Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
References
Website:
Author:
Date of publication:
Jim St. Marie
Introduction
For centuries, mankind has excavated caverns and tunnels in the earth for a
myriad of uses. Historically, early man probably dug tunnels and caves for
shelter, or to store food that had been killed or gathered. There is evidence that
Stone Age people sank shafts and drove tunnels in order to obtain flint for bladed
tools. (Wahlstrom, 1973) Later, as mankind developed the ability to make metal
tools, the need to go underground for raw materials also developed, and more
tunnels were dug. Early excavations in metal-bearing ores have been identified in
Caucasia, near the Black Sea, which date back to about 3500 B.C. (Wahlstrom,
1973) Tunnels were built in ancient times by nearly every great civilization:
Aztec, Inca, Babylonian, Egyptian, and Persian. The tools used in tunneling were
the tools of the age: Bone, antler, flint and wood to the early humans, bronze,
iron, and steel as civilization advanced. For centuries, tunnels in rock were driven
by building fires against the rock faces, which would cause expansion and
spalling, often accelerated by dousing the hot rock with water, then picking the
fractured rock away with picks and wedges (Wahlstrom, 1973). Egyptian and
Roman mines were worked to depths of approximately 200 meters. (Mahtab and
Grasso) By the 6th century B.C., it has been estimated that the advance rate of a
hand-worked tunnel in hard rock was perhaps 9 meters per year. (Beall, 1973)
Today, nearly three thousand years later, the advance rate in a given excavation
is increased over that by two or three orders of magnitude. (Mahtab and Grasso,
1992) The advent of explosives, first black powder, then nitroglycerine and
dynamite, issued in a new age of excavation. Not just have the rates of
excavation improved, however. Through improved methods of design and
construction, the dimensions of underground workings have increased, and the
modern underground worker can count on much greater safety and much better
working conditions than an historical counterpart. With improvements in design
and construction, the diversity of use has also widened, and tunnels are not
simply the mines and shelters they used to be. Today, the human race excavates
for transportation, mining, storage, defense, deposition of waste, and the list goes
on. The primitive picks and wedges of the past have given way to the
mechanized excavating tools, pneumatic drills, and sophisticated blasting
methods.
Primary Concerns
First and foremost, there exist a number of general uncertainties and unknowns
when dealing with the underground. These variables can range from minor
inconveniences to major challenges to the designers of the tunnel. A short list of
some of these concerns consists of: (Bickel, et al, 1996)
Site Characterization
Once the designers of the tunnel get down to the actual design phase, the first
activity usually performed is a characterization of the site of the excavation. This
involves characterizing the rock mass into which the tunnel is to be driven. This
characterization will include the following properties: (Mahtab and Grasso, 1992)
1. Topography of the area, the climate and the accessibility of the area.
2. Location of the cavity with respect to the ground surface and rock
formation boundaries.
3. Structural stability of the rock body, which is a function of seismisity,
faults, and stress concentrations.
4. Hydrologic regime and its perturbation, which is a function of the
permeability of the ground and the ground water flow rates.
5. Potential for subsidence and other surface effects.
6. Rock types in the rock mass, their genesis and their homogeneity.
7. Degree of weathering and weatherability of the rock.
8. Geologic discontinuities and other defects.
9. Deformability characteristics under short- and long-term loading.
10. Strength characteristics in reference to a rational failure criterion.
11. In-situ stress and hydraulic and/or dynamic loads.
12. Geometric and mechanical properties of systematic and extensive
discontinuities.
Rock Mass Characterization
Put quite simply, the most important requirement that rock must fulfill when
excavated is its ability to remain stable. Although this sounds simple, it is not
always the case. Mahtab and Grasso (1992) define the term "rock mass" as the
rock fabric and all the joints it contains. It is very important to consider the joints
and cracks in a rock because, as mentioned before, these discontinuities can serve
as a point of failure in a rock mass under stress.
Testing of the rocks in the area being considered for excavation is not always
straightforward. There are a number of method for testing the rocks, both to
determine the in-situ stress on the rock, as well as the rock's ability to withstand
this stress. This second part often involves uniaxial and triaxial compression tests
to determine the "strength" of the rock.
Although the classifications in these two tables are quite simple, the descriptions
of rock masses can be extremely complex, and are much more so than for soils.
The reason for this is that, although rocks have a greater innate strength than a
soil, their mechanical characteristics are dominated by the effect of anisotropy
(the state of a characteristic of the rock being different in different directions) and
the discontinuities contained within. These discontinuities may range from
foliation in the rock , such as the layering in a schist or the fissibility of a shale.
The discontinuities may also take the form of fractures, ranging from the
minuscule cracks to major faulting. (Parker, 1996)CFew tunnels are excavated
without the use of some kind of artificial support. Terzaghi (1946) developed a
classification scheme to describe rocks and their load on steel supports. Although
this classification scheme is fifty years old, and is limited with today's
technology, the classification scheme it is still quite useful for basic descriptions.
Terzaghi's seven rock mass descriptions are as follows: (Terzaghi, 1946)
Intact rock: Intact rock contains neither joints nor hair cracks, and thus breaks
across sound rock. Spalling conditions, which is when thin slabs of rock fall off
the roof or walls of the tunnel, , and popping conditions, where rock slabs on the
sides or roof of the tunnel spontaneously and violently detach, may occur for
several hours or days after blasting.
Moderately jointed rock: Moderately jointed rock contains joints and hair
cracks, but blocks between the joints are locally grown together or so intimately
interlocked that vertical walls do not require lateral support. Again, spalling and
popping conditions may be encountered.
Blocky and seamy rock: This consists of chemically intact or nearly intact rock
fragments which are entirely separated from each other and imperfectly
interlocked. The vertical walls of the tunnel may require support.
Squeezing rock: Squeezing rock slowly advances into the tunnel without a
perceptible volume increase. This condition requires a very high percentage of
microscopic and submicroscopic micaceous minerals or clay minerals with a low
swelling capacity.
Swelling rock: Swelling rock advances into the tunnel primarily by the
expansion of the rock itself. This condition seems to be limited to rocks
containing clays, such as montmorillonite, which have a high capacity to swell
when hydrated.
Rock mass classification schemes abound, and nearly every different author has a
different method of classifying rock masses for excavation purposes
Tunnel Geometry
In the design of tunnels, designers attempt to utilize a shape that will prove the
most stable. Basic mechanics, in conjunction with the rock mass classification,
dictates the most effective geometry. For instance, tunnels are rarely excavated
with a flat roof. The reason for this is that, as the span increases, the rock in the
center has less force holding it up, and a flat-roofed tunnel is more susceptible to
collapse. However, when tunnelling is strongly stratified rock, such as shale, the
roof is often cut flat, taking advantage of the rock's natural tendency to break
along bedding planes. By cutting the tunnel along bedding planes and then
supporting the roof, the tunnel would be less apt to collapse than if a different
geometry were employed which cut across the bedding of the rock, making it
more unstable. (Wahlstrom, 1973) For the most part, however, tunnels are
excavated with roofs that are circular segments, which is the most stable
geometric shape with regard to an externally-applied stress. Also common are
tunnels cut with horseshoe shapes, or tunnels with gothic arch roofs, which
provide maximum stability in the roof section. (Wahlstrom, 1973)
In addition to the shape of the tunnel section, the size is also very important. It is
generally considered that the minimum size for a tunnel that will still permit
reasonable working space is at least 7 feet (2.15 m) high by 4 feet (1.2 m) wide,
clear of the wall or the supports, for a walkway. (Wahlstrom, 1973) For obvious
reasons, any tunnel designed for vehicle traffic would have to be larger. The
primary problem in sizing a tunnel is one of support against external stress.
Consider circular tunnels: Using the formula of (pi)r2 to calculate the area of a
circle (or in this case, an infinitesimally thin slice through a circular tunnel), it
can be shown that doubling the diameter (2r) of a circular tunnel results in four
times the area (2r) of the slice. This means that doubling the diameter of a tunnel
requires removing four times as much rock. This rock, up to the point of
excavation, had been in equilibrium with the surrounding rock, and had been
supporting it. In addition, the surface area of the tunnel is doubled, and so the
forces in the rock which are trying to bring down the tunnel are now acting over
twice as large an area. It is for this reason that the use of supports is much more
important in larger tunnels than in smaller ones. Often, in cases where tunnels are
to be driven into rock of questionable competence, very small tunnels are driven
first and then carefully enlarged and supported during the enlarging process.
(Wahlstrom, 1973)
First of all, it is not possible to cover all of the mechanics of tunnel design and
construction in a short paper. Dozens of books hundreds of pages long have been
devoted to this. However, there are a few basic concepts which apply to the
design process, and I will cover those, then a brief description of the tunnel
design process itself..
The two concepts in mechanics which most apply to tunnelling are stress and
strain. Stress may simply be thought of as a force applied on a body, and strain
may simply be thought of as that body's deformational response to the stress. For
instance, consider placing a heavy book on top of a grape. The stress is the force
of gravity and the mass of the book, and the strain is the reaction of the grape to
the stress, namely, flattening. Staining of the book by the grape juice is a
chemical process, and is not considered in this paper. Stress and strain models are
used by most tunnel engineers to determine the feasibility of a particular
excavation. However, recent models have begun to move away from a stress-
and-strain focus. The focus of some of the newer models is the distortional strain
energy stored in the rock masses. The reason for this is that energy is a scalar,
and thus has no direction, so that the analysis may be performed without regard
to the directions of the stress and strain acting on the rock body. (Matsumoto and
Nishioka, 1991) However, this paper will not go into the discussion of these
methods, primarily because they have not been tested to the extent of the
classical mechanics models, and also because the author has difficulty
understanding them.
In the consideration of stress and strain, the dynamic nature of a material can be
put into three classes of ideal behavior, and all real materials behave in some
combination of the three.
With respect to these three ideals, no rock behaves perfectly in these manners,
but rather in some combination of elastic, plastic, and viscous. A potentially
important quality of some materials, notably glasses, is fragility. A material
exhibiting fragile behavior will shatter while still in the range of elasticity.
(Matsumoto and Nishioka, 1991). However, many materials which would
normally behave in a fragile manner while being compressed from one direction
will flow in a ductile manner when compressed from all three directions.
(Matsumoto and Nishioka, 1991)
The inverse Hooke's law (strain-stress relations) are derived and are:
where:
The Hooke's Law for plane stress is given by the inversion of the above
equations:
stressx = (E/1-PR2)(strainx+PR*strainy)
stressy = (E/1-PR2)(strainy+PR*strainx)
shear stressxy = G*shear strainxy
Plane strain can be illustrated by a long, cylindrical opening, which is
conveniently what a tunnel is. If z represents the axis of the opening, the
displacements of all the points in the plane of the cross-section (x-y) plane are
not zero, but the shear strains
associated with the z direction are zero (shear strainyz =shear strainzx = 0) and
strainz must be constant (and is usually set equal to zero for convenience). With
the conditions thus, the Hooke's Law becomes:
stressx = (L + 2G)strainx+L*strainy
stressy = (L + 2G)strainy+L*strainx
shear stressxy = G*shear strainxy
where:
G = E/[2(1+nu)]
L= PR*E/(1+PR)(1-2PR), which is the second Lam constant
As a result, the stress in the z direction (the constrained slice of tunnel) is given
by:
stressz = PR(stressx+stressy)
Thus, using the above equations, in conjunction with rock mechanics testing and
perhaps in-situ testing of the stress conditions underground, the tunnel engineer
could approximate the existing stresses on the rocks at depth, and can estimate
the potential strains which may result from excavating a tunnel. From these, the
engineer can determine the following:
Problems
These equations, are theoretical. Nature, unfortunately, has an ability to and a
habit of throwing kinks into well-laid plans. This section will demonstrate a
number of difficulties associated with excavation.
In general, rocks have a high resistance to crushing. King (1996) states that the
walls of a tunnel will not fail as a result of compression except at great depth -
more than 2000 feet (600 m) for softer sandstones and more than 19,000 feet
(5800 m) for the strongest rocks. However, the rocks are still under an immense
amount of stress, and the rock left standing after tunnel or cavern excavation
must bear a greater load than before, as illustrated in Figure 4 from Terzaghi.
This point is further illustrated in Figure 6, from Herget (1988). The grid lines
represent the principal plane-strain stresses around a circular tunnel after
excavation. The crowding of the trajectories at the sides indicates an increase in
compression, and the widening at the top and bottom indicates a decrease in
compressive stress. This implies that the walls of a tunnel, not the roof, would be
more susceptible to failure. This is the mechanical basis of
the rockburst phenomenon.
Figure 6. Deflection of stress around a circular opening
Of all the hazards associated with mining, rockbursts are perhaps the most
terrifying. A rockburst is the sudden, violent dislocation of slabs of rock in a
tunnel, usually from the walls, but also potentially from the roof or even floor.
Considered to be a "mining-induced seismic event," a rockburst can release
enormous amounts of energy, and some have been measured at 4 on the Richter
scale (Jha and Chouhan, 1994) and one rockburst was recorded by a
seismological station 1200 miles distant. (Obert and Duvall, 1967) The danger is
obvious and quantifiable: In a three-year period in the Kolar gold-field in India,
rockbursts accounted for 50% of all fatalities. (Obert and Duvall, 1967) The
above link (blue "rockburst") illustrates the before and after of a rockburst in the
Kolar gold-field. (Whittaker, et. al., 1992)
What are the causes of rockburst? One of the primary causes is obviously stress.
The forces necessary to shatter tons of rock require the input of stress. The other
primary factor is the rock type. An interesting point about rock bursts is that they
do not occur in weak rocks. It is thought that the pressures which can cause a
rockburst are slowly released in the weaker rocks by semiplastic adjustments.
(Wahlstrom, 1973) The rocks affected are nearly always hard, strong, and brittle.
These rocks may have an unconfined compressive stress of 15,000 to 60,000 psi
(100-400 MPa) and a Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) of 6x10^6 to
14x10^6 psi (40,000 to 90,000 MPa) (Obert and Duvall, 1967) In the United
States, the most common location for rockburst phenomena seems to be the
Coeur d'Alene mining district of northern Idaho, where the galena mines run over
a mile deep into the quartzites of the Revett Formation of the Belt Supergroup.
Mathematically, it can be shown that the strain energy per unit volume, defined
as the (normal stress)2/2E, where E is the Young's modulus, or the ratio of stress
to strain. The maximum strain energy per unit volume would be C0/2E, where
C0 is the uniaxial compressive stress. (Obert and Duvall, 1967) All other things
being equal, the weakest rocks would be the least likely to burst, because they
would reach their failure point far before they could store enough strain energy to
produce a violent failure.
Once the major conditions are met, rockbursts still require a mechanism for
failure. Germanovich, et. al. (1994) and Nemat-Nasser and Horii (1982) describe
a mechanism by which a crack, initially inclined to the principal stresses, will
grow in the direction of the principal stresses. This so-called "crack kinking" is
shown in Figure 8 below, with both an inclined crack which has kinked as well as
a pore which has begun cracking under stress.
Figure 8. Cracks propagating from a) pre-existing flaw and b) pore
In the presence of a free surface (in this case, the tunnel wall), the cracks growing
parallel to the free surface are affected by the free surface, and grow unstably
after reaching a certain length. (Dyskin and Germanovich, 1993a) This instability
of crack propagation can result in the separation of thin layers of rock from the
rock mass and produce spalling. (Germanovich, et. al., 1994) In a way, each
individual crack can be looked upon as a stress concentration. By itself, a single
crack probably won't be responsible for a failure, but through the stress-induced
crack growth, interaction of the cracks may cause the rock to reach a level of
instablility where it will fail.
Rockbursts are, however, mining-induced events. Were it not for the removal of
rock, the rock mass would stay perfectly happy at depth. Excavation causes a
large stress gradient and the potential for release of the rock's stored strain
energy. The rate of release of the strain energy is important. A gradual release
may be perfectly safe, whereas the violent releases of energy are what we call
rockbursts. Figure 9, taken from Whittaker, et. al. (1992) illustrates three
different excavation sequences. Sequences 1 and 3 both result in the release of
energy quickly, which makes them more susceptible to rockburst than Sequence
3, which has a more uniformly gradual release of energy. A great deal of mining
research is directed toward techniques which will allow the gradual release of
strain energy in rocks, and thus avoid rockburst.
Tneles: Mecnica y peligros
Jim St. Marie
Introduccin
Una vez que los diseadores del tnel de ponerse a la fase de diseo actual, la
primera actividad realizada generalmente es una caracterizacin del sitio de la
excavacin. Esto implica la caracterizacin de la masa de roca en la que el tnel
va a ser conducido. Esta caracterizacin incluir las siguientes propiedades:
(MAHTAB y Grasso, 1992)
Las pruebas de las rocas en el rea que est siendo considerado para la
excavacin no siempre es sencillo. Hay un nmero de mtodo para probar las
rocas, tanto para determinar la tensin en-situ en la roca, as como la capacidad
de la roca para soportar este estrs. Esta segunda parte a menudo implica ensayos
de compresin uniaxial y triaxial para determinar la "fuerza" de la roca.
ingenieros tnel generalmente clasifican rocas en la base de la resistencia a la
deformacin (fuerza), la cantidad de desgaste, y resistencia general a la
intemperie. (Parker, 1996) Estos dos ltimos no son los mismos, aunque pueden
parecer tan a primera vista. Una roca puede ser muy resistente a la intemperie,
pero puede haber tambin han sido sometidos a un perodo muy largo de tiempo,
lo que puede resultar en desgaste significativo. En general, la fuerza y la
resistencia a la intemperie de una roca se derivan de la clase de roca. Las rocas
gneas y metamrficas, en general, son ms resistentes a la deformacin y el
desgaste de las rocas sedimentarias.
Aunque las clasificaciones en estas dos tablas son bastante simples, las
descripciones de las masas de roca pueden ser extremadamente complejos, y son
mucho ms que para los suelos. La razn de esto es que, aunque las rocas tienen
una mayor fuerza innata que un suelo, sus caractersticas mecnicas estn
dominadas por el efecto de la anisotropa (el estado de una caracterstica de la
roca ser diferente en diferentes direcciones) y las discontinuidades que
contiene. Estas discontinuidades pueden variar de foliacin en la roca, como por
ejemplo la disposicin en capas en un esquisto o la fissibility de un esquisto.Las
discontinuidades tambin pueden tomar la forma de fracturas, que van desde las
grietas minsculas a las principales fallas. (Parker, 1996)CPocas tneles se
excavan sin el uso de algn tipo de soporte artificial. Terzaghi (1946) desarroll
un esquema de clasificacin para describir las rocas y su carga sobre soportes de
acero. Aunque este esquema de clasificacin es de cincuenta aos de edad, y se
limita con la tecnologa actual, el sistema de clasificacin todava es muy til
para las descripciones bsicas. siete descripciones del macizo rocoso de Terzaghi
son los siguientes: (Terzaghi, 1946)
Roca intacta: la roca intacta contiene ni juntas ni fisuras pelo, y por lo tanto se
rompe a travs de roca slida. Desconchado condiciones, que es cuando, y hacer
estallar las condiciones, en las placas de roca en los laterales y el techo del tnel
de forma espontnea y violentamente se desprenden, se pueden producir losas
delgadas de cada de rocas fuera el techo o las paredes del tnel durante varias
horas o das despus de la voladura .
esquemas de clasificacin del macizo rocoso abundan, y casi cada autor diferente
tiene un mtodo diferente de la clasificacin de las masas de roca para propsitos
de excavacin
Ley de Hooke para tensin plana est dado por la inversin de las ecuaciones
anteriores:
estrs x = (E / 1-PR 2 ) (cepa x + PR * cepa y )
el estrs y = (E / 1-PR 2 ) (cepa y + PR * cepa x )
tensin de corte xy = G * deformacin de corte xy
deformacin plana se puede ilustrar con una abertura cilndrica larga, que es
convenientemente lo que es un tnel. Si z representa el eje de la abertura, los
desplazamientos de todos los puntos en el plano del plano de seccin transversal
(xy) no son cero, pero las cepas de cizallamiento
donde:
G = E / [2 (1 + nu)]
L = PR * E / (1 + PR) (1-2PR), que es la segunda constante Lam
Por lo tanto, el uso de las ecuaciones anteriores, junto con las pruebas de
mecnica de rocas y tal vez las pruebas in situ de las condiciones de estrs
subterrneas, el ingeniero de tneles podra aproximarse a las tensiones
existentes en las rocas en profundidad, y se puede estimar las cepas potenciales
que puedan resultar de la excavacin un tnel. De estos, el ingeniero puede
determinar lo siguiente:
Problemas
Estas ecuaciones, son tericas. La naturaleza, por desgracia, tiene una capacidad
de y la costumbre de tirar torceduras en los planes bien trazados. En esta seccin
se demostrar una serie de dificultades asociadas con la excavacin.
En general, las rocas tienen una alta resistencia a la trituracin. Rey (1996)
afirma que las paredes de un tnel no fallarn como consecuencia de la
compresin, excepto a gran profundidad - ms de 2000 pies (600 m) para
areniscas ms suaves y ms de 19.000 pies (5800 m) para las rocas ms
fuertes. Sin embargo, las rocas estn todava bajo una inmensa cantidad de estrs,
y la roca queda en pie tras la excavacin del tnel o caverna deben soportar una
carga mayor que antes, como se ilustra en la Figura 4 de Terzaghi. Este punto se
ilustra adicionalmente en la Figura 6, de Herget (1988). Las lneas de la
cuadrcula representan las tensiones principales deformacin plana alrededor de
un tnel circular despus de la excavacin. La aglomeracin de las trayectorias
en los lados indica un aumento de la compresin, y la ampliacin en la parte
superior y la parte inferior indica una disminucin en la tensin de
compresin. Esto implica que las paredes de un tnel, no el techo, seran ms
susceptibles a fallos. Esta es la base mecnica de la rockburst fenmeno.
Cules son las causas de rockburst? Una de las causas principales es,
obviamente, el estrs. Las fuerzas necesarias para hacer aicos toneladas de roca
requieren la entrada de la tensin. El otro factor principal es el tipo de roca. Un
punto interesante acerca de las explosiones de roca es que no se producen en
rocas dbiles. Se cree que las presiones que pueden causar un rockburst se liberan
lentamente en las rocas ms dbiles por los ajustes semiplstico. (Wahlstrom,
1973) Las rocas afectadas son casi siempre dura, fuerte y frgil. Estas rocas
pueden tener un esfuerzo de compresin no confinada de 15.000 a 60.000 psi
(100 a 400 MPa) y un mdulo de Young (mdulo de elasticidad) de 6x10 ^ 6 a
14x10 ^ 6 psi (40,000 a 90,000 MPa) (Obert y Duvall, 1967) en los Estados
Unidos, la localizacin ms frecuente de fenmenos rockburst parece ser el
distrito minero de Coeur d'Alene del norte de Idaho, donde las minas de galena se
extienden sobre una milla de profundidad en las cuarcitas de la Formacin Revett
de la correa supergrupo.
Una vez que se cumplan las condiciones principales, golpes de terreno todava
requieren un mecanismo para el fracaso. Germanovich, et. Alabama. (1994) y
Nemat-Nasser y Horii (1982) describen un mecanismo por el cual una grieta,
inclinado inicialmente a las tensiones principales, crecer en la direccin de las
tensiones principales. Este llamado "romper el retorcimiento" se muestra en la
Figura 8 a continuacin, con tanto una fisura inclinada que ha retorcido as como
un poro que ha comenzado el agrietamiento bajo estrs.
En presencia de una superficie libre (en este caso, la pared del tnel), las grietas
crecen en paralelo a la superficie libre se ven afectados por la superficie libre, y
crecen de forma inestable despus de alcanzar una determinada longitud. (Dyskin
y Germanovich, 1993a) Esta inestabilidad de la propagacin de las grietas
pueden dar lugar a la separacin de las capas delgadas de roca del macizo rocoso
y producir desprendimientos. (Germanovich, et. Al., 1994) En cierto modo, cada
grieta individuo puede ser considerado como una concentracin de esfuerzos. Por
s mismo, una sola grieta probablemente no ser responsable de un fracaso, sino a
travs del crecimiento de la grieta inducida por el estrs, la interaccin de las
grietas puede causar la roca para alcanzar un nivel de instablility donde se
producir un error.
Golpes de terreno son, sin embargo, los eventos causados por la minera. Si no
fuera por la eliminacin de la roca, la masa de roca se quedara perfectamente
feliz en profundidad. La excavacin provoca un gran gradiente de estrs y el
potencial para la liberacin de energa de deformacin almacenada de la roca. La
velocidad de liberacin de la energa de deformacin es importante. Una
liberacin gradual puede ser perfectamente seguro, mientras que las emisiones
violentas de la energa son lo que llamamos golpes de terreno. La Figura 9,
tomada de Whittaker, et. Alabama. (1992) ilustra tres secuencias de excavacin
diferentes. Secuencias 1 y 3, tanto como resultado la liberacin de la energa
rpidamente, lo que los hace ms susceptibles a rockburst de Secuencia 3, que
tiene una liberacin ms uniforme gradual de la energa. Una gran cantidad de
investigacin minera se dirige hacia tcnicas que permitirn la liberacin gradual
de energa de deformacin en rocas, y por lo tanto evitar rockburst.