JOURNAL OF AIRCRAFT

Vol. 54, No. 4, JulyAugust 2017

Numerical Simulations for Ice Accretion on Rotors Using

New Three-Dimensional Icing Model

Chen Xi and Zhao Qi-Jun

Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 210016 Nanjing, Peoples Republic of China
DOI: 10.2514/1.C033986
A new numerical method for predicting ice accretion on helicopter rotors is established. First, the orthogonal and
body-fitted grids are generated around the rotor blade, and the computational fluid dynamics method for predicting
flowfield of the rotor is established by solving the unsteady Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes equations. Based on the
Eulerian approach, the conservation equations of mass and momentum are solved to obtain the droplet flowfield
properties. Then, a new three-dimensional icing model considering the influences of the centrifugal force, the
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movement of water film, and the variation of the azimuthal angle is put forward. The comparisons between the
calculated results and experimental data about the ice accretion on a rotor indicate that the present method is
effective. At last, the effects of the atmospheric temperature and the advance ratio on the icing process are analyzed. At
the subfreezing temperature, the ice amount near the stagnation point increases along the spanwise direction from
blade root to blade tip. The total ice amount on a blade at each azimuthal angle varies sinusoidally in one rotation
period in forward flight, and the variation amplitude increases with the increase of advance ratio.

Nomenclature In = water flowing into the cell from adjacent cells

A = area of the cell on the blade surface, m2 out = water flowing out of the cell
c = chord, m so = water freezing on the surface
dt = actual duration time of the centrifugal force working
on the water film in the cell, s I. Introduction
dd = diameter of the water droplet, m
F
Fv
=
=
convective fluxes
viscous fluxes I CE accretion for helicopters, especially on rotors, can be a serious
threat to flight safety [1]. When ice forms on rotors, it modifies the
designed aerodynamic shapes and degrades the aerodynamic
fcen = centrifugal force, kg m s2
hf = thickness of the water film, m performance [2,3]. This ice accretion on rotors can be investigated
hice = thickness of the ice, m by several means, including model experiments [4,5], flight tests [6],
l = unit vectors of the cell along different directions and numerical simulations. Compared to the high cost of model
(I, J, K) experiments and flight tests, the numerical method is more economical
m = mass in the mass balances, kg s1 and could provide a reasonable evaluation of ice accretion on rotors.
q = heat in the thermal balances, W s1 In recent years, many numerical methods have been developed to
qa = absolute velocity of airflow, m s1 simulate ice accretion on aircraft. Tran et al. [7] developed a numerical
qd = absolute velocity of the water droplet, m s1 method to predict ice accretion on airfoils including the
q = convective velocity, m s1 thermodynamic effect. Based on the Eulerian two-phase flow theory,
uf = mean velocity of the water film, m s1 Cao et al. [8] presented a numerical simulation method to predict the
W = conservative variable ice accretions on three-dimensional (3-D) fixed wings. In the research
= droplet volume fraction of icing models, Tsao and Rothmayer [9] investigated the formation of
d = apparent density of water droplet, kg m3 surface roughness on the surface of airfoils through the stability
ice = density of ice, kg m3 analysis of air/liquid, water/ice, and substrate interfaces. Fortin et al.
w = density of water, kg m3 [10] developed a new analytical model for the calculation of roughness
heights and a new geometric ice addition model based on bisection of
Subscripts the angle between adjacent panels. Blackmore and Lozowski [11] and
Blackmore et al. [12] introduced an icing model that described spongy
a = flow over the rotor ice formation in atmospheric icing, and a dendritic-growth layer was
d = water droplet assumed to relate the microscopic ice growth with the macroscopic
evp = water evaporated and sublimated in the cell mass/energy conservation. Kong and Liu [13] developed an aircraft
f = water film supercooled icing model in which the influences of the flow velocity
I, J, K = direction in computational space on ice growth were taken into account. Several codes for simulating ice
Imp = water impinged on the surface accretion on aircraft were also developed successfully, such as
LEWICE [14], ONERA [15], FENSAP-ICE [16], etc.
However, these computational methods and icing models are mainly
Received 10 May 2016; revision received 22 September 2016; accepted for applied to fixed-wing aircraft. The numerical simulation for rotor icing
publication 7 December 2016; published online 22 February 2017. Copyright is more difficult than for fixed-wing icing due to the variations of local
2016 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All blade relative inflow velocity and ram temperature along the radial
rights reserved. All requests for copying and permission to reprint should be location of the blade, especially for the forward-flight state. Narducci
submitted to CCC at www.copyright.com; employ the ISSN 0021-8669 and Kreeger [17] developed an analysis method to evaluate the ice
(print) or 1533-3868 (online) to initiate your request. See also AIAA Rights accumulation for a helicopter flying through an icing cloud. Cao et al.
and Permissions www.aiaa.org/randp. [18] investigated the trim and flight characteristics of the CH-47B
*Ph.D. Student, National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on
Rotorcraft Aeromechanics, College of Aerospace Engineering; chenxicc@ tandem twin-rotor helicopter under an icing condition. In their methods,
nuaa.edu.cn. they extracted representative two-dimensional (2-D) airfoil conditions

Professor, National Key Laboratory of Science and Technology on for blade sections at different radial and azimuthal locations, and they
Rotorcraft Aeromechanics, College of Aerospace Engineering; zhaoqijun@ predicted water collection efficiency and ice buildup on the rotor
nuaa.edu.cn (Corresponding Author). accounting for the diverse operating environments.
1428
 XI AND QI-JUN
Ice accretion on rotors could be conveniently achieved by using
these simplified methods, but it is difficult to obtain accurate ice
shapes with 3-D characters, such as the comparison of calculated
results with the measured data near the blade root in [17]. Helicopter
rotors are operated in strong nonlinear flowfields containing 3-D flow
features, unsteady flow, and centrifugal force, which are unique for
rotors. Compared to fixed-wing aircraft, the radial variations of ram
temperature, velocity, and pressure on the rotor blades are much
larger, so the radial interaction effects on ice accretion should not be
ignored. Because it is difficult to solve these problems using 2-D ice
accretion analysis methods, more suitable 3-D ice accretion
simulation methods are proposed in this paper.
On the other hand, icing conditions at each azimuthal angle are
different in forward flight, such as the local water collection efficiency,
convection heat transfer coefficient, and the movement of water film.
Rajmohan et al. [19] developed a quasi-steady numerical method for
ice accretion on helicopter rotors in forward flight using the
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LEWICE3D code. Bain et al. [20] used the same approach to predict
the ice accretion and ice shedding on rotors in forward flight. Because
they thought ice accretion was a slow process compared to rotor
angular speed, the 3-D rotor flowfield was transformed to a local 2-D
airfoil frame at each azimuthal station and the ice accretion modeling
was performed at each azimuthal flow condition. This quasi-steady
approach may be sufficient to capture some effects of azimuthally
varying velocities on ice accretion, but the movement of water film due
to azimuthally varying velocities and the influence of centrifugal force
due to the rotor rotation are not taken into account.
Based on the previous investigations [21], the objective of the
present work is to develop a new 3-D icing model for simulating the
ice accretion on rotors in hover and in forward flight. The ice amount
is calculated using a coupling method of the 3-D flowfield solver and
the 3-D icing model for rotors. To obtain the droplet impingement
property, a 3-D Eulerian approach, which is more suitable for
predicting ice accretion on rotors, is developed. The influences of the
centrifugal force and the effects of water-film motion are considered
in the present 3-D icing model, and the variations of ice accretion
along azimuth are taken into consideration in forward flight. The
experimental data of the helicopter icing flight-test program [22] and
the spinning rotor blade (SRB) developed at the Anti-Icing Material
International Laboratory [23] are used to validate the present
numerical method. Additionally, the effects of the temperature and
the advance ratio (in forward flight) parameters on ice accretion are
also analyzed, and some new conclusions are obtained.
II. Numerical Methods
Ice accretion on rotors is a phenomenon that could take place when
a helicopter flies at subfreezing temperatures. In an icing cloud, the
source of ice is the water droplet, which is analyzed by the liquid
Fig. 1 Overall schematic of a moving-embedded grid system for the rotor.
1429
water content (LWC) and the median volumetric drop diameter
parameter combinations. Once these water droplets impinge the
leading edge of blades, they could immediately freeze or run back
downstream and freeze later on the blade surface.
A. Grid Generation and CFD Solver
The hybrid method [24] was employed as the base of a flowfield
solver to conduct efficient predictions of the 3-D viscous flowfield of
a helicopter rotor under both hover and forward-flight conditions.
Grids around the rotor blade are generated by interpolating and
folding airfoil section grids constructed by solving Poisson
equations. Structured Cartesian grids are used as the background grid
system. Figure 1 shows the moving-embedded grid system of a rotor
in hover and forward flight.
The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods based on the
Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes equations are employed, and the
governing equations in integral form for predicting the flowfield of
the rotor are described as follows:
ZZZ ZZ
W d
F F  n ds  0 (1)
t S
Some improvements have been conducted based on the CFD method;
for example, the implicit Lower-Upper Symmetric Gauss-Seidel scheme
is employed in the temporal discretization for improving computational
efficiency, and the SpalartAllmaras one-equation turbulence model is
adopted to calculate the turbulence viscous coefficient.
B. Droplet Flowfield Solver
Considering the general situation in which the flowfield of
the helicopter rotor is characterized by unsteady phenomena and the
blade is in relative motion, the Eulerian method is applied for the
simulation of ice accretion on rotors. In this method, the droplets
distributed in the flowfield could be regarded as a kind of pseudofluid
that penetrates the real fluid [25], and the following assumptions
are needed:
1) The droplets are simplified to be spheres with a median
volumetric diameter, and the physical parameters of droplets are
assumed to be constant.
2) There is no heat and mass transfer in the movement of droplets
before they impinge on the blade.
3) After the droplets impinge onto the wing surface, they do not
bounce and splash.
4) The forces imposed on water droplets only involve the drag force,
buoyancy, and gravity. The other unsteady forces are negligible.
After introducing the concept of water droplet volume fraction ,
which indicates the volume of the water droplet per volume of the air,
 1430 XI AND QI-JUN

the apparent density of the water droplet is constructed:

d  w (2)

The continuity and momentum equations for droplets in 3-D

applications on rotors could be simplified as follows:
ZZZ ZZ ZZZ

W d d
Fd n ds  R
Rd d (3)
t S

where
8 9 8 9
>
> d >> >
> d qd q  > >
>
> >
> >
> >
>
>
< d ud >
= < d ud qd q  >
> =
Wd  ; Fd  ; Fig. 2 Water-film movement in single control cell.
> d vd > > >
>
>
>
>
>
> > d vd qd q  >
>
> >
>
>
: >
; >
: >
;
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d wd d wd qd q  Introducing the freezing fraction F, the water freezing on the

2 3 surface and the height of the water film is defined as follows:
2 3 0
0 6 7  X 
6 d wd 7 6 d C24K
d Re
ua ud  7
6 7 6 7 mso  F mf t
mimp
min mevp (10)
R6 7 ; R d  6 7 (4)
4 0 5 6 d 24K
Cd Re
v v 
g 7
d ud 4 a d d 5
d 24K wa wd 
Cd Re  X 
hf  mimp
mf t
min Aunit (11)
The absolute velocity of the water droplet is qd  ud ; vd ; wd ,
qa  ua ; va ; wa  is the absolute velocity of airflow, and a is the Because the typical thickness scale of a water film on an aircraft is
dynamic viscosity of the air. The inertial number K is given as 1 104 m, a linear velocity distribution along the normal vector of
follows: the film is supposed, and the mean velocity of the water film [13]
could be expressed as follows:
a d2d
K (5) dp h2f hf
18 a uf 
(12)
dx 3w 2w
The expression Cd Re is given as follows:
The pressure term dpdx and the shear stress of the airflow to the
Cd Re  1
0.197Re0.63
0.00026Re1.38 (6) water film are calculated from the present CFD solver, and w is the
viscosity of the water.
The Reynolds number Re refers to the water droplet that travels On the other hand, the centrifugal force also affects the water-film
over the blade in airflow with a relative velocity equal to qa qd , movement, as shown in Fig. 3. The conclusions of previous
which is shown as follows: investigations indicate that the centrifugal force makes the water-film
flow toward the blade tip and might throw out some water from the
a jqa qd jdd surface of the blade [27,28].
Re  (7)
a As a result, the velocity of the water film should be modified by
considering the effect of the centrifugal force and is expressed as
follows:

C. 3-D Icing Model ufK  ufK
f cen lK mf t dt (13)

The physics of the rotor icing process is extremely complex. With
rime ice, at very low temperatures, droplets impinging on the surface Based on the modified velocity of the water film, the amounts of
freeze on impact. With glaze ice, at moderate temperatures, all three water along different directions are given as follows:
phases of water could coexist and ice accretion must take the
movement of water film over the iced surface into account, especially moutI  ufI jlK j hf
in forward flight.
moutK  ufK jlI j hf (14)
Based on the classical Messinger model [26], a new 3-D rotor icing
model that considers the 3-D effects of the rotor, the water-film
movement, and the influence of the centrifugal force due to rotor
rotation has been proposed. In this model, a thin and continuous water
film is formed on the surface of blade and ice. Some freeze
immediately at the point of impact, and some run back along the
surface into adjacent cells caused by the action of the airflow, as
shown in the Fig. 2.
The mass and thermal balances are performed in each control cell:
X X
mimp
mf t
min  mf t
t
mso
mout
mevp (8)

X X
qimp
qf t
qin  qevp
qso
qout
qhc
qcnd

qf t
t (9) Fig. 3 Water-film movement with centrifugal force.
 XI AND QI-JUN 1431

 
mout  Min moutI
moutK ;1F mf t
mimp
X 

min mevp (15)

FDCI  moutI moutI
moutK 

FDCK  moutK moutI
moutK  (16)

The modified amount of water flowing out the cell along different
direction is given as follows:

moutI  FDCI mout

moutK  FDCK mout (17)

Each heat flow contributions in the thermal balances can be

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calculated by the method [28].

When the ice amount is determined, the ice volume and thickness
are calculated by
Fig. 4 Process of the 3-D icing model about the rotor in forward flight. V ice  mso ice ; hice  V ice A (18)

Because the total amount of water flowing out the cell is not greater
than the amount of unfrozen water, the amount of water along
different directions could be modified and the flow distribution
coefficients (FDCs) are defined as follows:
The grid node on the iced surface would be moved due to the ice
accretion. Assuming that the ice grows in the normal direction to the
surface, the displacement of the node is hice .
Because a rotor in hover or axial flight does not have an azimuthal
dependency, the flow around one blade is computed and periodic

Fig. 5 Overview of the numerical simulation process for ice accretion on the rotor.

0.04 Measured 0.04 0.04

Predicted
Clean airfoil
0.02 0.02 0.02

0.00 0.00 0.00

Y/c

Y/c

Y/c

-0.02 -0.02 -0.02

-0.04 -0.04 Measured -0.04 Measured

Predicted Predicted
-0.06 -0.06 Clean airfoil -0.06 Clean airfoil

-0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
X/c X/c X/c
a) T = -28.4C b) T = -6.1C c) T = -4.5C
Fig. 6 Ice shape on a NACA0012 airfoil at different temperatures.
 1432 XI AND QI-JUN

boundary conditions are applied to account for the effects of other
blades. This allows the ice accretion to be computed in steady state
with a single blade, resulting in greatly reducing the total
computational effort. When a rotor is working in forward flight, the
influence of the azimuthal angle should be considered. Based on the
calculations of the flowfield and water collection efficiency at
different azimuthal angles, the relationships of icing information with
the azimuthal angle in a rotation period are established by linear
interpolation approach. Some typical azimuthal angles are selected
by a synthesis of the computational accuracy and efficiency. The ice
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accretion is calculated in sequence of the typical azimuthal angles,
and the calculation of the total ice amount is an additive process, such
as in Fig. 4. To facilitate the display, there are only five typical
azimuthal angles, and each one is placed at every 72 deg azimuthal
interval.
In a loop of the 3-D icing model, the freezing fraction is first
calculated by solving the thermal and mass balance equations
[formulas (8) and (9)], and it is based on an assumption that the
temperature value is the freezing temperature. According to different
values of F (F < 0; 0 < F < 1; F > 1), the movement of the water film

a) The shadow zone b) The high apparent density zone

c) Water collection efficiency on the blade surface

0.6
r = 0.26R
r = 0.45R
0.5
r = 0.82R
COLLECTION EFFICIENCY

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
-0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
S/c
d) Water collection efficiency on different section
Fig. 7 Droplet impingement property on the blade.
 XI AND QI-JUN 1433

0.030
Predicted A
0.025 Predicted B
Tracings
0.020 Stereo photography

Maximum Ice Depth/m

Molds
0.015

0.010

0.005

0.000

-0.005

Fig. 8 3-D accreted ice shape on the blade. -0.010

0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9
r/R
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Fig. 10 Maximum ice depth along the blade spanwise.

is calculated based on the simulated flowfield information. Then, the
velocity of water film is modified by considering the centrifugal
force. When the ice amount is obtained, the surface of the iced blade
will be updated and the freezing fraction in the next time step is
calculated.
The numerical simulation approach for ice accretion on rotors
consists of several modules, including 1) a CFD solver module for
predicting the flowfield, 2) an Eulerian method for obtaining the
droplet impingement on the rotor, 3) a 3-D icing model for simulating
the ice accretion on the rotor, and 4) a grid regeneration for the iced
blade. If the variation of the surface shape is large enough to affect the
flowfield of the rotor, the CFD solver should be invoked to compute
the new flowfield around the iced rotor, and the functional
relationship of icing information with the azimuthal angle should be
reestablished in forward flight. The main analytical procedure of the
ice accretion on a rotor is illustrated in Fig. 5.
III. Calculated Results and Analyses
Compared with the traditional Messinger model [26], the present
icing model is more sophisticated and contains more variables,
including the movement of water film, which needs to be validated.
This paper investigates the ice accretions on a NACA0012 airfoil for a

0.12 Clean blade 0.12 Clean blade

Predicted A Predicted A
Predicted B Predicted B
0.08 Measured [22] 0.08 Measured [22]
Predicted [17] Predicted [17]
0.04 0.04

0.00 0.00
Y/c
Y/c

-0.04 -0.04

-0.08 -0.08

-0.12 -0.12

-0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
X/c X/c
a) r = 0.45R b) r = 0.62R

Clean blade 0.12 Clean blade

0.12 Predicted A Predicted A
Predicted B Predicted B
0.08 Measured [22] 0.08 Measured [22]
Predicted [17] Predicted [17]
0.04 0.04

0.00 0.00
Y/c

Y/c

-0.04 -0.04

-0.08 -0.08

-0.12
-0.12

-0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
X/c X/c
c) r = 0.7R d) r = 0.79R
Fig. 9 Ice shape on different blade sections.
 1434 XI AND QI-JUN
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Fig. 11 Streamlines of the airflow over the blade at different azimuthal angles.

Fig. 12 Distributions of the local heat transfer coefficient Hc at different azimuthal angles.

Fig. 13 Distribution of the water collection amount at 90 deg azimuthal angle.

 XI AND QI-JUN 1435
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Fig. 14 2-D distributions of the water collection amount at different azimuthal angles.

2-D case and on rotors in hover and forward flight for a 3-D case,
respectively.
A. Comparisons with Experimental Data on a NACA0012 Airfoil
Some experimental ice accretion shapes on a NACA0012 airfoil at
different temperatures [29] have been compared with the ones
calculated by the present model. The chord is 0.5334 m, and the
inflow velocity is 67.05 ms. The median volumetric drop diameter
is 20 m, and the liquid water content is 1 gm3 . The total accretion
time is 6 min.
At the lowest air temperature (28.4C), the typical rime ice shape
takes place. The agreements between the calculated ice shapes and
2-D section icing model [17] and the measured data [22] are taken as
references in the figures. At 0.45R and 0.62R, the present method gets
the ice shape better than the 2-D section icing model, and the results
agree well with the experimental shape. At 0.7R and 0.79R, the
results of the presented method are similar with the 2-D section icing
model, and the agreements with the measured data are good. As a
result, the present icing model is better than 2-D section icing model
in the prediction for ice accretion on rotors in hover. In addition, the
comparisons of ice shapes calculated from the method with and
without the influence of water-film movement and centrifugal force
0.12
r = 0.4R
Water collection amount/kg/(s m )
2

the measured data are very good, as shown in Fig. 6a. Raising the air r = 0.58R
temperature, the behavior of ice accretion leaves the rime ice r = 0.76R
conditions and approaches the glaze one, which contains the water- 0.10 r = 0.84R
film movement. For air temperatures of 6.1 and 4.5C, the
calculated results agree well with the experimental shapes, as shown
in Figs. 6b and 6c. 0.08

B. Comparisons with Experimental Data on Rotor in Hover

0.06
The Helicopter Icing Flight Test program [22] is selected to
validate the accuracy of the numerical method for predicting ice
accretion on rotors in hover. 0.04
The rotor of the Bell UH-1H helicopter has a conventional
NACA0012 airfoil with a constant chord of 0.5334 m. The blade
radius R is 7.3152 m. The rotational speed of the main rotor is 0.02
33.9 rads, and the blade-tip Mach number is about 0.79. The rotor 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
o
blade has a linear 10.9 deg negative twist along the span. Under the Azimuthal Angle/
flight condition, the temperature is 19C and the total accretion time Fig. 15 Water collection amount variation of the cell at the leading edge
is 3 min. The median volumetric drop diameter is 30 m, and the of the blade section.
liquid water content is 0.7 gm3 .
The droplet impingement property on the blade surface is shown in
1.2
Fig. 7. The shadow zone (the region without the water droplet) is r = 0.4R
indicated by the water volume fraction, and the droplet impinging r = 0.58R
zone is pointed out on the blade surface. The contour of water 1.0 r = 0.76R
r = 0.84R
collection efficiency on the blade surface is shown in Fig. 7c, and the
variable named beta denotes the water collection efficiency in this 0.8
figure. The value increases along the spanwise direction from blade
root to blade tip, and the section coverage region of droplet
0.6
f,I

impingement remains unchanged after the first growing trend, which

/u

is affected by airflow.
f,K

The accreted ice shape on the blade is shown in Fig. 8. As can be 0.4
u

seen, the ice amount first increases and then decreases along the
spanwise direction. At the blade root, the relative inflow Mach
0.2
number is lower and the water collection efficiency is relatively
lower, resulting in a smaller ice amount. Beyond 60% of the blade
radius (0.6R), the ice amount begins to decrease as the temperature 0.0
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
and the centrifugal force increase, and there is almost no ice near the
o
blade tip in this calculated case. Azimuthal angle/
Figure 9 shows a sample of the correlation at four radial sections: Fig. 16 Ratio of the velocity along the K direction to that along the I
0.45R, 0.62R, 0.7R, and 0.79R. The ice shapes calculated from the direction at the typical points of blade sections.
 1436 XI AND QI-JUN
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Fig. 17 Distributions of ice amount at different azimuthal angles.

are given in the figures. In the figure, predicted A includes the

0.10 influence of water-film movement and centrifugal force but
00.4R
0.09 r = 0.58R
predicted B does not. It can be seen that the main differences in ice
r = 0.76R shape are concentrated at the extreme ends of the ice, and the ice
0.08 r = 0.84R thickness decreases when considering the influence of water-film
Ice amount/kg/(s m )
2

movement and centrifugal force. Because the ice amount near the
0.07
blade tip is less, the differences in ice shape in these areas are minor,
0.06 such as the ice shape at 0.7R and 0.72R. Overall, when the influences
of water-film movement and centrifugal force are considered, the
0.05 agreements of calculated results with the measured data are better,
0.04 such as the ice shape at 0.62R. The influence of water-film movement
and centrifugal force on ice accretion will be discussed in more
0.03 details in the following.
0.02
Figure 10 shows the sectional maximum ice depth variation along
the spanwise direction from blade root to blade tip. It is necessary to
0.01 point out that the y axial represents the maximum ice depth at the local
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 blade section. From the figures, it can be seen that the agreements
Azimuthal angle/ o between the calculated results and the measured ones are very good.
Fig. 18 Ice amount variation of the cell at the leading edge of the The ice depth is greatest near 0.45R of blade under this icing
different blade sections. condition, and it begins to reduce outboard of 0.5R.

Fig. 19 Results of ice accretion on the blade in forward flight.


0.18
Experiment [23]
0.16 Empirical Formula [23]
Ice thickness at the tip/chord
Predicted [20]
0.14 Predicted
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
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0.02
0.15 0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75
r/R
Fig. 20 Ice thickness along the blade, spanwise with the experimental data.
C. Comparisons with Experimental Data on Rotor in Forward Flight
The experimental data of the spinning rotor blade developed at the
Anti-Icing Material International Laboratory [23] are selected to
validate the accuracy of the numerical method for predicting ice
accretion on rotor sin forward flight.
The rotor is a 118th-scale model of a small helicopter. The rotor
diameter is 0.78 m, and the blade-tip speed is 130 ms. The forward-
flight speed of the rotor is 15 ms, leading to a low advance ratio
(forward speed to blade-tip speed ratio) of 0.115. The blades are
untwisted, and they are made of NACA0012 sections with a constant
chord of 0.07 m and a root cutout of 0.075 m. The liquid water content
is 0.84 gm3 , and the median diameter of the water drops is 27 m.
The ambient temperature is 15C. In this experiment, the rotor is
operated at a fixed collective pitch of 6 deg with zero cyclic pitch.
Therefore, it is not necessary to retrim the rotor as the ice accretion
gradually alters the aerodynamic loads.
Figure 11 gives the streamlines of the airflow over the blade. As
may be seen, there is an obvious difference in the different azimuthal
angles. The trend of motion toward the blade tip declines in the
advancing blade and increases in the retreating blade. In this figure,
this variation trend can be represented using the angle between the
direction of the streamline and the chordwise of the blade section.
Figure 12 gives the distributions of local heat transfer coefficient
Hc at different azimuthal angles, which are based on the streamlines
over the blade. Overall, the value of Hc increases along the spanwise
direction from blade root to blade tip, which is attributed to the
increase of air velocity relative to the blades. During the rotation
process of the rotor, Hc is higher in the advancing blade than that in
Fig. 21 Ice area on different blade sections along the span in forward flight at different temperatures.
XI AND QI-JUN 1437
the retreating blade, which is an important factor in the ice accretion
of a rotor in forward flight. This effect becomes more pronounced
while the advance ratio is larger, which will be discussed in the
following. The typical points are, respectively, located at the leading
edge of the r  0.4R, 0.58R, 0.76R, and 0.84R sections. There is a
considerable variation in the value of Hc with an azimuthal angle near
the blade tip (r  0.76R, r  0.84R), and there is a smaller change in
the value of Hc near the blade root (r  0.4R).
Figure 13 gives the distributions of the water collection amount per
unit time on the rotor. The collection amount varies greatly along the
blade spanwise at a 90 deg azimuthal angle (the unit is kilograms per
square meter per second). The value increases along the spanwise
direction from blade root to blade tip, and the section coverage region
of droplet impingement has a growing trend that is affected by
airflow. To aid comparisons, the surface of the blade is converted to a
2-D plane (the I axis represents the sequence number of the grid cell
along the clockwise direction from the upper surface to the lower
0.90 1.05 surface, and the K axis represents the sequence number of the grid
cell from blade root to blade tip). As can be seen, the water collection
efficiency increases gradually from blade root to blade tip, and the
maximum value appears near the stagnation point.
The 2-D distributions of the water collection amount at different
azimuthal angles are given in the Fig. 14. They have the same display
area with the one at a 90 deg azimuthal angle in Fig. 13. As can be
seen, the distributions of water collection amounts at different
azimuthal angles all have the variation characteristic mentioned
previously. But, viewed as a whole, there is a similar periodicity in
changes of the water collection amount on the rotor. With the increase
of the azimuthal angles, the water collection amount varies
sinusoidally. Figure 15 gives the water collection amount variation at
the leading edge of the blade section, and the sinusoidal variation is
more obvious in the figure. As can be seen from the figures, the water
collection amount reaches the maximum value in the range of a
60100 deg azimuthal angle, and it reaches the minimum value in a
range of a 210240 deg azimuthal angle.
The differences between the ice amount and water collection
amount may be caused by the combined effects of the distribution of
the temperature, the local heat transfer coefficient, the movement of
the unfrozen water, and so on. The movement of the unfrozen water
could be represented by using the velocity of the unfrozen water in the
I direction and K direction, and Fig. 16 gives the ratio of these two
velocities (uf;K uf;I ) of the typical points. The ratio increases in
ranges of 090 deg and 180300 deg azimuthal angles, and it reaches
the local maximum at 90 and 300 deg, which means that the
proportion of unfrozen water flowing toward the blade tip increases
in these ranges.
The accreted ice amount per unit time at different azimuthal angles
is shown in Fig. 17 (the unit is kilograms per square meter per
second). To visually compare the ice amount at different azimuthal
angles, the surface of the blade is also converted to a 2-D plane. In
 1438 XI AND QI-JUN

general, the ice amount at each azimuthal angle increases gradually
from blade root to tip (the K axis), and there is more ice amount near
the leading edge of blade along the chordwise direction (the I axis).
The variation of the accreted ice amount with azimuthal angles is
shown in Fig. 18. The ice amount near the blade root (r  0.4R)
reaches a maximum value when the azimuthal angle is near 30 deg,
and it reaches a minimum value when the azimuthal angle is near
300 deg. The ice amount near the blade tip (r  0.84R) is larger when
the azimuthal angle is in a range from 120 to 240 deg and the rest
is small.
Figure 19 shows a 3-D iced blade and a sample of the correlation at
some radial sections. As the chord is small, the total ice accretion
amount is larger as compared to the blade size. As can be seen, the ice
amount (the area of the ice shape) increases gradually from blade root
to blade tip. The ice shape represents the characteristics of rime ice
near the blade root (r < 0.4R), and then it represents the
characteristics of glaze ice due to the increase of the temperature
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calculated at different temperatures (28, 15, 10, 5, and 3C).
The other meteorological conditions are the same as in the previous
examples (in Sec. III.C).
Figure 21 shows the ice accretion area (S, expressed in the square
of the chord) along the spanwise direction of the blade at different
temperatures. These results are calculated by the method with
the influence of centrifugal force and water-film movement. As can
be seen, the ice area on the section gradually decreases as the
temperature increases, and the maximum ratio of the ice area to
the airfoil area reaches 52% at T  28C. Figure 22 shows the
predicted iced shapes of the rotor at three different radial stations in
forward flight. As the temperature rises, the decrease of ice thickness
is apparent near the stagnation point of the blade section, especially at
the section near the blade tip. When the temperature is high
(T > 10C), the ice amount at the stagnation point (near the leading
edge of the blade section) decreases along the blade spanwise,
although the total ice amount increases.

along the spanwise direction from blade root to blade tip.
Figure 20 shows the comparisons of the predicted ice thickness at
the tip of the blade section with calculated results from [20] and the
experimental data of [23]. As can be seen, the variation tendency of
the ice amounts obtained by calculated methods [20] are in good
agreement with the experimental data, but there is a noticeable
deviation in the value of the ice amounts. By comparison, the ice
amount calculated by the proposed method is closer to the
experimental data, and it indicates that the new 3-D icing model is
reliable to simulate the ice accretion on a rotor blade in forward flight.
D. Influence of 3-D Water-Film Movement and Centrifugal Force at
Different Temperatures
The effect of centrifugal force and water-film movement on ice
accretion on a blade is shown in Figs. 9 and 10. To further analyze this
effect, the ice accretions on the SRB rotor with and without the
influence of 3-D water-film movement and centrifugal force are
Figure 23 shows the influence of the centrifugal force and water-
film movement on sectional ice shape at different temperatures. In the
figure, predict A includes the influence of 3-D water-film movement
and the centrifugal force, and predict B ignores the effects. The main
differences in ice shape are concentrated at the extreme ends, and
these changes in sectional ice shape are similar with those in Fig. 9.
The percentage change in total ice amount and sectional ice amount
are given in Fig. 24. As seen in the figure, the ice amount decreases
when the influence of the water-film movement and centrifugal force is
considered. There is little change in the ice amount at the lower
temperature (T  28C) because most of the droplets freeze
immediately at the point of impingement (the water-film movement
is nearly nonexistent). As the temperature rises, the influence on the ice
amount increases, and the percentage change is up to 5% at the higher
temperature (T  5C). In the sectional ice amount, the absolute
value of percentage change increases along the blade spanwise, and it
means that the influence of water-film movement and centrifugal force

0.25 0.25 0.25

Clean blade Clean blade Clean blade
o o o
0.20 -3 C 0.20 -3 C 0.20 -3 C
o o o
-5 C -5 C -5 C
o o o
0.15 -10 C 0.15 -10 C 0.15 -10 C
o o o
-15 C -15 C -15 C
0.10 o
-28 C 0.10 o
-28 C 0.10 o
-28 C

0.05 0.05 0.05

Y/c

Y/c

Y/c

0.00 0.00 0.00

-0.05 -0.05 -0.05

-0.10 -0.10 -0.10

-0.15 -0.15 -0.15

-0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 -0.20 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
X/c X/c X/c
Fig. 22 Ice shape on different blade sections in forward flight at different temperatures.

0.20 0.20 0.20

Clean blade Clean blade Clean blade
0.15 r=0.42R Predict A 0.15 r=0.42R Predict A 0.15 r=0.42R Predict A
r=0.42R Predict B r=0.42R Predict B r=0.42R Predict B
r=0.82R Predict A r=0.82R Predict A r=0.82R Predict A
0.10 r=0.82R Predict B 0.10 r=0.82R Predict B 0.10 r=0.82R Predict B

0.05 0.05 0.05

Y/c

Y/c

Y/c

0.00 0.00 0.00

-0.05 -0.05 -0.05

-0.10 -0.10 -0.10

-0.15 -0.15 -0.15

-0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 -0.15 -0.10 -0.05 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30
X/c X/c X/c
Fig. 23 Influence of centrifugal force and water-film movement on sectional ice shape at different temperatures.
 XI AND QI-JUN 1439

Change in sectional ice amount

Change in total ice amount
0.00 0.00

-0.02 -0.05

o
T=-15 C
o
-0.04 -0.10 T=-10 C
o
T=-5 C
o
T=-3 C

-0.06 -0.15
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
Temperature/ oC r/R

Fig. 24 Percentage change in total ice amount and sectional ice amount at different temperatures in forward-flight case.

on ice accretion is more obvious near the blade tip, especially at the
0.08 Advance ratio = 0.115
higher temperature. As seen in the figure, the percentage change of the Advance ratio = 0.15
0.74R sectional ice amount is highest at T  5C, whereas that of Advance ratio = 0.2
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the 0.76R sectional ice amount is highest at T  3C. 0.030

Advance ratio = 0.3
0.06
E. Influence of Advance Ratio on Ice Accretion 0.025

2
S/chord
The ice accretions on the rotor are calculated at different advance
0.04 0.020
ratios (from 0.115 to 0.3). To reduce the effect on the ice amount of
other parameters, the rotor is not trimmed and the collective pitch is
0.015
set to 6 deg with a zero cyclic pitch, and the other conditions are the 0.75 0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
same as the experiment of the spinning rotor blade [23]. Figure 25 0.02
shows the 3-D iced blades and ice shapes on the blade section at
different advance ratios. The ice accretion area on the blade section
along the spanwise direction from blade root to blade tip at different 0.00
0.2 0.4
0.6 0.8 1.0
advance ratios is shown in Fig. 26. As can be seen, there is only a little
r/R
variation in ice accretion results for this small rotor model (rotor
Fig. 26 Ice accretion area on different blade sections at different
diameter is only 0.78 m) at different advance ratios. The ice accretion advance ratios.
area remains unchanged on the whole with the increase of the advance
ratio, but the ice amount decreases near the blade tip, such as the ice
shape on blade section at r  0.84R in Fig. 25. almost zero at a 240 deg azimuthal angle near the blade root
Although the advance ratio has little effect on the total ice amount (r  0.4R). Figure 28 gives the apparent density of the water droplet
and ice shape, it still has a huge influence on the ice accretion process flowfield at different azimuthal angles when the advance ratio is 0.3.
in one rotor rotation, and these results may possess certain guiding Because the reversed flow region expands with the increase of the
significance in the deicing/anti-icing system on a rotor in forward advance ratio, the coverage area of the shadow zone increases
flight. evidently near the blade root in the retreating blade, especially at the
Figure 27 gives the water collection amount on typical points (the 270 deg azimuthal angle.
cell on the leading edge of the blade section at r  0.4R and The ice amount on typical points (the cell on the leading edge of the
r  0.84R) with azimuthal angle at different advance ratios. As can blade section at r  0.4R and r  0.84R) with azimuthal angles at
be seen, the water collection amount increases in the advancing blade different advance ratios is shown in Fig. 29. Near the blade root
and decreases in the retreating blade with the increase of advance (r  0.4R), the ice amount in the retreating blade decreases markedly
ratio. When the advance ratio is 0.3, the water collection amount is with the increase of the advance ratio, whereas the ice amount in the

Fig. 25 Predicted 3-D iced blades at different advance ratios.

 1440 XI AND QI-JUN

0.08 0.12
Advance ratio = 0 Advance ratio = 0

Water collection amount / kg/(s m )

2
Water collection amount / kg/(sm )
2

0.07 Advance ratio = 0.115 Advance ratio = 0.115

Advance ratio = 0.15 Advance ratio = 0.15
Advance ratio = 0.2 Advance ratio = 0.2
0.06 0.10
Advance ratio = 0.3 Advance ratio = 0.3

0.05

0.04 0.08

0.03

0.02 0.06

0.01

0.00 0.04
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360
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Azimuthal angle/ o Azimuthal angle/ o

a) r = 0.4R b) r = 0.84R
Fig. 27 Water collection amount variation of the cell at the leading edge of the different blade sections.

Fig. 28 Shadow zone of water droplet flowfield at different azimuthal angles (the advance ratio is 0.3).

0.08 0.10
Advance ratio = 0.115 Advance ratio = 0.115
Advance ratio = 0.15 Advance ratio = 0.15
Advance ratio = 0.2 Advance ratio = 0.2
Ice amount/kg/(s m2 )

Advance ratio = 0.3 Advance ratio = 0.3

0.06
Ice amount/kg/(s m2 )

0.08

0.04

0.06
0.02

0.00 0.04
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 0 60 120 180 240 300 360

Azimuthal angle/ o Azimuthal angle/ o

a) r = 0.4R b) r = 0.84R
Fig. 29 Ice amount of the cell at the leading edge of the blade section along the azimuth at different advance ratios.

advancing blade decreases slightly. Near the blade tip (r  0.84R), To further analyze the influence of the advance ratio to ice
the ice amount decreases slightly in one rotation period with the accretion, the proportion of the total ice amount in one rotation period
increase of the advance ratio. along the azimuth is given in Fig. 30. As a whole, the ice amount

Proportion of ice amount per azimuthal angle 2.0
1.8
/ Proportion in hover
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0 60 120 180
Azimuthal angle/ o
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Fig. 30 Proportion of total ice amount of the blade in one rotation period
at different advance ratios.
varies sinusoidally with the azimuthal angle, and the amplitude
increases markedly with the increase of the advance ratio (the
proportion of the total ice amount along the azimuth is set to one in
hover). When the advance ratio is 0.3, the variation amplitude is close
to 300% of the proportion (the maximum of 1.8 at a 75 deg azimuthal
angle, and the minimum of 0.6 at a 270 deg azimuthal angle). When
the advance ratio is lower, the variation amplitude decreases and it is
close to 160% at the advance ratio of 0.115. In addition, there is a
larger ice amount proportion in the range from 60 to 90 deg because
the relative velocity, the local heat transfer coefficient, and the water
droplet collection amount are all larger. However, the temperature of
the blade surface is higher at this range, especially at 90 deg due to the
highest relative velocity. As a result, although the water collection
amount and the local heat transfer coefficient are higher, the ice
amount may decrease due to the increase of temperature. With the
increase of the advance ratio, this phenomenon is more obvious. At
the 0.3 advance ratio, the ice amount maximizes at 75 deg azimuthal
angle, although the relative velocity is highest at 90 deg
azimuthal angle.
IV. Conclusions
A new numerical method for 3-D ice accretion on rotors is
proposed and employed to predict ice accretion on a rotor blade in
hovering flight and forward flight. The main conclusions are obtained
from the calculated results as follows:
1) Based the proposed new 3-D icing model, the numerical method
is reliable to simulate the ice accretion on a rotor blade in hover and in
forward flight, and the icing model could better reflect the essence of
the icing phenomenon on the rotor in hover and forward flight.
2) Ice accretion on rotors is somewhat impacted by the centrifugal
force and water-film movement, and the total ice amount on the blade
decreases when they are taken into account. This change in the ice
amount is more obvious when the temperature is higher. In addition,
the ice accretion on the rotor is very strongly temperature dependent,
and the total ice amount on the blade gradually decreases as the
temperature increases.
3) When the rotor is working in forward flight, the ice amount and
water collection amount on the total blade at different azimuthal
angles vary sinusoidally in one rotation period. The variation
amplitude of the ice amount at different azimuthal angles in one
period increases markedly with the increase of the advance ratio.
Acknowledgment
This paper was presented in part at the American Helicopter
Soceity 72nd Annual Forum in West Palm Beach, Florida,
1719 May 2016.
XI AND QI-JUN 1441
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