Chapter
Seismic Design of Concrete
Shielding Block Assemblies
FOREWORD: The Facility Managers Perspective
Massive concrete shielding blocks pose a very
special problem in earthquake safety. In 1975,
full-sized shielding blocks were subjected to
realistic earthquake motions for the first time
utilizing the University of Californias 90-ton
shaking table at the Earthquake Engineering
Research Center in Richmond, California. Until
then, only theoretical studies were available for
reference, and these primarily concerned rocking
action and overturning. In instances in which
earthquakes were actually taken into
consideration, design was usually predicated on
the aspect ratio (height-to-width) of blocks. The
idea was to prevent toppling. Little consideration
was given to sliding; thus, the proximity of heavy
shielding blocks to building columns,
experimental equipment, or habitable shelters
was usually ignored. Experiments on the shaking
table clearly demonstrated the sliding hazard.
After static friction between the block and the
concrete surface of the shaking table was
overcome, the table moved almost freely beneath
the block. Imagine what would happen if a huge
stack of massive concrete shielding blocks
impacted a vital building column, located in close
proximity, with an acceleration of 0.7g. Nominal
anchor bolts in the column base plate would
provide little shear resistance against this
enormous force.
10
Donald G. Eagling
The simplest and most economical way of
avoiding this hazard is to locate shielding b16cks
far enough away from building columns and
occupied areas so that contact is not possible
during an earthquake. If a building column must
penetrate the shielding stack, the problem is
much more difficult. One possibility is to fill the
space between the shielding and the column with
nonrigid, frangible shielding materials that
minimize the impact on the column in the event
of differential motion. This expedient is not
recommended as a permanent solution, but it
could be used to temporarily reduce the risk in an
existing installation.
A permanent solution involves anchoring the
shielding blocks against movement and
designing the stack of blocks to incorporate a
predictable lateral-force-resisting system. The
important thing to recognize in this approach is
that almost all of the inertial energy induced by
earthquake shaking must be resisted directly by
the lateral-force-resisting-system. Buildings
generally have enumerable structural members
and joints that, along with nonstructural
architectural appendages, flex and deform both
elastically and inelastically to absorb large
amounts of dynamic energy and thus reduce the
effective forces on the lateral-force-resisting
system. Unlike a building, little energy is
absorbed in deforming very rigid blocks, and
101
little molecular damping occurs within individual
blocks. The redundancy available in most
building framing systems is not available in the
individual block. Consequently, for shielding
blocks, the lateral-force-restraining system should
be designed for a static lateral force coefficient
close to the effective peak ground acceleration. If
the stack is quite high with respect to its depth,
consideration should be given to amplification of
the induced base motion with height.
It is important that designers analyze
shielding restraints as a complete lateral-force-
resisting system, including the interaction among
the ground, the foundation, and the shielding. A
set of calculations covering the complete system,
including a narrative description of how the
system is expected to function, should be made.
The best way to ensure this happens is to require
a design review by independent experienced
earthquake engineers. There is small likelihood
that the persons responsible for designing the
experimental apparatus per se can give realistic
consideration to seismic restraints; therefore, it is
vital that responsibility for the analysis and
design is delegated to a structural engineer.
Auxiliary support equipment, important
experimental apparata, and sensitive research
instrumentation may be attached to shielding
assemblies. Often, state-of-the-art experimental
10-2
apparata are designed and fabricated with no
consideration for forces induced by earthquakes.
When it is necessary to protect the internals, it is
usually feasible to design the equipment base to
dissipate some or most of the seismic motion at
the base so that the sensitive apparata are not
subjected to the full ground motion, This can be
accomplished by providing seismic isolation or
shock absorbers between the shielding and the
equipment so that the apparata experience less
acceleration than the shielding. It is essential,
however, that there is adequate horizontal
clearance between the isolated equipment and the
shielding to handle the differential movement
without pounding.
The chapter that follows deals primarily with
the restraint of shielding block assemblies. The
methods described have been utilized in the field
without the benefit of a full-scale test by the
master inspectorthe real earthquake. The 1989
Loma Prieta, California earthquake produced
only 0.12g at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
and .26g at the Stanford Linear Accelerator
Center in Palo Alto, California. However,
emphasis is placed on design rather than analysis
with the objective that possible failure be limited
to inelastic behavior of the lateral-force-resisting
system rather than collapse, even if the intensity
of the earthquake greatly exceeds the design
motion.
.
 Chapter

10a
Planning and Design
Methodologies for Blocks
Donald G. Eagling
John J. Earle
Daniel Shapiro

Introduction This chapter provides recommendations for

When operating particle accelerators, it is
necessary to shield personnel as well as the
surrounding environment from ionizing
radiation. For this purpose, concrete blocks are
often used as modular shielding elements.
Concrete blocks are massive and may slide, rock,
or topple in earthquakes. They must be
restrained to provide a safe seismic environment
for people and prevent damage to adjacent
structures and experimental equipment. An
official code for designing concrete shielding
block assemblies does not exist at present.
Little is known from actual earthquakes
about how massive items similar to shielding
blocks behave, particularly when restrained.
I
However, experiments with shielding blocks on
the 90-ton shaking table at the University of
California Berkeleys Earthquake Engineering
Research Center have been carried out to
investigate both rocking and sliding motions.
This research has been documented in two
references; Sliding Response of Rigid Bodies to
Earthquake Motions (Ref. 1) and Rocking and
Overturning Response of Rigid Bodies to Earthquake
Motion (Ref. 2).
the design of shielding blocks for earthquake
resistance based on the referenced research and
design applications at the Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory. These recommendations are
discussed under the following headings:
Earthquake effects on shielding blocks
Basic configurations of shielding block
assemblies
Building code considerations
Seismic design criteria for shielding blocks
Applications to individual blocks
Anchorage design
Prevention of dislocation and overturning
Design of shielding walls and tunnels for
earthquakes
Design of shielding caves for earthquakes
Summary of recommended earthquake
design for shielding blocks

10a-1
 r

Earthquake Effects on Shielding Blocks

Because of the massive character of blocks,

resistance to earthquake shaking involves
different considerations than those that apply to
typical buildings. Earthquakes may induce
responses in blocks or block structures that can
cause the following hazardous conditions (Fig.
10a-1):

Sliding or lateral movement Block Stacks

Rocking, wobbling, or random movement

Overturning /0-
//~ \

0 4 I Block slides
Shifting and misalignment to new position
I
I I
Collapse of the block structure or roof blocks

Collision with adjacent internal equipment, ~ 4 ~brationcan

building elements, or other obstacles. induce sliding in
i each direction
1-

I
Sliding

/
Rocking motion orwobble

Block remains
upright
fy

n/
II
/-- -,

/0
4%9 // .
/
,/
0

Rocking Shifting-misalignment

r~<
I
I ;(,
Ii .
;/ \l
It
I
. \ 4 I

Slidina collision
Overturning

Fig. 10a-1. Concrete block response.

10a-2
Basic Configurations of Shielding
Block Assemblies

Thickness, density, and height requirements

for shielding vary. Individual block sizes are
usually limited by the capacity of handling
equipment available to move them, such as
overhead cranes and forklifts. It is necessary to
accommodate blocks to varying requirements by
stacking them or placing units side by side.
Thus, shielded spaces are formed by assembling
individual blocks in some required pattern. Individual biocks
Blocks may be arranged in many different
configurations, depending on the degree of
shielding required and the physical area
available.

Concrete blocks are durable, heavy, bulky,

and very expensive. This makes re-use attractive,
b%%.-
but storage costly. Thus, blocks constructed for
one project are usually adapted to subsequent
layouts not always compatible with their sizes or
configurations.

The most common block configurations are

(Fig. 10a-2):

. Individual blocks in line with or at right angles

to one another and without a ceiling cover

Tunnelswith two parallel lines of wall blocks

with or without roof blocks

. Caves, which form enclosures with a roof and Tunnels

four mutually perpendicular walls similar to
a box.
Roof
Usually blocks are supported on a reinforced
blocks
concrete slab on grade or a heavy foundation
structure. Such heavy loads should not be placed
directly on the ground or on unstable ground or
potential landslide areas. Whether loads are
supported by a slab or structure, the bearing
capacity of the underlying materials and/or
structure must be verified as well as the ability of
the slab to transmit shear into the ground.
\
Building Code Considerations

The seismic provisions of model building 1-

codes such as the 2.Ini@m Building Code (UBC)
Caves
(Ref. 3) have been developed primarily for
buildings that have seismic response
Fig. 10a-2. Block configurations.

10a-3
 characteristics and structural properties not
generally applicable to massive shielding block
structures. The UBC includes seismic loading
requirements for nonbuilding structures,
including rigid structures, but these requirements
are not intended for such massive and unyielding
objects as shielding blocks that, if restrained, are
generally fixed to a concrete slab-on-grade or
heavy foundation. Blocks are generally of low
profile and so stiff that they will respond as a
rigid body with constant acceleration, top to
bottom. For all practical purposes, a block does
not bend or deflect, and very little internal
damping can occur. Consequently almost all of
the inertial energy induced in a massive block by
lateral ground motion manifests itself as a
dynamic base shear force on the connecting
system fastening the block to its foundation.
Moderate earthquakes of magnitude 5 and
above have been knopm to produce horizontal
and vertical peak gr@md accelerations over 0.5g
near the epicep@ and along a causative fault.
Effective ~eak ground accelerations greater than
0.7g liave been experienced in major
earthquakes. Generally steel-base clip angles
that are used to bolt shielding blocks to a
concrete slab have too little steel volume to
absorb large amounts of energy through ductility
(flexual inelastic bending). However, Steel is a
predictable ductile material in contrast to the
brittle concrete into which most bolts are
anchored, both in the block and the concrete
floor slab. The ultimate failure of steel angle and
bolt connectors occurs only after considerable
plastic (inelastic) deformation, whereas the
concrete that encompasses and anchors the bolts
ultimately fails abruptly if it is not reinforced to
develop a ductile anchoring medium.
The seismic provisions of the UBC define
static lateral load as a base shear that is the
summation of all horizontal inertial loads acting
on a structure at any one time (Fig. 10a-3). The
code also prescribes how tributary lateral loads
are distributed through the height of a structure.
Shaking-table experiments have shown that
various natural rocking periods can be induced
into a single unrestrained block (Fig. 10a-4.
However, anchoring a single block against
displacement causes the block to have a very
short fundamental period. Even a cave
constructed of shielding blocks has a very short
10a-4
q+-,
L
2
v
X of Lateral
V = Base shear=
loads F1 & F2
Fig. 10a-3. Static base shear.
natural period jf it is braced and as ductile
portions of the restraining system experience
inelastic behavior, the period of the cave will
vary. A dynamic analysis would be very complex
and of questionable value. Consequently, it is far
simpler and efficient to use a static lateral load
(or base shear, V) for analysis related to the
weight of the shielding and the effective peak
ground acceleration estimated for a site.
In the text that follows, seismic criteria are
those recommended by the authors. They were
not extracted from the UBC or any other model
code or industry standard.
Seismic Design Criteria for Shielding
Blocks
The UBC specifies stresses to be used for
design that are interdependent with its other
provisions to work properly as an integrated
system. It allows working stresses to be
increased one-third for earthquakes and wind
loads because of their short duration. For mild
steel, this means that the maximum allowable
stress for earthquakes is close to the elastic yield
stress. However, for the purposes of designing
lateral-force-resisting systems for shielding
blocks, it is more practical to deal directly with
yield and ultimate stresses.
These seismic criteria are based on the
following considerations:
. Potential risk or frequency of damaging
earthquakes and the estimated maximum
intensity of horizontal ground shaking at
the site
 /
Jpraio
Natural
period of

Period
~. / +
equals \ \I -;
time \ J
\ ,1\
Interval \ \ I\/ /t
for one \ I
\\ I jb
cycle \ I Period T (sac)
;\ /
\ /-, ~= ~

Free vibration

Restraints
shorten
I period of
vibration
of block

Period T (sac)

Period much shorter

than free vibration
response depending
on degree of
restraint

Restrained vibration

Fig. 10a-4. Dynamic vibration.

The type of failure, ductile or brittle, to be In strong earthquakes, designers must

expected from the restraining material being anticipate that heavy shaking may cause stress
designed excursions well beyond the elastic yield stress
resulting in plastic (inelastic) deformation (Fig.
The consequences of failure (monetary, 10a-5). Consequently, the extreme distortions
injury, life-safety, release of toxic materials, associated with yield or ultimate strength levels
loss of emergency services, etc.). (short of rupture) may make connections
unsuitable for future use,

10a-5
 Local
cushing
}

T <-
I
d

I
Permanently
deformed
restraints
,Im Bent and
distorted
angle

----rJ--rJfJ
E=h Sacrificial
restraints
r ~,,,,,
,
// //////////

Fig.10a-5. Inelastic distortions.

Table 10a-1 summarizes the authors
recommendations for static lateral force criteria
for the seismic design of shielding block systems.
These recommendations are meant to provide a
level of safety equivalent to Standard-(lccupancy
Structures and Essential Facilities as defined by the
UBC which correspond to Performance
Categories 1 (PC-1) and 2 (PC-2) facilities as
defined in DOE-STD-1O2O(Ref. 4). These criteria
provide a basis for application in various
locations of the United States by utilizing the
SeismicZone Factor (Z) from Table 16-1 of the 1994
UBC. A Seismic Zone Map of the United States
(Fig. 16-2 from the UBC) is reproduced here in
Fig. 10a-6 for determination of the appropriate Z
factor. Generally, the calculated accelerations
(2.5 Z I CP) derived using Table lea-l
recommendations will be greater than the
maximum horizontal ground surface
accelerations at DOE sites for Performance
Category 1 (PC-1) taken from Tables C-5a and C-
5b from DOE-STD-1O2O.
For shielding assemblies that house
hazardous operations and/or essential
components that must remain operational in the
aftermath of a damaging earthquake, the
importance factor (I) should be increased to 1.25 in
keeping with UBC Table 16-K, Occupancy Category
for Essential Facilities. This increase produces ~
acceleration factors greater than the maximum
horizontal ground surface accelerations listed for
DOE sites (Tables C-5a and C-5b from DOE-STD-
1020) for Performance Category 2 (PC-2).
Although Essential Facilities should be designed
for a base shear (V) with an importance factor (I)
of 1.25, nonstructural components of systems and
equipment (and their attachments) that must
remain operational for life safety or other
emergency needs should be designed for a lateral
force using I equal to 1.50. I

10a-6
 ,

Table 10a-L

Seismic criteria for static analysis of shielding block assemblies.

V= 2.5 ZICPW
v= Static Base Shear
I = Importance Factor
z = Seismic Zone Factor
Cp = Lateral Force Factor
w= Total Seismic Dead Load

Material Cp Stress Limit

Steel(l) 0.5 Yield Strength

Steel Diagonal Bracing and
connections (Mild Steel)(z) 0.75 Yield Strength
Non-Ductile Concrete
Bending, Compression and Shear 0.7 0.85 Ultimate Strength
Bearing 0.7 0.60 Ultimate Strength

Anchor Bolts 0.7 0.75 Ultimate Load Value(3J

(1) For structuralsteel or other materialsthat exhibitnon-linearplasticbehavior(similarto steel)beyondyield

stress.
(2) Some higherstrengthsteek maynot exhibita usableyieldplateauand shouldbe designedmore conservatively
(3) Based on load tests.

Seismic Zone Factors(Z)

(fromUBC Table 16-1)

zone(l) 1 2A 2B 3 4
z 0.075 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40

m Zoneto be determinedfromU8C SeismicZone Map of the UnitedStates,(see Fig. 10a-6).

Importance Factors (I)

i
Importance Catego@) Importance Factor, I
,
Standard Occupancy Structures 1.00
Essential Facilities 1.25Q)
Hazardous Facilities 1.50(3)

(1) For occupancywithinshielding,see UBC Table16-K,OccupuncyCategoy, for definitions.

(2) Nonstructuralcomponentsof systemsand equipment(andtheir attachments)that mustremainoperationalfor
life safetyor otheremergencyneeds shallhave an ImportanceFactorof 1.50.
(3) For shieldingthat housesdispersibletoxicmaterialsor equipmentthat mustremainoperationalfor life safety
systemsor containmentof toxicmaterials.

10a-7

,. . -.
Fig. 10a-6. UBC Seismic Zone Map of the United states (Figure 16-2 from the 1994 edition). For areas
outside of the United States, see UBC Appendix Chapter l;.
For design of shielding assemblies that
contain highly toxic materials and related
equipment that must remain operational, the I
factor should be increased to 1.5 instead of
1.25. This produces acceleration factors that
are conservative in relation to the maximum
horizontal ground surface accelerations listed
for DOE sites in Table C-5a and C-5b from
DOE-STD-1O2O for Performance Category 3
(PC-3). Tables C-5a and C-5b list maximum
horizontal ground surface accelerations for
Performance Categories PC-1 through PC-4,
but recommend site-specific seismic hazard
curves for PC-3 and higher. The seismic design
criteria in Table 10a-1 have been formulated for
PC-1 and 2 categories only. Refer to DOE-STD-
1020 (Ref. 4) for specific requirements
concerning facilities in Performance Categories
PC-3 and higher.
Applications to Individual Blocks
Shaking-table tests show that individual
unanchored blocks with a height-to-width
ratio less than the static coefficient of friction
will usually slide when subjected to horizontal
earthquake forces, whereas blocks with a
10a-8
u
height-to-width ratio greater than the static
coefficient of friction will rock. Individual
blocks may be made to rock at different
frequencies. In earthquakes, both horizontal
and vertical accelerations are erratic, inducing
chaotic movement. Consequently, blocks
should be anchored to resist these phenomena.
When anchoring individual concrete blocks
for lateral stability, use of a base shear
calculated from Table 10a-1 results in static
lateral loads that are conservative in relation to
inertial forces that result from effective peak
ground accelerations. Because most blocks rest
on a slab-on-grade, some energy may be
dissipated in mobilizing the heavily loaded
slab, resulting in some attenuation of the actual
ground acceleration provided the slab is
adequately reinforced. Conversely, when
blocks rest on structural framing that is integral
with a building frame, rather than on a slab-on-
grade, there may be amplification of the ground
motion. Upper floor accelerations are usually
amplified above the ground motion. This
amplification can be calculated by dynamic
analysis of the base structure and applied to the
block as a higher base shear factor.
 Of concern is the possibility of resonance
between the forcing frequencies or ground
vibrations and the fundamental period of the
anchored block. An anchored block has a very
short fundamental period, so an installation
supported on a geologic site having ii short
natural period (rock) must be designed more
conservatively than one on a softer foundation.
An individual block does not benefit from
continuity or redundancy inherent in a unitized
building system; therefore, it is essential that the
base c~nnections that transmit the ground
motions to the block do not break or tear away
from the floor or the block.
Once the seismic input is determined, other
factors should be considered in selection of the
restraining systems. If first cost economics
dictate, restraint systems may be made
expendable for the maximum seismic event so
that ductile materials will be stressed well into
the plastic or ultimate strength region. However,
overturning or nonductile failure must be
prevented. Bending, buckling, stretching and
distorting of members and anchors are important
sources of energy dissipation. At the mild steel
yield stress value, with a flat-yield plateau (Fig.
10a-7), considerable reserve strain capacity is
available before the steel strains reach the
ultimate value and rupture ensues.
Concrete (Fig. 10a-8) and higher strength
steels do not exhibit the same type of yield
plateau as mild steel; therefore, yield values
and reserve capacity are not as easy to define.
II Upper yield
stress
0
UJ
g -_
6
Strain, e
Fig. 10a-7. Structural steel stress-strain curve.
I
1 10a-9
I
Because some reserve capacity (short of brittle
failure) should be retained for concrete, a factor
of 0.85 is recommended for application to the
ultimate-stress values for bending, shear, and
compressive-stress capacities and 0.6 for
bearing-stress capacity. Concrete is a brittle
material susceptible to sudden failure or
structural deterioration; therefore, it is best to
be conservative when relying on its post yield
strength properties. It is possible, however,
when designing new foundations for shielding-
block assemblies to incorporate reinforcing
around anchor bolts to impart necessary
toughness and ductility.
Anchorage Design
Anchors may be expansion-type anchor bolts
drilled into existing concrete work or standard
anchor bolts embedded in new concrete (Fig. 10a-
9). Allowable working loads are usually given as a
percentage of ultimate test loads, 25% being the
most common. Considering that anchor failure
in concrete is abfipt, the ultimate values should
be multiplied by a capacity-reduction factor of
0.75 for use in ultimate-strength design. When
using manufacturers design values, one should
ensure that they have been certified by the ICBO
EzuluationServices, Inc. (See Chapter 13). Cast-in-
place anchor bolts may be designed using ACI-
349, Appendix B (Ref. 7).
When anchoring shielding blocks, the basic
idea is to provide enough restraint to prevent
dislocation and/or toppling of the block.
Ductile components of the restraint system
tensile strength
yield stress
 -i- 1.0

0.85fc

Tq Standard rateT of loading

16.7 psiperssc

0.000 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004

Unit strain inconcrete
Fig. 10a-8. Typical stress-stain curve for concrete cylinders.

Allowable ultimate tension equals 3/4 x

manufacturers recommended
ultimate load

a Provide adequate
0=
or reduce pull-

----
( :

+%

II
II \
II=
Potential failure plane
LI

Fig. 10a-9. Anchor bolts in concrete.

should be designed for stresses (or strain
conditions) approaching yield. For example,
the steel base-clip angle itself should be
designed to yield before brittle failure of the
concrete holding the anchor bolt can occur.
This allows designers to build some energy
absorption into the restraining system.
Clip angles used to anchor shielding blocks
should be strong enough to provide enough
ductility to absorb energy in bending after
yielding. When the angle is reinforced with
stiffeners, it should not be so heavily stiffened
that it rigidly transmits the design shear
directly into the anchor bolts without
deforming the clip angle.
If the angle thickness is designed to achieve
the required ductility in the connection (for CP =
0.5), its thickness will not be enough to eliminate
prying action of the bolts. Therefore, an analysis
should be made using the American Institute of

10a-10
Steel Construction (AISC) procedures to compute
the additional load in the bolts and driIIed-in
(proprieta~) anchors caused by prying action.
Alternatively, prying action on the bolts can
be relieved by using full-depth stiffeners on the
base clip angle. Smaller or fewer bolts can then
be used however, the connection will have so
little ductility that it should be considered as a
nonductile connection with CP=0.7.
It is also very important that the bolts that
anchor the angle to the concrete floor slab and to
the concrete shielding block have proper
embedment in each and adequate edge distance.
The distance from an anchor bolt to a free edge of
the concrete is an important consideration in
anchorage design. If possible, anchor bolts
should be located and embedded so that
reinforcing steel intercepts potential cracking
planes. If sufficient embedment depth and edge
distance to develop the strength of the anchor
cannot be achieved, then the capacity values for
shear and pull-out of the anchor should be
reduced appropriately. Shear and tension
interaction should be accounted for in the anchor
if they can occur simultaneously. If several bolts
are parallel to a free edge, the effect of
overlapping failure planes on the concrete design
strength also must be taken into account. If floor
clip angles are used on opposite sides of the
block, consider using a through bolt. This
eliminates pull out problems, and leaves shear as
a consideration. It is still important to have
reinforcing bars between the bolt and the edge of
the block. For these important considerations,
readers are referred to the article, Guide to the
Design of Anchor Bolts and Other Steel Embedments
(Ref. 5). See also Anchors in Concrete, Design and
Behavior, (Ref. 6), and Code Requirements for
Nuclear Safety, Related Concrete Structures (Ref.7).
Prevention of Dislocation and.
Overturning
Oneof the easiest and least expensive ways
to minimize block dislocation is to key blocks
together at coplanar surfaces and to the floor
(Fig. 10a-10). Where blocks in line abut each
other, continuous tongue-and-groove keyways
along the contact surfaces are effective. Floor
keys can be cast in new construction where block
locations have been predetermined, but chipping
or casting keyways in existing construction is not
always feasibIe. Anchorage is still required in
any case. Heavy pins can be placed in holes
drilled into existing slabs (Fig. 10a-11) so that
they protrude up into holes formed in the bottom
of the block when the block is set in position on
the floor. Lateral loads are transferred by shear
and bending in the pin and bearing of the pin on
the concrete, and through shear and bearing at
the keyway edges. In lieu of pins at the base,
angle clips can be attached to the block and
secured to the floor with pins or anchor bolts
(Fig. 10a-12). Flat-steel plate inserts with
substantial anchors into the concrete can be cast
in the face of the base of the block. Base angle
clips can then be welded to these plates, or stud
anchors can be welded perpendicular to the flat
face of the plate and block and used to bolt
(clamp) the base angle to the face of the block.
The weldment may be the most brittle point in
the system. If in the designers judgement this is
so, then a CP = 0.7 should be applied.
Other anchoring systems can be devised with
the function of keeping the concrete floor slab
from shearing away from the blocks as the
ground induces earthquake motion into the block
through the slab.
When new shielding can be tied into existing
anchored shielding block installations, the ability
of the existing shielding to resist movement of
the new blocks or assemblies may be utilized.
Intersecting blocks or block walls can also be
placed to resist displacement. Designers should
consider the blocks as a system and provide base
anchors, keys, pins, and ties as necessary to
maintain elements in place.
Generally, building framing members,
especially columns, should not be used to resist
lateral loads from massive shielding blocks.
Blocks and their restraints should be free and
adequately clear of building support members.
The use of framing elements that are part of the
vertical-load-carrying building frame should
always be avoided.
Base anchors (Fig. 10a-13) are effective
against sliding and differential displacement, but
are not always a positive safeguard against
overturning under severe or sustained rocking
motion. Overturning restraint (Fig. 10a-14) can
be incorporated with base anchors in the form of
10a-11
 (4 h
Continuous keyways
In edge of block

Plan

WJ4
Continuous
tongue and
groove
keyways

7
I
I
/// ////////
End elevation
Fig. 10a-10. Concrete keyways.

~ recess in block resists

L earthquake shears

Fig. 10a-11. Heavy shear pins.

10a-12
Base
clip Angie weidad
angie to piate insert
I in biock. Provide
I 1- adequate anchors
.-
--- I 1- and edge distance
.- J .- 1

Ilil
11,1 driiiad in
111 expansion-type
I:J
+ anchors
L-

Steei pin
grouted into
\ oversized hoie
driiied into concrete
siab on ground

Fig. 10a-12. Seciming angle clips with pins or anchor bolts.

10a-13
 Intersecting waiis ~
tied together

Waii biocks ,7
keyed 4-7-A I .
Ogether/
/ / I A#a
// Iwlw d
intersecting
biock and waiis
used to mutuaiiy
brace each
other

each biock
L.

Fig. 10a-13. Base anchors.

tie-down rods or straps attached to block support
framing systems, foundations, or other ballast
with sufficient resistance or mass to counteract
uplift loads.
Diagonal bracing struts perpendicular to the
long face of blocks are a good method of
maintaining block stability. Bracing struts
should rest or react against the top third of the
block height. The principal drawback to the use
of struts is their encroachment on space adjacent
to the blocks. To avoid this problem,
cantilevered steel columns can be connected to
horizontal beams that engage the faces of the
blocks such that the beams span horizontally
between columns and deliver the (lateral) block
load to the cantilever columns. Cantilever
action can be obtained by anchoring the bottom
of the column in a caisson or shaft drilled into
the ground and filled with concrete (Fig. 10a-15).
Formulas are available in the UBC to define the
drilled shafts depth and diameter. Soil-bearing
values can usually be interpolated from
previously available information or
conservatively assumed from visual site
inspection, geologic maps, or code tables.
Design of Shielding Walls and Tunnels
for Earthquakes
Often, shielding blocks are assembled in a
longitudinal tunnel configuration (without
transverse walls) with roof blocks supported
directly on longitudinal wall blocks. It is
imperative that a support and anchorage system
for the component blocks be provided to prevent
misalignment or shifting of tunnel wall blocks
that could cause the collapse of roof blocks.
The premise that the base anchorage should
be designed to prevent brittle failure yet provide
ductility in the angle is as valid for tunnel
configurations as for individual blocks.
However, it is possible to take advantage of
additional energy-dissipating phenomena at the
interface of wall and roof. Connections can be
devised that allow for distortion and stress
reversal that, along with friction and damping,
will relieve the effects of dynamic loading. Non-
ductile base connections should be designed for
seismic forces based on CP = 0.7, but the ductile
structural elements above the base can be
designed for seismic forces (see Table 10a-1)

10a-14
 Angle
// cross arm
/L

Rod tie
down
1- [

Base anchors
or pins must Rod tie
be provided to down
resist sliding
k 1 anchor

ooa~
C.G
so

F m

r #-Max.

1
to resist
sliding
r
Fig. 10a-14. Overturning restraints.

based on CP = 0.5 and still meet energy demand
through inelastic deformation. It is necessary to
design the ductile lateral-force-resisting system
and connections to yield and let the strain energy
of yielding absorb the load without rupture.
To prevent premature or brittle failure of a
connection, one should differentiate between the
ductile and more brittle features of the same
connection. The ductile or steel portion can be
designed for yield stress against seismic forces
(see Table 10a-1) based on CP = 0.5 and the
concrete anchorage for the same connection
should be capable of withstanding stresses based
on 0.85 ultimate stress against seismic forces
based on CP = 0.7. In most instances, the steel

10a-15
 -rCantilever
Lcolumn

. __
__ __,
__,
.
)
Horizontal
--f- transfer beam

I
Base
anchors
#

m\
~ II

!-t
Cantilever column
L-.
anchored In concrete
/ caisson
____ -1

Fig. 10a-15. Cantilever restraints.

1
Supplemental
shelding
Power source
/

b
I I
I
v

II

-f L -1 L
Permanently fixed equipment and
supplemental sh[eldlng contribute
to total mass

Fig. 10a-16, Tunnel assembly cross section.

10a-16
parts (i.e., angles, plates, pins, and bolts) can be
designed using the yield strength of the material.
However, where a steel member relies on the
strength of the concrete for effectiveness, such as
anchor bolts, pins, and drilled-in expansion
anchors bearing against concrete, the individual
part of the connection dependent on the concrete
should be sized using CP = 0.7 against maximum
bending stresses at 0,85 times the ultimate
strength of concrete and bearing stresses at 0.6
times the ultimate strength of the concrete. Thus,
concrete anchorages should be tough enough to
allow the beneficial dissipation of energy through
the inelastic distortion of the ductile materials in
the connection.
With block structures having roofs, the
question arises as to what gravity loads to use to
calculate the seismic design force. Normally, one
need only consider the dead weight of the wall
and roof blocks. However, heavy experimental
equipment, supplemental shielding, and power
sources are frequently anchored permanently on
the roof (Fig. 10a-1 6). Unless these accessory
weights are effectively isolated, they (or some
proportion) must be included in the dead load
calculation. This effective dead load (W) used in
the equation V=2.5 Z I CP W, results in the base
shear (V), which is the static lateral force to be
applied to the tunnel assembly. Materials and
equipment placed on the roof, but unsecured
will move around during an earthquake, but
only a portion of its weight needs to be
considered. However, if it is unsecured, it could
walk off the roof. Consequently, it is best to
secure such items.
As with individual blocks, a primary
principle is isolation of the tunnel and its
components from building supports or adjacent
structures. Wall blocks should be keyed to
adjacent blocks and roof blocks keyed or
mechanically interlocked to prevent relative
movement (Fig. 10a-1 7). Base angle clips and
pins can be incorporated to prevent sliding.
Frame action can be utilized by incorporating
angles and brackets to develop moment capacity
at roof block and wall block interfaces. In this
situation, the clip angles transfer seismic energy
directly into this interlocked frame for dissipation
rather than relying upon the clip angles alone to
dissipate energy. For this reason, clip angles
should be sufficiently stiffened to transfer several
cycles of stress reversal to the flames created by
the connections. Moment can be resisted at the
base by a couple provided by base clip angles on
both sides of wall blocks. Care should be taken
in the analysis to account for the fact that the
blocks are extremely stiff in relation to the
connections. Tiedowns to resist overturning and
uplift should be utilized if the base clip angles
cannot prevent the blocks from rocking severely.
In tunnel construction, the plane of the
ceiling or underside of the roof is a convenient
place to put horizontal diagonal bracing. This
location is preferred when the roof blocks must
be occasionally removed. A horizontal truss
system (Fig. 10a-18) can be utilized to receive
lateral loads from the blocks. Truss reactions
must be transferred to the foundation through
frame action of the wall and roof blocks or via
extra framing, i.e., diagonal bracing struts and/or
frames at the ends of the tunnel or spaced
intermittently along the length of the tunnel. To
compensate for potential buckling of diagonal
bracing, the design force should be increased by a
factor of 1.5 for yield stress analysis. To maintain
the same concept of resistance for the truss
system, one should apply the 1.5 load factor for
the yield stress analysis by modifying the
earthquake coefficient CP to 1.5x0.5 or 0.75. This
provision has been included in the Seismic Criteria
for Static Analysis of Shielding Blocks Assemblies
summarized in Table 10a-1. First-yield stresses
should be utilized for the diagonal bracing with
this modified coefficient.
If seismic truss reactions at the ends of the
tunnel or reaction points are transferred to the ,
foundation by moment frame action of the wall
and roof block assembly, these seismic reactions
for the moment frame need not include the 1.5
load-modification factor when designing the
moment frame connections and base
anchorages. Design of truss member
connections to block assemblies (moment frame)
should use seismic reactions derived with the
1.5 modifier. When diagonal braces in a vertical
plane are employed to hold the horizontal truss
in the roof plane, the modified lateral force
factor, CP = 0.75, should continue to control sizes
and details. Foundation bearing pressures can
be evaluated on the basis of reactions calculated
without the 1.5 factor, which applies only to the
braces and their connections.
10a-17
Equivalent
,._--SeeDetailA
static load /
/

.= ,0 . ..
Jllllli
. .

HHHH
Overturning loads
must be investigated

A
Moment
clip Pin to resist shear
/

y II - ;1 1
----,1 I ,1
--- I I ,1
Il. ,1 4 7
.--JI I ,1
- II ,1
II ,1
I I J I
*
II w
JI [
m
-- I I
l_l
----- ___
--- ____ Moment resisting
clips must be
--- capable of taking
K --
~ J
several cycles
I of stress reversal
4-
I

Detail A

Fig. 10a-17. Frame action details.

 Diagonal bracing can also be located in the
plane of the top of the roof blocks if the
exposure of the framing poses no hazard to
personnel and does not interfere with
experimental equipment or occasional
dismantling. Depending on design loads,
connection of the truss diagonals to the blocks
(Fig. 10a-18, Section A-A) may be accomplished
with anchor bolts, drilled-in-place concrete
anchors, welded studs, or pins. Most support
techniques used for individual blocks or blocks
in-line are equally adaptable to tunnel-like or
roofed-over configurations. Diagonal struts can
be used to brace each wall block, or a system of
horizontal beams and cantilevered columns can
be integrated to support the walls. Because the
inertial loads to be resisted are large, the
problem of controlling deflection is enccmntered
when using cantilevers. A check of deflections
is necessary, coupled with an evaluation of
potential effects of translations and rotations on
the stability of the cell unit. Elastic properties
of the ground resistance against the caisson
must be considered in determining deflections.
The modulus of subgrade reaction is a useful
parameter for this purpose.
Design of Shielding Caves for
Earthquakes
Because cave facilities resemble buildings
more than other shielding configurations
(Fig. 10a-19), one might logically reassess the
earthquake coefficient for such caves relying on
experience with similar massive building
structures. Generally, however, the authors
recommend the use of higher lateral load
coefficients and yield stress capacities that are
more in keeping with the primary response of a
massive and very rigid structure such as a cave of
shielding blocks.
Designers must make sure that there is an
uninterrupted path for transferring loads in the
bracing members to the ground or bearing
medium. Collectors can be used to drag loads
from areas tributary to the bracing elements (Fig.
10a-20). Connections and splices must be strong
enough to prevent collected loads from breaking
the link to the bracing members and isolating
part of the cave. This type of failure would leave
the cave without lateral support and susceptible
to collapse.
Caves by definition usually have four walls
mutually perpendicular to each other; therefore,
these walls can be used to counteract loads
concentrated by collectors. Internal stresses
within the blocks are seldom critical, but
connections of bracing elements or collectors to
the blocks must be strong enough to prevent
premature breaking away (Fig. 10a-21). Resisting
loads by members in tension and bolts in shear is
the preferred approach. Bolts should be high-
strength fasteners tightened in accordance with
recommended standard procedures. Values for
slip-critical bolts should be used whenever high-
strength bolts are used in conjunction with
welding. Drilled-in-place proprietary anchors
may be used; however, cast-in-place anchors or
bolts epoxied into drilled holes are tougher and
more reliable.
Other building design techniques are useful
for caves, the most expedient being the use of the
cave roof as a diaphragm. Shear plates can be
used to transfer seismic shears from block to
block, and structural steel shapes can form
flanges (chords) for the diaphragm and load-
transfer elements (Fig. 10a-22). Individual wall
blocks can be anchored together and to the floor
to complete the path to the ground to transfer the
dynamically induced forces. Where walls can be
unitized, tiedowns at the ends to resist uplift are
seldom necessary. Interior cross walls, if
permanently located, are useful as additional
resisting elements, but they must be anchored to
the roof and floor for their proportionate load.
Maintaining integrity and alignment are
necessary adjuncts to a satisfactory system.
Previous emphasis on keys, pins, and mechanical
interlocks applies.
Supplemental bracing schemes external to
the shielding blocks are sometimes a viable
alternative (Fig. 10a-23).
Diagonally braced or moment-resisting
frames may be used, but additional caution is
necessary when relying on ductile moment-
resisting frames. Because blocks are unyielding
and resist movement, they prevent the necessary
energy-absorbing distortions of the frame from
taking place. This could lead to premature
failure of the assembly or anchorages because the
frame may not be able to absorb the required
energy through plastic yielding before failure of
the stiffer elements. A careful compatibility
10a-19
 Horizontal steel truss
in plane of roof
([

Truss members
anchored to
roof blocks

ri
II
II
I
1
I
,----
L----
__
__

= - K

A
Y Wall blocks
must be tied
to roof blocks

Section A-A

Fig. 10a-18. Horizontal diagonal bracing.

10a-20
 Wall top plates acting Roof diaphragm
as fianges (chords) A< /

at

Building

Waii biocks act

.<
as shear waii
L

Cave

Fig. 10a-19. Cave-building analogy.

Coiiector
~ Beam under
Cave h L
r ---
4
,- - -- - -- -1
I Roof and

T
\ I JI
I
r I waii isoiated
I A
I from cave
I
I I
I
I )
I
I
I
I
I Beam under
L-- -. -- --

Roof Plan

Fig. 10a-20. Load collectors.

10a-21
 Collector 1 / Collector or drag strut

collector
~
Z&z 4
< - ~-
a

and /or Roof blocks

chord
Wail block
/

Fig. 10a-21. Cave assembly connections.

Diaphragm
shear transfer
plate (steel)
>J L

/
/& /
/,
//
Anchor
bolts

Steel section acts as

diaphragm
chord

b-
Chord bolted
to roof and
wall block
I I
II
\
Roof diaphragm

Wall block

Angle clip

///
Fig. 10a-22. Shear transfer plates and roof chords.

10a-22
 ~ Transverse bracing frame
I I
-- --- -
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I --- --- --- ---
k

open end J
ROOF PLAN

\ 1

/k
1 I

XX steel bra
frame
,~ <
\
A \

ductile frame

. . . .0 0. ...0 . . . . . O.U. 0. . 0? .
(

I
Frame bolted
to blocks
k +

stiffness control

Fig. 10a-23. Supplemental bracing schemes.

10a-23
 analysis is therefore necessary. Usually a stiffer
frame is required than would be indicated from a
design for moments and shears only.
A concentric diagonally-braced steel frame (Fig.
10a-24), if properly designed and detailed, will also
work. It must have sufficient strength to undergo
several sudden load reversals during any seismic
event; thus, members and connections must be
tough enough to resist severe impulse loading.
Strength can best be achieved by designing the
system to carry as much of the load as possible by
members in tension. Toughness can be attained by
making the comections of members stron& durable,
and capable of developing the full plastic strength of
the connected steel members. Regardless of the
direction of load (tension or compression) indicated
by analysis, connections should be designed to
develop the most critical strength of the member
used, be it tension or compression, so that severe
stress reversals can be accommodated. Thus, the
connections will be able to transfer member forces
without failing before the member does. It must be
assumed that a tension member will be stressed in
compression and vice versa; therefore, steel
connections should be designed for the actual
plastic strength of the member in either mode.
Designem should check the building code for special
requirements for steel structures resisting forces
induced by earthquake motions as related to braced
frames, bracing connections, and bracing
configurations. Because these columns probably
wont carry gravity loads, the strong-column versus
weak-beam requirement is not so important.
The eccentric-braced frame is coming more
into use in earthquake design. This system adds
ductility absent in concentric-braced frames.
Energy is absorbed in bending a link beam,
lessening the potential for buckling of the
diagonal brace. Designers must follow published
design procedures and detailing
recommendations for the connections of the brace I
and link beam. The eccentric-braced frame easily
adapts to yield and/or ultimate strength analysis.
Some newer developments in earthquake-
resistant design include energy-dissipating
systems such as base isolation and passive
devices that absorb energy by slipping, flexing,
and distorting. These systems will result in
larger lateral displacement of the isolated /
structure. Generally, large displacements should
be avoided in shielding block installations or
accounted for with conservative clearances.

r Members designed ,
for 1 1/2x
actual load

I
connected member
I
t
I /,

u Intersections to be concentric
Fig. 10a-24. Concentric brace connection.

10a-24
Summary of Recommended Earthquake
Design Criteria for Shielding Blocks
The earthquake design criteria for bracing
concrete shielding blocks should take into
consideration site specific seismicity, the type of
system used to brace the shielding blocks against
earthquake ground motions, and the
consequences of failure.
In keeping with Table 10a-1, the formula,
V=2.5 Z I CP W, is used to determine the base
shear, V, to be applied for static lateral force
analysis and design.
Site seismicity is incorporated by
determinin g the seismic zone in which the site is
located from the UBC (Ref. 3) Seismic Zone Map
(Fig. 10a-6), and selecting the Seismic Zone Factor,
Z, from Table 10a-1. Alternatively, the effective
peak ground acceleration from site-specific
hazard curves may be used for Z based upon
methodology specified in DOE-STD-1O2O(Ref. 4).
The Importance Factor, 1, is obtained from the
appropriate chart in Table 10a-1. This selection
should be in keeping with the performance
categories described in Reference 4.
The lateral force factor, Cp varies with the type
of bracing system and within the system, by the
ductility (or lack of) of each component. For
ductile bracing systems, connections, and/or
components that are constructed of materials (such
as structural steel) that exhibit ductile nonlinear
behavior at stresses at or beyond their yieki points,
a value of CP = 0.5 is recommended, using the
actual yield stresses of the ductile materials in the
earthquake-resisting system. Diagonal bracing
members and their connections should be
designed to resist forms resulting from a base shear
increased by a load modification factor of 1.5 times
0.50, or a CP = 0.75, to obtain a greater strength and
safety factor against buckling. Ductile diagonal
bracing members and their comections should be
designed utilizing yield stresses.
For nonductile systems and connections
constructed of structural materials that do not
exhibit reserve strain energy capacity resulting
from nonlinear behavior, like non-ductile
reinforced concrete, a value of Cp = 0.7 is
recommended, utilizing ultimate-stress values
reduced by an appropriate capacity reduction
factor. For normal reinforced concrete, it is
recommended that a capacity-reduction factor of
0.85 be applied to the ultimate strength values of
concrete for bending, shear, and compressive
stresses and 0.6 for bearing stresses.
For the design of anchor bolts or proprietary
expansion anchors that depend on concrete for
their ultimate-load capacity, use 0.75 times the
manufacturers ultimate-load values (based on
load tests), with proper consideration for edge
distance and embedment of the anchors. Anchor
bolts and shear pins should be designed to be
tough enough to allow the beneficial dissipation
of energy by the distortion of the steel elements
of the connection before failure of the anchorage.
References
1. Sliding Response of Rigid Bodies to Earthquake
Motions, M. Aslam, W.G. Godden,
D.T. Scalise, LBL-3868, Lawrence Berkeley
Laboratory, Berkeley California, 1975.
2. Rocking and Overturning Response of Rigid
Bodies to Earthquake Motion, M.Aslam, W.G.
Godden, D.T. Scalise, LBL 7539, Lawrence
Berkeley Laboratory, Berkeley, California,
1978.
3. Uniform Building Code, International
Conference of Building Officials Whittier,
California, 1994.
4. Natural Phenomena Hazards Design and
Evaluation Criteria for DOE Facilities, DOE-
STD-102O-94, U.S. Department of Energy,
Washington, D.C., 1994.
5. Guide to the Design of Anchor Bolts and Other
Steel Embedments, R.W. Cannon, D.A.
Godfrey, and F.L. Moreadith, Concrete
International, 1981.
6. Anchors in Concrete, Design and Behavior,
G.A. Senkin, H.B. Lancelot, III Editor, 1991.
7. Code Requirements for Nuclear Safety, Related
ConcreteStructures, ACI-349, Appendix B.
10a-25