Shamim & Company (Pvt) Ltd.

PEPSI - MULTAN

Project Report

Submitted By: Anam Yaseen

Roll NO. 2K12-Che-37
Topic: Water Treatment Process
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We owe our gratitude to Allah Almighty whose shower of blessings and kindness has been on us
throughout the working on these pages. It is His help that we finally able to compile this
document.

We are indebted to our respected teacher Mr. Mujtaba Ashraf whos indispensable and intricate
comments on various aspects conjoined with motivation made us come forth holding such as
project.

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 Content

Sr. Topic Page No.

No.

1 Reverse Osmosis 4

2 Types of Reverse Osmosis Membranes 5

3
10
Ion Exchange
4 Equipment 11

5 Syrup Room Equipment 14

6 CLTS 16

7 References 21

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What is Reverse Osmosis?

Reverse Osmosis is a technology that is used to remove a large majority of contaminants

from water by pushing the water under pressure through a semi-permeable membrane.

Understanding Reverse Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis, commonly referred to as RO, is a process where you demineralize or deionize
water by pushing it under pressure through a semi-permeable Reverse Osmosis Membrane.

Osmosis

To understand the purpose and process of Reverse Osmosis you must first understand the
naturally occurring process of Osmosis.

Osmosis is a naturally occurring phenomenon and one of the most important processes in nature.
It is a process where a weaker saline solution will tend to migrate to a strong saline solution.
Examples of osmosis are when plant roots absorb water from the soil and our kidneys absorb
water from our blood.

Below is a diagram which shows how osmosis works. A solution that is less concentrated will
have a natural tendency to migrate to a solution with a higher concentration. For example, if you
had a container full of water with a low salt concentration and another container full of water
with a high salt concentration and they were separated by a semi-permeable membrane, then the
water with the lower salt concentration would begin to migrate towards the water container with
the higher salt concentration.

Principles of Operation
Reverse osmosis is a membrane separation process for removing solvent from a solution. When a
semi permeable membrane separates a dilute solution from a concentrated solution, solvent
crosses from the dilute to the concentrated side of the membrane in an attempt to equalize
concentrations. The flow of solvent can be prevented by applying an opposing hydrostatic
pressure to the concentrated solution.

The magnitude of the pressure required to completely impede the flow of solvent is defined as
the "osmotic pressure". If the applied hydrostatic pressure exceeds the osmotic pressure (see
figure below), flow of solvent will be reversed, that is, solvent will flow from the concentrated to
the dilute solution. This phenomenon is referred to as Reverse Osmosis. The figure illustrates the
concepts of osmosis, osmotic pressure and reverse osmosis schematically.

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Types of Reverse Osmosis Membranes
A reverse osmosis membrane must be freely permeable to water, highly impermeable to solutes,
and able to withstand high operating pressures. It should ideally be tolerant of wide ranges of pH
and temperature and should be resistant to attack by chemicals like free chlorine and by bacteria.

Ideally, it should also be resistant to scaling and fouling by contaminants in the feed water. There
are three major types of reverse osmosis membranes: cellulosic, fully aromatic polyamide and
thin film composite. A comparison of characteristics of these three membrane types is given in
the following Table.

Comparison of Reverse Osmosis Membranes

Aromatic Thin Film
Feature Cellulosic
Polyamide Composite*
Rejection of
L M H
Organic
Rejection of
Low Molecular M H H
Weight Organics

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 Water Flux M L H
pH Tolerance 4-8 4-11 2-11
Temperature
Max 35 deg C. Max 35 deg C. Max 45 deg C.
Stability
Oxidant
Tolerance(e.g. H L L
free Chlorine
Compaction
H H L
Tendency
Biodegradability H L L
Cost L M H
L = Low; M = Medium; H = High
*Thin film composite type having polyamide surface layer

Cellulosic Membranes: The concept of reverse osmosis was first demonstrated in the late 1950s
with cellulose acetate membranes. These membranes are asymmetric, composed of a thin dense
surface layer (0.2 to 0.5 ~m ) and a thick porous substructure. Solute rejection is accomplished
by the thin dense layer and the porous substructure provides structural strength. Cellulose acetate
membranes can be cast in sheets or as hollow fibers.

Cellulose acetate membranes are inexpensive and easy to manufacture but suffer from several
limitations. Their asymmetric structure makes them susceptible to compaction under high
operating pressures, especially at elevated temperatures.

Compaction occurs when the thin dense layer of the membrane thickens by merging with the
thicker porous substructure, leading to a reduction in product flux.

Cellulose acetate membranes are susceptible to hydrolysis and can only be used over a limited
pH range (low pH 3 to 5 and high pH 6 to 8, depending on the manufacturers). They also
undergo degradation at temperatures above 35C.

They are vulnerable to attack by bacteria.

Cellulose acetate membranes have a high water permeability but reject low molecular weight
contaminants poorly.

Cellulose triacetate membranes have been developed with improved salt rejection characteristics
and reduced susceptibility to pH, high temperature and microbial attack. However, cellulose
triacetate membranes have a lower water permeability than cellulose acetate membranes. Blends
of cellulose triacetate and cellulose acetate have been developed to take advantage of the
desirable characteristics of both membranes.

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 Aromatic polyamide membranes: Aromatic polyamide membranes were first developed by
DuPont in a hollow fiber configuration. Like the cellulosic membranes, these membranes also
have an asymmetric structure with a thin (0.1 to 1.0 ,um ) dense skin and a porous substructure.

Polyamide membranes have better resistance to hydrolysis and biological attack than do
cellulosic membranes. They can be operated over a pH range of 4 to 11, but extended use at the
extremes of this range can cause irreversible membrane degradation. They can withstand higher
temperatures than cellulosic membranes. However, like cellulosics, they are subject to
compaction at high pressures and temperatures.

They have better salt rejection characteristics than cellulosic membranes as well as better
rejection of water soluble organic

Thin film composites: As the name indicates, these membranes are made by forming a thin,
dense, solute rejecting surface film on top of a porous substructure. The materials of construction
and the manufacturing processes for these two layers can be different and optimized for the best
combination of high water flux and low solute permeability.

The water flux and solute rejection characteristics are predominantly determined by the thin
surface layer, whose thickness ranges from 0.01 to 0.1 micrometers.

Several types of thin film composite membranes have been developed, including aromatic
polyamide, alkyl-aryl polyurea/polyamide and polyfurane cyanurate. The supporting porous sub
layer is usually made of polysulfone.

Polyamide thin film composites, like polyamide asymmetric membranes, are highly susceptible
to degradation by oxidants, such as free chlorine. Consumers must be consistent in their
maintenance of the TFC systems, particularly the carbon pre filtration element which is present
to remove free chlorine(and other oxidative organics) and prevent damage and premature
destruction of the TFC membrane

Although the stability of these membranes to free chlorine has been improved by modifications
of the polymer formulation and the processing technique, exposure to oxidants must be
minimized.

Applications: Reverse osmosis membranes reject dissolved inorganic solutes, larger organic
solutes (molecular weight greater than 200), a portion of microbiological contaminants such as
endotoxin, viruses and bacteria, and particles. Because of this broad spectrum of solute rejection,
reverse osmosis is an important process in a wide variety of water treatment processes.

Removal of inorganic contaminants: The removal of inorganic contaminants by reverse osmosis

membranes has been studied in great detail by many researchers using a variety of membrane
types. Complex interactions occur in feed waters containing mixtures of ionic species.

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Nevertheless, general guidelines for the rejection of inorganic contaminants by reverse osmosis
membranes can be given:

Ionic contaminants are more readily rejected than neutral species. For most membrane types,
polyvalent ions are rejected to a greater extent than monovalent ions. If the polyvalent ion is
strongly hydrated, rejection is even higher.

Because electrical neutrality must be preserved, ions diffuse across the membrane as a cation-
anion pair. As a consequence, rejection of a particular ion depends on the rejection of its
counterion

Does that mean RO can purify any water?

In theory, yes. In practice, no. Certain impurities in water will either plug the RO membranes or
they will destroy them chemically. For example, strong oxidizing agents; such as, chlorine and
ozone will immediately destroy standard, polyamide-type TFC RO membranes. Water
containing these substances must be pre-treated to remove them. Similarly, silica in colloidal
form should be avoided, because it will solidify on the surface of the RO membranes, plugging
the pores permanently within a short period of time. Certain cationic polymers that are used in
water treatment and waste water treatment will also adhere to the RO membranes, thereby
reducing their output.

There is also osmotic pressure limitation for RO units. Present day membranes can handle at the

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most 1,500 psi (100 atm) applied pressure. For practical purposes, the operating pressure limit is
1,100 psi (75 atm). The dissolved impurities in water exert a certain amount of osmotic pressure.
If the value of the osmotic pressure exceeds the operating pressure, then water flow will cease
and actually, may reverse. This limit corresponds to about 6-8 weight % for salts like sodium
chloride and about 15-20 weight % for organics like sugars.

Design of the RO equipment plays an important role in what type of impurities the RO system
will handle without problems.

What kind of problems can you run into with RO ?

There are two kinds of problems; (1) lowering of output flow, in other words, loss of capacity,
and (2) lowering of impurity rejection, in other words, loss of purification efficiency.

Loss of capacity can be due to plugging of the membranes, or due to high impurity concentration
in the feed water. Plugging of the membranes can be of reversible type, which is due to normal
silt, organic fouling, scaling due to hardness, etc. Or, it can be irreversible type, which is due to
the presence of incompatible chemicals in the feed water.

Loss of purification efficiency can be due to scaling of the membranes with certain impurities, or
due to chemical damage to the membranes. Scaling can be reversible or irreversible.

How can you avoid problems with RO membranes ?

First of all, make an inventory of chemicals that are likely to be present in your raw water that
will be purified. Have your raw water analyzed for the major constituents and also for the
incompatible chemicals.

Next, in doubtful cases, request the RO equipment supplier to make a trial run with the sample of
water. The trial run should last about a week's operation, after which an evaluation can be made.

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How can you reverse plugging and scaling of RO?

For removing silt, dirt, fouling by dead bacteria and other organics, use Blue Spring Cat. No. DT
special detergent. In some cases, a mild solution of sodium hydroxide works better
For removing scales due to calcium, magnesium, and iron, use Blue Spring Cat. No. ZS-2 special
de-scaling agent. The instructions for use come with the package. In some cases, a mild solution
of hydrochloric acid works better.

Ion Exchange

Ion exchange (IX) processes are reversible chemical reactions for removing dissolved ions from
solution and replacing them with other similarly charged ions. In water treatment, it is primarily
used for softening where calcium and magnesium ions are removed from water; however, it is
being used more frequently for the removal of other dissolved ionic species.

In a cation exchange process, positively charged ions on the surface of the IX resin are
exchanged with positively charged ions available on the resin surface - typically sodium. Water
softening is the most widely used cation exchange process. Similarly, in anion exchange
negatively charged ions are exchanged with negatively charged ions on the resin surface -
typically chloride. Contaminants such as nitrate, fluoride, sulfate, and arsenic, as well as others,
can all be removed by anion exchange.

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The exchange medium consists of a solid phase of naturally occurring materials (zeolites) or a
synthetic resin having a mobile ion attached to an immobile functional acid or base group. Both
anion and cation resins are produced from the same basic organic polymers but they differ in the
functional group attached to the resin. The mobile ions are exchanged with solute ions having a
stronger affinity to the functional group (e.g. calcium ion replaces sodium ion or sulfate ion
replaces chloride ion).

When the capacity of the resin is exhausted, it is necessary to regenerate the resin using a
saturated solution to restore the capacity of the resin and return the resin to its initial condition.
Brine, or sodium chloride solution, is most the commonly used regenerant, although others, such
as strong acids (hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid) or strong bases (sodium hydroxide) may also be
used.

Manganese greensand is also used for IX processes. Greensand is processed to form a thin layer
of manganese dioxide on the outer surface of the sand. This layer adsorbs and catalyzes the
oxidation of iron, manganese, and other dissolved ionic species such as arsenic and radium. In
order for the media to retain its oxidation/adsorption properties, it much be regenerated with
permanganate or chlorine.

Equipment
The equipment used for sodium zeolite softening consists of a softener exchange vessel, control
valves and piping, and a system for brining, or regenerating, the resin. Usually, the softener tank
is a vertical steel pressure vessel with dished heads as shown in Figure 8-6. Major features of the
softening vessel include an inlet distribution system, free-board space, a regenerant distribution
system, ion exchange resin, and a resin-retaining underdrain collection system.

The inlet distribution system is usually located at the top of the tank. The inlet system provides
even distribution of influent water. This prevents the water from hollowing out flow channels in
the resin bed, which would reduce system capacity and effluent quality. The inlet system also
acts as a collector for backwash water.

The inlet distributor consists of a central header/hub with distributing laterals/radials or simple
baffle plates, which direct the flow of water evenly over the resin bed. If water is not prevented
from flowing directly onto the bed or tank walls, channeling will result.

The volume between the inlet distributor and the top of the resin bed is called the free-board
space. The free-board allows for the expansion of the resin during the backwash portion of the
regeneration without loss of resin. It should be a minimum of 50% of the resin volume (80%
preferred).

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The regenerant distributor is usually a header-lateral system that evenly distributes the regenerant
brine during regeneration. The location of the distributor, 6 in. above the top of the resin bed,
prevents the dilution of regenerant by water in the free-board space. It also reduces water and
time requirements for displacement and fast rinse. The regenerant distributor should be secured
to the tank structure to prevent breakage and subsequent channeling of the regenerant.

Water is softened by the bed of strong acid cation exchange resin in the sodium form. The
quantity of resin required depends on the water flow, total hardness, and time desired between
regeneration cycles. A minimum bed depth of 24 in. is recommended for all systems.

The underdrain system, located at the bottom of the vessel, retains ion exchange resin in the tank,
evenly collects the service flow, and evenly distributes the backwash flow. Uneven collection of
water in service or uneven distribution of the backwash water can result in channeling, resin
fouling, or resin loss.

Although several underdrain designs are used, there are two primary typessubfill and resin-
retaining. A subfill system consists of multiple layers of support media (such as graded gravel or
anthracite) which support the resin, and a collection system incorporating drilled pipes or subfill
strainers. As long as the support layers remain intact, the resin will remain in place. If the
supporting media becomes disturbed, usually due to improper backwash, the resin can move
through the disrupted layers and exit the vessel. A resin-retaining collector, such as a screened
lateral or profile wire strainer, is more expensive than a subfill system but protects against resin
loss.

The main valve and piping system directs the flow of water and regenerant to the proper
locations. The valve system consists of a valve nest or a single multiport valve. A valve nest
includes six main valves: service inlet and outlet, backwash inlet and outlet, regenerant inlet, and
regenerant/rinse drain. The valves may be operated manually, or automatically controlled by air,
electrical impulse, or water pressure. In some systems, a single multiport valve is used in place
of the valve nest. As the valve rotates through a series of fixed positions, ports in the valve direct
flow in the same manner as a valve nest. Multiport valves can eliminate operational errors caused
by opening of the incorrect valve but must be properly maintained to avoid leaks through the port
seals.

The brining system consists of salt dissolving/brine measuring equipment, and dilution control
equipment to provide the desired regenerant strength. The dissolving/measuring equipment is
designed to provide the correct amount of concentrated brine (approximately 26% NaCl) for
each regeneration, without allowing any undissolved salt into the resin. Most systems use a float-
operated valve to control the fill and draw-down of the supply tank, thereby controlling the
amount of salt used in the regeneration. Usually, the concentrated brine is removed from the tank
by means of an eductor system, which also dilutes the brine to the optimum regenerant strength
(8-10% NaCl). The brine can also be pumped from the concentrated salt tank and mixed with
dilution water to provide the desired regenerant strength.

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Softener Operation

A sodium zeolite softener operates through two basic cycles: the service cycle, which produces
soft water for use, and the regeneration cycle, which restores resin capacity at exhaustion.

In the service cycle, water enters the softener through the inlet distribution system and flows
through the bed. The hardness ions diffuse into the resin and exchange with sodium ions, which
return to the bulk water. Soft water is collected in the underdrain system and discharged. Service
water flow to the softener should be as constant as possible to prevent sudden surges and
frequent on-off operation.

Due to resin requirements and vessel designs, the softening operation is most efficient when a
service flow rate between 6 and 12 gpm per square foot of resin surface area is maintained. Most
equipment is designed to operate in this range, but some special designs utilize a deep resin bed
to permit operation at 15-20 gpm/ft. Continuous operation above the manufacturer's suggested
limits can lead to bed compaction, channeling, premature hardness breakthrough, and hardness
leakage. Operating well below the manufacturer's recommended flow rates can also negatively
affect softener performance. At low flow rates, the water is not sufficiently distributed, and the
optimum resin-water contact cannot take place.

When a softener is exhausted, the resin must be regenerated. Monitoring of the effluent hardness
reveals resin exhaustion. When hardness increases, the unit is exhausted. Automatic monitors
pro-vide a more constant indication of the condition of the softener than periodic operator
sampling and testing, but require frequent maintenance to ensure accuracy. Many facilities
regenerate softeners before exhaustion, based on a predetermined time period or number of
gallons processed.

Most softening systems consist of more than one softener. They are often operated so that one
softener is in regeneration or standby while the other units are in service. This ensures an
uninterrupted flow of soft water. Prior to placing a standby softener into service, the unit should
be rinsed to remove any hardness that has entered the water during the standing time.

Applications and Advantages

Scale and deposit buildup in boilers and the formation of insoluble soap curds in washing
operations have created a large demand for softened water. Because sodium zeolite softeners are
able to satisfy this demand economically, they are widely used in the preparation of water for
low and medium pressure boilers, laundries, and chemical processes. Sodium zeolite softening
also offers the following advantages over other softening methods:

treated water has a very low scaling tendency because zeolite softening reduces the
hardness level of most water supplies to less than 2 ppm

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 operation is simple and reliable; automatic and semiautomatic regeneration controls are
available at a reasonable cost
salt is inexpensive and easy to handle
no waste sludge is produced; usually, waste disposal is not a problem
within certain limits, variations in water flow rate have little effect on treated water
quality
because efficient operation can be obtained in units of almost any size, sodium zeolite
softeners are suitable for both large and small installations

Limitations

Although sodium zeolite softeners efficiently re-duce the amount of dissolved hardness in a
water supply, the total solids content, alkalinity, and silica in the water remain unaffected. A
sodium zeolite softener is not a direct replacement for a hot lime-soda softener. Plants that have
replaced their hot process softeners with only zeolite softeners have experienced problems with
silica and alkalinity levels in their boilers.

Because the resin is such an efficient filter, sodium zeolite softeners do not function efficiently
on turbid waters. Continued operation with an influent turbidity in excess of 1.0 JTU causes bed
fouling, short service runs, and poor effluent quality. Most city and well waters are suitable, but
many surface supplies must be clarified and filtered before use.

The resin can be fouled by heavy metal contaminants, such as iron and aluminum, which are not
removed during the course of a normal regeneration. If excess iron or manganese is present in
the water supply, the resin must be cleaned periodically. Whenever aluminum coagulants are
used ahead of zeolite softeners, proper equipment operation and close control of clarifier pH are
essential to good softener performance.

Strong oxidizing agents in the raw water attack and degrade the resin. Chlorine, present in most
municipal supplies, is a strong oxidant and should be removed prior to zeolite softening by
activated carbon filtration or reaction with sodium sulfite.

Syrup Room Equipment

The Syrup room equipment is designed to blend and mix liquid syrup components including
liquid sugar, glucose, additional sweeteners, water and other syrup components. It is also
capable of blending and mixing still fruit containing beverages. Once blended the product is
automatically delivered to the consuming equipment under temperature adjustable conditions as
required.

The equipment has been designed as an ejector mixer of liquids which have a viscosity not
exceeding 500 cP. It consists of two free pressure tanks with separate pipework which then join

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to a common flow distributing plate. Each tank is fitted with a gentle mixing jet and ejector, a
variable speed centrifugal pump and independent CIP pipework.

Main features

Produces very high quality syrups and beverages then delivers them smoothly and gently
to the consuming technology.
No manual operation necessary apart from changing the flowplate and choosing the
procedure on the operator panel.
Procedures are fully automatic and are simple and easy to change.
Level heights including volume calculations are continuously measured and checked.
The intensive ejector and agitating speed are automatically adjusted according to the tank
level.
The product is delivered via a variable speed driven pump adjusted to the desired
discharge pressure. For sedimenting products there is a choice of automatic agitation.
Machines include a fully automatic CIP procedure requiring a low volume of cleaning
agent.
Once used one tank can undergo the CIP procedure while the second tank is in use for
production.
Includes an Allen-Bradley PLC control system with an easy to operate 3 panel.
Communication is enabled for up to six other pieces of equipment as standard (e.g.
mixer, filler, pasteurizer and other tanks) as well as the CIP unit.
Machines are easy to maintain with the minimum number of moving parts and no
propeller agitators.
If required an optional function which purges the delivery pipe during quit mode using
low pressure CO2 can be included.
It is the ideal machine to work with the syrup components preparation and dosing centre
model doser VARIO.

Continuous sugar dissolving systems type CS and HS

The ROLEC system HS is used for dissolving applications between 82 Centigrade and 85
Centigrade. When cold dissolving is an option, the type CS will be applied. The Sugar gets
dissolved at temperatures between 22 Centigrade and 35 Centigrade. The dissolving process is
monitored and controlled by a laser refractometer with an accuracy of +/- 0.1 Brix

Batch sugar dissolving systems

When smaller quantities are run in a non-constant production process, we offer our batch
dissolving systems. They work with propeller or turbine agitators and sugar dosing augers. The
dissolving capacity reaches from 1000 litres to 8000 litres per batch. The batch systems can be
applied for cold or hot dissolving processes.

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CIP systems

ROLEC central cleaning systems offer a variety of application possibilities due to their
flexibility and efficiency. Besides the beverage and brewing plants our CIP systems also find use
in the food industry. Our modern and sophisticated automation systems in combination with high
end measuring and control components offer a wide range of applications for the cleaning of
beverage and food equipment and machinery

Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS)

Executive Summary

Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) is an approach which helps rural communities to

understand and realise the negative effects of poor sanitation and empowers them to collectively
find solutions to their inadequate sanitation situation. CLTS is focused on igniting a change in
sanitation behaviour rather than constructing toilets. This is done by a process of social
awakening that is stimulated by facilitators from within or outside the community. This approach
concentrates on the entire community rather than on individual behaviours. The first significant
step of CLTS is to end open defecation as an entry point while changing sanitation behaviour. It
starts by enabling people to do their own sanitation profile through appraisal, observation and
analysis of their practices of open defecation and the effects these have.

What is Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS)?

Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) is an approach which is based on the principle of

triggering collective behaviour change. In this approach, rural communities are facilitated to take
collective action to adopt safe and hygienic sanitation behaviour and guarantee that all
households have access to safe sanitation facilities. CLTS focuses on instigating a change in
sanitation behaviour rather than constructing sanitation infrastructure. This change in sanitation
behaviours is accomplished through a process of social awakening that is stimulated by
facilitators from within or outside the community (see also awareness raising). The CLTS
approach concentrates on the whole community rather than on individual behaviours. Collective
benefit from stopping open defecation can encourage a more cooperative approach. People
decide together how they will generate a clean and hygienic environment that benefits everyone
(see also planning with the community). It is essential that CLTS involves no individual
household hardware subsidy and does not prescribe latrine models.

The CLTS approach concentrates on ending open defecation as a first significant step and entry
point to changing behaviour. It starts by enabling people to do their own sanitation profile
through appraisal, observation and analysis of their practices of open defecation and the effects
these have.

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In its fullest sense, total sanitation includes a range of behaviours such as: stopping all open
defecation; ensuring that everyone uses a hygienic toilet; washing hands with soap before
preparing food and eating, after using the toilet, and after contact with babies faeces, or birds
and animals; handling food and water in a hygienic manner; and safe disposal of animal and
domestic waste to create a clean and safe environment (see also health and hygiene issues).

The Beginning and Spread of CLTS Approach

In Bangladesh (Rajshahi district) a unique community mobilisation approach was piloted in the
year 2001 by the Village Education Resource Centre in Bangladesh, a local NGO and partner of
WaterAid Bangladesh. The main goal was to achieve total sanitation coverage. The approach
aimed to make the community realise how important it is to totally ban open defecation within
the village, without any external subsidy, and based entirely on community mobilisation. The
communities used their own resources, created action committees, developed innovative low-
cost technologies, monitored progress, and ensured that all households adopted fixed-point safe
and hygienic defecation practices. External agencies were only facilitating the process. The
Rajshahi initiative demonstrated a paradigm-shift in promoting improved sanitation practices
through a community-based strategy. However, the approach to scaling up was modest and only
a village-by-village upscale was attempted.

The Rajshahi project had raised interest in India, leading to visits by policy makers facilitated by
the Water and Sanitation Program-South Asia. Based on the visits to Bangladesh and
dissemination of lessons in workshops, Maharashtra formulated a strategy to end open
defecation in the state. The Bangladesh visits and Maharashtra initiative also assisted in revising
the national sanitation guidelines in India and contributed in introducing the concept of the need
to create open defecation-free villages. Within South Asia, there are efforts in Pakistan and
Nepal to take up the approach, while CLTS has been introduced as a national program in
Indonesia and Cambodia.

How to the Implement CLTS Approach?

In the beginning of the process, the community is approached to build rapport, clarify the
objective of the programme and convince the community members why they should implement a
no subsidy programme led on their own. Once the community understands the objectives, you
have to make them realise and accept how open defecation creates problems and affects their
lives. Then participatory rural appraisal (PRA) methods are adopted (see planning and process
tools in general).

PRA methods are used to bring instant change in the understanding and behaviour of the people
by igniting sparks of awareness in their minds. This process is adopted to motivate community
members through their won involvement and initiative to build and use latrines as well as bring
positive changes in their hygiene and sanitation behaviour. This method helps to change peoples
perception allowing them to start thinking from a new dimension and perspective.

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The following tools are used:

Shameful walk: A shameful walk, an adapted version of a classic transect walk, is

called the process of collectively visiting the places of open defecation by members of the
community and representatives of the facilitating organisations.
Faeces mapping: Faeces mapping is the process of preparing the community map
indicating the places of defecation through community participation.
Faeces calculation: Once people realise that there is a lot of faeces lying around in the
area, you should raise the questions such as: How much on an average does an individual
defecate in a day?
Faeces mobility mapping: In this exercise community members should realise how
dangerous open defecation is by getting to know the five different faecal-oral
contamination ways in order to avoid the transmission of diseases like diarrhoea and
improve the health and hygiene situation. This is called the five-F-diagram. Faecal-oral
contamination can happen through: 1. Food, 2. Fingers, 3. Flies (and all kind of insects),
4. Fields (agriculture field), 5. Fluids (e.g. water).

Faecal-oral transmission routes include: Fingers, flies (and other insects), fields (agriculture),
food, and fluids, e.g. contaminated water. Source: HESPERIAN & UNDP (2004)

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After having used these exploring methods and tools, the facilitator should ask the community
who and by when the community will stop indirectly ingesting faeces or within how many days
they will end open defecating practices. The names of the people will be listened down who
commit that they will stop open defecation. Ask the person who commits to construct a toilet in
the shortest span to step forward. Give a round applause to the individual and applause the rest
one by one.

After the community members have expressed their commitment not to defecate in the open, it
has to be decided by whom and how these commitments will be monitored. For this purpose it
can be useful to form a committee (see also decision making section).

This committee should also decide the duration within which to declare the community an open
defecation free area. Set the date for this and accordingly facilitate to develop an action plan.

The Principles of CLTS Approach

Focusing on outcomes, not on hardware inputs.

Collective action: Mobilising the community rather than establishing household contacts.
Local choice: Providing a variety of technological options and getting people to access
affordable technologies.
Setting up proper institutional frameworks institutional framework: Giving local
governments a central role in scaling up and sustainability.
Incentives: Directing incentives to the community and rewarding outcomes, rather than
subsidising household toilets.
Market development: Promoting the availability of sanitary materials and allowing
private suppliers to respond to the demand (see privatisation).
Communities construct their own latrines or toilets with their own resources. Those
people who are better off help those who are too weak or poor to help themselves.
No standardised top-down designs: People decide for themselves.
Facilitation, not teaching or preaching: Appraisal and analysis are facilitated. But after
triggering information media campaigns and encouragement can be provided.
Spontaneous emergence of Natural Leaders (NLs) as a community proceeds towards
Open Defecation Free (ODF) status.
Local innovations of low cost toilet models using locally available materials.
Community-innovated systems of reward, penalty, spread and scaling-up.

Potential of CLTS Approach

1. Speed. The speed of going total, meaning that the community is claiming to be Open
Defecation Free (ODF), can be remarkable. In best-case scenarios communities declare
themselves or are declared ODF in a matter of weeks.
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 2. Totality. ODF conditions provide a public and not just a private good. CLTS has shown a
spotlight on this aspect. A question is to what degree achieving total or degrees of total ODF
status increases these benefits for the community. Claims of dramatic drops in diarrhoeas
and other diseases following the achievement of ODF conditions are numerous. People in
ODF communities do again and again report sharp drops in diarrhoea and medical expenses.
Anecdotal evidence is so widespread, and seems such commonsense, that it is easy to
believe.

3. Social solidarity leading to other actions. The community solidarity and sense of
achievement from a successful CLTS process can be an entry point for other initiatives. The
Social Development Unit of CARE Bangladesh has pioneered here, and there have been
examples of communities coming together to build embankments to prevent flooding and
crop loss, following CLTS triggering and action. They have also tackled the annual hunger
season in other ways, with the aim of achieving hunger-free communities.

4.Local leadership, self-confidence and livelihood. Linked with social solidarity, the
emergence and growing confidence of local leaders in a CLTS context usually described
as Natural Leaders (NLs) is often reported. This provides opportunities for people with
leadership potential and can also apply pressure on the existing leadership. The voluntary
work and commitment of NLs can contribute to the sustainability of CLTS and other
activities beyond the life of any external project.

Applicability

A CLTS approach has been applied not only in rural regions but also in urban areas. The first
known case is Kalyani, a slum north of Kolkata, where exceptional political leadership
galvanised people to achieve ODF conditions without subsidies (CHAMBERS 2009). In July
2008, a CLTS training of government staff based in the town of Kilifi on the Kenya coast
provoked meetings and action to install and improve facilities and strive for total sanitation in
the town. In other cases, for example in Panipat District in Haryana, large semi-urban areas have
been declared ODF.

Advantages

CLTS does not rely on sanitation subsidies or service delivery from external agencies.
The approach encourages people to change their hygiene behaviours without prescribing
how they should do it.
Empowering the households and enabling them to get onto the sanitation ladder at the
level that they can afford.
CLTS also empowers natural community leaders and facilitators who then move on to
other communities to spread the effect or use the momentum of collective action and
social cohesion to address other livelihoods issues in the community (adapted from PEAL
at al. 2010).

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Disadvantages

CLTS relies on the quality of the facilitators.

The selection process, their training and their motivation level are critical factors for
success.
Where previous interventions have offered subsidies or prescribed certain standards the
community tends to have reservations and be sceptical about CLTS and wait for handouts
(adapted from PEAL at al. 2010).
The sustainability of CLTS approaches is sometimes questionable, given that the
technologies chosen are usually cheap.

Reference:

www.sswm.info/content/community-led-total-sanitation-clts

http://www.aquatechnology.net/reverseosmosistheory.html

http://www.bluspr.com/reverse_osmosis_introduction.html

www.rolec-gmbh.com/10-1-Soft-Drink-Systems-Syrup-Rooms.html

http://www.gewater.com/handbook/ext_treatment/ch_8_ionexchange.jsp

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