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Teaching
Teaching professional ethics in professional
culinary studies ethics
Amir Shani and Yaniv Belhassen
Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, 447
Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel, and
Daniel Soskolne Received 5 September 2011
Revised 10 November 2011
The Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Adelaide, 1 January 2012
Adelaide, Australia Accepted 3 February 2012

Abstract
Purpose The purpose of this paper is to argue for the incorporation of ethics into the coursework of
culinary schools, utilizing the value chain analysis as a theoretical framework to explore and confront
food ethics concerns.
Design/methodology/approach Based on a review of the pertinent literature, this conceptual
paper offers a theoretical framework whereby ethical issues relevant to the food industry can be
tackled and then incorporated into the training of culinary professionals.
Findings To illustrate the usefulness of the suggested framework, the paper provides a systematic
analysis of ethical concerns related to the production, distribution and consumption of food.
Practical implications Food ethics education is likely to have a positive impact on the credibility
of the culinary arts profession, at a time when there is a shift toward sustainability and ethical
awareness; it is also likely to impact favorably on the opportunity of recruiting culinary professionals
as agents of change regarding pressing moral challenges.
Social implications Including ethics in the curricula of culinary schools has various positive
social implications, including the development of future professionals with acknowledged ethical
responsibilities toward society.
Originality/value Despite the upsurge of ethical concerns and the controversies associated with
the food industry, hitherto culinary schools have paid little attention to ethics within their curricula. In
view of that, the article introduced a value-chain perspective for integrating food ethics into culinary
arts curricula.
Keywords Curriculum policy, Culinary art, Vocational training, Food ethics, Critical pedagogy,
Teaching, Training, Ethics, Catering industry
Paper type Conceptual paper

Introduction
Mankind has been dealing with ethical issues in relation to food throughout history,
from ancient debates, such as religious restrictions on food consumption, to modern
concerns such as global hunger and the impact of genetically-engineered food.
Likewise, encountering dilemmas with ethical ramifications is an integral part of
culinary professions, which include dealing directly or indirectly with numerous moral
International Journal of
issues that are linked to the entire process of producing, distributing, and consuming Contemporary Hospitality
food (Brom, 2000; Mepham, 1996; Zwart, 2000). Food ethics in modern times, however, Management
Vol. 25 No. 3, 2013
are far more multifarious, mainly as a result of the increasing separation between the pp. 447-464
production and consumption of food, as part of the more general process termed the q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0959-6119
fragmentation of society (Miller et al., 1990). This process has led to enormous DOI 10.1108/09596111311311062
IJCHM improvements in productivity, but also to the growing distance between producers and
25,3 consumers, reaching a state where the latter are practically ignorant of controversial
issues, such as animal welfare, agricultural practices, industrial food processing, fair
trade, and questions pertaining to food distribution.
Despite these critical issues, little academic consideration has been directed at the
examination of the role of ethics in the educational development of culinary
448 professionals, such as chefs and cooks in hotels, restaurants and the catering industry.
As noted by Lieberman and Nissen (2008, p. 3), ethics is the study of moral principles
concerning rightful conduct based on our most deeply held values, or in the more
dramatic words of DeGeorge (1992, p. 60), a systematic attempts to make a cohesive,
rational whole out of our individual and social experiences, with the purpose of
formulating rules to differentiate between desirable and undesirable human conduct.
Arguably, the inattention to food-related ethical concerns in culinary schools is related
to the view that culinary professionals only play a minor role in the food value chain to
be considered as agents of change of major ethical issues. We strongly oppose this
view and suggest that, due to the centrality of food ethics in modern life, in general, and
in gastronomic-related occupations, in particular, there is a need to broaden the
curriculum in culinary schools in order to heighten the awareness of culinary students
to the moral complexity of food-related topics and to enhance their ability to confront
ethical dilemmas in their daily routine. Currently, culinary education is to a great
extent detached from the ethical trends that are having a momentous effect both on
culinary institutions and contemporary consumerism; thus, incorporating ethics into
the coursework is vital in order to keep these educational institutions relevant and
up-to-date in the current social and business environment in which they operate.
The apparent paucity of ethical considerations in culinary curricula can be
approached from different pedagogical angles but, as shall become apparent, we call
for the adoption of a value-chain approach to culinary studies, which involves looking
at the entire gamut of concerns regarding food, rather than merely at the core
vocational aspects of food preparation. We argue that such an approach is likely to
benefit future culinary professionals, by enriching their perspectives as well as
enabling them to make conscious decisions based on moral reflection and a sound
understanding. Such an inclusive approach to curriculum policy can be found in some
business schools that have incorporated ethical issues in all their courses, instead of
teaching ethics as a separate topic. In his celebrated book The Omnivore Dilemma
Michael Pollan (2006, p. 11) suggests that to eat with a fuller consciousness of all that
is at stake might sound like a burden, but in practice few things in life can afford quite
as much satisfaction. To paraphrase this extract, the current papers argument is
based on the premise that while cooking with a fuller consciousness may well be a
highly-challenging task, it will certainly result in the most satisfying and meaningful
culinary experience.
Our suggestion is purposely based on the theoretical framework of value chain
analysis. We follow Steger et al. (2007), who found that executive managers in the food
industry are actually aware of ethical issues related to the production of food, but due
to the lack of pressure from stakeholders and shareholders and the lack of
organizational climate that cultivates the ethical agenda, they tend to ignore these
issues in their daily routine. We believe that culinary art professionals are important
actors, no less than the managers of hotels and restaurants, who are not exposed to
ethics education during their formative years of vocational training. In an attempt to Teaching
address this lacuna, this paper aims at offering a conceptual framework for tracing professional
ethical issues in the food industry, and incorporating them in the training of culinary
professionals. Conceptually, the goal of this paper can be described as an attempt to ethics
offer a pedagogical statement regarding the current state, on the one hand, and the
possibility for change in the food industry, on the other, of the way ethical issues are
taught in the training of culinary professionals. 449
Literature review
Culinary arts education
The culinary profession has long been recognized as a multifaceted occupation that
requires knowledge of areas such as food science and technology, food preparation,
cooking methods, sanitation, aesthetics, business and management practices,
accounting, legal requirements, customer service, and more (Birdir and Pearson,
2000; Horng and Lee, 2009). Due to the continuous growth of the food service sector and
the fierce competition between restaurants, innovativeness and creativity were also
noted as critical competencies for chefs and cooks, in order to gain a competitive edge
(Hu, 2010). Employment in the catering industry also involves facing the various
challenges that are related to the difficult conditions of work anti-social hours,
constant job stress and a heavy workload, as well as low wages, at least at the
entry-level positions (Murray-Gibbons and Gibbons, 2007; Shani and Pizam, 2009;
Sims, 2007).
The above depiction of the culinary profession reveals a highly complex and
demanding occupation. Due to the critical role of chefs and cooks, as well as the
increasing significance and magnitude of the industry it is among the largest
employer in many Western countries (Walker, 2008) formal institutions for culinary
education were established with the key aims of ensuring the students success and
meeting the needs of the industry for skilled and educated culinary workforce
(Harrington et al., 2005). As noted by Pratten (2003), nowadays some sort of formal
training and, in some cases even a college degree is expected by the trade from
entrants at all levels. Consequently, enrollment at schools with professional culinary
programs has risen in recent years, for both traditional hands-on training in cooking or
baking, as well as bachelor and graduate programs (Fabricant, 2003).
Although traditionally, the emphasis in culinary studies curricula has been on
developing the students technical cooking skills, there is a growing recognition that
the intricacies of the profession call for the integration of liberal contents into the
educational programs, such as language and communication skills, teamwork and
leadership skills, problem solving skills, along with core management competencies
(Harrington et al., 2005; Muller et al., 2009). This approach has undoubtedly also
imbibed its ideas from the broader discipline of hospitality and tourism, in which many
researchers have long been advocating for a more critical and reflective orientation in
the curricula and in the study of field, in general (e.g. Belhassen and Caton, 2011;
Coughlan, 2001; Lashley, 2004; Macbeth, 2005; Morgan, 2004; Morrison and OMahony,
2003; Tribe, 2002). Evidence to the adoption of a more liberal approach to culinary
studies can be seen in the inclusion of courses that discuss, for example, the association
between food and culture and the social, political and economic aspects related to food
(Fabricant, 2003; Trubek and Belliveau, 2009). It should be noted, however, that despite
IJCHM these trends and the perceived value of integrating liberal contents in formal culinary
25,3 studies, critical and ethical aspects of food seem to draw less attention, despite their
considerable relevance to the professional and personal development of culinary
students.

Food ethics and culinary education

450 The wide range and complexity of food ethics, together with the aforementioned
literature supporting the introduction of ethics into the education programs, call for the
incorporation of ethics coursework in culinary studies as well, with regards to both
certificate and academic degree programs. Pressing ethical issues and dilemmas arise
at every phase of the supply chain of the food industry, from producers to consumers
(Mepham, 1996; Zwart, 2000). The global call for a shift toward an ethical economy,
that is an economy based on the construction of ethically significant social relations
rather than merely on money-making (Arvidsson, 2008) and ethical consumerism
which refers to morally conscious buyer behavior (Strong, 1996), add to the exigency
for culinary programs to cope with the changing social and economical environment
and adjust their curricula accordingly.
Nevertheless, despite the aforementioned conclusion regarding the significance of
food ethics coursework in culinary studies curricula, a recent preliminary albeit
narrow survey by Soskolne (2011), investigating some of the leading culinary
schools in North America reveals that only three out of the seven schools examined
incorporate ethics education in their programs of study. Furthermore, the ethics
courses in these three culinary schools focus mostly on general business-related issues,
such as Ethics of business leadership and Ethical and legal decision making.
Examples of specific courses on food ethics include themes such as Food ecology,
Conscious cuisine and Food systems and sustainability. Note, however, that some
of the ethics courses are elective or based on availability.
This weak and shaky representation of food ethics content in the curricula along
with the traditional focus of culinary studies on technical skills (Horng and Lee, 2009;
Muller et al., 2009) might send the wrong message that gastronomy is a value-free
area of education and that ethics do not matter much in the field of culinary arts. These
findings are in line with previous related studies regarding hospitality and tourism
schools (Yeung, 2004; Yeung and Pine, 2003), according to which there is a significant
paucity of ethics education in these programs. The close association between culinary
arts and the hospitality industry adds relevance to these studies and points to a failure
on the part of these educational programs to recognize the significance of ethics for the
professional and personal development of their students. Culinary professionals are
employed in a difficult work environment, where unethical actions and moral
dilemmas are common; thus, ethics should also be taught in order to increase their
ability to face morally challenging on-the-job situations (La Lopa and Ghiselli, 2005).
Moreover, advancing the ethical awareness of prospective culinary professionals is
crucial due to the enhancement of the societal and professional status of the culinary
occupations, as a result of contemporary cultural tastes and fashion (Horng and Lee,
2009). These developments suggest that the role of culinary professionals as key
decision makers in the food service industry is likely to expand further, and hence there
is significant educational importance in helping them form their worldview regarding
current issues in food ethics.
The value chain analysis as a pedagogical device in the study of food ethics Teaching
The multifaceted nature of the culinary arts profession was already recognized by the professional
nineteenth century French gastronome Grimord de la Reyniere, who noted that in all
truth one cannot be a decent cook without being at the same time a chemist, a botanist, ethics
a physician, a draughtsman and a geometer. One must also have a good nose, a keen
ear and immense tact (quoted in Symons, 1998, p. 107). Indeed, todays chefs, cooks,
and other culinary professionals such as garde-manger staff, restaurant managers and 451
food stylists are required to be acquainted with knowledge from a wide spectrum of
fields, e.g. technology, business, economics, marketing, food science, medicine, culture
and society, interpersonal communication, history and law (Santich, 1996, 2004). In
light of the broad nature and importance of food ethics, the growing tendency to adopt
a holistic approach in culinary studies also calls for the adoption of ethics as a critical
subject in culinary studies, and for including it as integral coursework within the
curricula.
Holistic education is a relatively recent term although, in practice, it has been
discussed, advocated and manifested in various forms since the eighteenth century
(Taggart, 2001, p. 326). Seemann (2003) explained that in its essence, the holistic
position asserts that to understand the particular, one must understand its relation to
the whole and that only through reflection of ones sensation-based applications can
genuine knowledge be critically affirmed (Taggart, 2001, p. 29). When applied to
formal education, the holistic approach refers to an interdisciplinary and integrated
program of study, which is based on overt assumptions of interconnectedness,
comprehensiveness and the multidimensional body of knowledge. Therefore, the
holistic curriculum endorses the transfer of learning across academic areas and
encourages students to critically evaluate the social, cultural, political and ethical
contexts in which they live and work (Clark, 1990; Miller, 1993).
Teaching food ethics by means of the holistic approach seems favorable in the
case of culinary arts education. Such an approach allows culinary students to be
exposed to often-unseen moral facets of the food industry, especially in an era of
growing separation between production and consumption. Since holistic education
espouses hands-on experiences, culinary arts programs that adopt holism as their
guiding principle have the opportunity to demonstrate first-hand many of the
pressing ethical issues relating to food in modern society. For example, if the
culinary school runs on a working farm, or provides access to such farms, in which
the students grow the agricultural crop and raise the livestock, they can, by way of
these experiences, learn about issues of sustainability in agriculture and critically
reflect on animal welfare concerns. Another example can be educational tours to
food factories and industrialized plants, where the students can witness the
differences between the industrial and artisanal methods of producing food. These
examples should not be seen as an alternative to classroom lectures, but rather as
complementary means to enrich the students experience and to enhance their
understanding of the critical issues under discussion. This way, as noted by
Seemann (2003, p. 31), one of the crucial goals of holistic education in which theory
is taught through practice and good practice is grounded in good theory can be
achieved.
Another benefit of the holistic approach for culinary arts education is the
democratic nature of the educator-student relationship. This is particularly significant
IJCHM in culinary schools since, traditionally, kitchen operations are characterized by a strict
25,3 hierarchy and authoritarian style of management, which can stifle essential values
such as creativity and self-development. Since the holistic ideology celebrates freedom,
individualism and self-fulfillment, albeit within the limits of social discipline (Miller,
1997), holistic education programs advocate social tolerance that encourages students
to express different, unorthodox and even controversial views. This has great
452 relevance in the field of food ethics, which involves an abundance of contentious issues
that are seldom discussed in the culinary field. Open discussions and debates on moral
concerns can sharpen the critical thinking of the students, a skill they are likely to
utilize later on in their professional culinary career.
The value chain provides a suitable framework for designing holistic curricula. This
model is a celebrated metaphor in business education that refers to all the processes
and activities required to transform raw materials (tangible and intangible) into a
product or service until its final disposal after consumption (Kaplinsky, 2000; Porter,
1985, 1990; Womack and Jones, 1996). In the food industry, this type of analysis
involves six generic actors (see Figure 1):
(1) input industry;
(2) farmer;
(3) trade processor;
(4) food industry;
(5) retailer; and
(6) consumer.

Figure 1.
Issues in the food and
beverage value chain
The value chain analysis allows a holistic perspective of the ethical issues pertinent to Teaching
each one of the phases in the production of food. For convenience sake, we offer a broad professional
stroke discussion that follows three key phases:
ethics
(1) food production;
(2) food distribution; and
(3) food consumption. 453
Food production
Food production in contemporary society is diverse and undergoes constant
transformations; food ingredients and products that were traditionally grown or
reared on farms are also commonly developed and manufactured in laboratories and
industrialized factories. Farms are also changing extensively, with the switch from
growing a variety of distinctive local products to managing more profitable
monoculture crops, such as corn and soy (Pollan, 2006). Additionally, technological
innovations such as advanced machinery and automation systems have led to the
enhanced efficiency and stability of production results, while reducing the need for
personnel. The creation of industrialized flavors and aroma, some of them purposely
addictive, has also become possible due to progress of food science. In addition to the
clear benefits and far-reaching possibilities of these and other developments in food
production, they have brought about various ethical concerns and dilemmas pertinent
to the daily routine of chefs and cooks.
One of the imperative issues associated with the production phase is food safety.
Access to safe and nutritious food is universally recognized as a basic human right, while
a failure to guarantee it is simply inconsistent with the harmony and equity on which a
viable democracy depends (Mepham, 2000, p. 611). Nevertheless, food-related diseases
and epidemics are a worldwide concern, shared by both developing and developed
countries. Recent examples include the US salmonella outbreak linked to peanuts, in 2009,
causing nine deaths and more than 22,000 sick, and the Irish pork contamination with
harmful dioxins, in 2008, leading to an estimated economic loss of US$ 1 billion. Indeed,
Flandrin (2000) noticed that the industrial revolution and its associated food-processing
modernization introduced a paradox: while the quantity of food has increased, food
quality has actually decreased. For instance, meat, which is the most valued and sought
after source of human nutrition, is nowadays for the most part of poor quality, due to
factors such as industrial feed and modern practices of raising livestock. In this regard,
Oddy (2003, p. 231) quotes some evidence, according to which during the 1990s one in 20
of the UK population consulted their medical practitioners annually with gastric
disorders, and a growing number of food allergies began to be reported.
Safety concerns regarding food also derive from innovative production methods;
applied biotechnology (e.g. cloning, genetic engineering, artificial insemination,
synthetic pesticides, and chemical fertilizers) in food production allows for the creation
of these so-called novel foods, the effects of which are still unclear (Brom, 2000).
Specifically, genetically-modified foods (Frankenstein food, in the words of
environmentalist critics) seem to raise some serious concerns among consumers and
governments. Ashley et al. (2004) found that these developments raise a series of
ethical issues in the eyes of consumers, such as consumer choice (which refers to their
sense of lack of autonomy), the right to be properly informed (the ethical notion of
IJCHM truthful disclosure of production methods), the environmental impacts of production
25,3 methods, the ethical dilemma of human control over nature, and the question of
corporate power, predominantly the growing influence of multinational food
corporations such as Monsanto. Thus, food safety should be understood as a
complex notion that does not merely refer to human health, but also gives rise to ethical
questions regarding the safety of agricultural methods, food choice, the freedom of
454 information, environmental impacts, and more.
The phenomenon of intensive agriculture has emerged to a great extent as an
attempt to meet the needs of the growing world population, the increase in real income
per capita, as well as the changing dietary habits in Western countries, i.e. higher meat
consumption (Tilman et al., 2003). The intensification of farming practices does not
only have unpredictable consequences regarding the safety of food for human health
and the environment, but also potential negative outcomes for the sustainability of
local communities and their ability to preserve traditional methods of agriculture.
Oddy (2003) also brings up the concern of uneven and unequal development as a result
of modern farming losing its traditional relationship with the land, thus becoming
agribusiness. Consequently, When higher yields are associated with purchased
inputs, those with access to capital will have an advantage over those without (Oddy,
2003, p. 230).
In addition, the industrialization of animal-based products raises fundamental ethical
questions regarding the welfare of animals. Modern animal husbandry the practice of
breeding, raising and slaughtering has moved towards the simplification and
streamlining of the process, which often results in severely compromising the wellbeing
and health of the livestock. For example, the battery cages, which are commonly utilized
in poultry farming for egg-laying hens, are so closely packed they wasted little energy
moving about or keeping warm, and in summer or in hot climates birds in intensive units
may overheat or even suffocate (Johnson, 1996, p. 56). Many of the poultry raised for
meat are overgrown due to the use of growth hormones, leading them to suffer from
various problems such as respiratory infections, while the continuous contact with the
manure-covered floor often causes ulcers. Other practices of industrial farming that
create inhumane and morally questionable surroundings for high-throughout animal
production are prevalent and generally accepted, as it turns animal products into a
commodity rather than an occasional luxury (Gannon, 2002). Nevertheless, numerous
pro-animal welfare movements have been established over the past several decades,
challenging and condemning the modern agricultural practices of animal husbandry.
Their actions are clearly evident from a variety of acts of persuasion, such as
demonstrations, boycotts, lobbying, vegetarianism, and more (Munro, 2005).
Note also that modern animal husbandry practices significantly contribute to the
aforementioned adverse environmental impacts of food production. Industrialized
farms and livestock feedlots generate disproportional amounts of waste, which
frequently lead to pollution incidents, damage to soil fertility, contamination of
groundwater, foul odor, as well as damage to buildings due to acid rain ( Johnson,
1996). The growing need to clear spaces for grazing and industrialized farms
significantly contributes to the escalating process of deforestation, i.e. destroying
forest areas that serve critical function in absorbing carbon dioxide. Other
environmental issues include the following: livestock are responsible for 19 percent
of the worlds greenhouse gas emissions; land utilized to grow animal feed suffers from
soil erosion due to excessive use of chemical fertilizers and no crop rotation, and Teaching
pollution attributable to the transport of both animals and animal feed (Mannion, 1995; professional
Skinner et al., 1997).
Last but not least, it has become apparent that modern food production also carries ethics
high costs to its employees. Eric Schlosser, in his influential book Fast Food Nation
(Schlosser, 2001), examined the employment in the meat packing industry in the US
and discovered that it was dominated by migrant laborers that are easily exploited, 455
and thus enjoy few, if any, employment benefits. In addition, Schlosser (2001)
portrayed meatpacking as the most dangerous job in America, as levels of injury are
among the highest among all occupations in the US: most of the work in a
slaughterhouse is done by hand, and thus job hazards include injuries caused by the
use of manual machines and knives, as well as strain to the body from poor working
conditions. Furthermore, many workers use methamphetamine in order to keep up
with the intensive production line. Undoubtedly, any ethical consideration of food
production should take into account the human costs of modern food production.

Food distribution
Food distribution involves not only issues of food transport, also known as food miles,
which has a significant impact on the environment, but also concerns questions related
to promotion and marketing. Food producers take advantage of the entire spectrum of
marketing tools to promote their products among consumers; and culinary
professionals should be aware of the ethical aspects of these efforts, which are
driven mostly by economic incentives and usually remain in back stages of the food
industry. In fact, it would be reasonable to argue that culinary professionals, especially
the chefs, who make the decisions regarding the suppliers and products, are the most
prominent actors in the food industry that can promote ethical considerations, due to
their influential role as mediators between suppliers and customers. Next, we discuss
four issues related to food distribution, which are of immediate concern for culinary art
professionals.
To begin with, the vast influence food marketing strategies have on consumers raises
fundamental questions regarding the ethical obligations food marketers have towards
their target markets. One of most common criticisms directed at food marketers concerns
the promotion of high-calorie and nutrient-deficient food and beverages to the public, in
general, and to youngsters, in particular. As noted by Hawkes (2007), many see the
aggressive and sophisticated marketing strategies geared towards teenagers as
primarily responsible for the unhealthy diets, overweight and obesity that are prevalent
among young people in Western society and, consequently, call for statutory regulations
to protect them from these harmful effects. Others, conversely, defend the right of
youngsters to obtain information from marketing and advocate responsible marketing
through self-regulation mechanisms, only. In any case, the debate on whether rules and
restrictions should be imposed on food marketers, as well as the ethical obligations of the
latter, is likely to continue raging in the future.
The second issue, which is also related to the marketing efforts of food suppliers,
concerns the labeling of food products, which modern consumers greatly depend upon
as a source of information. In hotels, restaurants and catering companies, it is mostly
the responsibility of chefs to decide which products will be used. Brom (2000) noted
that labeling fills a major role as it helps marketing food products to those whose
IJCHM individual choice they fit (e.g. organic food), as well as providing specific answers to
25,3 public concerns (e.g. fair trade). Nonetheless, cases of misrepresenting, misleading or
even fraudulent claims on food and beverage labels are widespread, although not
always illegal (Caswell and Padberg, 1992; Henneberry and Armbruster, 2003). The
truth in labeling debate covers a wide variety of claims made by food producers, such
as the preparation style, ingredients, origin, size, health benefits, and source material of
456 their products, and particularly deals with the proper measures that should be taken by
policy makers to ensure truthful food labels. It should be noted that the importance of
this issue also has to do with safety concerns, as inaccurate or incomplete food labels
might lead to injuries or illnesses.
Third, the role of the food industry in the ongoing globalization process, particularly
the emergence of international food production markets and greater accessibility to a
range of foreign food chains and products for consumers worldwide, has also drawn a
heated debate regarding its ethical ramifications. Critics of globalization argue that
local communities lose their distinctive cultural identity as traditional cooking and
dishes are replaced by westernized food and catering services. The declining ability
of communities to be self-sufficient due to the move from growing a variety of local
products to relying on monoculture agriculture, as well as their dependency on seeds,
fertilizers and pesticides marketed by multinational corporations, have also been
condemned by anti-globalization movements (Bigelow and Peterson, 2002).
The fourth topic relates to the striking inequality in food provision between developed
and developing countries. Most disturbing in this regard is the state of chronic hunger
from which so many in the developing countries suffer. The most important moral
debate in this matter is the question of the ethical obligation that developed countries
may have to help reduce poverty and hunger in the developing world (See Pogge, 2002;
Singer, 2009). Some political schools of thought (e.g. Libertarianism) do not see it as the
ethical duty of affluent societies, on account of their adherence of negative rights (i.e. the
right not to be subjected to certain conditions) and rejection of positive rights (i.e. the
right to receive certain benefits). Others argue that resolving such a fundamental issue
requires the suffering countries to undergo drastic internal changes, such as
democratization and adoption of a proper and transparent administration, while
foreign involvement might increase their external dependence and diminish their ability
to provide for themselves. On the other hand, progressive movements refute these claims
by arguing that First World countries actually are directly accountable, due to actions
such as their past colonialism and overexploitation of natural resources. Additionally,
from a utilitarian standpoint, reducing poverty and hunger is likely to alleviate at least
partially the problem of global overpopulation, and consequently lead to better
resource utilization, enhanced economic prosperity, and fewer environmental perils.
While different opinions are legitimate, it is apparent that the discussion regarding food
provision is of great ethical significance.

Food consumption
Decisions regarding food intake are based on diverse factors, such as personal values,
religious beliefs, cultural customs, psychological dispositions, political ideologies,
lifestyles, trends, and environmental awareness (Asp, 1999). Indeed, most people are
not fully aware of these factors while dining in a hotel or a restaurant, with the
exception of people who follow some dietary guidelines, such as vegetarians, vegans,
fair trade consumers, and religious people who adhere to certain dietary restrictions. Teaching
The immediate responsibility of culinary professionals is to provide those groups with professional
full and accurate information regarding the food supplied by the hotel and restaurants
in which they work. In addition, it might be important to expose culinary art students ethics
to some of the moral debates regarding the consumption of food, not only in order to
raise their ethical awareness as important actors in this industry, but also to improve
their professional capabilities to address market trends associated with food ethics. 457
One of the most pressing issues in todays food-related consumerism is the debate
regarding the morality of eating animal-based products. Ethical motivations for
adopting vegetarianism include the disapproval with the way animals are raised,
transported and slaughtered in industrialized farms, as well as the adverse
environmental and humanitarian consequences of the food industry (Shani and
DiPietro, 2007; Shani, 2010). Specifically, many are driven to become vegetarians
because of feelings of guilt associated with killing living creatures ( Janda and
Trocchia, 2001). Note that strict (Lacto-Ovo) vegetarians and vegans mainly, are
particularly likely to be motivated by ethical concerns, which may reflect their
consumer behavior, in general, i.e. avoiding the use of other animal-based products,
such as leather and wool (McDonald, 2000). Although the most universally valued and
practiced type of nutrition consists of animal-based foods, a considerable number of
people choose to eliminate or at least reduce their meat and/or other animal product
consumption (Beardsworth and Bryman, 2004).
In contrast, various arguments have been raised to support the hegemony of the
current prevailing diet, providing justifications for the morality of eating animal
products. According to one line of thought, the current situation in modern farms
constitutes a symbiosis of domestication. According to this statement, humans rely
on farm animals for their dietary needs, at the same time as the latter benefit from this
for their survival as a species. Additionally, the burden of searching for food and
shelter are saved from farm animals, in addition to being sheltered from diseases and
parasites (Telfer, 1996). Another popular argument in favor of consuming animal
products is that animals kill other species, too; therefore it is within the natural order
of things (Tefler, 2004). Last, meat consumption may also be seen as a legitimate way
of manifesting ones self-identity. As argued by Beekman (2000, p. 188), the freedom to
follow your own lifestyle or consumptive preference is a core value in contemporary
affluent societies. He acknowledges the need for external intervention to improve
animal husbandry and to advance welfare principles, yet maintains that meat
consumption should be regarded as a legitimate personal choice in a tolerant society
that respects the plurality of lifestyles.
Organic food consumption is another noteworthy trend in todays culinary world.
There is a striking demand for food products that have been produced, stored and
processed without the involvement or addition of modern artificial inputs, such as
synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, chemical food additives, growth hormones, antibiotics
and genetically-modified organisms (Lockie et al., 2002). Organic agriculture is also
associated with significant improvements in the health of farm workers and in animal
husbandry practices. Based on previous studies, Harper and Makatouni (2002) stated
that while health is certainly the prominent motivation for purchasing organic food,
ethical issues such as concerns for animal welfare, the environment, and fair trade are
all important factors influencing the consumers of organic products.
IJCHM Nevertheless, the organic food trend has received considerable criticism, especially
25,3 with regard to its supposed health benefits. Kouba (2003, p. 39) argued that although
healthiness and nutritional value are reasons given by some consumers for
purchasing organic food . . . there is no scientific evidence that such foods possess
additional benefits which conventional food does not possess. Moreover, she added
that the organic food process is not a satisfactory method in itself to ensure the absence
458 of contamination from hazardous substances such as pesticides and toxins. It should
also be noted that the benefits of organic agriculture were also undermined by critics
on the subject of animal welfare. In this regard, Pollan (2006) asserted that one of the
largest ironies of growing organic food in an industrial system is that it is even more
precarious than a conventional industrial farm system. For example, several types of
certified organic labels often declare that organic free-range chickens have access to
the outdoors, yet Pollan (2006) described this as an undersized yard attached to the
shed which is too small to fit all the thousands of birds that are grown in the farm. In
light of this and other evidence, it becomes clear that in many cases organic suppliers
attempt to make a favorable impression in the eyes of the consumers, regardless of the
forlorn reality. These criticisms raise troubling concerns regarding the reliability of the
organic pledge: is it truly an ethical alternative or merely a marketing ploy?
In addition to the growing appeal of organic food, there is also notable public
enthusiasm toward local food, that is to say, food that is produced, processed and put
on the market within a limited geographical region, and is typically distributed to
consumers through alternative outlets such as farmers markets (Morris and Buller,
2003). This trend emerges mostly as a counteraction to the standardized
mass-produced food system of the global economy. Despite its limitations (see,
Stagl, 2002), this trend offers a number of environmental and social benefits, as it
requires less food transport, strengthens community solidarity and self-sufficiency,
exposes wide audiences to sustainability issues, and bridges the gap between farmers
and consumers, which characterizes the conventional food system. Various consumer
studies have revealed the significant marketing potential of local food, especially when
the price is competitive and the food is perceived to be of high quality (Feenstra, 1997;
Weatherell et al., 2003).

Conclusions
The above review reflects the main concerns in relation to food ethics; however, it is by
no means exhaustive of the entire gamut of ethical issues pertaining to the
contemporary food market. As one of the central elements in the modern economy, the
food industry faces another plethora of business-related ethical concerns, which are
also highly relevant to the culinary professions. The mainstream business literature
has long recognized the ethical obligation of an organization to adopt a stakeholder
approach, that is to take into moral consideration in the decision-making process any
group or individual that can affect or is affected by the organizations pursuit of its
objectives (Goodpaster, 1991; Freeman, 1984). Stakeholders typically include
customers, employees, suppliers, competitors, creditors, governments, and
communities, among others. Naturally, culinary institutions are not free of their
general business responsibility to engage in responsible decision-making and
recognize the intrinsic rather than the merely instrumental value of their
stakeholders. Given the complexity of food ethics issues, as well as their far-reaching
implications for society and the economy, the need to provide food ethics education to Teaching
present and future culinary professionals seems crucial. professional
As illustrated in this paper, food ethics encompass a wide variety of issues relating
to the culinary professions and have been demonstrated to be highly important for the ethics
educational and training process of culinary arts students. The current paper
highlights a pedagogical approach that tries to expose culinary students to ethical
concerns pertinent to their profession. We argue that food ethics education has the 459
potential not only to assist students in solving ethical dilemmas and with decision
making, but also to advance their skills and understanding in relation to the different
aspects of the culinary arts. Such exposure during their formative years of vocational
education can generate skilled and knowledgeable culinary professionals, who
comprehend their responsibilities toward society and the environment.
A situation in which students graduate from culinary programs with a narrower
perspective on food ethics, is likely to have adverse impacts on their professional
development and on culinary occupations, as well as on the food industry and society
as a whole. Culinary arts students represent the future of gastronomy and thus should
be exposed to useful knowledge, behavioral skills, and responsible professional
behavior in order to lead the industry along a sound moral path. Exposing culinary
students to ethical issues invites critical discussion on values, power interests, and
desirable ends, thus allowing students to reflect critically on their role as ethical agents
in the food industry. As a central link that connects the food industry with retailers and
consumers, they have the power to transform or reinforce the current social order and
values regarding animal welfare, pollution, obesity, etc. Contrary to education
frameworks that reproduce the presented social order, culinary schools should be
viewed as institutions in which alternative futures can be envisioned. As recently
suggested in a paper that calls for critical pedagogy in tourism education, perhaps
discussions will be end with various views, and perhaps it will be determined that the
current social order is best that consent to the system is desirable to achieve
well-thought-out ends. If this is the case, then at least students will be confident that
their actions are purposeful, because they have reflected on the kind of society they
really want to create and they have taken responsibility for their ideological positions
their consent will be an informed one (Belhassen and Caton, 2011, p. 4).
Food ethics education provides culinary students with a broad understanding of the
relevance and significance of moral considerations for every aspect of their occupation,
rather than narrow, limited and casual discussions on food ethics. Such an approach
requires the implementation of a threefold strategy (see Swanson, 2004; Swanson and
Frederick, 2004). First of all, required courses on ethics, in general, and on food ethics,
in particular, are introduced into the curriculum. Such stand-alone courses are
necessary for students to gain a full appreciation of their moral responsibilities as
culinary professionals. The absence of a separate food ethics course might lead
students to think about ethics in superficial terms, rather than within a holistic
perspective. A comprehensive ethics course(s) should be implemented for culinary
students to have reliable food ethics knowledge with adequate training in ethical
decision making (Hudson and Miller, 2005). Suggested course themes can be as general
as Food ethics, or more focused, such as Food and society, Food ecology,
Sustainable agriculture and food systems, Ethical culinary decision making, Food
and globalization and Ethical food consumption.
IJCHM Additionally, efforts should be made to integrate food ethics contents across the
25,3 curriculum, i.e. to establish an ethical curriculum (see Owens, 1998). It is imperative
that instructors address ethics in traditional culinary subjects (e.g. beverage
management, menu development and restaurant operations) to prevent students
from getting the impression that food ethics exist within an ethical vacuum, thus
creating ghetto ethics (Swanson, 2004). Unquestionably, no single course can have
460 any substantial effect on how students conceptualize food ethics. This infusion
approach should clarify for the instructors that they are not exempt from dealing with
ethical concerns in their courses, proceeding with business as usual. As can be
expected, the ethical curriculum does not render an ethics stand-alone course
unnecessary, as it seems too optimistic to assume that that entire body of instructors
will be committed to consider food ethics as required. Last, a genuine holistic
curriculum calls for other initiatives to take undertaken, such as hosting relevant guest
speakers (e.g. representatives from animal rights organizations), offering service
learning projects (e.g. volunteering in soup kitchens), and even instituting endowed
chairs in food ethics (Swanson, 2004; Swanson and Frederick, 2004).
While a detailed proposal of a curriculum for culinary arts education is beyond the
scope of the current paper, examples of this approach do appear in some culinary
schools. One of the prominent examples is the new Basque Culinary Center in Spain,
whose four-year academic programs curriculum was developed by some of the worlds
leading chefs with the explicit purpose of confronting students with the most
contemporary pressing food issues (Abend, 2010). The chefs were clear in their aim
that the school should provide more than knife skills, and that it should also lead the
students to become socially aware activists. To achieve this ambitious goal, the
students are exposed to heated issues such as public health, environmental
degradation and world hunger, and they debate the moral role of chefs in modern
society. The school also aims to provide the students with a model for responsible
culinary behavior, for example by taking a stand against genetically-modified crops
and instructing how chefs can influence policymakers on global issues, such as food
distribution. It is hoped that other culinary schools will follow this pattern and further
apply the concepts and suggestions presented in the current paper.

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Corresponding author
Amir Shani can be contacted at: shaniam@exchange.bgu.ac.il

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