Revue belge de philologie et

d'histoire

A genre approach to writing in the second language classroom :

The use of direct mail letters
Richard Tuffs

Citer ce document / Cite this document :

Tuffs Richard. A genre approach to writing in the second language classroom : The use of direct mail letters. In: Revue belge
de philologie et d'histoire, tome 71, fasc. 3, 1993. Langues et littratures modernes Moderne taal- en letterkunde. pp. 699-
718;

doi : 10.3406/rbph.1993.3899

http://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_1993_num_71_3_3899

Document gnr le 08/05/2016

 A genre approach to writing
in the second language classroom:
The use of direct mail letters

Richard Tuffs

1 . Introduction
Writing in the language classroom can primarily be looked at under two broad
categories: language reinforcement and writing as communication. From a language
reinforcement perspective the principal reason for writing is to strengthen oral
language most often in terms of gains in accuracy. Linked to this reinforcement
role, writing can be used as a diagnostic and an assessment tool. During a speaking
activity, the teacher may be unable or unwilling to correct certain errors and thus the
correction of written work means that the teacher is able to identify a range of
errors, assess the writing ability of a learner, and where necessary, programme
corrective exercises.
The above role of writing sees writing as a part of the language learning
process rather than as a communicative skill. From a communicative approach,
writing in the classroom can also be placed under the category of where improved
writing skills are goals of the course. Courses such as English for academic
purposes or certain business English courses may place more emphasis on writing
as a separate skill that needs to be taught and practised in the classroom.
Krashen (1984) argues that despite the existence of research, and numerous
documented writing programmes, very little is known about the process of writing
in a second language. With no clear theory or methodology available, shared
insights into teaching writing have been more difficult to build up as each teacher
not only has different reasons for teaching or not teaching writing, but also each
class situation varies. Furthermore, the main language teaching methodologies of
recent years, such as the audio-lingual method, the direct method and the
communicative approach have all emphasized the importance of spoken language
and much less attention has been paid to writing.
This methodological impasse has not stopped research into writing over the
past decade, indeed, the last ten years or so have seen an increase in the interest in
writing especially findings from the fruitful area of discourse analysis and schema
theory both research areas that have heavily influenced reading pedagogy (see
Kroll: 1990)
One area of research within applied linguistics which would seem to have an
important influence on the teaching of writing is that of genre analysis (Swales:
1990). The concept of genre is one that is increasingly entering applied linguistics
and as with any recent concept its exact definition may vary between differing
schools of thought and different authors. Rather than enter into a debate on the
700 RICHARD TUFFS

definition of the term genre, this article will refer mainly to the work of Swales and
argue that activities involving an analysis of a particular genre can lead to the direct
improvement of writing within that genre. However, this improvement in one genre
may have less relevance in a pre-experience context where students may firstly have
little experience of discourse analysis and secondly the range of genres that they will
have to deal with in the future is less predictable. In this case, classroom techniques
of genre analysis may benefit from an approach which favours the process rather
than the product of the analysis and may also better integrate speaking, reading and
writing activities. It is in this light that direct mail, which may seem at first glance a
rather frivolous genre, can offer a learner-friendly approach to genre analysis.
The article will briefly review the different approaches to writing in the
language classroom and then examine by means of a case study how direct mail
letters can be used in the classroom as a means of giving useful insights into the
processes of discourse and genre analysis. Once the students have gained some
knowledge of how the genre is constructed, they are in a position to put this
knowledge to work in reproducing instances of the genre. By being more aware of
how one genre is constructed linguistically the learner is in a better position to
explore other genres.

2. Approaches to writing
Very generally speaking two basic models of writing have dominated
approaches to writing in the language classroom. The first relates to the teaching of
writing based on prescriptive rules and the copying of models which can be defined
as the product approach. The second, which has gained more currency in recent
years, is based on the study of how, rather than what, writers write. This model can
be defined as the process approach.
In the last two decades in applied linguistics there has been a trend of
identifying methodological positions by dichotomies or words placed in opposition
to one another. Process and product thus become another pair of words joining for
example, Widdowson's use and usage, discourse and text (Widdowson: 1978),
capacity and competence, and education and training (Widdowson: 1983). Rather
than enter into what has already been a wide-ranging debate, it is enough to say at
this point that whereas the process approach is concerned with the process of
learning, product approaches are more concerned with the outcomes of the learning.
Very globally each approach gathers round it what we might term an ideological
position a network of linked ideas and concepts. Thus the product approach is
often identified with a more traditional approach . This traditional approach is
seen as a more teacher-directed form of learning. Course goals are set, a syllabus is
designed, taught, and tested. In contrast, the process approach is more often
identified with a more modem communicative approach, more learner centred, more
concerned with the here and now of classroom teaching and the learning process.
Task-based syllabuses allowing flexibility of outcomes may also characterize a
process approach.
 A GENRE APPROACH TO WRITING 701

The setting up of two basic categories of approaches to teaching writing is not

intended to suggest that only two approaches exist. Indeed, many eclectic
approaches exist and more recently there has been more emphasis, particularly in
language courses with tight objectives such as English for Academic Purposes, on a
genre approach to writing which concentrates efforts on teaching and learning the
linguistic features of a restricted range of genres. The next three sections will look at
each of these three approaches in more detail.

3 . The product approach

Traditionally, the teaching of writing has been language focused ; the
emphasis being placed on correctness, a correctness based on the adherence to and
the copying of models. This controlled composition (see Silva: 1990) was
based on the twin concepts that language was speech and that learning was a
process of habit formation. Thus writing was seen chiefly as a means of reinforcing
spoken language and as such had little to do with actual writing needs that the
learner might have.

The text becomes a collection of sentence patterns and vocabulary items - a linguistic
artifact, a vehicle for language practice. The writing concern is the ESL classroom ; there is
negligible concern for audience or purpose (Silva: 1990, p. 13).

This model-based approach has, however, evolved in more recent years from
an approach placing most emphasis at the sentence level to an approach focusing
more on rhetorical organization of texts and discourse features. The central interest
moved from the sentence to the paragraph. In this approach,

... writing is basically a matter of arrangement, of fitting sentences and paragraphs into
prescribed patterns. Learning to write, then, involves becoming skilled in identifying,
internalizing, and executing these patterns. (Silva: 1990, p. 14)

There has been a growing dissatisfaction with model-based approaches to the

teaching of writing. Firstly, because the perceived shortcomings in the models
themselves. For example, Swales prefaces a research paper on academic article
introductions by noting that he had become,

... profoundly dissatisfied with the pious, prescriptive and ill-found character of the
materials dealing with how to write 'Introduction sections to academic prose ... (Swales:
1981, p. 1)

Often model-based approaches to writing give such generalized advice that

their pedagogical usefulness may be questioned. For example, an introductory page
on writing business letters offers advice under four headings: clarity and brevity,
emphasis, repetition of words and references. Under the heading clarity and
brevity the reader is informed that,

Since a busy executive will often select the shortest and simplest letters in front of him to
answer first, it is not difficult to appreciate the value of clarity and brevity in a business
702 RICHARD TUFFS

letter. While it is not always possible to be brief, one should at least try to be concise and
to control the length of a letter. The longer and more diffuse a letter is, the longer the writer
often has to wait for an answer (Kench: 1972, p. ix).

The author does not quote any evidence to suggest a correlation between the
length of a letter and the length of the wait for the reply and much of the advice must
be categorised under the heading of common sense. While such common sense
advice is undoubtedly useful, it is often difficult for a student to move from
generalised advice to putting this advice into practice in concrete situations.
Secondly, as more attention has been paid to the process of writing, such
model-based approaches to writing have been criticized as being too long and too
remote from the students' own writing problems (see White 1988). The
methodology, often employed, is often at odds with communicative methodology
which has placed more emphasis on the learner's communicative needs and through
a range of materials and classroom activities seeks to encourage the learner to
express him or herself by all means possible.
Thirdly, communicative methodology has made learners and teachers much
more aware of the contexts that language is used in and functional syllabuses have
drawn attention to levels of formality and informality of language use depending on
the situation of use.

4 . The process approach

Criticism of the product-based approach has meant that since the early
eighties, more interest has been placed in what has been termed the process-based
approach. One weakness of the product-based approach is that it does not
demonstrate how the writer arrives at the finished product and tends to equate
mastery of the language system with good writing. Proponents of the process-based
approach claim that more attention needs to be paid to the stages that good writers
go through as they create a final product. One of the first contributions to the
process movement in writing is by Zamel who clearly indicates this move in
thinking,
Recently, however, the focus of research on composition has shifted. Rather than
investigating what students write, teachers and researchers are beginning to study the
composing process itself. They are now working under the assumption that before we know
how to teach writing, we must first understand how we write. And what they are finding out
about the process seriously challenges the ways in which composition has been taught in
the past. The composing process seems to be an extremely complex undertaking... it
involves much more than studying a particular grammar, analyzing it and imitating
rhetorical models or outlining what it is one plans to say. The process involves not only
the act of writing itself, but prewriting and rewriting, all of which are independent. (Zamel:
1982, p. 196)

Therefore, the process-based approach to writing pays more attention to the

processes of writing such as planning, drafting, editing and reviewing texts (see
Hayes and Flowers: 1980, Bogen and Worley: 1988). This process is not always
 A GENRE APPROACH TO WRITING 703

linear. After studying the composing process of skilled ESL writers, Zamel (1983)
argued that writing,

... seems to be a process of discovering and exploring ideas and constructing a framework
with which to best present these ideas. This process is creative and generative and may not
always be based on a clear sense of direction or explicit plan, but rather a plan that allows
for further discovery and explanation (Zamel: 1983, p. 180).

The process approach to writing also emphasizes the role of purpose and
audience as a determiner of the content of any written text. This more contextualized
emphasis lends itself to task-based classroom activities leaving space for the learner
to use his or her language resources to the full and use any model as a resource to
be drawn upon rather than copied. This means that the process approach calls for a
positive, encouraging and collaborative workshop environment (Silva: 1990,
p. 15) where students with ample time and minimal interference can work through
the composing strategy.
The process approach also emphasizes the developmental role of writing.
Within an L2 situation, we can see two roles of writing ; on the one hand it focuses
attention on the ability of the student to produce his or her ideas and wishes clearly
in written text, on the other hand, it can be used as a means of reinforcing the
language system. Thus, writing within a second language learning classroom
situation often not only has to strike an uneasy compromise between the
developmental view of writing as emphasized by the process approach, the
reinforcement of language points as emphasized by the product approach, but also
has to take account of the final needs of the learner.
Although the process approach has been well received in ESL it is not without
its critics. Two areas of debate can be identified. Firstly from the classroom
situation, the process approach is rather vague about what should go on in the
classroom. When can a piece of writing be considered as finished and how should
the process of editing and revising be handled ? The time allowed for the process of
writing to take place in its entirety means that more class time must be left free for
learners to experiment and develop their writing but with no guarantee of an end
product. What role does evaluation of the product take ? Should written work with
its emphasis on personal development be evaluated and if so, how and when ?
A second criticism is rooted in the relationship of writing to the sociocultural
context in which writing necessarily takes place and is judged. This movement has
mainly stemmed from EFL teachers in academic settings. Our culture neither values
scribble on a page or poorly organized writing and in terms of exam answering or
essay writing, writing must conform with established culturally accepted levels of
evaluation (see Ballard and Clanchy: 1991). Learning to write is part of the
socialization process within a community and thus the attention to individuality may
be counter-productive in terms of the acceptance of a certain way of writing in the
community. For example, after examining two texts written by two children
describing a visit to a museum, Rothery (1989) argues that one text is more
704 RICHARD TUFFS

successful because it corresponds to a classification-description text type which has

more prestige than the second observation-comment text type which is regarded as
an immature variety of writing (see Rothery: 1989, p. 75)

5. A brief introduction to genre

Genre is a term that seems to have an increasing popularity (see Swales this
volume) and has consequently lost much of its sharp focus and is an extremely
fuzzy concept (Swales: 1990). The term surfaces in folklore and literary
studies as well as film studies (Neale: 1980) and is now also extensively used in
linguistics, (for a fuller discussion on the concept of genre see Bex: 1992, Halliday
and Hasan: 1989, Kress: 1989, Martin: 1992).
Swales defines a genre as,
... a more or less standardised communicative event with a goal or a set of goals
mutually understood by the participants in that event and occurring within a functional
rather than a social or personal setting (Swales: 1981, p. 10).

Since this definition, Swales (1990) has developed (and is developing see
this volume) his earlier position by outlining in more detail the component parts of
the definition. These are:
1. A genre is a class of communicative event
Swales defines a communicative event as one which language plays a
significant and indispensable role. Communicative events vary in their occurrence
from the extremely common such as service encounters to the relatively rare.
Communicative events are not limited to only the discourse itself but must take into
account the role of the discourse and the environment in which it takes place as well
as the historical and cultural associations.
2. Communicative events are turned into genres by a shared set of
communicative purposes
Here we see that similarity of form is no guarantee of a genre. Genres are
communicative vehicles for the achievement of goals (Swales: 1990, p. 46).
Identifying purpose may not be as easy as it seems. In some cases, recipes for
example, the communicative purpose seems clear, in other genres such as the war
press conference, the purpose of the meeting between the military command and the
press may have more than one purpose. Therefore, some genres may have sets of
communicative purposes. For example, the news on television can be seen in an
informative role, agenda setting, setting a good image of the channel. The role of
purpose must take on a privileged status in order to protect genres against
parody (for a good example taken from the world of EFL (English as a Foreign
Language), see Swan and Walters: 1982).
3. Instances of genre may vary in their prototypicality
Basing genre membership on communicative purpose is not enough,
additional features are required to establish membership of a certain genre. Swales
argues that although we could approach this task from a definitional point of view,
problems have arisen in everyday areas and in practice great difficulties have been
 A GENRE APPROACH TO WRITING 705

experienced in defining the properties of fruit, furniture, vehicles etc. Swales goes
on to argue that,
It might therefore be the case that what holds shared membership together is not a shared
list of defining features, but inter-relationships of a somewhat looser kind. (Swales: 1990,
p. 49)
Thus taking the example of bird, we consider that some birds are more typical
of birds than others. Research has shown that in general people are able to rank
examples into orders of most typical with a large degree of agreement. The most
typical category members become protypes, for example a robin is a prototype bird,
a chair a prototype piece of furniture. Thus we can use the same concept within any
definition of genre, for example, taking a television context we can describe a
programme as a typical soap opera without necessarily having to define all the
properties that we associate with the soap opera.
4. The rationale behind a genre establishes constraints on allowable
contributions in terms of their content, positioning and form.
Established members of discourse communities employ genres to realize
communicatively the goals of the communities. Swales argues that discourse
communities should be seen differently from speech communities. Whereas a
speech community might be characterised by solidarity and centripetal forces
bringing members together, a discourse community's goals will predominate in the
development of the discourses. Thus, the shared set of purposes of a genre are
recognized by the discourse community. This recognition provides a rationale while
the rationale in turn imposes constraining conventions. These conventions are
constantly evolving. Take the example of a soap powder advertisement. The
purpose of the advertisement is clearly recognized and yet the conventions of the
advertisement form have tended to reduce the amount of creativity that can be
injected into the advertisement because the more one breaks away from the
conventions the more the communicative purpose of the genre is diminished.
5. A discourse community's nomenclature for genres is an important
source of insight.
Knowledge of the conventions of the genre is likely to be greater in those who
professionally operate within that genre rather than those who become involved in it
only occasionally. Thus names are readily given to recurring communicative events.
However, these names may be used for institutional convenience rather than clearly
identify with the activity. Secondly, names persevere while activities change.
Within the academic community we have communicative events that depending on
the activity we might call a lecture, talk, workshop, tutorial, seminar. Although no
two lectures may be the same, the expectations of the audience will surely differ
depending on whether the audience is expecting a lecture or a seminar.

6 . Genre approaches to writing

There are two reasons why the genre approach to teaching writing skills has a
specific interest. Firstly, a genre-specific approach is a more useful starting point to
706 RICHARD TUFFS

give insights to students of how to replicate successfully particular genres because

rather than relying on prescriptive model-based advice, a genre approach attempts to
identify the features of successful writing within a defined genre and then teach
these features to students. The pedagogical importance of the identification of
genres is explained by Swales who notes,

... it is only within genres that viable correlations between cognitive, rhetorical, and
linguistic features can be established, for it is only within genres that language is
sufficiently conventionalized and the range of communicative purpose sufficiently narrow
for us to hope to establish pedagogically-employable generalizations that will capture
certain relationships between function and form (Swales: 1981, p. 10).

Secondly, learners need or want to reproduce certain written genres such as

letters and reports in a business situation and essays and projects in an academic
setting. Davies (1988) points out that within an academic setting the importance of
the skill of identifying and reproducing genres may be critical for the success or
failure of a student.
... criteria for success in the subject area are the taken- for-granted subject specific criteria
which actually determine and control the nature of products in that subject area. They are the
criteria of the people who control, directly or indirectly, the distinctive genres which the
students are exposed to, on the one hand, ... and on the other, the genres the students are
expected to produce... Thus what is required of students if they are to be successful in their
writing is that they somehow discover and learn to meet these implicit, taken- for-granted
criteria by which the different genres they produce are assessed (Davies: 1983, p. 131).

An early example of a genre approach to a specific writing task is Swales'

study of academic article introductions (Swales: 1981). Swale analysed a corpus of
48 article introductions in a range of scientific articles in academic journals and
found that many of the articles illustrated a four-move structure typified by the
following moves:

1. establishing the field

2. summarizing previous research
3. preparing for present research
4. introducing present research (Swales: 1 98 1 , p. 22a)

Following some criticism of the above model, Swales has revised the model
into what he calls a CARS (Create a research space) model. This model has three
moves, each one broken down into three or more possible steps within the move.

1 establishing a territory
2. establishing a niche
3. occupying the niche (Swales: 1990, p. 141)

Although the use of move structure as an analytic tool has also been taken up
in other genre (see Thompson: 1990 and her analysis of business letters answering
complaints) other approaches to genre analysis can be used. For example, the
 A GENRE APPROACH TO WRITING 707

inside-informant approach asks informants to identify what they consider instances

of good writing within the genre and then the analyst attempts to isolate the
discourse features found in the preferred texts and then teach these features to
students (Stainton: 1990).
LSP (language for specific purposes) courses may be typified by their reliance
on a restricted range of genres. Within a business context, for example, we might
identify business letters, but even here, as Thompson has indicated, there are many
sub-genres that exhibit particular features such as letters replying to complaints (see
also Bogert and Worley: 1988 who list nineteen different types of business letter)
However, although any identifiable genre can be analysed, each genre will
have its own internal logic and language and the insights we gain from the analysis
of one particular genre may have little or nothing to tell us of the organisation of a
different genre. This narrow focus, while possibly useful in short course design in
an LSP (language for specific purposes) context, such as pre-experience business
English courses where final needs may vary considerably, has more limited
attraction in other LGP (language for general purposes) courses. Given a choice of
genres, it is often difficult to select priorities and we are never sure if the time and
effort expended on one genre will be cost-beneficial to the learner.
A second problem, particularly in the domain of business English, is the
difficulty for genre analysts of getting hold of an adequate corpus. This may lead
the analyst to generalize from inadequate data or, in the absence of data, to give
advice based on educated guesses. Williams, in a study comparing the typical
functions used in meetings which are taught in EFL textbooks and the occurrence of
these functions in 3 hours of recorded meetings, found that although ten of the
seventeen functions taught did in fact occur, there was virtually no correspondence
with the forms actually used in the meetings. Williams concludes that,

Working on educated guesswork or hunches when writing dialogues and transactions for
coursebooks or when selecting language is highly questionable. This is not to say that
textbook writers are unable to teach any suitable language for meetings, but rather to point
out their inadequacies at present. (Williams: 1988, p. 53)

A third problem and possibly more difficult to deal with is how to move from
the analysis of the genre to the classroom teaching of the features found to the
learner. Genre analysis, as in the case of Swales' four move model of article
introductions, often means that prescriptive rules are given and the students work
from the rules or the models given. We find ourselves back full circle to the
model - write - correct approach.

7. Approaches to writing: implications for the classroom

The above discussion has concentrated on three approaches to writing:
product-based, process-based and genre-based. Each approach has its strengths and
weaknesses. Although the product approach suffers from its mechanistic overtones,
its lack of creativity, the ignoring of what is considered the realities of the writing
process and its too often simplistic prescriptive advice, its concentration on a final
708 RICHARD TUFFS

end-product does lead to finished texts. These texts can then be used for a range of
purposes such as syllabus planning, checking of learning, diagnosing errors and
evaluation.
In contrast to the mechanical view of the product approach, the process
approach emphasizes the creative aspect of writing. Writing is no longer a simplistic
copying activity but more a process of self-development, a clarification of ideas as
students move through plan, revise, edit stages of writing. Audience and purpose
of writing become more important and the communicative power of writing
becomes a driving force. However, classroom activities remain unclear, and the
time needed for learners' to move through the different stages of writing may not be
available being required for other activities. A further problem is that the process
approach while concentrating on the development of individual writing potential
may neglect the sociocultural constraints of writing and the need for writers to adapt
their writing to the conventions of the society they are in.
The genre approach has the advantage of being descriptive rather than
prescriptive. By identifying and analysing genres, analysts are able to offer clear
insights into how the genre is constructed and pass these insights on to learners.
The learner is then able to share in the knowledge available to discourse
communities and reproduce acceptable instances of the genre. The disadvantages of
the genre approach is that it is genre specific with no guarantee that the components
of one genre are similar to another. Even when readily available for analysis, genres
are not always transparent, ready to give up their secrets and occasionally these
secrets, although available, are far too complex to be pedagogically useful.
The advantages and disadvantages of each approach must also be linked to
two other important considerations, the learner and classroom practice. Any choice
of syllabus or methodology must relate to the needs of the learner and the learner
background which includes the previous learning history of the learner and the
needs and goals of the learner. Where detailed and specific needs can be identified,
there is obviously more scope for a genre-based approach.
Transferring a simple and effective model which is of use to students may not
be simple. Swales (1981) makes the point that one is never sure how novel ideas
will actually work out in educational practice and in a classroom situation, a
balance between explanatory power and some index of teachability must be
set. In order to illustrate the use of the genre approach it may be useful at this
juncture to examine how the genre approach can be successfully integrated into a
university teaching context such as that of courses of business English given to
undergraduate students of business administration at the Universit Libre de
Bruxelles.

8 . Using the genre approach in the classroom: a case study

In the context of my own teaching situation, teaching EFL to pre-experience
students of business administration within a university, we have developed a block
of activities which has the aim of sensitizing the students to the analysis of one
 A GENRE APPROACH TO WRITING 709

particular genre with the explicit aim of improving writing skills in general but more
importantly making the students more aware of the linguistic features that constitute
any chosen genre. In terms of our own specific teaching context we therefore
decided upon four objectives that we wished the activities to fulfill as far as
possible.
1. Concentrating on the process of the analysis rather than concentrating on the
explicit features of the genre ;
Where learner needs are difficult to define accurately, then it would seem
more useful to take time in developing the process of the analysis which could be
repeated in other situation that they might come across in their future studies or
careers rather than concentrate on one particular genre.
2. Providing the basis for group work activities ;
In large groups, group work is the best way of giving more students time to
speak. Small groups provide greater intensity of involvement, so that the quality of
language practice is increased. Small groups also provide a less stressful and more
natural language use environment and can combine most effectively all aspects of
communication (see Brumfit: 1984:71-82).
3. Providing intellectually stimulating tasks ;
Group work most often fails when the instructions of what the learners are
supposed to do are unclear or when the task itself is perceived as too simple. For
example, the transfer of railway timetable information between students may not
motivate the students to the same degree as a task that reflects the general intellectual
effort generally associated with other university courses.
4. Providing a flexible outcomes
All kinds of administrative reasons may interfere with the best laid teaching
plans. The number of students, the classroom, or the length of lessons may all
mean that the teacher has to adapt a teaching plan. Student completion of the task
may vary according to the difficulty of the task, the linguistic resources needed to
complete the task, the amount of support given or the motivation of the students to
complete the task. The teacher must therefore have at his or her disposal a variety of
outcomes that can be brought into operation according to the amount of
interference in the task.

9. Choosing a genre
In the teaching situation it was considered that the following factors were
useful guidelines for the choice of a genre. The genre should therefore be:
1. internationally known ;
2. readily and cheaply available - no copyright problems ;
3. exhibiting a range of instances within the genre ;
4. having a clear purpose ;
5. readily reproducible both in terms of photocopying the original (not too
long or complex) and reproducing examples (on A4 size paper) ;
6. relevant and having a reasonable shelf-life .
710 RICHARD TUFFS

One genre that corresponded to the above criteria was that of direct mail letters.
Seven reasons stand out.
1. The genre is certainly known in western European countries.
Despite its negative image ( junk mail ), direct mail personally
addressed advertising delivered through the post is not only one of the mainstays
of the advertisers, it continues to expand mainly thanks to the application of
computer technology which can store lists of addresses and the relative
cheapness of the postal system compared to other forms of advertising. In the
United States, $21.2 billion was spent on direct mail in 1988, nearly 18% of the
total advertising expenditure (Financial Times, 1989). This translates into some 60
billion items, weighing a total of 3,254 tonnes distributed in a year - roughly 32
items a week for households earning between $30,000 and $65,000 (Gwyther:
1989).
2. Examples of direct mail letters are readily available either directly received or,
in the case of EFL, by contacting friends in the United Kingdom or the United
States, etc.
3. Many different examples are available ranging from the down to the
upmarket.
More and more products are being sold by direct mail and direct mail is
beginning to lose its down market 'junk mail' image often associated with letters
from the 'Readers Digest'. Much of the increased use of direct mail is linked to
increasing market segmentation.
4. The purpose is clear.
Much more attention is now placed on the copy writing (see Mallory: 1992)
and the take up rate of direct mail letters can be measured giving writers a useful
guide to the success of various styles of writing.
5. Being usually letter format, examples are easily and cheaply copied.
6. Although few students will probably ever write direct mail letters they are
increasingly relevant in any course dealing with marketing due to the expansion of
the genre.
7. Direct mail letters tend to have a longer shelf-life than many of the
authentic materials used in business English teaching which must be regularly
updated to reflect the current economic situation.

10. Setting up the task using direct mail in the classroom

There are usually a variety of ways that any teaching material can be
exploited. The suggestions that follow have been used and have been found to be
successful in a business English course for undergraduate students of business
administration. The students are at a good intermediate level and normally work in
classes of between 20-24 students.
1. Setting the scene
The topic of direct mail should be introduced ( see Mallory: 1992). This can
be done by a variety of methods. Students who have some background knowledge
 A GENRE APPROACH TO WRITING 7 11

in marketing should be able to offer insights, or the teacher can elicit and prompt
information or refer the students to relevant texts such as Gwyther (1989) and Bigg
(1988). Where two texts aimed at different readerships are used such as Gwyther
(business magazine with a more journalistic and anecdotal style) and Bigg (a short
article in a management textbook with a more sober and direct style) then students
can be asked to compare the two articles giving them an early awareness of how the
same topic can be treated differently depending on the purpose of the article and the
audience aimed at.
2. Task
In groups, the students are asked to analyse a sample of around a dozen letters
and draw up a list of some of the common features by identifying and categorizing
the discourse and language features that are common to all or most of the letters.
The amount of pre-teaching or explanation that is needed here will vary according to
the level and background of the learner. It is at this point that the teacher has to use
his or her judgement in order to gauge the amount of aid or the amount of freedom
given to the students. Too much help can lead to a teacher dominated lesson
whereas too little guidance may result in students not fulfilling the objectives of the
exercise.
Where possible the students should be left to develop their own categories,
however, time constraints may mean that the teacher has to give some guidelines.
The following guidelines have been found useful in the analysis of direct mail
letters:
1. layout print size, margins, visuals etc.
2. vocabulary - common words or phrases (see Mallory: 1992 for
useful list)
3. salutation and subscription
opening and closing parts of the letter
Dear. . . Yours faithfully etc.
4. structures
5. cohesive devices
6. move structure - rhetorical organisation
Whereas the students will certainly have had some contact with the first
five of the above categories of analysis, they may not have come across the
concept of move structures. Business students might be aware of the problem-
solution structure (Hoey: 1979) and if so this example can be used to introduce
students to the idea of a text being a series of steps. Although the following
move structure should not be given to students before the task, it does
give an indication of a possible move structure which can be found in a
small sample of direct mail letters. Obviously not all the steps will be in all the
direct mail letters but the moves do give an indication of the possible
structures and their order which may be combined to create a successful direct mail
letter.
712 RICHARD TUFFS

situation
proposal
features
benefits to addressee
procedure
special offer
guarantee
reminder
salutation
PS usually highlighting one of the above categories
3. Task outcome
Where an overhead projector is available, students should be able to put their
ideas on overhead projector transparencies and present their findings to the class.
The presentation of these findings should lead to discussion and comparison
between groups. The language used in the presentations can also be monitored and
corrected at a later point. Examples of the findings that students have presented in
class are included in appendix 1.
4. Follow up
Following the above findings, students should now have some insights into
how a particular genre is constructed. Students could now be asked to write
their own direct mail letter for a product or service. This could be a product
or service that they that they can invent or it could be for a product or service
that they are familiar with. For example, having seen an example of a direct
mail letter advertising Fortune, students could be asked to write an
equivalent direct mail letter for a different business weekly such as The
Economist. This task is made more relevant if the teacher has a genuine direct mail
letter which can be compared with the students' own efforts at creating a suitably
worded letter. Some examples of direct mail letters written by students trying to sell
The Economist as well as a authentic letter that was sent out by the Economist are
included in appendix 2. Once the student letters are corrected for spelling mistakes
and the layouts standardised then it is by no means easy to tell the student letters
apart from the real thing which is a motivating factor for the students.
5. Feedback and debriefing
Any student written material can be used for error analysis and can form the
basis of future revision or teaching. It is important also for the teacher to give
some indication to the students on how the task was handled by the students.
Both the process and the product aspects of the task should be commented on by
the teacher. Successful reproductions of the genre should be identified and the
work brought to the attention of the class. More importantly, the process of
analysing a relatively simple genre should be emphasized and students encouraged to use
the same techniques in the analysis of other genres. For example, in a business
context, learners may wish to analyse the features of successful reports (see
Stainton: 1990) or in a pre-experience course in business English, company reports,
readily available from major companies, might be analysed.
 A GENRE APPROACH TO WRITING 713

11. Conclusion
This article has introduced the concept of a genre-based approach to writing in
the classroom but has argued that many learners may not be in the position to
directly analyse relevant genres either because a wide enough sample of the genre is
not readily available or as in the case in many teaching contexts there is not enough
precision in the future writing needs of the learner. Coupled to the availability of a
reasonably-sized corpus is the fact that the genre may not be easy to analyse and that
the identified features of the genre may be difficult to teach.
By concentrating on the process of analysis rather than the product we can
introduce students to the procedures of analysis. In order to do this it is
preferable to choose a relatively simple genre in order to facilitate the learning
process. This article has illustrated how the use of direct mail exemplifies a genre-
based approach to classroom activities and the teaching of writing skills. Direct
mail, being teacher-friendly in its availability and cost (in the UK at least) and
reader-friendly in its clear purpose, makes an ideal text input for the introduction of
genre analysis into the second language classroom. The analysis of genre offers a
range of interesting and fruitful classroom activities which can be directed to
learner needs and also provides a starting point for improving writing skills. The
successful reproduction of the genre can be illustrated by comparing examples
written by the learner and real examples of the genre. The closer the learners are
able to reproduce the features of the genre in written form, the more confident they
are of their ability to continue the process with other genres more directly relevant to
their needs. Thus through a genre-based approach to writing, the learner gradually
takes on board a package of enabling skills leading towards the mastery of a range
of genres.

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714 RICHARD TUFFS

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Appendix 1: Examples of student analyses of direct mail letters

(retyped from original OHP slides)

Group 1
How the message is communicated ?
metaphor = doctor consultation
I presentation of the problem (symptoms)
II diagnosis
how to solve the problem (prescription)
IV list of the multiple products and services offered (list of medicine,
drugs) + extra offers (sweety)
Layout the more simple the product is the more complex the layout will be (see
WHSmith / BBC language courses / Norwich Union)
Visuals : are adapted to a potential target market
Text structure: two main structures
1. well separated paragraphs with clear titles, highlighted main points
academic style
2. lack of academic common structures
Language: simple language, clear and short sentences. Sometimes flattery is used
716 RICHARD TUFFS

Group 2
1. Structure
Beginning:
name of the firm in capital letters
an attractive first sentence
Text of the offer:
a lot of small paragraphs
repetition of the advantages which are often underlined
about two pages long
cluttered
End:
signature of the manager
P.S. to propose a new thing or to repeat the advantages or to make you
hurry up
2. Offer
Personalized letter which is flattering to customer
The fastest you answer, the biggest are your advantages (gift, reduction...)
If you are not satisfied, your money is paid back and you can keep the gifts.
There is often a leaflet with the letter
They mention the price of the offer but not of the product.
3. Remarks
Simple present tense and imperative
Vocabulary adapted to the target customer

Appendix 2: Examples of direct mail letters (retyped and spelling

corrected)
1. Student letter
Dear Mr X,

Don't you think it's now time for you to be a subscriber of one of the most read
newspaper in the world ?
Don't you think that someone like you should be every Friday aware of what's been
going on in the world over the last week ?
WORLD VIEWS ARE OUR BUSINESS
Meet in a sane space of reflection economic, business, financial, scientific views:
this is the aim of the Economist. What our magazine offers you, is indeed a general
view of world politics and current affairs.
Europe, Britain, America, Asia. . . you'll know all about it !
INCREDIBLE VALUE FOR MONEY
After just one reading of the issue we sent you, you'll realised that our newspaper is
made for you: it deals weekly with the topics you're interested in and it brings you
interviews of the most fascinating personalities at the moment.
 A GENRE APPROACH TO WRITING 7 17

You'll also be glad to know that the recently improved once again the presentation
and the quality of our publication.
SPECIAL OFFER. . . A FREE GIFT
It's true: we are actually providing you a special introductory offer:
if you decide to subscribe for 2 years, you'll save 40% - in the case of 1 year
subscription, you would still save 25% -
So it's now up to you but please don't delay: to take advantage of this unique
opportunity, you must return your application form within 14 days.
Now, last but not least: as 1991 is nearly on, we are offering you, as one of our
new subscribers, the world in 1991 the fifth edition of our annual
magazine of predictions and analysis -
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,

P.S. If you wish to have more information about the publication, please phone the
subscription's department. I'll be pleased to answer your questions.

2. Student letter
Because World Views are our Business
Dear Mr X,

How much time do you have every day for news ? How much news do you
miss because of tight schedules ?
Because we know what busy means and because World Views are our
Business, we make sure that the Economist brings you all the information you need
to know on World issues, from World politics and current affairs to Business,
Finance and Science.
The Economist comes out every Friday, so that you have the whole week's
news, and you can enjoy reading it during the weekend.
And to make things even better, we have a special introductory offer for new
subscribers like you, where you can get up to 40 % off the subscription price. All
you have to do is send us your subscription form. The offer also includes a free
personalised Business Agenda with a leather cover if you reply before December
31st 1990.
If for any reason you wish to cancel your subscription, just write to us and
you will get full refund on all unmailed issues. But because the Economist is made
for people like you, we believe that this is an offer which suits you perfectly.
Be sure that when you fill out the your subscription you mention the initials
you would like to have on your free Personalised Business Agenda and the color of
your leather cover.
We look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,
71 8 RICHARD TUFFS

3. An example of an authentic letter from The Economist

Dear Reader,

Should you act or delay . . . listen or ignore . . . applaud or condemn ?

Daily, you make choices like these which affect your business, your finances, and
not least, your future.
Those decisions depend largely on the information on which they are based. That's
why the quality of that information is crucial to you. That's why you need The
Economist.
On its credentials alone, The Economist cannot be ignored. It is one of the world's
foremost international newspapers. It gives you facts you can trust, opinions you
will respect and ideas you will want to use.
But some may be surprised that The Economist is eminently readable. Far from
being a dry periodical, it delivers to your home or office each week a singularly
interesting look at the world.
The Economist focuses on what's important and filters out what's not. Written
with candour, flavoured with opinion, peppered with wit, it is journalism at its best:
lively, literate, clear and concise.
Over one million readers in 170 countries find The Economist a source of vital,
current information - on international business, industry and finance. Politics and
current affairs. The arts, science and technology.
I believe you, too, will enjoy and profit from reading The Economist. Not only
because so many world leaders read it. Not only because you save 50 % when you
subscribe. But, because when it lands on your desk or at your door, you'll
welcome its arrival. You'll find ways to use the information to your advantage.
Because The Economist will return you, many times over, the value of the initial
investment. I guarantee a prompt refund if you don't agree.
We expect, however, that once you start reading The Economist you won't want to
give up a single issue. Because, though it, cannot make decisions for you, it can
help you to make sounder ones.
If you decide now to join us, all you need to do is to post the attached order form
today. I believe it's one decision that you won't regret.

Yours sincerely,