DA NANG UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

-------------*****-------------

EE233 LABORATORY REPORT

INSTRUCTOR : NGUYEN TRI BANG

STUDENTS : NGUYEN THANH MINH
: NGUYEN XUAN ANH
: LE DINH CUONG
CLASS : 15ECE1

Da Nang - 30 September, 2017

 Laboratory #1: Step Response of RC Circuits

1. Objectives
Measure the internal resistance of a signal source (e.g. an arbitrary waveform
generator).
Measure the output waveform of simple RC circuits excited by step functions.
Calculate and measure various timing parameters of switching waveforms (time
constant, delay time, rise time, and fall time) common in computer systems.
Compare theoretical calculations and experimental data, and explain any discrepancies.

2. Equipment used

Quantity Descriptions Comments

1 50 resistor Real value : 50.23
2 10 K resistor Real value : 10.013 k
1 27 K resistor Real value : 27.145 k
2 0.01 F capacitor Real value : 0.01F capacitor

The instruments needed for this experiment are:

- An arbitrary waveform generator.
- A multimeter.
- A board and an oscilloscope.
7. Experimental procedures
7.2 Effect of internal resistance of function generator
1. Build the circuit in Figure 1 using a 50 resistor as load. Set the function generator
to provide a square wave with amplitude 400 mV, DC offset 0V, and frequency 100 Hz.

2. Use the scope to display the signal Vout on channel 1, using DC coupling. Set the
horizontal
Time base to display 3 or 4 complete cycles of the signal.
3. Use the scope to measure the amplitude of Vout. Record this value in your report. Is it
the same as the amplitude displayed by the function generator? Explain any difference.
- The amplitude of Vout is (212mV)/2 = 106mV.
* It is smaller than the amplitude displayed. The reason is that the voltage is dropped by
the internal resistor Rs of the generator.
4. Vary the square wave amplitudes from 400 mV to 1 V, using 100 mV step size (e.g. the
amplitudes are 400 mV, 500 mV up to 1 V). Repeat step 3 to measure the amplitude of
Vout on the scope for each setting. Get a hardcopy for the case of 500 mV amplitude only.

Source 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

Amplitude 106 130 158 176 205 228 257

R=50, Vs=500mV

5. Remove the 50 resistor and replace it with a 27 Kresistor. Repeat the steps 1
through 4 above. Observe and explain any difference insignal amplitudes when the
loading on the function generator is changed from50 to 27 K.
Source 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Amplitude 430 550 630 740 820 930 1040
For the case 500mV amplitude Vs: Vout = 550 mV

R=27K, Vs=500mV

- When R1= 27 kOhm, we can see that the value of Vout equals to the value of Vin.
This is because the value of R1 is too larger than the value of internal resistance in
the generator. When using the formula in the prelab 1, since R1 >> Rs, we can
consider that Rs is approximately zero. Therefore, the value of Vout is equal to the
value of Vin. In other words, when the value of R1 >> value of Rs, the value of Vout
is not be affected by the value of the internal resistance of the generator.

7.3 Step response of first-order RC circuits

1. Build the circuit in Figure 2 using R = 10 K and C = 0.01 F. Set the arbitrary waveform
generator provide a square wave input as follows:
a. Frequency = 300 HZ (to ensure that T >> RC, T=1/f). This value of frequency guarantees
that the output signal has sufficient time to reach a final value before the next input
transition.
b. Set the Amplitude from 0 V to 5.0 V. Note that you need to set the offset to achieve
this waveform. Use the oscilloscope to display this waveform on Channel 1 to make sure
the amplitude is correct. We use this amplitude since it is common in computer systems.
c. Set both channel 1 and channel 2 to DC coupling.
2. Use Channel 2 of the oscilloscope to display the output signal waveform. Adjust the
timebase to display 2 complete cycles of the signals. Record the maximum and the
minimum values of the output signal

Vout Max=4.96V Vout min=OV

3. Use the measurement capability of the scope to measure the period T of the input
signal, the time value of the 10%-point of Vout, the time value of the 90%-point of Vout,
and the time value of the 50%-point of Vout

Period of input = 3.333ms

Vout rises : time value of the 10%-

point is 10 s

Vout falls : time value of the 10%-

point is 1.940 ms
The time value of the 90%-point
of Vout

Vout rises : time value of the

90%-point is 280 s

Vout falls :
time value of the 90%-point is
1.680 ms

The time value of the 50%-point

of Vout

Vout rises : time value of the

50%-point is 80 s
 Vout falls : time value of
the 50%-point is 1750
ms

4. Save a screenshot from the display with both waveforms and the measured values.
5. Measure the rise time of Vout, the fall time of Vout, and the two delay times tPHL and
tPLH between the input and output signals.
6. Save a screenshot from the display with both waveforms and the measured
values.

Rise time of Vout is 260

s
Fall time of V out is 270s

Delay time tPLH is 80 s

Delay time tPHL is 70 s

7. Measure the voltage and time values at 10 points on the Vout waveform during
one interval when Vout rises or falls with time (pick one interval only). Note that the
time values should be referred to time t = 0 at the point where the input signal rises from
0 V to 5 V or falls from 5 V to 0 V. Record these 10 measurements.
Time 16 s 20 s 22 s 36 s 42 s 48 s 108 134 190 240
s s s s
Voltage 720 880 1V 1.4 V 1.6 V 1.8 V 3 V 3.4 V 4 V 4.32
mV mV V

7.4 Step response of cascaded RC sections

1. Build the circuit in Figure 3, using 2 identical resistors R = 10 K and 2 identical
capacitors C =0.01 F. Use the same square input as in item 1, section 7.3 above and
display it on Channel 1

2. Display Vout on Channel 2 and adjust the time base to display 2 complete cycles of the
signals
Use the scope measurement capability to measure the two delay times tPHL and tPLH
between the input and output signals

tPHL = 220 s

tPLH =260 s
7.5 Manufacturing test time and test cost considerations

1. The more points you measure on a waveform, the more accurate the measured results
but this also takes more time and increases the test cost. This is an important tradeoff in
measurement accuracy and test cost. Given the circuit in Figure 2, ten data points per
waveform were collected in section 7.3 item 7. Good estimate means the estimated
value is within 10% of the correct value (from computation or simulation).
We should collect more than 10 points to extract a good estimate of the rise or fall time
of the circuit
2. The minimum number of data points do you need to collect to get a good estimate is
15. Other teams collect fewer points. We think their results are not better than ours.

8. Data analysis
8.1. Extracting internal resistance of an arbitrary waveform generator
1. Vout = R1/(R1+Rs) * Vs
R1 = 50 Vout = 50/(50+50) * 500 = 250 (mV)
R1= 27 k Vout = 2700/(2700+50) * 500 = 499.07 (mV)
This value doesnt agree with the recorded data in the lab.
2. From the data recorded in section 7.2 : Rs=50
3. The values for Vs (as displayed by an arbitrary waveform generator panel) and the
measured values on the scope are not the same.Because of the resistor of the wire and
the generator is not ideal.
8.2 Step response of first-order RC circuits
1. R = 10.013 k. C=0.01 F.
Vout = Vs (1 - e t/RC)
Voutmax = Vs = 5 (V) when t = T Voutmin= 0 (mV) when t = 0
Voutmax(measure)= 4.96V < 5V due to the existence of sources internal resistance.

2.
Calculated value Measured value
0->10%: t1 = -RC.ln 0.9 10.53 s 10 s
0->50%: t2 = -RC.ln 0.5 69.31 s 80 s
0->90%: t3 = -RC.ln 0.1 230.25 s 280 s
Error: 0->10% : 5.03%
0->50% : 15.42%
0->90% : 21.6%
Because the source has internal resistance so Req = Rs + R > R so t in practical is larger than
t in theory.
3.
Calculated value Measured value
t fall= t rise = t3 - t1 219.72s t rise=270 s, t fall= 260 s
tPHL=tPLH= t2 69.31s 80 s

The internal resistance is the sources of errors leading to the differences.

Error is committed by neglecting the internal resistance of the arbitrary waveform
generator: t rise: 22.88%
t fall :18.33%
tPHL and tPLH :15.42%
4.

Time 16 s 20 s 22 s 36 s 42 s 48 s 108 134 190 240

s s s s
Voltage 720 880 1V 1.4 V 1.6 V 1.8 V 3 V 3.4 V 4V 4.32
mV mV V

( is time constant)
=RC=0.0001s
measured:0.000104658s
The difference in percent: 4.658%

.
5.
( is time constant)
=RC=0.0001
measured : 0.000110494s
The difference in percent with 4: 10.494 % greater than 4.658%
=RC therefore C= /R= 0.011035 F this value greater than the marked value

8.3 Step response of cascaded RC sections

1. For the measurements in section 7.4 item3, the delay time for the cascaded circuit in
Figure 3 ( of 2 identical RC sections) are not twice as large as the delay times for the
simple RC circuit.
The delay time scale with the number of sections.
 We have
Vc1 = VR + Vc2
Taking the derivative both sides, we obtain: dVc1/dt = dVc2/dt
We also have: Is = Ic1 + Ic2
Vs/R = C1 dVc1 / dt + C2dVc2 / dt
C1 = C2 = C => Vs= 2RC * dV2/dt = 2RC dVout/dt
=> =1/2 RC
The expression of t: t = -2RC * ln(1 Vout/Vs)
In section 7.3, we have: t = -RC * ln(1 Vout/Vs)
So we easily show that the delay time for the cascaded circuit (in Figure 3) is double the
delay time for the simple RC circuit. Similarly, we can show this problem for n sections:
t =n* ( -RC * ln(1 Vout/Vs))
2. The number of cascaded RC sections so that the propagation delay time is about T/2
Tdelay = T/2 n* ( -RC * ln(1 Vout/Vs)) = T/2 =1/(2f)
n = -1/(2RCf * ln(1 - Vout/Vs))
With delay time, we have Vout/Vs = 0.5. in section 7.3, we have
R = 10k, C=0.01F
n = 24 sections.
According to the delay time measured at the Figure 5:
tdelay.1 = 76 s of one RC section (in Figure 1).
With n sections, we have tdelay.n= n*tdelay.1 n = tdelay.n/tdelay.1
With tdelay.n = T/2=1/2f=1/600(s).
Therefore, n=1/(600*76*10-6)=22
%errors = 8.3% < 10%.So this is a good estimate.
 Laboratory #2: Operational amplifiers

.
I Objectives
- Read IC component specifications and get data from them for circuit
analysis and design.

- Analyze and measure characteristics of circuits built with op-amps.

- Use the op-amp as a component in the design of simple circuits.

- Analyze the effect of open fault in manufacturing.

II. Equipment used

The instruments needed for this experiment:
- An arbitrary waveform generator,
- A multimeter.
- An oscilloscope.
- Resistors and op-amp.
7. Experimental procedures
7.1 Instruments needed for this experiment
The instruments needed for this experiment are: a power supply, an arbitrary
waveform generator, a multimeter, and an oscilloscope.
7.2 Op-amp voltage follower circuit
1. Build the circuit in Figure 1 using R = 5 K, power supply = 12 V. Set
the function generator to provide a square wave input as follows (display on channel 1 of
the scope):

a. Period T=100 s, 50% duty cycle.

b. Amplitude: -10 V to +10 V
2. Use Channel 2 of the oscilloscope to display the output signal waveform. Adjust the
timebase to display 2 complete cycles of the signals.

The yellow figure is channel 1: input

The green figure is channel 2: output
3. From the oscilloscope, measure the time interval for the output to reach the steady
state after an input transition.

t =21.20s

4. Calculate the slew rate using this data and compare with the typical slew rate in the
specifications.
The slew rate is V/t = |(V10% -V90%)| / t = 10 V / 21.20s = 0.47V /s 0.5 V/s
It is approximate to the typical slew rate.
5. Are the slew rates the same for the high-to-low transition and the low-to-high
transition? If they are not, attempt to explain this difference in the data analysis section
below.
For the high-to-low transition, t1 = 32.80s. Similarly the calculating slew rate in part 4,
the slew rate for the high-to-low transition is 0.31 V/s
For the low-to-high transition, t2 = 21.20s. And the slew rate for the low-to-high
transition is 0.47 V/s. So, they are different
6. Save a screenshot

t = 32.80s
7. Clear all the measurements. Change the input signal to a sine wave with amplitude 3 V
(-3V to +3V peak-to-peak), frequency 1 KHz. Check the output signal to make sure the
voltage follower functions as expected. Now increase the frequency of the input signal
(keep the input amplitude the same) until the output signal starts to get distorted from a
sine or cosine wave. What is the frequency for the onset of this distortion?
The frequency is 1 KHz, Vpp input = 6.04V, Vpp output = 6.04V
Therefore, the voltage gain is 1. So it is the voltage follower function.
From the experiment, the voltage output starts to distort when the frequency is
approximate to 30 KHz, but we choose the figure when the frequency is 35 KHz to see
the distortion easily.

8. Save a screenshot.

The voltage output starts to distort when the frequency is 35 KHz.

7.3 Performance of the gain circuit in Figure 2
1. Build the circuit in Figure 2, with the initial setting of the resistor R2 = 0 (record this
value) and power supply = 12 V. Apply a sine wave input signal with amplitude 100 mV
(-100 mV to +100 mv), DC offset 0V, and frequency 10 Hz. Display the input signal on
channel 1 of the signal.
The resistor R2 = 0.041

2. Display Vout on Channel 2 and adjust the time base to display 2 complete
cycles of the signals.
The same image in part 1
3. Record the overall gain at this setting of R2 (i.e. record in a table the value of R2 and
the corresponding value of the voltage gain).
Vpp input = Vmax(1) Vmin(1) = 216 mV
Vpp output = Vmax(2) Vmin(2) = 2.16 V
So the overall voltage gain is 10
4. Now vary R2 to take on these values: 1 K, 2 K, 3 K up to 10 K at 1 K step.
At each setting of R2, measure the gain and record it in the same table for subsequent
plotting.
R2 (K) Voltage gain
1 1.0032 8.02
2 2.0015 6.02
3 3.0024 4.34
4 4.0105 2.14
5 5.0089 0.36
6 6.0076 -1.78
7 7.0012 -2.89
8 8.0091 -5.83
9 9.0015 -7.51
10 10.0101 -9.81
5. Get a hardcopy output from the scope display with both waveforms at each of these
settings of R2= 2 K and R2=8 K. Turn these hardcopies in as part of your lab report

R2 = 2 K, the voltage
gain is 6.02

R2 = 8 K, the voltage
gain is -5.83
7.4 Performance of your own gain circuit
1. Build the circuit you designed in the pre-lab, section 6.4 above. Use power
supplies 12 V. Apply a sine wave input signal with amplitude 100 mV (-100 mV
to + 100 mV peak-to-peak), frequency 10 Hz. Display the input signal on channel 1 of
the oscilloscope.

2. Use Channel 2 of the oscilloscope to display the output signal waveform. Adjust the
time base to display 2 complete cycles of the signals.
3. Collect sufficient data to show convincingly that your circuit performs as designed.
Turn in the data you collect (scope display of waveforms, tables of data points, plots,
etc.)
With =0
Circuit in 7.3, the voltage gain = 10
Our performance: The voltage gain = - 9.58

With =2 K
Circuit in 7.3: The voltage gain =
6.02
Our performance : The voltage gain
= 6.17

With =8 K
Circuit in 7.3 the voltage gain = -
5.83
*Our performance
The voltage gain = - 5.78

The table of value

(K) Voltage gain
1 1.0012 -8.14
2 2.0924 -6.05
3 3.1349 -3.89
4 4.0007 -2.15
5 5.0145 -0.34
6 6.1045 2.18
7 7.0128 3.87
8 8.0588 5.63
9 9.1856 8.13
10 10.012 9.87
8. Data analysis.
8.1 Op-amp voltage follower circuit.
1. From the pre-lab section 6.2 items 2 and the measured value in section 7.2 item 3,
compare the calculated and measured values of the time for the output to reach the steady
state.
The measured values:
8 Low to high: 21 s

9 High to low: 32 s

The calculated value: 20us

The time for low-to-high transition is approximate to the calculated value but the time for
high-to-low transition is greater than it.
2. If the slew rates are not the same for the high-to-low transition and the low-to-high
transition as observed in the lab, attempt to explain why.
From the section 7.2
The slew rate for the low-to-high transition is 0.47 V/s
The slew rate for the high-to-low transition is 0.31 V/s
They are different.
The slew rate is the slope of the signal (dV/dt), then when time from low-to-high and
time from high-to-low is different which is explained in section 7.2 item 5. They lead to
the different in slew rate.
8.2 Performance of the circuit in Figure 2
1. Plot the data collected in section 7.3 item 4: voltage gain versus the setting of the
resistor R2. Use linear scale on both axes.

R2 (K) Voltage gain

1 1.0032 8.02
2 2.0015 6.02
3 3.0024 4.34
4 4.0105 2.14
5 5.0089 0.36
6 6.0076 -1.78
7 7.0012 -2.89
8 8.0091 -5.83
9 9.0015 -7.51
10 10.0101 -9.81

2. Compare this plot with the plot using calculated data in the pre-lab section 6.3 item.
Explain any difference.
From the calculated data
From section 7.3

Comment: The measured values and the calculated values are nearly the same

8.3 Performance of your own gain circuit

1. Justify the specific data you collected in section 7.4 (i.e. if you collect voltage gain as
function of frequency, explain why you think this data is important to support your
conclusion that the circuit works as designed).
This data base on R2, because it is the key to calculate Gain.

2. How much data is sufficient to demonstrate the performance of your circuit? This
issue is critical in real-life testing. If too much data is collected, the test cost is higher and
the profit per product is lower. If too little data is collected, your circuit might not really
work as designed since it has not been well tested. So what is sufficient data for this
specific design? Justify your answer.
In our opinion, a set of three specific data is enough for the test. Since we know
that the gain is the first order function of R2, therefore it should be a line.
And 2 points give us a line. To make sure the result, three measured values are
enough for the test.
3. Analyze your data to demonstrate that the circuit works as designed. Show plots,
equations, differences between calculated and measured results, etc. Discuss in detail if
your circuit does not work as designed or if there are significant differences between the
theoretical and the measured results.
20(-) = 10-
Plot the gain as function of R2 from:
Measured gain value

Comment: The measure value is nearly same with the calculated values. We realize that
they share some common point. The shapes of these two pictures are quite similar.

CONCLUSION:
This report has discussed op-amps play an important role in the circuit, read component
specifications and process data of circuit in analysis and design. Analyze and measure
characteristics of circuits building with op-amps, Use the op-amp as a component in the
design of simple circuits and analyze the effect of open fault in manufacturing.
Remember that characteristics of the op-amps (slew rate, voltage gain, off-set voltage)
were also mentioned. Especially the Voffset of op-amp and solving Voffset. This report
show the difference between theoretical data and practical one. The data collected
correlated strongly to the hypotheses, percent errors reaching as so large but it are normal
in the lab.
Laboratory #3: Integrators, differentiators, and simple filters

I. Objectives
- Read IC component specifications and get data from them for circuit analysis and
design.
- Analyze and measure characteristics of circuits built with opamps.
- Use the op-amp as a component in the design of simple circuits.
- Analyze the effect of open fault in manufacturing.

II. Equipment used

- Oscilloscope:
Function: display the waveform of the Vin and Vout in the electrical circuit
- Multi-meter :
Function: measuring the value of resistors.
- Arbitrary waveform generator :
- Function: electric source, we use this device in order to generate the waveform
Quantity Description Comment
3 MC 4741C opamp Or equivalent
3 1k resistor
3 10k resistor
1 20k resistor
3 0.01 F capacitor
1 0.2 F capacitor

Section 6: Pre lab

6.1 Designs of simple amplifiers
For the circuit in figure 1 with power supplies VCC = 12.0 V, VEE = -12.0 V, and
assuming the op-amp is ideal, answer the following questions:
1. Design an inverting amplifier using one op-amp and two or more resistors. Design it
such that it has a gain of -10 (this gain is negative). Pick resistor values that you have in
the lab kit. Include a schematic of this circuit with the component values labeled with
your completed pre-lab assignment
Set V=V+=V-=0 (V+ and V- : voltage at non-inverting and inverting node respectively.)
Using KCL,

Gain is G = -10 so we choice =10K and =1K.

2. Simulate this inverting amplifier circuit with SPICE to make sure the circuit works as
designed.

10 Design a non-inverting amplifier such that it has a gain of +11 (this gain is
positive). Pick resistor values that you have in the lab kit. Include a schematic of
this circuit with the component values labeled with your completed pre-lab
assignment.
Apply KCL:

11 Simulate this non-inverting amplifier circuit with SPICE to make sure the circuit
works as designed.

i =1V and =11V, the gain is 11 therefore the circuit works as designed.

6.2 Analysis of integrators and differentiators.

For the circuit in Figure 2 with power supplies VCC = 12 V, VEE = -12 V, and assuming
the op-amp is ideal, answer the following question
1. Derive the time-domain equation for Vo (t) in terms of Vi (t). Show that the circuit
performs the function of an integrator.

Figure 2. Simple Intergrator

Vc = Q/C, Vc = Vx Vout = 0 - Vout
- (d Vout )/(dt) = (dQ)/(Cdt)
We have dQ/dt is electric current and the node voltage of the integrating op-amp at its
inverting input terminal is 0, X = 0, the input current Iin flowing through the input
resistor, Rin is given as:
Iin = (Vin-0)/Rin= Vin/ Rin
The current flowing through the feedback capacitor C:
If = (CdVout)/ (dt) = (CdQ)/(Cdt) = (dQ)/(dt) = (dVoutC)/(dt)
Assuming we have ideal op-amp, no current flows into its terminal. Hence, the nodal
equation at the inverting input terminal:
 Iin = If = Vin/ Rin = (dVoutC)/(dt)
Vin/ Vout x (dt)/ RinC = 0
The ideal voltage output for the OP-amp Integrator as:
Vout = -1/( RinC) (Vin dt) = - (Vin dt)/ ( RinC)
Or this can also be re-written as:
Vout = -(Vin)/(jRC)
If, then
2. Derive the time-domain equation for Vo(t) in terms of Vi(t).Show that the circuit
performs the function of a differentiator.

Figure 3. Simple differentiator

Iin = IF and IF = - Vout / RF
The charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance x Voltage across the capacitor:
Q = C x Iin
The rate of change of this charge is:
(dQ)/(dt) = C (dVin)/(dt)
dQ/dt is the capacitor current i:
Iin = (CdVin)/(dt) = IF
- Vout/RF = (CdVin)/(dt)
We have an ideal voltage output for the op-amp differentiator is given as:
Vout = - RF(CdVin)/(dt)
Thus, the output voltage Vout is (-Rf.C x Vin) with respect to time. The minus sign
indicates a 180o phase shift because the input signal is connected to the inverting input
terminal of the operational amplifier.
3 . What is the low-frequency gain of this circuit?

4. For frequencies >> 1/(RbC), show that the circuit performs the function of an
integrator
The circuit performs nearly like the circuit in figure 2 which is an integrator circuit.
5. Use SPICE transient analysis to simulate this circuit in the time domain using a sine
wave input with amplitude 300 mV and frequency 300 Hz. From the SPICE output plot
of the input and output waveforms, confirm that this circuit is an integrator.
At frequency of 300Hz, voltage gain is reduced and can be seen significantly

Figure 4. Output (blue) and Input (green) signals

6. Try to explain the function of the resistor Rb in this circuit.

If Rb increases, the voltage gain also increase.

Hence, Rb has a purpose to increase the voltage gain.

Rb is used to prevent the capacitor from storing charge because of small offset current
and voltage at input.
When Rb increases, the current through capacitor is gradually decreased, then capacitor
spends more amount of time to reach the steady state.
Moreover, a trade-off between voltage gain and the time taking for circuit operates in
steady state.
However that amount of time is really not clear.
We can observe the longer amount of time for circuit to operate in steady state in the case
of Rb = 100k.

R = 20k

6.3 Analysis and simulation of an active low-pass filter

 Figure 5. Low-pass filter

Derive the equation for the amplitude of Vo(t) in terms of the input amplitude A, input
frequency , and circuit components R and C. Do not use any numerical values.
Note: there is no need to derive the output phase equation.
then the expression of Vout is the same as the case in figure 3.

The ratio of the output amplitude over the input amplitude is called the gain of the
circuit. From item 1 above, what is the equation for the circuit gain in terms of
input frequency and circuit components R and C? Do not use any numerical
values.
We have that:

G(dB)=100-10log(108+42f2)

We have: R3=10k, R1 =1k, C=0.01uF

Frequency changes from 10Hz to 100 kHz:
Frequency(Hz) Gain(dB)
10 19.9998
20 19.9993
50 19.9957
100 19.9829
200 19.9319
500 19.5912
1k 18.5549
2k 15.8843
5k 9.638
10k 3.928
20k -2.0113
50k -9.9487
100k -15.9646
 4. Use SPICE AC analysis to simulate this circuit and generate the gain plot.
Compare the SPICE gain plot with your plot in item 3 above. Explain any
differences

- From the formula of gain :

We can see that, value of gain depends on the value of = 2f

If input signal has low frequency, the value of gain will become larger. In other
words, the smaller the frequency is, the bigger the value of gain is.
If input signal has high frequency, the value of gain will be smaller. This will
attenuate the signal the input.
Circuit is named low-pass because with low frequency, it will permit the signal
to pass through, particularly, the gain of the circuit will be become larger.
- We have: Vi(t) = Acos( t)
We can see that value of gain also depends on the value of frequency (=2f). If the
frequency is low, the value of gain is high and vice versa.
Thus, we can conclude that the integrator circuit and the low pass filter are similar.
Section 7: Experimental procedures
7.1 Instruments needed for this experiment
The instruments needed for this experiment are: a power supply, an arbitrary
waveform generator, a multimeter, and an oscilloscope.
7.2 Inverting amplifiers
Build the circuit in Figure 1 using power supplies 12 V and the resistor values from
your design in the Pre-lab, section 6.1 item 1.

The real value of resistor R1= 1.012 and R2 = 10.114

1. Use a sine wave input with small amplitude so that the output is not affected by the
slew rate in this part. From the starting input frequency of 10 Hz and varying it using 1 2
5 sequence up to 1 MHz(i.e.set input frequency to 10 Hz, 20 Hz, 50 Hz, 100 Hz, 200 Hz,
up to 1 MHz), measure the experimental values of the gain of this circuit at each
frequency. Record them in a table for later data analysis.

Frequency Vin (Vpp - V) Vout (Vpp - V )

10 0.188 1.86
20 0.184 1.81
50 0.180 1.79
100 0.188 1.82
200 0.184 1.78
500 0.180 1.72
1000 0.180 1.80
2000 0.188 1.57
5000 0.180 1.48
10K 0.184 1.32
20K 0.180 1.29
50K 0.180 1.27
100K 0.196 1.26
200K 0.204 0.81
500K 0.208 0.42
1M 0.204 0.32
 Get a hardcopy output from the scope display with both waveforms at the frequency
100 KHz. Turn this hardcopy in as part of your lab report.

f = 100Hz

CH1 is Vin
CH2 is Vout

7.3 Integrators
1. Build the circuit in Figure 4 with power supplies 12 V. Apply a sine wave input signal
with amplitude 300 mV and frequency 300 Hz. Display the input signal on channel 1 of
the oscilloscope.
2. Display Vo on Channel 2 and adjust the time base to display 2 to 3 complete cycles of
the signals.
3. Get a hardcopy output from the scope display with both waveforms to confirm that the
circuit is an integrator. Turn this hardcopy in as part of your lab report.
Real values: R = 1.034 k
Rb = 20.247 k
C = 0.2 F
4. Change the input signal to a square wave with the same 300 mV amplitude (300 mV to
+300 mV) and frequency 300 Hz. Get a hardcopy output from the scope display with
both waveforms to confirm that the circuit is still an integrator. Turn this hardcopy in as
part of your lab report

Figure 6. Output (blue) and input (yellow) waveforms with square input signal
5. Repeat item 4 above using a triangular input signal with same amplitude and
frequency. Turn this hardcopy in as part of your lab report

Figure 7. Output (blue) and input (yellow) waveforms with triangular input signal

6. Now change the input back to a sine wave as in item 1. Remove the resistor Rb. What
happens to the output signal? Explain the phenomenon you observe on the oscilloscope.
Reinsert the resistor Rb and verify that the circuit functions as designed.

Figure 8. Output (blue) and input (yellow) signals when R b is removed

- Comment: When we remove the resistor Rb, the gain increases larger than the case as
existing Rb. And the phasor of output is out of phase with the phasor of input.
- Explain: when Rb is removed out of the circuit, there is no DC current go through
negative feedback that makes the DC offset become unstable. The output signal will
oscillate corresponding to the instability of the DC offset.
7.4 Low-pass filters
1. Build the circuit in Figure 5 with power supplies 12 V. Use a sine wave of amplitude
100 mV as an input signal (see item 2 below for frequency) and display both the input
and output signals on the oscilloscope (2 to 3 complete cycles).

Figure 9. Low pass-filter

2. Vary the input signal frequency in 1-2-5 sequence from 1 Hz to 100 KHz. At each
frequency, measure the gain of the circuit, using the data from the oscilloscope display.
Keep this data in a table for later plotting.
Real values: R1 = 1.137 k
R2 = 10.617 k
Frequency (Hz) V in (Vpp - V) V out (Vpp - V ) Gain (ratio)
1 0.182 1.84 10.11

2 0.184 1.86 10.108

5 0.182 1.80 9.89

10 0.184 1.82 9.891

20 0.184 1.86 10.108

50 0.182 1.84 10.11

100 0.180 1.83 10.167

200 0.182 1.80 9.89

500 0.180 1.76 9.778

1K 0.182 1.54 8.462

2K 0.180 1.14 6.333

5K 0.182 0.63 3.461

10K 0.184 0.25 1.359

20K 0.182 0.17 0.934

50K 0.182 0.15 0.824

100K 0.180 0.13 0.722

8. Data analysis:
8.1 Inverting Amplifiers.
1.1. Compare the experimental gain measured in section 7.2 item 1 with the calculated
gain in the pre-lab and with the gain as simulated by SPICE. Explain any difference
between these values.
The calculation gain is 10 and it is nearly 10 with small error.
Measured gain Calculated gain %Error
nearly 9.5 10 About 5% to 7%
The difference is due to
- The real values of resistors are not equal the values in calculations. The real value of
resistor R1= 1.012 and R2 = 10.114
- The op-amp is supposed to be ideal but actually it is not.
1.2. From the table of data in section 7.2 item 1, plot the gain of this circuit as dB versus
frequency, using the technique described in the Discussion section.
Frequency Gain(ratio) Gain(dB)
10 9.8936 19.907
20 9.8369 19.857
50 9.9444 19.952
100 9.6808 19.718
200 9.6739 19.712
500 9.5555 19.605
1000 10 20
2000 9.89 19.903
5000 8.222 18.299
10K 7.174 17.115
20K 7.167 17.107
50K 7.055 16.969
100K 6.429 16.162
200K 3.9706 11.977
500K 2.0192 6.103
1M 1.568 3.907
8.2 Integrators:
1. Explain any difference between the SPICE output in section 6.2 items 5 and the
experimental data in section 7.3 item 3.

Figure10. Output (blue) and input (yellow) signal in section 7.3.3

Figure 11. Input (green) and Output (blue) signal in section 6.2.5

Difference: There is only small different between the SPICE output and the experimental
data. The result in practical is quite larger than the one in SPICE.
Explanation: The reasons are the errors in the experimental measurement while SPICE
get the result from the ideal condition. Besides, the errors in experimental devices is the
one of the reason why they are different.
With the experimental observation in section 7.3 items 6, explain the function of the
resistor Rb.
 - Because capacitor acts as an open circuit for DC voltage, the integrator gives open
loop gain. This produces an error voltage at the output. The function of Rb is limiting
the low frequency gain and reducing error in the output voltage.
8.3 Low-pass filters
1. From the data in section 7.4 item 2, plot the gain (in dB) of the circuit as function of
frequency(using the technique described in the Discussion section) and compare it with
the plots in section 6.3 item 1 and in section 6.3 item 2 (SPICE plot). Explain any
differences between these 3 plots.

Frequency (Hz) Gain Gain

(ratio) (dB)
1 10.11 20.095

2 10.10 20.093
8
5 9.89 19.904

10 9.891 19.905

20 10.10 20.093
8
50 10.11 20.095

100 10.16 20.144

7
200 9.89 19.904

500 9.778 19.805

1K 8.462 18.549

2K 6.333 16.032

5K 3.461 10.785

10K 1.359 1.649

20K 0.934 -0.593

50K 0.824 -1.681

100K 0.722 -2.829

The table of Gain vs Frequency in prelab 6.3.1
Frequency (Hz) Gain (Ratio) Gain (dB)
1 10.0000 20.0000
2 10.0000 20.0000
5 10.0000 20.0000
10 9.9998 19.9998
20 9.9992 19.9993
50 9.9951 19.9957
100 9.9803 19.9829
200 9.9219 19.9319
500 9.5403 19.5912
1000 8.4673 18.5549
2000 6.2268 15.8843
5000 3.0332 9.6380
10000 1.5718 3.9280
20000 0.7933 -2.0113
50000 0.3181 -9.9487
100000 0.1591 -15.9666
There are some small differences between these graphs since:
- The real values of resistors and capacitor are not equal the theoretical ones.
- The op-amp in fact is not ideal .
Some errors in the measuring instruments.
Laboratory #4: Transmit filter designs for ADSL modems

I. Objectives
1. Design a filter from a given topology and specifications.
2. Analyze the characteristics of the designed filter.
3. Use SPICE to verify circuit designs before building the circuit.
4. Measure the characteristics of the designed filter.

II. Equipment used

- Oscilloscope:
Function: display the waveform of the Vin and Vout in the electrical circuit.
- Multi-meter :
Function: measuring the value of resistors.
- Arbitrary waveform generator :
- Function: electric source, we use this device in order to generate the waveform.
- Name of equipment used :
FLUKE 281 40MS/s Arbitrary Waveform Generator
Gw INSTEK GDS-2064 Digital Storage Oscilloscope 60 MHz 1GS/s
III. Circuits
You will design, analyze, simulate, and test the circuit in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Basic Sallen-Key filter.

IV. Disscusion
Asymmetric-digital-subscriber-line (ADSL) modems are commonly used for internet
connections with speed up to 100 times faster than 56K modems on existing phone lines.
They also permit simultaneous phone and modem usage. The transmit filter at the front
end of the ADSL modem is a very important circuit performing the following functions:
1. The transmit filter pre-processes the signal to limit its bandwidth. The filter output
drives the digital-to-analog converter interfacing with the telephone line.
2. The transmit filter usually is a bandpass filter to eliminate low-frequency noise and to
reduce interference in the receive band.
The starting point of all transmit filters in ADSL modems is the basic Sallen-Key filter
depicted in Figure 1. It has a minimum number of components and is simple to design.
The standard specifications are a passband from 1.7 KHz to 119 KHz, with a very steep
slope at higher frequencies to reduce interference.
To simplify the design for this laboratory, we will design a low-pass filter instead of a
bandpass filter. Several design procedures exist to select the component values to realize
a given specification. We will choose the simplest of these design procedures in this
experiment.

Section 6: Pre lab

6.1 Recording specified op-amp parameters for analysis and design
Go over the specifications of the op-amp to be used and write down the typical
values of the op-amp parameters assuming the power supplies are 12 V.
6.2 Basic Sallen-Key filter specifications
A low-pass filter specifications are: = 3 dB. Frequency f = 1 KHz. Low-frequency gain
G = 2.
 Figure 1. Basic Sallen-Key filter

6.3 Design procedure

2. From the equation in item 1 above, select the values of R3 and R4 so that the low-frequency
gain of the circuit is 2 (from the gain specification in section 6.2).

R4=R3

4. From the simplified equation in item 3, what is the expression for the 3-dB frequency in terms
of R and C? Since the 3-dB frequency is specified in section 6.2 to be 1 KHz, select the
component values for R and C. Hint: since the available capacitor values are more restricted than
the available resistor values, pick the capacitor value first then pick the resistor value to satisfy
the frequency specification. At this point, the design is completed since you have selected values
for all the components of the circuit in Figure 1.

We pick R=20k

5. Plot the gain (dB) and phase shift of the circuit as function of frequency from 10 Hz to 50 KHz.
From this plot, does your design have the correct values for the low-frequency gain and the 3-dB
frequency as specified? If it does not, it is not a good design and will need to be re-designed.

Frequency (Hz) Gain (dB) Phase shift (degrees)

10 6.021 -0.72
20 6.023 -1.44
50 6.04 -3.61
100 6.09 -7.28
200 6.29 -15.02
500 7.21 -46.07
1000 3.20 -114.74
2000 -9.37 -154.7
5000 -25.8 -170.73
10000 -37.92 -175.42
20000 -49.98 -177.72
50000 -65.91 -179.09
6. Simulate the design with SPICE, still assuming an ideal op-amp, to make sure the circuit works
as designed. Use SPICE AC analysis to plot gain (dB) and phase shift as function of frequency
from 10 Hz to 50 KHz. From this plot, does your design have the correct values for the low-
frequency gain and the 3-dB frequency as specified? If it does not, it is not a good design and
will need to be re-designed.

Plot gain

From this plot, the design has the correct values for the low-frequency gain and the 3-dB
frequency as specified.
Plot phase

Section 7: Experimental procedures

7.1 Instruments needed for this experiment
An oscilloscope
A function generator
A multimeter
A power supply
Review the characteristics of ideal and non-ideal opamps and the proper handling of
integrated circuit packages. In this lab, do not apply signals that exceed the slew rate
limitation of the opamp.

7.2 BasicSallen-Keyfilter

- Build the circuit in Figure1 using power supplies 12V and the
component values from your design in the Pre-lab.
 - Use a sine wave input with small amplitude so that the output is not
affected by the slew rate in this part. From the starting input frequency of 10Hz
and varying it using 1-2-5 sequence up to
50KHz(i.e.setinputfrequencyto10Hz,20Hz,50Hz,100Hz,200Hz, up to 50KHz).
Display the input and output waveforms (2completecycles) on the scope. For
each frequency setting above, measure the gain and phase shift of the circuit.
Near the specified 3-dB frequency of 1 KHz, take extra gain and phase shift
measurements at frequencies 800 Hz, 900 Hz, 1 KHz, 1.1 KHz, and 1.2 KHz so the
corner can be estimated accurately.

Frequency Vin (mV) Vout (mV) Gain (dB) Phase shift (agree)
10Hz
20Hz
50Hz
100Hz
200Hz
500Hz
1kHz
2kHz
5kHz
10kHz
20kHz
50kHz

Use a table to store the frequency, gain, and phase shift data from the
measurements in items 2 and 3 above.

Frequency Vin (mV) Vout (mV) Gain(dB) Phase shift

(degree)
800Hz
900Hz
1kHz
1.1kHz
1.2kHz

Get a hard copy output from the scope display with both waveforms for each of
these 3 frequencies: 100 Hz, 1 KHz, and 10 KHz. Turn these 3 hardcopies in lab
report.
 f = 100Hz

f = 1kHz

f= 10kHz
Section 7: Data analysis
8.1 Basic Sallen-Key filter
- From the table of data in item 4 section 7.2, plot the gain (dB) and phase shift of this
circuit versus frequency.

- Compare the experimental gain and frequency shift plots in item 1 above with the
calculated gain and phase shift plots from the pre-lab (item 5 section 6.3) and as
simulated by SPICE (item 6 section 6.3). Explain any differences between these plots.

The calculated gain and phase shift plots from the pre-lab (item 5 section 6.3) and as
simulated by SPICE (item 6 section 6.3) have the same shapes since the values of the
entire component are absolutely correct. Experimental gain and frequency shift plots in
item 1, even their shapes look quite similar to respective plots in the pre-lab and as
simulated by SPICE, there exists some different points. We have :
+ At low frequency, the gain signal is nearly constant still cut off frequency.
+ Due to error when we did in lab (the error of resistor, capacitor,), the plot taken
from actual data is not as smooth as it is in theoretical plots and when we simulate as
well.
Theoretical Value Practical Value
R1 2.2k 2.210k

R2 2.2k 2.230k
R3 10k 10.024k

R4 10k 10.020k

C1 0.01F 0.0114F

C2 0.01F 0.0110F

Table. The differences between theoretical and practical capacitance and resistance
+ About the Phase shift: At high frequency, since the period of signal is very small and
output signal distort a lot when we increase the frequency to 10 kHz, 20 kHz or 50 kHz.
Therefore we cannot measure exact value of phase delay.
3. Is the measured value of the 3-dB frequency the same as the frequency specification in
section 6.2? Explain any difference.
- No, it is not the. The measured cutoff frequency is about 900 Hz while the cutoff
frequency in section 6 is 1 kHz. The difference occurs because of the errors of the
equipment and devices.
4. Is the measured value of the low-frequency gain the same as the gain
specification in section 6.2? Explain any difference.
- No, it is not the same. The measured value of the low- frequency gain is higher than
the gain specification in section 6. The difference occurs because of the errors of the
equipment and devices.