1.

VFR requirements
2. IFR
3. VMC minima
4. controlled and uncontrolled Airspace and Classes of point 4 that is A B C D E and F G

1
 1. VFR requirements
Visual flight rules (VFR) are the regulations that specify the cloud and visibility restrictions for
aircraft operating with visual reference to terrain. For a pilot to continue flight under VFR, the
conditions must be equal to or greater than those specified by the governing body.
The basic premise of VFR is that the pilot will be able to navigate and manipulate the aircraft with
reference to external cues only. Pilots are also required to avoid other aircraft using the "see and
avoid" technique. To achieve this, the following requirements would be met. In below picture
these requirements are shown. [ref: 1. Civil Aviation Authority (n.d.) VFR MET Minima.
http://www.caa.govt.nz/Publications/Other/VFR_Met_Minima_card.pdf]

1.1 Additional Requirements [ref: 1. Civil Aviation Authority (n.d.) VFR MET
Minima. http://www.caa.govt.nz/Publications/Other/VFR_Met_Minima_card.pdf]

Several additional requirements exists. These relate to the minimum cloud ceiling required for
aircraft to operate under VFR. These are:
(a) Within Control Zones
(1) 1500 feet ceiling
(2) 5 km visibility

2
 (b) Within Uncontrolled Airspace
(1) 600 feet ceiling (Day)
(2) 1500m visibility (Day)
(3) 1500 feet ceiling (Night)
(4) 8 km visibility (Night) [ref: 1. Civil Aviation Authority (n.d.) VFR MET Minima.
http://www.caa.govt.nz/Publications/Other/VFR_Met_Minima_card.pdf]

1.2 Fuel Requirements [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA Consolidation ,30 October 2017 General
Operating and Flight Rules]

(a) A pilot-in-command of an aeroplane must not beg in a flight under VFR unless, in the
forecast weather conditions, the aeroplane has enough fuel to fly to the first point of
intended landing at the planned normal cruising speed and to fly after that point of
intended landing for at least
(1) a further 30 minutes during the day; or
(2) a further 45 minutes at night; or
(3) for an aeroplane that has a special categorylimited airworthiness
certificate or a special categoryexhibition airworthiness certificate, the
flying time specified for the VFR minimum fuel reserve in the operator
statement required under rule 47.55(c).
(b) A pilot-in-command of a helicopter must not begin a flight under VFR
unless,in the forecast weather conditions, the helicopter has enough fuel to fly
to the first point of intended landing at the planned cruising speed, and to fly
after that point of intended landing for at least
(1) a further 20 minutes; or
(2) for flights of less than 20 minutes duration, for a further period
equal to the anticipated flight time; or
(3) for a helicopter that has a special categorylimited
airworthiness certificate or a special categoryexhibition
airworthiness certificate, the flying time specified for the VFR
minimum fuel reserve in the operator statement required under rule
47.55(c)]

1.3 VFR flight plan [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA Consolidation ,30 October 2017 General
Operating and Flight Rules]

(a) A pilot- in-command of an aircraft must submit a VFR flight plan to an appropriate
ATS unit before starting any flight conducted under VFR if

3
 (1) the pilot-in-command plans to proceed more than 50 nm from shore; or
(2) the pilot-in-command requires an alerting service.
(3) the pilot-in-command requires an alerting service.
(b) In addition to the requirement in paragraph (a), a pilot-in-commandof an aircraft may
submit a VFR flight plan to an appropriate ATS unit for any other flight conducted
under VFR.
(c) A VFR flight plan referred to in paragraphs (a) or (b) must include the following
information:
(1) the aircraft registration and call sign:
(2) the type of aircraft to be used:
(3) the route including, if practicable for each route segment, aerodromes of departure
and intended landing, estimated elapsed times, and time on the ground at each
intermediate aerodrome:
(4) the SARTIME:
(5) fuel endurance:
(6) the total number of persons in the aircraft:
(7) the name and telephone contact details of the pilot-in-command:
(8) the name of the aircraft owner or operator:
(9) any additional information that may assist search and rescue operations.
(d) If a VFR flight plan has been submitted to an ATS unit under paragraphs (a) or (b), the
pilot-in-command must
(1) inform an appropriate ATS unit of any change to the details in the flight plan
and of any change to the flight plan SARTIME before the expiry of that
SARTIME; and
(2) terminate the flight plan by advising an appropriate ATS unit before the flight
plan SARTIME.

1.4 Position reports [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA Consolidation ,30 October 2017 General
Operating and Flight Rules]

4
Each pilot -in-command of an aircraft on a VFR flight shall, when operating in controlled
airspace, report the position of the aircraft to ATC at the times or reporting points required by
ATC.

1.5 Minimum heights for VFR flights [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA Consolidation ,30
October 2017 General Operating and Flight Rules]

(a) A pilot-in-command of an aircraft must not operate the aircraft under VFR
(1) over any congested area of a city, town, or settlement, or over any open air assembly
of persons at a height of less than 1000 feet above the surface or any obstacle that
is within a horizontal radius of 600 metres from the point immediately below the
aircraft; or
(2) over any other area
i. at a height of less than 500 feet above the surface; or
ii. at a height of less than 500 feet above any obstacle, person, vehicle, vessel, or
structure that is within a horizontal radius of 150 metres from the point
immediately below the aircraft; and
(3) for any operation, at a height less than that required to execute an emergency
landing in the event of engine failure without hazard to persons or property on the
surface.
(b) Paragraph (a) does not apply to a pilot-in-command of an aircraft
(1) conducting a take-off or landing; or
(2) conducting a balked landing or discontinued approach; or
(3) (taxiing.
(c) Paragraph (a)(2) does not apply to a pilot-in-command of an aircraft if the bonafide
purpose of the flight requires the aircraft to be flown at a height lower than that
prescribed in paragraph (a)(2), but only if
(1) the flight is performed without hazard to persons or property on the surface; and
(2) only persons performing an essential function associated with the flight are carried
on the aircraft; and

5
 (3) the aircraft is not flown at a height lower than that required for the purpose
of the flight; and
(4) the horizontal distance that the aircraft is flown from any obstacle, person,
vessel, vehicle, or structure is not less than that necessary for the purpose of the
flight, except that in the case of an aeroplane, the aeroplane remains outside
a horizontal radius of 150 metres from any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure
that is not associated with the operation.
(d) Paragraph (a)(2) does not apply to a pilot-in-command
(1) who is the holder of, or authorised by the holder of, a current instructor
rating issued under Part 61 and who is conducting flight training or practice
flights consisting of
i. simulated engine failure after take-off commencing below 1000 feet
above the surface; or
ii. simulated engine failure commencing above 1000 feet above the surface
provided that descent below 500 feet above the surface is conducted within
a low flying zone in accordance with 91.131; or
(2) who is the holder of a current instrument rating issued under Part 61 and who
is conducting IFR training, testing, or practice flights under VFR, but only
if the pilot-in-command conducts the flight in accordance with 91.413, 91.423
and 91.425; or
(3) operating an aircraft within a low flying zone in accordance with 91.131; or
(4) operating an aircraft at an aviation event in accordance with 91.703.

1.6 VFR cruising altitude and flight level [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA Consolidation
,30 October 2017 General Operating and Flight Rules]

(a) A pilot-in-command of an aircraft operating within the New Zealand FIR under VFR
in level cruising flight at more than 3000 feet AMSL or 1000 feet AGL (whichever
is the higher) must, unless otherwise authorised by an ATC unit, maintain the following
altitudes or flight levels:
(1) when operating at or below 13 000 feet AMSL and

6
 i. on a magnetic track of 270 clockwise to 089, any odd thousand foot altitude
AMSL plus500 feet; or
ii. on a magnetic track of 090 clockwise to 269, any even thousand foot altitude
AMSL plus 500 feet:
(2) when operating at or above flight level 150, up to and including flight level 275
and
i. on a magnetic track of 270 clockwise to 089, any odd flight level plus 500
feet beginning at and including flight level 155; or
ii. on a magnetic track of 090 clockwise to 269, any even flight level plus 500
feet beginning at and including flight level 165.
(b) A pilot-in-command of an aircraft operating within the New Zealand FIR under VFR
must not maintain level cruising flight
(1) at any level between 13 000 feet AMSL and flight level 150 unless otherwise
authorised by an ATC unit for flights in controlled airspace; and
(2) at any flight level below flight level 160 when an area QNH zone setting is 980
hPa or less.

In table 1 VFR weather minimums are shown.

Table.1 . VFR weather minimums

7
1.7 Operating in snow and ice conditions [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA Consolidation ,30
October 2017 General Operating and Flight Rules]

No pilot -in-command of an aircraft shall perform a take-off under VFR in an aircraft that has
snow, ice, or frost, adhering to the wings, stabilisers, or control surfaces.

8
2. Instrument flight rules (IFR)

IFR is the abbreviation of instrument flight rules which are vital for every flight .IFR flight
means a flight that is operated with assistance of the instrument flight rules.

2.1 Rules applicable to all IFR flights [ref 3.Annex 2 to the Convention on
International Civil Aviation]

Aircraft equipment: Aircraft shall be equipped with suitable instruments and with navigation
equipment appropriate to the route to be flown.
Minimum levels : Except when necessary for take-off or landing, or except when specifically
authorized by the appropriate authority, an IFR flight shall be flown at a level which is not
below the minimum flight altitude established by the State whose territory is overflown, or,
where no such minimum flight altitude has been established:
(a) over high terrain or in mountainous areas, at a level which is at least 600 m (2000 ft)
above the highest obstacle located within 8 km of the estimated position of the aircraft;
(b) elsewhere than as specified in (a), at a level which is at least 300 m (1000 ft) above the
highest obstacle located within 8 km of the estimated position of the aircraft.
Change from IFR flight to VFR flight:
(a) An aircraft electing to change the conduct of its flight from compliance with the
instrument flight rules to compliance with the visual flight rules shall, if a flight plan
was submitted, notify the appropriate air traffic services unit specifically that the IFR
flight is cancelled and communicate thereto the changes to be made to its current
flight plan.
(b) When an aircraft operating under the instrument flight rules is flown in or encounters
visual meteorological conditions it shall not cancel its IFR flight unless it is
anticipated, and intended, that the flight will be continued for a reasonable period of
time in uninterrupted visual meteorological conditions.
Cruising levels: an IFR flight operating in level cruising flight outside of controlled airspace
shall be flown at a cruising level appropriate to its track as specified in:

9
 (a) the tables of cruising levels in Appendix 3, except when otherwise specified by the
appropriate ATS authority for flight at or below 900 m (3000 ft) above mean sea
level; or
(b) a modified table of cruising levels, when so prescribe in accordance with Appendix 3
for flight above FL 410.
Position reports: an IFR flight operating outside controlled airspace and
required by the appropriate ATS authority to:
(a) submit a flight plan,
(b) maintain an air-ground voice communication watch on the appropriate
communication channel and establish two-way communication, as necessary, with
the air traffic services unit providing flight information service.

2.2 Minimum flight crew [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA Consolidation ,30 October 2017
General Operating and Flight Rules]

A pilot -in-command shall not operate an aircraft under IFR without another pilot, unless
(1) the aircraft flight manual authorises operation of the aircraft with one pilot; and the
aircraft is equipped with communication equipment that can be operated by the
pilot without releasing the aircraft flight controls.

2.3 Fuel requirements for flights under IFR [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA
Consolidation ,30 October 2017 General Operating and Flight Rules]

A pilot -in-command shall not operate an aircraft under IFR unless the aircraft
carries sufficient fuel, taking into account weather reports and forecasts and weather
conditions, to complete the flight to the aerodrome of intended landing and
(1) when an alternate aerodrome is not required
i. for non-turbine-powered aeroplanes, fly after that for 45 minutes at holding
speed at a height of 1500 feet above the aerodrome; or
ii. for turbine-powered aeroplanes and helicopters, fly after that for 30
minutes at holding speed at a height of 1500 feet above the aerodrome.

10
 (2) when an alternate is required by 91.405, fly from the aerodrome of intended landing
to the alternate aerodrome and
i. for non-turbine-powered aeroplanes, fly after that for 45 minutes at
holding speed at a height of 1500 feet above the aerodrome; or
ii. for turbine-powered aeroplanes and helicopters, fly after that for 30
minutes at holding speed at a height of 1500 feet above the aerodrome.

2.4 IFR alternate aerodrome requirement[ref2: Part 91 ,CAA Consolidation

,30 October 2017 General Operating and Flight Rules]

(a) A pilot-in-command of an aircraft operating under IFR must list at least 1 alternate
aerodrome in the flight plan unless
(1) the aerodrome of intended landing has a standard instrument approach procedure
published in the applicable AIP; and
(2) at the time of submitting the flight plan, the meteorological forecasts indicate, for at
least 1 hour before and 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival at the aerodrome of
intended landing, that
i. the ceiling at the aerodrome will be at least 1000 feet above the minimum
published in the applicable AIP for the instrument procedure likely to be
used; and
ii. visibility will be at least 5 km, or 2 km more than the minimum published in
the applicable AIP, whichever is the greater.
(b) A pilot-in-command of an aircraft must not list any aerodrome as an alternate on the
IFR flight plan under paragraph (a) unless the meteorological forecasts at the time of
submitting the flight plan indicate that, at the estimated time of arrival at the alternate
aerodrome, the ceiling and visibility at that aerodrome will be at or above the following
meteorological minima
(1) if an instrument approach procedure with alternate minima has been published in
the applicable AIP for the aerodrome, the specified alternate aerodrome minima
for that instrument approach procedure; or

11
 (2) for a precision approach procedure, a ceiling of 600 feet, or 200 feet above
DA/DH, whichever is the higher, and a visibility of 3000 metres, or 1000 metres
more than the prescribed minimum, whichever is the greater; or
(3) for a non-precision approach procedure, a ceiling of 800 feet, or 200 feet above
MDA/MDH, whichever is the higher, and a visibility of 4000 metres, or 1500
metres more than the prescribed minimum, whichever is the greater; or
(4) if an instrument approach procedure has not been published in the applicable
AIP for the alternate aerodrome, the ceiling and visibility minima prescribed under
Part 91 Subpart D for an air operation performed under VFR for descent below
the minimum altitude for IFR flight prescribed under rule 91.423.
(c) A pilot-in-command of an aircraft must not list any aerodrome as an alternate aerodrome
in the IFR flight plan under paragraph (a) unless that alternate aerodrome is equipped
with a secondary electric power supply for
(1) the ground based electronic navigation aids necessary for the instrument approach
procedure to be used; and
(2) aerodrome lighting for night operations.

2.5 IFR flight plan

(a) A pilot-in-command of an aircraft must
(1) submit a flight plan to an appropriate ATS unit prior to any flight under IFR; and
(2) unless otherwise authorised by ATS, submit the flight plan at least 30 minutes prior
to the beginning of the flight; and
(3) unless otherwise authorised by ATS, include the following information in the flight
plan
i. the identification of the aircraft to be used; and
ii. the type of aircraft to be used, and its wake turbulence category; and
iii. the radio communications equipment, and the navigation and approach aid
equipment in the aircraft to be used; and
iv. the departure aerodrome and time of departure; and
v. the cruising speed, altitude, and route; and

12
 vi. the aerodrome of destination, total EET, and any alternate aerodrome required
by 91.405;and
vii. any additional information required for ATS purposes; and
viii. the fuel endurance; and
ix. total number of persons carried in the aircraft; and
x. emergency and survival equipment carried in the aircraft; and
(4) advise the appropriate ATS unit, as soon as possible, of any delay exceeding 30
minutes in beginning the flight or departing from any aerodrome of intended landing;
and
(5) terminate the flight plan as soon as practicable on completion of any flight at an
aerodrome without ATS.
(b) For the purpose of this rule, aircraft wake turbulence categories are defined in ICAO Doc
8643 as amended.

2.6 Flight Instruments using role based on IFR [ref 4.Instrument Flying
Handbook,U.S. Department of Transportation, FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

,Flight Standards Service]

Flight instruments are crucial to conducting safe flight operations and it is important that the
pilot have a basic understanding of their operation. The basic flight instruments required for
operation under visual flight rules (VFR) are airspeed indicator (ASI), altimeter, and magnetic
direction indicator .In addition to these, operation under instrument flight rules(IFR) requires
a gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator, slip-skid indicator, sensitive altimeter adjustable for
barometric pressure, clock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds with a sweep-second
pointer or digital presentation, gyroscopic pitch-and-bank indicator (artificial horizon), and
gyroscopic direction indicator (directional gyro or equivalent).
Pitot/Static Systems

Pitot pressure, or impact air pressure, is sensed through an open-end tube pointed directly into
the relative wind flowing around the aircraft.
Three basic pressure-operated instruments are found in aircraft instrument panels flown
under IFR. These are the ASI, sensitive altimeter, and vertical speed indicator (VSI). All
13
three instruments receive static air pressure for operation with only the ASI receiving both
pitot and static pressure.[Figure1]

Fig1. A typical pitot static system

Sensitive Altimeter

A sensitive altimeter is an aneroid barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the
ambient air and displays it in terms of feet or meters above a selected pressure level.
The sensitive element in a sensitive altimeter is a stack of evacuated, corrugated bronze aneroid
capsules. [Figure 2]
The air pressure acting on these aneroids tries to compress them against their natural
springiness, which tries to expand them. The result is that their thickness changes as the air
pressure changes. Stacking several aneroids increases the dimension change as the pressure
varies over the usable range of the instrument. Below 10,000 feet, a striped segment is visible.
Above this altitude, a mask begins to cover it, and above 15,000 feet, all of the stripes are
covered. [Figure 3].Another configuration of the altimeter is the drum-type.
[Figure 4]

14
 Fig.2.Sensitive altimeter components

.
Fig.3.Three pointer altimeter

Fig.4.Drum- type altimeter

15
The Basic Aviation Magnetic Compass

One of the oldest and simplest instruments for indicating direction is the magnetic compass. It
is also one of the basic instruments required for both VFR and IFR flight.[fig.6]

Fig5.a magnetic compass

3. VMC minima
VMC is abbreviation of visual meteorological conditions. The VMC minima in class A
airspace are included for guidance to pilots and do not imply acceptance of VFR flights in
class A airspace automatically.

3.1 VFR weather minima or Visual Meteorological Conditions

(VMC) [ref. 5 IVAO HQ training department, Training Documentation Manager Erwan
Lhotellier. This manual is dedicated only for IVAOTM Network activities]
Except when operating as a special VFR flight, all VFR flights shall be conducted in VMC,
conditions of visibility and distance from clouds equal to or greater than the minima presented
in the table-2:
In a controlled aerodrome, the air traffic controller can issue a special VFR clearance to an
aircraft, which is below the VMC minima in his controlled zone, in order to let him reach a
new zone where the weather conditions follow the VMC rules.

Table.2 . Visual Meteorological Condition

16
 Minimum flight Minimum distance
Altitude band Airspace class
visibility from clouds
At and above
3050m (10000ft) 8 km 1500 m horizontally
A, B, C, D, E, F, G 300m (1000ft)
AMSL vertically
Below
3050m (10000ft)
AMSL
And above,
900m (3000ft) AMSL 5 km 1500 m horizontally
A, B, C, D, E, F, G 300m (1000ft)
or vertically
300m (1000ft) above
terrain, whichever is
the higher
At or below
900m (3000ft) AMSL A, B, C, D, E 5 km 1500 m horizontally
or 300m (1000ft)
300m (1000ft) above vertically
terrain,
whichever is the Clear of cloud and with
F,G 5 km *
higher the surface in sight

* Flight visibilities reduced to not less than 1500m may be permitted in some countries for flights at speeds that give
adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision

In figure 6 VMC Minima conditions are shown.

17
 .
Fig6.VMC Minima conditions

3.2 VMC minima based on UK Air Navigation Order (ANO) [ref.6.

Guide to Visual Flight Rules (VFR) in the UK, www.ais.org.uk ]

VFR flight is permitted in Visual Meteorological Conditions (VMC) by day within UK

Airspace except that which is notified as Class A Airspace.
The VMC minima are determined by class of airspace, altitude and airspeed; however, the
pilot licence privileges notified at Schedule 8 of the UK Air Navigation Order (ANO) may
impose more stringent requirements on PPL/NPPL/BCPL holders.
The Visual Flight Rules (Rules 25 to 29 of the UK Rules of the Air Regulations 2007 refer)
require an aircraft to be flown in accordance with the VMC minima appropriate to the
classification of the airspace. Additionally, when flying in controlled airspace (except Class
E) unless otherwise authorised by the ATC Unit, the commander of the aircraft must file a
flight plan, obtain an ATC clearance, maintain a listening watch on the appropriate frequency
and comply with any instructions given by the ATC Unit. Pilots are reminded that a response
of Standby from ATC is NOT a clearance and Controlled Airspace (CAS) should NOT be
entered on such a command.
NOTE: VFR flight is not permitted in Class A Controlled Airspace.
In table .3 VFR flight within Controlled Airspace (Classes C to E Airspace) is shown.
Table.3 . VFR flight within Controlled Airspace (Classes C to E Airspace)

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 At and above FL 100 Below FL 100 At or below 3000ft
As per below FL
100....or...
8 km flight visibility# 5 km flight visibility#
Fixed wing aircraft
1500m horizontally 1500m horizontally
operating at 140kt or
from cloud* from cloud
less: 5 km flight
1000ft vertically from 1000ft vertically from
visibility; Clear of cloud
cloud cloud
and in sight of the
surface.
For helicopters: Clear of cloud and in sight of the surface.
# For the purpose of taking off or landing within a Control Zone, the actual meteorological visibility reported by ATC
shall be taken as the flight visibility. (Rule 26 of the UK Air Navigation Order refers).

3.3 VMC visibility and distance from cloud minima based on ICAO
[ref 3.Annex 2 to the Convention on
International Civil Aviation]

VMC visibility and distance from cloud minima are contained in Table 4.

Table.4 . VMC visibility and distance from cloud minima

* When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10000 ft) AMSL, FL 100

should be used in lieu of 10000 ft.

** When so prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority:

(a) flight visibilities reduced to not less than 1500 m may be permitted for flights operating:

19
 (1) at speeds that, in the prevailing visibility, will give adequate opportunity to observe

other traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision; or

(2) in circumstances in which the probability of encounters with other traffic would

normally be low, e.g. in areas of low volume traffic and for aerial work at low levels.

(b) HELICOPTERS may be permitted to operate in less than 1500 m flight visibility, if

manoeuvred at a speed that will give adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any

obstacles in time to avoid collision.

***The VMC minima in Class A airspace are included for guidance to pilots and do not imply
acceptance of VFR flights in Class A airspace.

3.4 VFR meteorological minima based on CAA [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA

Consolidation ,30 October 2017 General Operating and Flight Rules]

(a) Except as provided in rule 91.303, and paragraphs (b) and (c), a pilot-in-command must
not operate an aircraft under VFR
(1) when the flight visibility is less than that prescribed for the corresponding class of
airspace in Table 5; or
(2) at a distance from clouds that is less than that prescribed for the corresponding class of
airspace in Table 5.
(b) Except as provided in rule 91.303, a pilot-in-command must not perform a take-off or
landing in an aircraft, or fly in the vicinity of an aerodrome, under VFR when the flight
visibility, or the cloud ceiling, is less than
(1) at aerodromes within a control zone, that prescribed in Table 6; and
(2) at aerodromes in uncontrolled airspace, that prescribed in Table 7.
(c) A pilot-in-command of
(1) a helicopter may operate in Class G airspace with a flight visibility of less than 5 km if
manoeuvred at a speed that gives adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or any
obstructions in order to avoid collisions; and

20
(2) an aircraft performing agricultural aircraft operations, may operate in Class G airspace
with a flight visibility of less than 5 km but not less than 1500 m; and
(3) an aircraft performing flight instruction may operate within a designated low flying
zone prescribed under Part 71 with a flight visibility of less than 5 km but not less than
1500 m.

Table.5 . Airspace VFR meteorological minima

Table.6 . VFR minima at aerodromes within a control zone.

Table.7 . VFR minima at aerodromes in uncontrolled airspace.

21
4. Controlled and uncontrolled airspace

4.1 Controlled airspace [ref 3.Annex 2 to the Convention on

International Civil Aviation]

An airspace of defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided in

accordance with the airspace classification and a controlled airspace extending upwards from

the surface of the earth to a specified upper limit.

4.2 Operations in controlled airspace [ref2: Part 91 ,CAA Consolidation ,30

October 2017 General Operating and Flight Rules]

(a) Except as provided in paragraphs (e) and (f), a pilot-in-command of an aircraft must not
enter a control area or control zone designated under Part 71 unless the pilot-in command
obtains an ATC clearance to enter the control area or control zone.
(b) A pilot-in-command of an aircraft operating in Class A airspace must
(1) operate the aircraft under IFR; and
(2) unless otherwise authorised by the ATC unit responsible for the class A airspace,
maintain two-way communications with that ATC unit on the appropriate frequency.
(c) A pilot-in-command of an aircraft that operates in the following classes of airspace must
maintain two-way radio communications with the ATC unit responsible for the airspace
concerned on the appropriate frequency unless otherwise authorised by the ATC unit:

22
 (1) Class B, C, or D airspace:
(2) Class E airspace under IFR.
(d) If different classes of airspace adjoin one above the other, a pilot operating at the common
level may comply with the requirements of the less restrictive class of airspace.
(e) A pilot of an aircraft operating under VFR does not require an ATC clearance to enter a
control area that is classified under Part 71 as class E airspace.
(f) Airspace within a control area and a control zone becomes uncontrolled class G airspace
during those times when an air traffic control service is not being provided within that
control area or control zone.

4.3 Types of Controlled Airspace based on FAR

[ref.6.U.S. Department of TransportationFederal Aviation Administration web site]
Controlled Airspace is a generic term that covers the different classifications of airspace
(Class A, B, C, D and E airspace) and defined dimensions within which air traffic control
service is provided to IFR flights and to VFR flights in accordance with the airspace
classification.
Class A Airspace: Generally that airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and including FL 600,
including the airspace overlying the waters within 12 nautical miles of the coast of the 48
contiguous States and Alaska; and designated international airspace beyond 12 nautical miles
of the coast of the 48 contiguous States and Alaska within areas of domestic radio navigational
signal or ATC radar coverage, and within which domestic procedures are applied.
Unless otherwise authorized, all persons must operate their aircraft under IFR.
Class B Airspace: Generally, that airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL surrounding
the nation's busiest airports in terms of IFR operations or passenger enplanements. The
configuration of each Class B airspace area is individually tailored and consists of a surface
area and two or more layers (some Class B airspace areas resemble upside-down wedding
cakes), and is designed to contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft enters
the airspace.
An ATC clearance is required for all aircraft to operate in Class B Airspace, and all aircraft
that so cleared receive separation services within the airspace. The cloud clearance requirement
for VFR operations is "clear of clouds".

23
 Fig7.Class B airspace

Arriving or transiting aircraft must obtain an ATC clearance prior to entering Class B airspace
on the appropriate frequency and relation to geographical fixes shown on local Class B
aeronautical charts. Departing aircraft require a clearance to depart Class B airspace and should
advise clearance delivery of their intended altitude and route of flight.
Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, aircraft must be equipped with an operable two-way
radio capable of communicating with ATC on appropriate frequencies for that Class B
airspace. Also unless otherwise authorized by ATC the aircraft must be equipped with an
operable radar beacon transponder with automatic altitude reporting equipment.
There are currently 12 airports with Class B airspace where the pilot in command must hold at
least a private pilot certificate to take off and land. At other Class B airports a student pilot or
recreational pilot who seeks private pilot certification may take off and land if certain
requirements are met. The student or recreational pilot must receive ground and flight
instruction from an authorized instructor and receive an endorsement from that instructor
stating the student or recreational pilot is proficient to conduct solo operations at the specific
Class B Airport & Airspace.
Mode C Veil A mode C transponder with altitude reporting is required within 30 nautical miles
of a Class B airport from the surface to 10,000 feet MSL. An aircraft that was not originally
certificated with engine driven electrical system or which has not subsequently been certified

24
with a system installed may conduct operations within a Mode C veil provide the aircraft
remains outside Class A, B, or C airspace; and below the altitude of the ceiling of a Class B or
Class C airspace area designated for an airport or 10,000 feet MSL, whichever is lower.
Class C Airspace: is generally that airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet above the airport
elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower,
are serviced by a radar approach control, and have a certain number of IFR operations or
passenger enplanements.
Although the configuration of each Class C airspace area is individually tailored, the airspace
usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area that extends from the surface up to 4,000
feet above the airport elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends no lower than 1,200
feet up to 4,000 feet above airport elevation.

Fig8.Class C airspace

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No specific pilot certification is required to operate in Class C airspace. A two way radio and
unless otherwise authorized by ATC an operable radar beacon transponder with automatic
altitude reporting equipment is required.
Two way radio communication must be established with the ATC facility providing ATC
services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those communications while in Class C airspace.
Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact the Class C airspace ATC facility on the publicized
frequency and give their position, altitude, radar beacon code destination, and request Class C
service.
Radio contact should be initiated far enough from the Class C airspace boundary to preclude
entering Class C airspace before two way radio communications are established. If the
controller responds to a radio call with, "aircraft call sign, standby" radio communications have
been established and the pilot can enter the Class C airspace.
If workload or traffic conditions prevent immediate provision of Class C services, the
controller will inform the pilot to remain outside the Class C airspace until conditions permit
the services to be provide.
It is important to understand that if the controller responds to the initial radio call without
using the aircraft call, radio communications have not been established and the pilot may not
enter the Class C airspace.
Class D airspace: is generally that airspace from the surface to 2,500 above the airport
elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding those airports that have an operational control tower.
The configuration of each Class D airspace area is individually tailored and when instrument
procedures are published, the airspace will normally be designated to contain the procedures.

26
 Fig9.Class D airspace

No specific pilot certification is required. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, an operable

two way radio is required.
Two way radio communication must be established with the ATC facility providing ATC
services prior to entry and thereafter maintain those communications while in Class D airspace.
Pilots of arriving aircraft should contact the control tower on the publicized frequency and give
their position, altitude, destination, and any request(s). Radio contact should be initiated far
enough from Class D airspace boundary to preclude entering the Class D airspace boundary to
preclude entering Class D airspace before two way radio communications are established. If
the controller responds to a radio call with, "aircraft call sign, standby," radio communications
have been established and the pilot can enter the Class D airspace. If workload or traffic
conditions prevent immediate entry into Class D airspace, the controller will inform the the
pilot to remain outside the Class D airspace until conditions permit entry.
Class E Airspace: Generally, if the airspace is not Class A, B, C, or D, and is controlled
airspace it is Class E airspace. There are no specific pilot certification or equipment
requirements to operate in Class E airspace. Special VFR operations are permitted but
clearance must be obtained from the controlling facility.
Class E airspace is depicted in blue or magenta on sectional charts and white on low altitude
en-route charts.

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For VFR operations basic VFR visibility and distance from clouds must be maintained. Below
10,000 MSL feet this is 3 statute miles visibility and 500 feet below, 1000 feet above, and 2000
feet horizontally. Above 10,000 feet MSL this increases to 5 statute miles visibility, 1000 feet
above, 1000 feet below and 1 mile horizontally.

Table.8 . all airspace classes based on FAR

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 Fig10.All airspace classes

4.4 Controlled and uncontrolled airspace classes based on ICAO

According to ICAO, the national airspace can be classified as pertaining to one of seven
classes. Five of these classes fall within the category "controlled airspace", while two of the
classes pertain to the category "uncontrolled airspace". Controlled or uncontrolled airspace
refers to whether the pilot has to seek permission and obey ATC directions or not,
respectively. Table 9 shows these categorization.

Controlled airspace
Controlled airspace describes airspace which such traffic levels that air traffic control (ATC) must
provide some form of separation between aircraft.
All operations must be conducted under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) or Special visual
flight rules (SVFR) and are subject to ATC clearance. All flights are separated from each
other by ATC. This airspace ranges from 18,000 to FL600. All operation in this airspace
Class A
must be under instrument flight rules and are subject to air traffic control clearances and
instructions (Pilots must file and fly an IFR flight plan). At altitudes between FL180 and
FL450, jet routes and high routes will be classified as Class A airspace.
Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or Visual flight rules (VFR). All aircraft
are subject to ATC clearance. All flights are separated from each other by ATC. The rules
Class B for this airspace have changed slightly. Pilots must maintain "clear of clouds" with three
miles visibility. Pilots must be "cleared" to enter class B airspace, have two-way radio
communication and mode C transponders.
Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or VFR. All flights are subject to ATC
clearance. Aircraft operating under IFR and SVFR are separated from each other and from
flights operating under VFR. Flights operating under VFR are given traffic information in
Class C respect of other VFR flights. There were no changes made to the operating and equipment
rules for the Class C airspace. Cloud requirements are 500' below, 1000' above, and 2000'
horizontal. Visibility is 3 miles. Pilots must have two-way radio communication and mode
C transponders to enter class C airspace.
Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or VFR. All flights are subject to ATC
Class D
clearance. Aircraft operating under IFR and SVFR are separated from each other, and are

29
 given traffic information in respect of VFR flights. Flights operating under VFR are given
traffic information in respect of all other flights. These are control zones (CZ) with
operating control towers and airport traffic areas (ATA). A segmented blue line depicts
class D airspace on sectional and world aeronautical charts. The ceiling of Class D
airspace is 2500 AGL (charted in MSL), and the lateral dimensions are dependent upon the
instrument approaches at that airport. Two-way radio communication is required. Cloud
and visibility clearance is 3 miles, with 500' below, 1000' above, and 2000' horizontal.
Pilots must have two-way radio communication to enter class D airspace.
Operations may be conducted under IFR, SVFR, or VFR. Aircraft operating under IFR and
SVFR are separated from each other, and are subject to ATC clearance. Flights under VFR
are not subject to ATC clearance. As far as is practical, traffic information is given to all
flights in respect of VFR flights. This airspace includes all federal airways, continental
control areas, control area extensions, control zones at airports without control towers,
Class E
transition areas, and area low routes. On the sectional charts, Class E airspace around
airports without control towers is depicted with a segmented magenta line. The floor of the
Class E airspace is 700 AGL, 1200 AGL, 1500 AGL, or 14,500 AGL, whichever applies.
Cloud and visibility clearances are 3 miles, with 500' below, 1000' above, and 2000'
horizontal.
Uncontrolled airspace
Uncontrolled airspace describes airspace where an Air Traffic Control (ATC) service is not deemed
necessary or cannot be provided for practical reasons.
Operations may be conducted under IFR or VFR. ATC separation will be provided, so far
as practical, to aircraft operating under IFR. Traffic Information may be given as far as is
Class F practical in respect of other flights. Operations may be conducted under IFR or VFR. ATC
separation will be provided, so far as practical, to aircraft operating under IFR. Traffic
Information may be given as far as is practical in respect of other flights.
Operations may be conducted under IFR or VFR. ATC separation is not provided. Traffic
Information may be given as far as is practical in respect of other flights. The vertical
Class G
limits for this airspace are 700 AGL, 1200 AGL, 1500 AGL, or 14,500 MSL, whichever
applies. Cloud and visibility clearances are 1 mile and clear of clouds.

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Civil twilight [1]

The mechanical operation of a plane around evening time is the same than working a similar plane

during the day. The pilot, be that as it may, is influenced by different parts of night operations and

must think about them during night flight operations. Some are real physical constraints

influencing all pilots while others, for example, equipment requirements, procedures, and

emergency situations, should likewise be considered. As per Title 14 of the Code of Federal part

1, Definitions and Abbreviations, night is characterized as the time between the end of evening

civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil twilight. To clarify further, morning civil twilight

starts when the geometric center of the sun is 6 beneath the horizon and ends at sunrise. Evening

civil twilight begins at sunset and ends when the geometric center of the sun reaches 6 below the

horizon.

Figure: Area of best day and night vision

Night Vision

Generally, most pilots are poorly informed about night vision. Human eyes never function as

effectively at night as the eyes of animals with nocturnal habits, but if humans learn how to use

their eyes correctly and know their limitations, night vision can be improved significantly.

31
In addition to night vision limitations, night illusions can cause confusion and distractions during

night flying. The accompanying are the circumstances illusions related to night flying.

a. On a clear night, far off stationary lights can be mixed up for stars or other aircraft.

b. Visual auto kinesis can happen when staring at a solitary light source for few seconds on a dark

night.

c. Distractions and problems can result from a flashing light in the flight deck, anti-collision light,

or other aircraft lights and can cause flicker vertigo.

Pilot Equipment

Before starting a night flight, carefully consider personal equipment that ought to be readily

available during the flight to include a flashlight, aeronautical charts and pertinent data for the

flight, and a flight deck checklist containing procedures for the following tasks, which can be

found in 14 CFR part 91:Before starting engines , Before takeoff ,Cruise ,Before landing, After

landing ,Stopping engines ,Emergencies .

Airplane Equipment and Lighting

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 91 specifies the basic minimum airplane

equipment that is required for night flight. This equipment includes only basic instruments, lights,

electrical energy source, and spare fuses.

Airport and Navigation Lighting Aids

The lighting systems used for airports, runways, obstructions, and other visual aids at night are

other important aspects of night flying. Lighted airports located away from congested areas are

32
identified readily at night by the lights outlining the runways. Airports located near or within large

cities are often difficult to identify as the airport lights tend to blend with the city lights. It is

important not to only know the exact location of an airport relative to the city, but also to be able

to identify these airports by the characteristics of their lighting pattern.

Training for Night Flight

Learning to safely fly at night takes time and your proficiency will improve with experience. Pilots

should practice the following maneuvers at night and acquire competency in straight-and-level

flight, climbs and descents, level turns, climbing and descending turns, and steep turns.

Visual Flight Rules in UK [2]

The Visual Flight Rules require an aircraft to be flown in accordance with the VMC minima

appropriate to the classification of the airspace. Additionally, when flying in controlled airspace

(except Class E) unless otherwise authorized by the ATC Unit, the commander of the aircraft must

file a flight plan, obtain an ATC clearance, maintain a listening watch on the appropriate frequency

and comply with any instructions given by the ATC Unit. Pilots are reminded that a response of

Standby from ATC is NOT a clearance and Controlled Airspace (CAS) should NOT be entered

on such a command. NOTE: VFR flight is not permitted in Class A Controlled Airspace.

1. Weather minima

VFR flight within controlled airspace (classes C to E Airspace)

33
 At above FL 100 Below FL 100 At or below 3000ft

8 km flight visibility 5 km flight visibility As per below FL 100

1500m horizontally from 1500m horizontally from Fixed wing aircraft operating

cloud cloud at 140kt or less: 5 km flight

visibility; Clear of cloud and

in sight of the surface

1000ft vertically from cloud 1000ft vertically from cloud

VFR flight outside Controlled Airspace (Classes F and G Airspace)

At above FL 100 Below FL 100 At or below 3000ft

8 km flight visibility 5 km flight visibility As per below FL 100

1500m horizontally from 1500m horizontally from Fixed wing aircraft: 5 km

cloud cloud flight visibility; Clear of cloud

and in sight of the surface

1000ft vertically from cloud 1000ft vertically from cloud For fixed wing aircraft

operating at 140kt or less:

1500 m flight visibility; Clear

of cloud and in sight of the

surface

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2. Speed Limitations

Below FL100, an airspace speed limit of 250kt applies. In addition, this limit may be lower when

published in procedures or when required by ATC.

3. Flight Plan Requirements

A Flight Plan is required for flights in all Controlled Airspace except Class E.

4. ATC Clearance and ATC Instructions

ATC Clearance is required for flight in all Controlled Airspace except Class E, and compliance

with ATC instructions is mandatory. In Class E Controlled Airspace pilots of VFR flights are

strongly recommended to make their presence known to the appropriate ATC Unit and comply

with ATC instructions. Outside Controlled Airspace an aircraft receiving a service from an ATC

Unit is expected to comply with ATC instructions unless the pilot advises otherwise.

Qualifications for VFR [3] [4]

1. Except when operating as a special VFR flight, VFR flights shall be conducted so that the

aircraft is flown in conditions of visibility and distance from clouds equal to or greater than those

specified.

2 .Except when a clearance is obtained from an air traffic control unit, VFR flights shall not take

off or land at an aerodrome within a control zone, or enter the aerodrome traffic zone or traffic

pattern:

a) When the ceiling is less than 450 m (1 500 ft); or

35
b) When the ground visibility is less than 5 km.

3. VFR flights between sunset and sunrise, or such other period between sunset and sunrise as may

be prescribed by the appropriate ATS authority, shall be operated in accordance with the conditions

prescribed by such authority.

4. Unless authorized by the appropriate ATS authority, VFR flights shall not be operated: a) above

FL 200; b) at transonic and supersonic speeds.

5. Authorization for VFR flights to operate above FL 290 shall not be granted in areas where a

vertical separation minimum of 300 m (1 000 ft) is applied above FL 290.

6. Except when necessary for take-off or landing, or except by permission from the appropriate

authority, a VFR flight shall not be flown:

a) Over the congested areas of cities, towns or settlements or over an open-air assembly of persons

at a height less than 300 m (1 000 ft) above the highest obstacle within a radius of 600 m from the

aircraft;

b) Elsewhere than as specified in 4.6 a), at a height less than 150 m (500 ft) above the ground or

water.

7. Except where otherwise indicated in air traffic control clearances or specified by the appropriate

ATS authority, VFR flights in level cruising flight when operated above 900 m (3 000 ft) from the

ground or water, or a higher datum as specified by the appropriate ATS authority, shall be

conducted at a cruising level appropriate to the track.

8. A VFR flight operating within or into areas, or along routes, designated by the appropriate ATS

authority shall maintain continuous air-ground voice communication watch on the appropriate

36
communication channel of, and report its position as necessary to, the air traffic services unit

providing flight information service.

9 An aircraft operated in accordance with the visual flight rules which wishes to change to

compliance with the instrument flight rules shall:

a) If a flight plan was submitted, communicate the necessary changes to be effected to its current

flight plan; or

b) When so required by 3.3.1.2, submit a flight plan to the appropriate air traffic services unit and

obtain a clearance prior to proceeding IFR when in controlled airspace.

VFR cruising flight level: [5]

1. Free altitude: VFR flights in level cruising flight when operated below 900 m (3 000 ft) from the
ground or water are free. Above this previous altitude, the cruise altitude or flight level is not
free. You must choose it according to the semi-circular rules. A higher level can be specified by
the appropriate ATS authority.
2. Transition layer constraints: The transition layer is the airspace between the transition altitude
and the transition level. No cruise flight level or cruise altitude can be chosen in the transition
layer.
Above Transition Level, altimeter shall be set to standard pressure 1013 hPa or 29.92 inHg.
Below Transition Altitude, altimeter shall be set to airfield QNH.

3. Available VFR levels: Except where otherwise indicated in air traffic control clearances or

specified by the appropriate ATS authority, VFR flights when operated above 900 m (3 000 ft) from

the ground or water shall be conducted at a flight level/altitudes appropriate to the track as

specified in the following levels :

VFR flights use flight levels ending with the number 5: FL 45, FL 55, FL 135, FL 195

VFR flights use altitudes ending with the number 500: 4500ft, 5500ft, 13500ft, 19500ft

37
VFR semicircular rule [6]
The semi-circular rule is the basic rule for flight level or altitude selection in function of the aircraft

heading in order to ensure basic vertical separation.

Odd and even flight levels: For answering to the need of flight level separation between the same

types of flight, flight levels have been separated in two categories: the even and the odd flight

level:

Even flight level: the last number before the final number 0 shall be even: FL 40, FL 60, FL 120

Odd flight level: the last number before the final number 0 shall be even: FL 50, FL 70, FL 130

RVSM: This semi-circular defines the available flight levels in the conventional airspace and also

in the reduced vertical separation airspace (RVSM) when applicable between FL290 and FL410.

For IFR flights: The default worldwide semi-circular rule is the East/West orientation of the flight

level parity: The aircraft has track between 0 and 179, your flight level or altitude must be odd.

The aircraft has track between 180 and 359, your flight level or altitude must be even.

North/South rule: In some countries due to the IFR route or special regulations set by the local

administration, the semicircular rule can be the North/South orientation of the flight level parity:

The aircraft has track between 90 and 269, your flight level or altitude must be odd. The aircraft

has track between 270 and 359 & between 0 and 89, your flight level or altitude must be even.

38
Rule 3.6 [7]

Air traffic control service

Air traffic control clearances: An air traffic control clearance shall be obtained prior to operating

a controlled flight, or a portion of a flight as a controlled flight. Such clearance shall be requested

through the submission of a flight plan to an air traffic control unit.

Whenever an aircraft has requested a clearance involving priority, a report explaining the necessity

for such priority shall be submitted, if requested by the appropriate air traffic control unit.

Potential reclearance in flight. If prior to departure it is anticipated that depending on fuel

endurance and subject to reclearance in flight, a decision may be taken to proceed to a revised

destination aerodrome, the appropriate air traffic control units shall be so notified by the insertion

in the flight plan of information concerning the revised route (where known) and the revised

destination.

Adherence to flight plan: An aircraft shall adhere to the current flight plan or the applicable portion

of a current flight plan submitted for a controlled flight unless a request for a change has been

made and clearance obtained from the appropriate air traffic control unit, or unless an emergency

situation arises which necessitates immediate action by the aircraft, in which event as soon as

circumstances permit, after such emergency authority is exercised, the appropriate air traffic

services unit shall be notified of the action taken and that this action has been taken under

emergency authority.

39
References

[1] F. A. ADMINISTRATION, Airplane Flying Handbook, 2016.

[2] "civil aviation authority," in Guide to Visual Flight Rules (VFR) in the UK.

[3] "VISUAL FLIGHT RULES".EUROCONTROL guidance notes for pilots.

[4] "INTERNATIONAL VIRTUAL AVIATION ORGANISATION".VFR.

[5] "INTERNATIONAL VIRTUAL AVIATION ORGANISATION".VFR CRUISE ALTITUDE OR FLIGHT LEVEL.

[6] "INTERNATIONAL VIRTUAL AVIATION ORGANISATION".SEMI-CIRCULAR RULE.

[7] Rules of the Air, vol. 10, july 2015.

40