora-
tions, but the thickness required to resist bending is independent
of ligament efficiency. S This does not mean, of course, that
bending stress is not affected by ligament efficiency; it does mean,
however, that all tube sheets designed to TEMA standards are
designed to be safe with the minimum allowable ligament ef-
1 This work is part of a dissertation suhmitted by W. J. O'Donnell
to the University of Pittsburgh in partial fulfillment of the require- values from the nominal stress values in the equivalent solid plate
ments for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
2 Numbers in brackets designate References at end of paper.
3 See, for example, reference [11], paragraphs R-7.122 and R-7.123. the deflections of the equivalent solid plate.
Contributed by the Petroleum Division for presentation at the
Winter Annual Meeting, New York, N. Y., November 26-December
1, 1961, of THE AMERICAN SOCIETYOF lvIECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
Manuscript received at ASME Headquarters, July 26, 1961. Paper
No. 61-WA-115.
'When service conditions are usually severe or when the utmost is
desired in reliability and optimum design, stresses should be cal-
culated in detail and realistic allowable stress values should be
set. It is the realization of this fact that led to the previous work
and the work described in this paper.
Most of the proposed methods for analyzing perforated plates
have involved the concept of an "equivalent" solid plate [3, 4].
In one method the equivalent solid plate has the same dimensions
as the actual plate but its flexural rigidity is reduced by a factor
called its defleetion efficiency. In another method the equivalent
plate is also the same as the solid plate, but it has fictitious elastic
constants E * and p * in place of the actual constants of the
material E and P . The latter concept is used in this paper.
G e n e rMa e
l th o d
fA n a l y s i s
The general method of evaluating stresses and deflections in a
perforated plate having a triangular penetration pattern is:
Step 1. Calculate the nominal bending and membrane stresses
and deflections of an equivalent solid plate having the effective
modified elastic constants E * and p * and the same dimensions as
the perforated plate.
Step 2. Calculate physically meaningful perforated-plate stress
from Step 1. Deflections of the perforated plate are the same as
"Yhen the perforated plate is part of a structure, as in the case
of a heat exchanger, Step 1 is accomplished using classical
structural-analysis methods. A study of the effective elastic con-
stants for use in Step 1 is contained herein, and values based on

----N o m e n c la tu r e ------------------------------

Material Properties X , Y ,Z co-ordinates shown in Figs. 7 and 8, in.

D* E* (1 - p * 2 ), effective flexural rigidity of per-
H 3 /1 2 b width of plate rim, Fig. 13, in.
forated plate, lb-in. 2h minimum ligament width, Fig. 6, in.
E elastic modulus of solid material, psi 2hmin minimum ligament width for thin ligament at mis-
E* effective elastic modulus of perforated material, psi drilled holes, in.
Sm - allowable membrane stress intensity of material, psi outside radius of plate rim, Fig. 13, in.
p Poisson's ratio of material, dimensionless distance between center lines of perforations, Fig. 6',
p* effective Poisson's ratio for perforated material, dimen- in.
sionless p radius of perforations, Fig. 6, in.
Pp Poisson's ratio of plastic-model material, dimensionless H plate thickness, in.
Pp * effective elastic modulus of perforated plastic models, di-
mensionless S tr e sse s

O iT thermal expansion coefficient, in/in deg F U T' (TO radial and tangential stresses in equivalent solid
circular plate, psi
Co-ordinatesand Dimensions 0 ' r or 0 '0 , whichever has largest absolute value, psi

l' = radial distance of ligament from center of circular per- stresses in minimum ligament section, Fig. 7, psi
forated plate, in. ( C o n t in u e d on lIe .T t paoe)

Discussion on this paper will be accepted at ASME Headquarters until January 10, 1962
experimcntal results by Sampson are recommended. Methods of
evaluating average and peak ligament stresscs for Step 2 of the
analysis are developed and appropriate design limits are recom-
mended for these values. A method of evaluating the accepta-
bility of misplaced holes is also given.
E ffe c tiv e E la s tic C o n s ta n ts fo r P e rfo ra te d P la te s
When a perforated plate is used as a part of a redundant struc-
ture, the values used for the effective elastic constants will affect
calculated stresses in the remainder of the structure, as well as in
the perforated plate itself. For example, the amount of rota-
tion at the periphery of a steam-generator tube sheet depends on
the relative rigidity or the tube sheet with respect to the rest of
the heat exchanger. If effective elastic constants (particularly
E * ) which are too low are used in the analysis, the theoretical
rotation at the periphery of the tube sheet due to pressure loads
across the tube sheet will be greater than the actual rotation. The
calculated stresses at the periphery will then be lower than the
actual stresses. This can be seen from fig. 29 of reference [12].
Correspondingly, if an effective elastie modulus which is too high
is used in the analysis, the calculated pressure stresses at the
center of the tube sheet would be low. If the tube sheet is taken
to be too rigid, the calculated stresses, due to a pressure drop
across the tube sheet, in the head and shell at their junction ",;th
the tube sheet would be lower than the actual stresses. Since
stresses in these areas are usually among the highest stresses in a
heat exchanger, it is important that they be evaluated properly.
Taking the tube sheet to be too flexible causes calculated ther-
mal-stress values in the tube sheet and in the remainder of the
heat exchanger to be below the actual stress values.
From the foregoing discussion it may be concluded that it is not
possible to insure conservatism in heat-exchanger or tube-sheet
stress calculations by assuming effective elastic constants which
are known to be either too high or too low. The best estimates of
p * and E * , rather than the highest or lowest estimates should be
used.
Many different sets of effective elastic constants for perforated
materials having a triangular penetration pattern have been
proposed. Five of the best known sets of values have been ob-
tained from theoretical considerations and two have been
obtained experimentally:
1 Theoretical Horvay plane stress [1].
2 Theoretical Horvay bending [2].
3 Theoretical modified Horvay bending, corrected for con-
strained warping by Salerno and Mahoney [10].
4 Theoretical Malkin bending [3].
----N0 menclature'----------------------------
i1:u 0"11' T1/X'
stresses averaged through depth of plate, psi
ur,uo
transverse shear stress averaged through depth of
plate, psi
(Jrim nominal bending plus membrane stress at inside
of rim, psi
maximum principal stress basecI on average
stresses across minimum ligament section, psi
(jeer stress intensity based on stresses averaged across
minimum ligament section at plate surface, psi
U "m ax maximum local stress, psi
Seer stress intensity based on stresses averaged across
minimum ligament section and through depth
of plate, psi
Stress Multipliers (dimensionless)
K value given in Fig. 10
Kn = value given in Fig. 14
2 Transactions of the AS M IE
5 Theoretical modified Malkin bending corrected for COIl-
strained warping by Salerno and Mahoney [10].
6 Experimental Sampson plane stress []3].
7 Experimental Sampson bending [13].
The "plane-stress" constants apply to loads in the plane of the
perforated plate; i.e., tensile or compressive loads as opposed to
bending. All of the theoretieal values for E * and p * were intended
to apply only to those perforated materials having ligaments
thinner than those usually found in tube sheets. For example,
Horvay recommends his theory only for ligament efficienciesless
than 20 per cent.
S a m p s o n E ffe c tiv e E la s tic C o n s ta n ts
The Sampson experimental values of the effective elastic con-
stants for both plane stress and bending loads were obtained
in tests on rectangular coupons at the ~ T estinghouse Research
Laboratories. The test specimens were made of plastic material,
p = 0.5. Subsequent tests were run to evaluate the effect of the
material Poisson's ratio on the values for the effective elastic con-
stants. Plane-stress constants were obtained by applying uni-
axial tensile loads, and bending constants were obtained by apply-
ing pure bending loads. These values were found to differ quite
markedly from the theoretical values.
The validity of the general method of using effective elastic
constants and stress multipliers to calculate stresses and de-
flections in tube sheets was checked by Leven in tests on per-
forated circular plates [14, ]5]. The plates were made of plastic
(p = 0.5) and were simply supported and uniformly loaded.
Plate deflections were measured and ligament stress variations
along radial sections were obtained. The results give support
to the validity of the Sampson experimental method of determin-
ing the effective elastic constants using perforated rectangular
coupons subject to uniaxial loads. The measured deflections
agreed best with those calculated using the effective elastic con-
stants obtained experimentally by Sampson. Moreover, the
measured local stresses agreed closely "ith those calculated using
the stress-ratio factors obtained by Sampson. Hence, the Samp-
son effective elastic constants are considered to be the most
accurate for use in design calculations.
The Sampson effective elastic constants for relatively thin
plates in bending differ significantly from those in plane stress.
However, as a plate in bending gets thicker, the stress gradient
through the depth gets smaller and it is reasonable to expect that
a very thick plate would not be affected appreciably by the small
stress gradient in the thickness direction. Consequently, the
K r value given in Fig. 13
K ", value given in Fig. 15
Ku value given in Fig. 10 for {3 = 0
Y valuegiveninFig.]2
Others
F normal force carried uy ligament, Fig. 6, lb/in.
11 shear force carried by ligament, Fig. 6, lb/in.
111 moment carried by ligament, Fig. 6, in-lb/in.
P pressure on plate surface under consirleration, psi
I1 P pressure drop across tube-sheet, psi
T p temperature at primary tube-sheet, surface, deg F
Ts temperature at secondary tube-sheet surface, deg F
T Il temperature of hot side of tube sheet, Fig. 14, deg F
Tc temperature of cold side of tube sheet, Fig. 14, deg F
f3 ( jr /( jO or ( jO /( jr whichever gives -1 f3 <: <:
1, dimen-
sionless
If angular orientation of ligament, Fig. 7, radians
 0.6 I I I I I I I I

1-
0.5

0.4
'"
E*/E h
= 1
'\
R 3 "tJ"

0.3
II
PLANE STRESS -=< I-
0.2
h
R
=
.1.--,
4
""'- ........ 1\

0.1
H = DEPTH OF PLATE
2R = PITCH OF TRIANGULAR HOLE PATTERN
2h = MINIMUM LIGAMENT WIDTH

o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80100
H/R

Fig.' Variation of Sampson effective elastic modulus with depth of a plate in bending (v p = 0.5
Poisson's ratio of solid material)

10 I , I I

I H
= ~EPTH I OF IpLATE' I I' I
2R = PITCH OF TRIANGULAR HOLE PATTERN
0.8
2h = MINIMUM LIGAMENT WIDTH

0.6

v*

0.4
h
R

/
I
= 4"--""

~
h
R
,..-
.3 I
II
r-
-...r- -Lr
V - PLANE STRESS li -
/
tf

~ ~
0.2
,..

I I
o
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 I 2 4 6 8 10 20 40 60 80100
H/R
Fig. 2 Variation of Sampson effective Poisson's ratio with a depth of a plate in bending (v p = 0.5
= Poisson's ratio of solid material)

values for the effective elastic constants for a plate in bending most acceptable values for plates having a relative thicknes8
should approach the plane stress values as the plate gets thick. H IR > 4.
Fig. 1 shows the variation of E * with the relative thickness of a Notice that the uniaxial plane-stress values of effective Pois-
plate in bending, and Fig. 2 shows the same variation for /1 * . son's ratios (/1 ",* and /Iv *) vary with the orientation of the load
Note the rather abrupt transition in the E * IE -v a lu e s that occur with respect to the hole pattern. The impracticality of factoring
in the vicinity of H IR = 4. This appears to be what might be this anisotropic behavior into the analysis is immediately evi-
interpreted as a transition region between "thick" and "thin" dent, and values must be used which represent the approximate
perforated plates. Poisson's effect in all directions. This is not considered to be a
Obviously, it would be inconvenient to use one set of elastic serious problem, however, partly because the principal strel:iSes
constants for bending loads and another set for in-plane loads. are generally not oriented in the directions resulting in the largest
Fortunately, this is not necessary as long as the plate is thicker differences between the effective Poisson's ratios (the x and y -
than about twice the pitch of the perforations ( H i l l > 4) and directions, respectively, in Fig. 3), and partly because these dif-
this situation occurs in most heavy-duty heat-exchange equip- ferences do 1I0thave a large effeet on the calculated stresses.
ment which requires the refined analysis described here. The Sampson evaluated the effective elastic constants for perforated
effective elastic cOllstants in bending for H IR > 4 do not differ plastic materials (/lp = 0.5) over a wide range of ligament ef-
greatly from the plane-stress values. Fig. 3 shows the bending ficiencies under bending and plane-stress loads. He then pro-
constants at H i l l = 7 plotted with the uniaxial plane-stress con- ceeded to evaluate the effect of material Poisson's ratio on the
stants. Accordingly, the plane-stress constants appear to be the effective elastic constants. This was accomplished by measuring

Journal of Engineering for Indllstry 3

 1.0 1.2

1.1
0.9
1.0 p*: v t[ O .4 3 4 3 (V p IV -1 1 (L nh/R+2.3026l+lr'

0.8 olY o 0.9 WHERE: vt 6 vp = POISSON'S RATIOS FOR PLASTIC(v:O.5

...
V>

Z
0.7
o 0 o-x 0.8
v* 6v : POISSON'S RATIOS FOR METALS

<l
... ~2h 0.7
V>
Z 2R
0 0.6 ~ 0.6
u
I
U * 0.5
0.5
I-
V>
"-"-
<l *,."0.4
...J
w
0.4 0.3
LoJ
~ 0.2
I-
u 0.3
w
ll.. 0.1
ll..
LoJ
0.2 E*/E
0 .1 5 0 .2 0.3 0.4 0 .5 0.60.70.80.91.0
LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY h/R
0.1
F ig .4 E f f e c t o f m a t e r ia l P o is s o n 's r a t io II o n e f f e c t iv e P o is s o n 's r a t io v*

0 .!!I'I
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.70.50.91.0
LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY, h/R
Fig. 3 Comporison of Sompson effective elostic constants for bending
and plane stress
the effective elastic constants of an aluminum specimen ( I I =
0.327) in pure bending. The specimen had a relative thickness
in the range of "thick plates" ( H IR = 7). Hence, the test values
obtained from this specimen are felt to be applicable in the entire
range of parameters (H IR > 4), and for plane-stress loads as
well as bending loads. Based on these test values, correlations
were established on an empirical basis to estimate values of the
effective elastic constants for any material and for any ligament
efficiency. This relation is given in Fig. 4. The maximum devia-
tion of any of the aluminum-bar test points from. this empirical
relation is 7 per cent. The corresponding relation between p *
for steels ( I I = 0.3) and I I p * for plastic ( l i p = 0.5) was used to
modify the Sampson plane-stress II*-values obtained in tests on
plastic specimens in order to obtain corresponding values applica-
ble to metal plates. The resulting values of 1 1 * for I I = 0.3 are
recommended for use in design calculations. These values are
given in Fig. 5. They can be used for both plane stress and
bending loads in the plate, as discussed previously.
The effective elastic-madulus ratios E * I E were found to be
unaffected by changes in the Poisson's ratio of the material.
Hence, the Sampson plane-stress values of E * IE , taken from Fig.
3, are recommended for use in design calculations. These values
are also given in Fig. 5.
The smallest ligament efficiency of the coupons tested by
Sampson was 15 per cent. Hence, the values given in Fig. 5
~hould not be extrapolated much below this value.
The error in stress values calculated using the general effective
elastic constants given in Fig. 5 instead of the constants measured
by Sampson (which depend on the type of loading, direction of
loading, and the thickness of the plate) was evaluated. The larg-
est error in the maximum local stresses or in the maximum average
ligament stresses that are limited by the design criteria recom-
mended herein for any type or direction of loading and any
plate thickness (H IR > 4) was found to be 8 per cent.
W ffe n in g E ffe c t o f T u b e s
When tubes are rolled or welded into a tube sheet, the question
always arises regarding the degree to which the tubes increase
the stiffness of the plate. As mentioned previously, it is not
always conservative to assume either a maximum or a minimum
value for the stiffness. In some strain-gage tests by A. Lohmeier,
of the 'Vestinghouse Steam Division, on a steam generator which
had seen considerable service, very good correlation was obtained
between calculated and measured sti'esses when full credit was
taken for the tube wall in the caleulations; that is, when the hole
size was taken as the ID rather than the OD of the tubes [16].
When the ligament effic.iencywas calculated on the basis of the
OD of the tubes, the measured stresses due to pressure loading
averaged about 75 per cent lower than the calculated values.
While this one test cannot be considered as conclusive evidence,
the authors believe that it is a strong indication. Furthermore,
it can be shown that sinee the membrane stresses in the tube
sheet are usually low, very little residual compression is required
in the tube wall to make it follow the strains in the drilled hole.
Therefore the authors tentatively recommend that fuJI credit be
taken for the tube-wall thickness. Further confirmatory tests
are planned.
P ro p o s e d S tre s s L im its
Before proceeding to the detailed calculation of stresses, it is
necessary to decide which stresses are significant and, conse-
quently, should be calculated and limited in order to assure an
adequate design. The peak stress in a perforated plate is not
necessarily the most significant one. Primary stresses, those which
are required to satisfy the simple laws of equilibrium of internal
and external forces, and are consequently not self-limiting, should
be the ones most severely limited. Secondary stresscs, those
which are only required to accommodate to an imposed strain
pattern (e.g., thermal expansion) can be allowed to go higher than
primary stresses. If the latter are kept lower than twice the
yield strength, loadings subsequent to the initial loading will
produce strains within the elastic limit. Peak stresses in localized
regions are of interest only if they are repeated often enough to
produce fatigue. For tube sheets, consideration must also be
given to distortion of the holes which may cause leakage around
the tube.
The use of the maximum-shear theory of failure rather than the
m(lximum-st,ress theory of failure is recommended. In order to

4 Transactions of the AS !ViE

 1.0

0.9

0.8

H = THICKNESS OF
(/)
I- H /R > 4
z 0.7
j:!
(/)
z
0 0.6
u
u
I-
en 0.5
<t
.-J
W

W
> 0.4
I-
u
W
lJ..
lJ..
w 0.3

D*/D E*/E
0.2

0.1

o
0./ 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.80.9 1.0
h/R, LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY
Fig. 5 Effective elastic constants for perforated plates

make allowable shear-stress values comparable to the more
familiar tensile values, calculated stresses are expressed in terms
of two times the maximum slWar stress; which is the largest alge-
braic difference between any"two of the three principal stresses.
This quantity is called the "equivalent intensity of combined
stress," or more briefly, the "stress intensity."
The following stress limits are proposed:
1 Typical Ligament in a Uniform Pattern
(a ) llfe c h a n ic a l Loads (i.e., pressure loads but not thermal
loads):
(i) The stress intensity based on stresses averaged across the
minimum ligament section a n d through the thickness of the plate
should be limited to prevent stretching of the plate. This stress
is analogous to the average stress intensity in the shell of a pres-
sure vessel under internal pressure and, consequently, should be
limited to a value about t.he same as the allowable stress values in
t.he ASME Boiler Code. (The quest.ion of whether or not the
values in t.he 1959 edition of t.he Code are t.oo conservative for
vessels which are analyzed carefully for high stress is beyond the
scope of this paper. In t.he 1959 Code, the allowable stresses do
not exceed 5/8 of the yield strength of a ferrous material or 2/3 of
the yield strength of a nonferrous material.) Let us call thi~ basic
st.ress intensity allowance S m .
(ii) The stress intensity based on stresses averaged across the
minimum ligament section but n o t through the thickness of the
plate should be limited to prevent excessive deflection. This
stress is the sum of membrane plus bending effects and, since the
limit-design factors for flat plates are greater t.han 1.5, it can
safely be allowed to reach a value of 1.5 S m .
(b ) C o m b in e d ilfe c h a n i-e a l a n d T h e rm a l L o a d s:
(i) The stress intensity based on stresses averaged across the
minimum ligament section but not through the depth should be
limited to 3 S m .
(ii) The peak stress intensity at any point due to any loading
should be limited by cumuintivc fatigue considerations, as de-
scribed in [17].
2 Isolated or Thin Ligament. If a high stress occurs in a single
ligament due to a misdrilled hole, the foregoing limits may be re-
laxed. For combined pressure and thermal loads, the stress in-
tensity based on average stresses in the ligament cross seet-ion
should be limited to 3 S " , and peak stresses must. still, of course, be
subject to fatigue evaluation.

Journal of Engineering tor Industry 5

 From the foregoing we see that three stress intensities should be in the equivalent solid plate. This stress field must be carried by
calculated: the minimum ligament sections. Since there is no variation of
stress from hole to hole, no net moment is supported by the cut
(1) Average in ligament cross section, called Serr section. Hence, the moments in the minimum ligament sections
(2) Average across ligament width at plate surface, called rrerr M must be zero. Since the orientation of the cut is arbitrary, it
(3) Peak, called rrmax is apparent that the sidesway moments I I I are zero in all minimum
ligament sections.
A n a ly s is o f L ig a m e n t S tre s s In te n s itie s Yielding would tend to produce a uniform distribution of stress
Expressions for the average ligament stress intensities, limited across the minimum ligament sections. Hence, in this analysis a
by the design criteria suggested in the foregoing, are derived in three-dimensional element, subject to the average shear and ten-
this section from purely theoretical considerations. The analysis sile stresses in the minimum ligament section, is analyzed in
is quite general and can be used for any biall.;ality condition of the order to evaluate the average stress intensities which are limited
stress field in the equivalent solid plate, and for any ligament by the proposed design criterion.
orientation in the stress field. The accuracy of simplifying as-
sumptions used in the analysis is examined using photoelastic A n a ly s is o f A v e ra g e L ig a m e n t S tre s s In te n s itie s a t S u rfa c e s
test results. The analytical results are simplified and presented o f P la te
in a form suitable for design calculations.
Having the principal stresses lIT and r r o at either surface of
In the concept of an equivalent solid plate, as considered herein,
the equivalent solid plate, the problem of evaluating loads in the
stresses and deflections of a solid plate having the effective elastic
minimum ligament sections becomes statically determinate. The
properties of the perforated material are evaluated. There is a
resultant load carried by the ligaments must be equal to the re-
unique state of stress within a body having a given set of elastic
sultant load carried by the equivalent solid plate. The loads
properties and subject to a particular load. Therefore, the stress
carried by the ligaments, as shown in Fig. 6, are then given by
field in an equivalent solid plate is the same as the stress field in
the perforated plate on the same macroscopic scale for which the F = 2 (rrT cos I/;) R cos I/; + 2 [lIo cos (I/; - 7 l" /2 ) ]R cos (I/; - 7l"/2)
effective elastic constants were evaluated. Hence, the resultant
(1)
loads carried by ligaments (at any arbitrary depth in the tube
sheet) at any particular location must be equal to the resultant of v = 2 (rr T sin I/;)R cos I/;
the load carried by the equivalent solid plate. This is the basis
+ 2 [r r o sin (I/; - 7 l" /2 ) ]R cos (I/; - 7l"/2) (2)
of the analytical approach presented herein.
In perforated plates such as tube sheets, the perforations and Hence, the average stresses in a ligament at any arbitrary
ligaments are quite small relative to the over-all dimensions of the angle I/; ,,;th the principal directions of the equivalent solid plate
plate itself. As a result, the rate of change of the tangential and
stresses rrT and r r o (as shown in Fig . .7)are given by
radial stresses with radial position in the equivalent solid plate
(given by classical circular-plate theory) is small relative to the
-
1 flL rr dx = -
R
[rr cos2 I/; + IIO sin 2 1/;] (3)
perforations. Hence, one can assume that there exists only a 2h -IL y h T

negligible variation of load from any ligament to its adjacent

parallel ligaments. Under these conditions, there are no sidesway and
bending moments in the minimum ligament sections. This can
be seen by considering the equilibrium of an arbitrary cut at the (Tyz).Vg = -
1 flL Tyz dx = -
R
[( r r T - rro ) sin I/; cos 1/;] (4)
surface, or at any arbitrary depth of the plate, as shown in Fig. 6. 2h -IL h
The stress field in the equivalent solid plate is given by r r T and r r o
where the radial and tangential directions are principal directions In order to specify completely the state of stress in a minimum
ligament section and to evaluate the ligament stress intensities
(maximum-shear stresses) that are limited by the design criterion,
something must be known about the stresses transverse to th"
ligament at the minimum ligament section rr A three-dimen- x'

sional view of a ligament is shown in Fig. 8 ( a ) . The average

stresses acting on an element at a surface of the plate are shown
in Fig. 8 ( b ) . The three-dimensional Mohr circle based on these
average stresses, given by equations (3) and (4), is shown in
Fig. 9. The Mohr circle, assuming zero transverSe stress rr x , i.e.,

Fig. 6 Loads aeling on a typical seelion Fig. 7 Stresses in a typical ligament

6 Transactions of the AS M [
 z

I
x I
\ (b) AVERAGE STRESSES AT PRIMARY
OR SECONDARY SURFACE
I
I
A
//
/ / ",
\

,,/ \

"

(0) 3- DIMENSIONAL VIEW OF LIGAMENT (e) AVERAGE STRESSES AVERAGED

THROUGH DEPTH

Fig. 8 Three-dimensional stresses

ACTUAL STRESSES IN PLANE OF The comparable expression for the stress intensity (twice the
TUBE SHEET maximum shear stress) in the minimum ligament section is given
ACTUAL STRESSES IN PRINCIPAL by
TRANSVERSE PLANES
CALCULATED STRESSES IN PLANE OF
TUBE SHEET ASSUMING PLANE STRESS
..

where (J"cff is the stress intensity limited by the design criterion.

Equation (6) gives the stress intensity based on the average
stress across any particular minimum ligament section for any
ligament orientation if; at either surface of the plate.
tT Consider the significance of assuming a zero transverse stress
at the minimum ligament section. Obviously, the transverse
\ stress must be zero at the edges of the minimum ligament section.
\ Moreover, this stress is usually small, even at the center of the
\ ligament. Photoelastic tests [18] have shown that the average
( O,'t"yx) transverse stress usually has the same sign as the average longi-
"- --- :::-- tudinal stress, as shown in Fig. 9. When these stresses have the
(CTX,"yX)-- same sign, the calculated value of the stress intensity in the plane
of the plate, based on stresses averaged across the minimum
Fig. 9 Three-dimensional Mohr circle for stresses averaged across
m in im u m lig a m e n t s e c t io n a t s u ; : f a c e o f p e r f o r a t e d p la t e
ligament section, will always be equal to or greater than the
correct value of the stress intensity in that plane. This is il-
lustrated in Fig. 9.
plane stress, is also shown for the plane of maximum shear. For There are conditions for which the maximum shear does not
purposes of this analysis, the transverse stresses 0 " x will be taken occur in the plane of the plate. This happens when the minimum
equal to zero. The significance of this important assumption will principal stress in the plane of the plate has the same sign as the
be explained subsequently. The corresponding maximum princi- maximum principal stress in that plane (the transverse shear
pal stress, based on the average value of the stresses across the stresses being zero at the surfaces). The maximum shear can then
minimum ligament section, is given by be found by rotat.ing the element in the principal plane perpen-
dicular t.o the plat.e because t.he difference bet.ween the maximum
~ {O"r cos21/; + 0"0 sin 2
if; principal st.ress and the zero Z-direction stress' is great.er t.han
h 2 t.he difference between any other principal stresses. However,
the maximum shear st.resses in t.he plane of t.he plate calculated by

, Thc Z-dircction stress due to pressure acting at the surface of a

plate is attenuated a short distance from the surface in the manner of
a bearing stress. Hence, although this stress should be considered in

J'h}
the fatigue analysis of local peak stresses, it need not be considered in
+ (O "T - 0 "0 )2 COS 2 if; sin2 if; (5) the average stress-intensity limitations because the latter are only
intended to prevent excessiveyielding and deformation.

Journal of Engineering for Industry 7

 assuming plane stresl'; are always equal to, or greater than, the
actual maximum shear stresses in any other plane. This can be
seen by again considering the aet-ual three-dimensionrL! Mohr
circle, as shown in Fig. 9. Hence, it is not necessary to write
equations for the shear stresses in planes other than the plane of
the plate, provided that zero transverse stress (T " is assumed at
the minimum ligament sections.
At the center of a circular perforated plate the stress field in the
equivalent solid p1a.te is isotropic. Hence, as indicated by equa-
tion (4), there are no shear stresses T y " acting at the minimum
ligament section. The maximum shear stress in this ('.ase (found
by rotating the element as previously described) acts on a plane
at 45 deg to the plane of the plate. The theoretical expression
for the maximum shear stress assuming plane stress in the
minimum ligament section then gives the correct value for the
actual maximum shear stress, even though the latter does not
occur in the plane of the p1a.te. Hence, the theoretical approach
used herein gives the exact values of average stress intensities in
ligaments near the center of a circular perforated plate regard-
less of the magnitude of the transverse stresses in the minimum
ligament sections.
At the edge of a circular plate, however, high stresses may
exist under any biaxiality conditions. For many of these con-
ditions, the maximum shear stress occurs in thc plane of the plate,
as illustrated in Fig. 9. The equation for the average stress in-
tensity across the minimum ligament section, equation (6), then
gives values which are higher than the actual values for many
ligament orientations because of the assumption of zero trans-
verse stress in the ligaments. The significance of this error was
evaluated by making use of measured values of the transverse
stress CJ'" obtained photoelastically by Sampson [18].
The error for a perforated plate under tensile loading having a
ligament efficiency of 25 per cent and a minimwn ligament width
of 0.25 in., was evaluated. The maximum error for any bi-
axiality condition and any orientation of the ligament in the stress
field was fOlIDdto be less than 3 per cent. This error increases
with increasing ligament efficiencies. For a plate having a
ligament efficiency of 50 per cent and a minimum ligament width
of 0.5 in., the maximum error was found to be 5 per cent. These
errors might tend to be greater for bending loads on relatively
thin plates than for the tensile loads used in the photoelastic
tests. However, epoxy resin having a Poisson's ratio of 0.5 was
used in the photoelastic tests and the resulting transverse stresses
were probably higher than they would be for metals. Hence, the
maximum error in the calculated stress-intensity values is proba-
bly no greater in a metal plate than the error evaluated herein
from photo elastic tests on plastic models.
The equation for the average stress intensity in the minimum
ligament section, equation (6), Inay be simplified further for de-
sign calculations by consiaering the symmetry of the hexagonal
array of neighboring holes surrounding the typical hole. It is
apparent that the same stress distributions would result if the
orientation of the ligaments were shifted 60 deg in the equiva-
lent solid-plate stress field, the actual stress distribution in the
ligaments also being shifted 60 deg. Consequently, at least
two of the ligaments surrounding the typical hole pattern will be
at most 30 deg rotated from that orientation which would produce
the maximum stress intensity in the minimum ligament section.
Near the cent.er of a symmetriC<'1.llyloaded circular plate, the stress
field is very nearly isotropic and the orientation of a particular
ligament does not affect the stresses in that ligament appreciably.
Near the periphery of a plate such as a tube sheet which contains
a large number of holes, the angular orientation of the hole pat-
terns "ith respect to the radii of the plate varies gradually around
the periphery, encompassing the entire range of possible orienta-
tions. From these considerations, it is apparent that the expres-
sion for tbe stress intensity, equation (6), can be maximized
8 T ra n s a c tio n s
with respect to if; for tube-sheet design calculations without in-
troducing undue conservatism. The resulting expression should
be used to obtain stress inteusities for typical ligaments in a uni-
form pattern, !":ither than for isolated ligaments. The expression
for the orientation which gives the maximum skess intensity is
given by
- (T r' cos3 if; sin if; + 002 sin3 if; cos if;
+ (0 ,2 - j- ( T , ( T O + (T 0 2 ) sin 2if; cos 2l/J = 0 (7)
From equations (6) and (7) it is possible to evaluate ligament
stress intensities, maximized \\ith respect, to angular orientation
in the stress field, for any ligament effieiency and any biaxiality
condition. These equations can be written as functions of the
biaxiality ratio fJ = ( T , / ( T o or ( T o / a " whichever gives -1 ~ fJ ~ l.
= 1 for isotropic loads
fJ = 0 for uniaxial loads
1 = -1 for pure shear
Equation (7), written in terms of fJ , was used to find the orien-
tation if; which gives the maximum average ligament stress in-
tensity in a stress field of biaxiality fJ . This orientation was then
used in equation (6) to evaluate the corresponding value of the
average stress intensity. The resulting values are given by:
(8)
where
(T off = ligament stress intensity based on stresses averaged
across minimum ligament section at either plate
surface
K value given in Fig. 10
R /h reciprocal of ligament efficiency, Fig. 6
a, or ( T o , whichever has the largest absolute value.
(For example, if ( T , = -3000 psi and ( T o = 2500 psi,
then (T , = -3000 psi and /(T ,j = 3000 psi)
stresses at either surface of equivalent solid plate ob-
tained from Step 1 of analysis
To calculate ligament stress intensities based on stresses
averaged across the \\idth of the ligament but not through the
depth of the plate, substitute the values of ( T , and ( T O at the surface
of the plate into equation (8). The K-values for equation (8),
given in Fig. 10, depend on the biaxiality of the stress field and
vary with radial location in the plate. The resulting stress in-
tensities will, of course, vary from one side of the plate to the
other and will depend on the radial location in the plate.
Since equation (8) was developed by maximizing the stress in-
tensity with respect to the angular orientation of the ligament, it
may be overly conservative for plates having a small number of
holes. As previously pointed out, the stresses near the center of
the plate do not depend on the angular orientation of the ligament
because the stress field is isotropic. However, it may be worth
while to evaluate ligament stresses individually when the limiting
value given by equation (8) occurs at the periphery of a plate
having a small number of holes. Equation (6) gives the stress in
a ligament having an arbitrary angular orientation if;.
A n a ly s is o f lig a m e n t S tre s s In te n s itie s A v e ra g e d T h ro u g h
D epth of P late
The value of ( T , averaged through the depth of a plate at any
location is equal to the value of 0 0 averaged through the depth at
that location. Moreover, these average values do not vary with
location in a symmetrically loaded circular plate because they
are produced by membrane-type loads. From equation (4), the
average shear stress in the plane of the plate due to membrane
of the A S M E
 K

2.0
CTeff = AVERAGE STRESS INTENSITY IN
MINIMUM LIGAMENT SECTION
1.9
CTr8CT8=STRESSES IN EQUIVALENT
a::: SOLID PLATE
1.8
0
r- CT,= CTror CT8(WHICHEVER HAS THE
u LARGEST ABSOLUTE VALUE)
~ 1.7
{3 = CTr or CT8 WHERE -I ~ {3:s I
>- CT CT
!:: 1.6 8 r
(J)
z
w 1.5
I-
z
00 1.4
00
w
a:::
I- 1.3
00

~ 1.2

1.1

1.0

0.8
- 1.0 - 0.8 -0.6 -0.4 - 0.2 0 + 0.2 +0.4 +0.6 + 0.8 + 1.0

(3, BIAXIALITY RATIO

Fig. 10 Stress intensities in perforated-plate ligaments

loads T liZ is zero at the mllllmum ligament sections. The - STRESSES IN PRINCIPAL PLANE OF MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS

transverse shear stress averaged through the depth T lI' varies - STRESSES IN OTHER PRINCIPAL PLANES

linearly with radial location r in a circular plate.

Fig. 8 ( c ) shows an element subject to the shear and tensile
stresses averaged across the minimum ligament section and
averaged through the depth of the plate. The three-dimen-
sionai Mohr circle based on these stress values is shown in Fig.
11. Since the transverse stress in the ligament iT z has the same
sign as the longitudinal stress iT ; (as previously discussed), it is
apparent that the maximum shear stress -due to membrane loads
can be found by rotating an '~lement in the principal plane sub-
ject to the transverse shear T il'. The average stress intensity in a
ligament at any radial distance r from the center of the plate is
given by

Self = -
R [(APr)'
-- + ( iT r )2
J'/' (ma,.'I:with r
= radius
. (9)
h H to outermost lIgament)

where

AP pressure drop across plate

r = radial distance of ligament from center of plate Fig. 11 Three-dimensional Mohr circle for stresses averaged across
iT r = iT o stresses averaged through depth of equivalent solid minimum ligament section and averaged through depth of plate
plate
H thickness of plate thermal) are also limited by the suggested design criteria of this
paper. These stresses can be evaluated from the known stresses
in the equivalent solid plate using the stress multipliers obtained
Peak Stresses in Perforated Plates photoelastically by Sampson. A minor correction was made on
Maximwn local stresses due to all loads (mechanicltl and these multipliers to account for the nonlinearity of the stress dis-

Journal of Engineering for Industry 9

 30
I II I I I I I
CTmax = Y CTI
28 1\
\ CT
r
a CT8 = smESSES IN EQUIVALENT
\ SOLID PLATE
26 ~
\ CT
1
= CTr OR C T e (WHICHEVER HAS THE
~
24
\ LARGEST ABSOLUTE VALUE)
\ CTr ~

\ f3 = -0 " 8 OR
CT
WHERE-I <
-
f3 <
-
I
22 r
\ fir I

~20
I 2R T
)(
0
E 18
\
, 1\
\ i
etC) :

b \
\ 000
q~
0 16
'\. \
~
0::
14
'\. 1\
en
en
w
'\.
, \
\ I
2h
I I
0:: 12 S,H~A~ (/3 = -,')
\~ /\URf
'"
t; '\, I I I I I I I I I
>0-
10
"- '" ~UNI~XI~L
I I
,S~R~S~ (f3 = ~ )
I I f -, T

"
.-/
8 """-.
....... "" /'
,<SO~ROPIC STRESS({3=1)

6
.......
......... ./
"
~ ....
"- .......
.............
"~ .
....... ~ ... ... -
-- ----
~
4 0""'--

o
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.70.80.9 1.0
h/R, LIGAMENT EFFICIENCY
Fig. 12 Maximum local stresses in perforated plotes

tribution through the thickness of the coupons used by Sampson. toelastic tests on tube-sheet models have revealed the existence
The multipliers Yare functions of the biaxiality of the stress of high local stresses at the perforations adjacent to the rim (15].
field in the equivalent solid-plate fJ = ( J r / ( J o or ( J o / ( J r (whichever These peak stresses appear to be due to the influence of the rim
gives -1 ~ fJ ~). This ratio varies, of course, with radialloca- and cannot be calculated by equation (10), but may be approxi-
tion in the plate. The maximum stress for any particular thermal mated by the expression
or pressure load is then given by the relation:
(11 )
(10)
where
where (Jrim nominal bending plus membrane stress at inside of
rim
(J 1 or ( J o (whichever has the largest absolute value)
(J r
[(r value given in Fig. 13
Y value given in Fig. 12
P pressure acting on surface (Jrim is evaluated in Step 1 of the general analytical approach,

the rim being treated as a plate or ring depending on its dimen-

All thermally induced maximum local stresses, as well as pres-
sions.
sure stresses, must be considered in the cumulative fatigue limita-
The Kr-values in Fig. 13 were derived from known values of
tions on the values of ( J m , , ' The values given by equation (10)
stress concentration in a bar with a semicircular notch 5 and were
are the peak stresses throughout the perforated portion of the
checked against the photoelastic results of Sampson and Leven.
plate.
Most perforated circular plates have unperforated rims. Pho- 5 Reference [191. figs. 15.35.85. and 86.

10 Transactions of the UME

 3.0 2.9 , I I I I
I
I I I
2.8 I CTMAX = KOO"NOM
1- j-D-j-
2.8
O'"mox =K rC"'nm
27
I I I
(!)p ~o-
26 0 50_
, EaT(TH-T c)

2.6 :; 2.5
\\ CT NOM
2 (1- v)
Tc o~
o -,0-
~o- O"MAX
b~ o
.......
~x
z 2.4
o ~o
~2.4 <l 2.3
\ 0 ~o_
:; \
b b 2.2

g22 a
'" 2.1
\
~
<l:
a: g
<l
2.0
\.
"\
U
NOM

~2.0 0:: 1.9

w
-
a:
f-
(J)
~
w
1.8
"- ..........
-
ti 1.8 ~
If)
1.7
.........
1.6
........
1.6

1.4
STRESS
1.5

14

1.3
- r-- I--
-
.05 .10 .15 .20 .25 .30 .35 .40
1.2
PI b
1.1
Fig. 13 Peak stresses at perforations adjacent to rim , , , ,
1.0
.02 .04 .06.08 .10 .12 .14 .1618 .20.22 .24 .26 .28.30
P
Evaluation of Special Cases of Thermally Induced Stresses in o
Tube Sheets Fig. 14 Peak thermal stresses at perforations adjacent to a diametrallane

Thermal In heat exchangers, the major part of the

"Skin Effect."
tube-sheet thickness is at the primary temperature by virtue of
forated diametrallane, Fig. 14, can be approximated by assum-
the perforations through which the primary fluid passes. The
ing a linear temperature drop across the diametrallane:
difference in temperature hetween the primary and secondary
sides of the tube sheet occurs very near the secondary surface,
K D E a T (T H - 7 '.)
resulting in what is commonly called a thermal skin effect. Be- ([max (l4)
cause of the thermal film drop, the entire difference between the 2(1 - II)
primary and secondary fluid bulk temperatures does not con-
tribute to the skin effect. Credit may be taken for the tempera- where
ture drop in the thermal boundary layer at the secondary side of
the tube sheet when this drop can be evaluated. Stresses due to KD = stress-concentration factor from Fig. 14
this effect are given by E , II = material properties of tube sheet

The KD-values given in Fig. 14 were derived from known

(12) values of stress concentration in a bar with a row of semicircular
where notches.6 These values apply over the entire range of ligament
efficiencies :::;60 per cent.
aT thermal expansion coefficient, in/in/deg F
T primary temperature, deg F
p
Evaluation of Acceptability of Improperly Drilled Holes
T/ metal telnperature, at secondary tube-sheet surface,
deg F 0 The presence of a particular out-of-tolerance thin ligament will
result in increased peak stresses and increased ligament stress
Stresses for Temperature Drop Across Diametral Lane of U-Tube Type
intensities. A method which can be used to determine how far a
Steam-Generator In the case of a U-tube type steam
Tube Sheet.
hole can be drilled from its normal position in a hole pattern
generator, the unperforated diametral lane separates the inlet without exceeding the proposed stress limits is developed in this
and outlet sides of the tube sheet, and large thermal stresses section. Since these increases occur only at thin ligaments in
may arise because of a temperature difference between these nominally uniform patterns, the stresses in these ligaments are
sides. The resulting maximum local stresses in the ligaments limited by the less restrictive criteria previously described.
of the tube sheet can be approximated by Transverse shear loads as well as loads in the plane of the tube
sheet contribute to the stress intensity based on stresses averaged
K "E *a T (T H - TJ across the width of the ligament and through the depth of the
O"max (13) plate. Hence, it would be extremely difficult to evaluate the
2
effect of load redistribution caused by the existence of a particular
where ligament being thinner than average. To be safe, it must be as-
sumed that there is no redistribution of load to nearby ligaments.
K" uniaxial (/3 = 0) stress multiplier from Fig. 12 The limited stress intensity in a particular out-of-tolerance liga-
E* effective elastic modulus for tube sheet ment can then be evaluat-ed by substituting the smallest ligament
The stresses at the edges of the holes adjacent to the unper- G Reference [191. figs. 20, 21, and 32.

Journal of Engineering for Industry 11

 3.4 I '. I I I I I I width at the misplaced hole into elJuation (9). The resulting
stress value is limited to 3 S ""
3.2 1/ Kmh'~"1 The ma),i/lllJlll local stresses tlue (,0 all loatls (mcchanical alltl
-lI
3.0
Q \ thermal) ill tm iso!:J.ted or thin ligament in a nominally uniform
11"0\ pattcrn are limitlxl by fatigue considerations in the same manner
\ ~
2.8
,,\, -_.I
-!
as the peak stresses ill a typical ligament in a uniform pattern.
The increase in the Joeal stresses caused by the presenee of a par-
I-II- 2.6
I ticular out-of-tolerance thin ligamen(, was evaluated in photo-
zz
IJJ,uJ
--':;;:
""1-
<<r
<.:lICl
2.4 - - 11"1
'\ "I\~ -I
! elastic tests. The inerease in peak stresses was found to be a
function of the biaxiality of the stress field, and the direction of
\ the displacement of the misdrilled hole with respect to the hole
~-J
2.2 \
O-J
IU<l:
u:< 2.0
::>a:
\ '1\
- pattern, as expected. The variation of the increasc in peak
stresses \dth Jig:uneut efTiciclll'Ywas foulld (,0 be small. The
fi:lo
a:z 1.8
1\ \~
\
-
maximum increase in local stresses occurred when the hole wa~
displaced at 30 deg to the line of hole centers. Using the results
ZZ
f"\
11\ .\ -
for this ease, the maximum loeal st.ress in a.thin ligament is given
1.6
\ ,~
VlVl
VlVl - by
wW II"-I~
a: a: 1.4
1-1- "< (15)
VlVl
~~ 1.2 i'-.. ."'- """'"
~ -
where
<l:
ww ~ ~ ~ - <TI < T or < T o (whiehever has t.he largest absolute value)
r
0..0.. 1.0
;;e K", value given in Fig. 15
P pressure acting on surraee
0.8
Y value given in Fig. 12
0.6
The K",-v:tlue givcn in Fig. 15 can be used for any ligament
0.4 efficieney.

0.2 S u m m a ry a n d C o n c lu s io n s
I I I I I I I I I I I 1 Effeetive elastic constants for both plane stress and bending
o
o Q2 Q4 Q6 Q8 ID loads for any plate thickness (H /R > 4) are given in Fig. 5.
hmln REDUCED LIGAMENT WIDTH 2 A complete structural-design criterion for perforated plates
-h-" NORMAL LIGAMENT WIDTH
is proposed. The limited stress values are summarized in the
fig. 15 Increase of peak slress due 10 misplaced hole following table for a nominal ligament in a uniform pattern.

Load Stress intensity Equation Limit

( Average across ligament at either sur- (8)" 1.58",
face of plate
Pressure

Coml.:ined
thermal
pressure and
I Average across ligament and through
thickness
Average across ligament at either sur-
face of plate
(9)

(8)"
8m

38",

Peak in ligaments (10) Cumulative

Cyclic pressure and
fatigue
thermal {
Peak at perforations adjacent to rim (11) Cumulative
fatigue
Cyclic thermal skin effect Peak at surface (12) Cumulative
fatigue
';' ( Peak ill ligaments (13) Cumulative
Cyclic thermal (temperature
difference across diametral Peak at holes adj:tcent
1 to diametral (14)
fatigue
Cumulative
lane) lane fatigue
o Equation (8) was obtain cd by maximizing thc stress intensity with respect to the angular orienta-
tion of the ligament. If the plate contains only a small number of holes and if the limiting stresses
occur at the periphery of the plate, a more accurate evaluation of this stress intensity. which takes into
account the angular orientation of the ligament may be justified. Equation (6) gives the corresponding
stress intensity in a ligament with any angular orientation f . The maximnm value of this stres>;irl-
tensity for all ligaments should be limited as indicated in the table.

12 TransacHons of the AS M E
 3 A method of evaluating the acceptability of misdrilled 3 1. Malkin, "Notes on a Theoretical Basis for Design of Tube
holes is given. The relevant stresses and their proposed limits Shects of Triangular Layout," TRANS. ASME, vol. 74, 1952, pp.
387-396.
are given in the following table.

Load Stress intensity Equation Limit

Combined pressure A vera-ged across ligamen t Equation (9) with 3S",
and thermal and through depth h m iH substituted
for h
Cyclic pressure and Peak in ligaments (15) Cumulative
thermal fatigue

4 The effective elastie COlJstalJbi and peak stress multipliers 4 K. A. Gardner, "Heat Exchanger Tube Sheet Design,"
,J o u rn a l o f A p p lie d 1 1 1 e c h a n ic s, vol. 15, TRANS.ASME, vol. 70, 1948,
recommended herein are based on those obtained experimentally
pp. 377-385.
by Sampson. Stresses and ddlec:tiolls caleulated using these 5 K. A. Gardncr, "I-Ieat E.'xchanger Tube Sheet Design-2, Fixed
values showed better agreement with the test results obtained Tube Sheets," J o ttru a l o f A p p lie d J lle c h a n ic s, vol. HI, TUANS.ASME,
by Leven (on uniformly loaded, simply supported, circulnr per- vol. 74, 1952, pp. 159-lG6.
forated pl:Ltes) thalJ any of the other appro:Lehl~s mentioned 6 K. A. Gardner, "Heat Exchanger Tuhe Sheet Design-3,
U-Tube and Bayonet Tube Sheets," J o u rn a l o f A P 1 J lie d 1 1 1 e e h a n ic s,
herein! vol. 27, TRANS.ASME, Series E, vol. 82, 1960, pp. 25-33.
For most conventional steam generators, the design basis 7 J. P. Duncan, "The Structural Efficiency of Tube Plates for
recommended herein allows a slightly thinner tIl be sheet than does Heat Exchangers," P ro c :e e rlin g s, I. 1 1 1 e e h . E ., vol. 169, 1955, pp.
789-810.
TEMA [11]. For example, in a typiclll high-pressure design
8 K. A. G. i\liJler, "The Design of Tube Plates in Heat Ex-
where TE:MA requires It minimum tube-sheet thid:ness of 10 in., changers," P ro c e e d in g s, I. ilIe c h . E ., vol. 1 13, 1952, pp. 215-231.
the design methods descrihed herein require a minimum thickness 9 G. D. Gallet!y and D. It. Snow, "Some Results on Con-
of 9 1/, in. if S " , is taken as 5/s of the yield strength of the material tinuously Drilled Fixed Tube Plates," IJresented at the ASME
Petroleulll Conference, Nmv Orleans, La., September, 1960, Paper
and full credit is taken for the tubes. On the other hand, where
No. 60-Pet-16.
severe thermal loads are antieipated, it may be necessary to make 10 V. L. Salerllo and J.B. i\fal1OlIcy, "A Heview, Comparison and
design modifications in order to meet the criteria recommended i\ Codification of Presen t Deflection Theory for Flat Perforated
herein, whereas TEMA does not account for thermal loads. Plates," Welding Research Council Bulletin No. 52, July, 1959.
11 "Standards of Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Associa-
tion," fourth edition, Tubular Exc:hanger Manufacturers Association,
New York, N. Y., 1959.
A c k n o w le d g m e n ts
12 S. Timoshenko and S. Woinowsky-Krieger, "Theory of
The design methods proposed on this paper are the culmination Plates aud Shells," second edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
of a program sponsored by the Bureau of Ships and co-ordinated Inc., New York, N. Y., 1959, p. 5(;.
13 R. C. Sampson, "Photoe1asti<.: Frozen Stress Study of the
by the vVestinghouse Bettis Atomic 1'o"'er Laboratory. The
Effective Elastic Constants of Perforated Materials, A Progress
stress limits proposed, however, represent only the opinions of the Report," WAPD-DLE-3f9, May, 1959; available from Office of
authors. The experimental work used as a basis for the pro- Teehni<.:al Service, Department of Commerce, \Vashington 25, D. C.
posed design methods was performed by Messrs. IVr. .M. Leven 14 i\if. i\L Levell, "Preliminary Report on Deflection of Tube
Shel,ts," vVAPD-DLE-320, i\Jay, 1959; available from Offiee of
and R. C. Sampson at the \Vestinghouse Research Laboratories
Technical Serviees, Departmcnt of eOlTlIlIer<.:e, vVashington 25, D. C.
and by Mr. A. Lohmeier at the vVestinghouse Steam Division. 15 i\f. lVI, Leven, "Photoelastic Determinat.iolT of Stresses in
To avoid duplication of effort, the program was co-ordinated by Tube Sheets and COlllparison "Tith Calculated Value'S," Bettis Tech-
the authors with a somewhat broader program on stresses in nical Review, vVAPD-BT-1S, April, 1960; available from Office of
Technical Services, Department of Commerce, \Vashington 25, D. C.
ligaments being sponsored by the Pressure Vessel Research
I6 W. J. O'Donnell, "The Effect of the Tubes on Stresses and
Committee of the vVelding Research Couneil. Deflections in U-Tube Steam Generator Tube Steets," Bettis Tech-
nical Review, \VAPD-BT-21, Novembe'r, 1960; available from
Office of Teehnieal Services, Department of Commerce, vVashington
R e fe re n c e s 25, D. C.
1 G. Horvay, "The Plane-Stress Problem of Perforated Plates," 17 B. F. Langer, "Design Values fol' Thermal Stress in Ductile
J O 'll1 " 1 ta lo f A p p lie d 1 1 1 e c h a n ie s, vol. 19, TRANS.AS ME, vol. 74, 1952, iVlaterials,', ASi\IE Paper No. 58-Met-l, T h e W e ld in a J o u m a l, Re-
pp. 355-360. search Supplement, September, 1958, pp. 411s-417s.
2 G. Horvay, "Bending of Honeycombs and Perforated Plates," 18 R. C. Sampson, "Photoelastic Analysis of Stresses in Per-
J o u rn a l o f A 1 J p lie d 1 1 1 e e h a n ic s," 'o l. 19, TRANS. ASME, vol. 74, 1952, forated Material Subject to Teusion 01' Beuding," Bettis Technical
pp. 122-123. Review, WAPD-BT-18. April, 1960; available from Office of Tech-
nical Services, Department of Commerce. \Vashington 25, D. C.
7 See reference [14], figs. 7-11, and reference [15], figs. 18, 19,20,24, 19 R. E. Peterson, "Stress-Concentration Design Factors," John
and 25 Wiley & Sons, New York, N. Y, 1953.

l"'inted in U. S. A.

J o u rn a l o i E n g in e e rin g fo r In d u s try 13